Learning Outcome 3 – Blaine O’Hare

The four main methods used by psychologists are;

• Observation
• Surveys (Questionnaires & Interviews)
• Case Study
• Experiments

Observation

Observation is a technique for carrying out research by which the subject is

observed within their natural environment without interference from the
researcher. This technique focuses upon recording particular aspects of data, for
example observing children’s play, the researcher would look for behaviour such
as aggression, compassion etc. Recording is carried out using written
descriptions, charts/tables and now more recently video and tape recorders.

There are two types of observation methods:

Non-Participant observation: the observer stays away from the subjects

being researched.

Participant Observation: being active within the group or situation being

observed whilst staying detached from the situation they are involved with.

An example of this method(non-participant) is the study by Mayall and Petrie of

39 childminders in inner London and how they and the children in their care
interact. Observation was used to collect information about this interaction and
compared with information collected about children and their mother’s activity.
They were interested in whether activities stimulated happiness and co-
operation, this being an example of the observer focusing on recording particular
aspects of activity, which would have been pre-determined. Comparisons were
made between the groups, and looked at 39 situations rather than 1 to increase
accuracy. The situations would have been recorded using video.

This is an example of the observational techniques methods being used.

Advantages of this method;

• It is flexible in approach. It can be adapted as required to suit the

alterations out with the researchers control, as they are only observing,
variables are subject to changing.
• The researcher can study the behaviour of the subject in a real
environment as opposed to a lab so the results are more true to real life.
 Disadvantages of this method;

• Observer Bias. The observer might have pre-determined

conclusions of what will happen and thus this may influence what
they record as happening.
• As you are observing real-time events, key aspects may be
overlooked as it is not possible to record everything.

Surveys (Questionnaires)

Surveys are another research method in collecting information useful to

understanding people and behaviour. They can consist of both of interviews and
questionnaires, as they involve asking questions and recording answers.
Questionnaires are distributed by post or face-to-face and are given to a large
variety of people, from different backgrounds. They are strictly ordered and can
be open-ended or structured in their questioning. Responses are then analysed
and structured statistically. Postal surveys ensure honest answers from a wide
area as embarrassment is not as likely a factor when answering the questions,
however response rate is low. Face-to-face ensure a higher response rate, but at
a greater cost and answers may be manipulated due to factors such as being
embarrassed. Sampling is key to the survey technique in order for it to be
scientific as it’s important that the results are representative of the subjects
whom participated.

An example of this research method being used is the survey by La Pierre in

1932. He visited 251 establishments with a Chinese couple, to analyse their
reaction to their Chinese couple’s presence, one place turned them away.
However he followed this up with a postal survey, in which of 128 replies, 91% of
the establishments said that they would turn away a Chinese couple. This is a
good example of the postal survey being more accurate than a face to face
equivalent as La Pierre’s research showed vast difference in results between his
face to face interaction and questionnaire results.

Advantages of this method;

• Easily able to study large samples of subjects easily.

• Less costly than other methods as a large variety of people can be
reached in a short time frame.

Disadvantages of this method;

• Lacks detail, and people are prone to lying in surveys.

 • Low response rate increasing the difficulty in generalising the results, as if
the whole population was surveyed but only woman replied, this would not
be representative of the whole nation anymore.

(Interviews)

In order to obtain more detailed information, the researcher may carry out an
interview face to face or by telephone, telephone considered superior. They are
useful as researchers can monitor verbal and non verbal responses to their
questions. It helps as they can gain more detailed information and is interactive.
They come in three forms;

• Structured: All interviewees given same questions. Open answers are

given and allows a good comparison across subjects.

Advantages - data is more reliable as the focus is being investigated in a

consistent way. Also allows generalisations to be accurately made.

Disadvantages- Restrictive questioning, and the reliability of the questions being

asked in obtaining the relevant info.

• Semi-structured: Most common, agreed framework but questions may

vary, dependant on how the subject answers in order to appear more
natural.

Advantages- Flexible questioning allows it to be more natural. Reliable

information.

Disadvantages- Freedom restricts quantifiable information. Difference in

questions being subjects is unfair.

• Non-directive: Focus for the interview but the subject is able to express
themselves freely and the interviewer will record areas of interest as the
subject speaks.

Advantages- Is relaxed for the interviewee. Flexible questioning so lots of

information.

Disadvantages- Interview bias possibly using leading questions. Difficult to

generalise findings.

All share the common attribute that the questioning is one to one.

Case Studies
This method concentrates on a small number of subjects rather than a large
mass of people. These are often used where the subject has experienced an
unusual experience of has psychological problems. In this method, the
researcher gathers information from relevant sources such as medical records,
school reports etc. In addition, an interview with the individuals and associates
whom they are closely linked with would be done. These interviews are carried
out in order for the researcher to build a full picture of the subject and their
situation. The case study involves both past and present information. The
case study can be carried out on an individuals or a group in the same way, and
the process is the same.

An example of this research method in play is that of Freud’s study of Little

Hans. Little Hans developed a phobia of horses and was particularly scared of
being bitten by them. Detailed evidence gathered by Freud(gathering
information from relevant sources), allowed Freud to make the connection
between Hans fear of white horses with blinkers and black around the mouth and
his father’s appearance which was of a black moustache and glasses. Freud’s
gathering of information allowed this conclusion to be reached. This is a typical
example of the case study as it not without limitation such as that it cannot be
generalised as it deals with unique events.

Experiments

The experimental method involves altering things to see what happens. You
assume what will happen if you do something, known as a hypothesis. This
method is the most controlled and the only method which can be proved that
something happening causes a reaction. Within an experiment the conditions are
controlled such that you concentrate on specifically what you wish to look at, in
essence a study of cause and effect. An experiment investigates what change
a variable produces when another is altered. Variables can be independent(will
affect the behaviour) or dependent(behaviour in question). Observation is
special in this circumstance as it involves deliberately altering the environment
to produce your expected result as opposed to anticipating it to occur naturally.
There are two types of experiment;

Lab; completely controlled by experimenter. Relationship is investigated by

altering independent variable and recording resulting change in dependant
variable. Advantages of this are that if the result is true, it can be replicated

Field; subjects unaware of participation. Independent variable still altered in

order to record result on dependant. However, the environment cannot be
controlled by the experimenter due to location and thus these experiments are
less controlled than that of the lab.

An example of the experiment method(lab) is that of Asch in 1951 testing the

effect of group pressure on individuals. Subjects were shown a straight line and
then asked to identify from a group of three which line was identical to the
original straight line. All subjects answered correctly. Subjects were then put in a
group and asked to do the same thing, however experiments were put in place
to control the independent variable, all choosing the wrong answer(independent
variable) in order to manipulate the genuine subjects answers(dependant
variable). Out of 15 trials, this was successfully repeated 12 times, backing the
experiments ability to be replicated.

Advantages of this method;

• The experiment can be replicated.

• Experiments are the only means by which cause and effect can be
established

Disadvantages of this method;

• Results may not be representative of population due to location of the

experiment and the subjects involved.
• If carried out in the field, environmental factors can alter the accuracy of
the control of the experiment. If carried out in lab, the results lack realism.