Joris Hoogsteder

Music 556
04/13/2015
The Use of Sound, Silence and Pre-existent Music in 2001: A Space Odyssey.
Stanley Kubricks 2001: A Space Odyssey was a most ambitious and influential project;
the film caused many (positive and negative) controversies, featured the most innovative special
effects, and even today, people are still speculating and analysing the films many narrative
layers.
Stanley Kubrick had a significant approach in the use of music in 2001: A Space
Odyssey. Ill be stressing how and where he used this music, and what the underlying meaning of
the music is. Also, the clever use of silence and sound effects will be discussed, as the third act of
2001 contains almost no music.
2001s music score is certainly not an ordinary one; Kubrick used the music of four
concert music composers and edited the music into his film. However, before he made this
decision, Kubrick hired film composer Alex North to write the original score. After North
completed the score, Kubrick decided to reject this score and use his own compilation. I have
analysed both scores and have made a brief comparison of the two. There has been a lot of
debate whether Kubrick made the right choice rejecting Norths score and using his own
compilation. Proponents praise the compilation score for its metaphoric and symbolic meaning
and its many narrative layers, which perfectly align with the film. Opponents claim the score is
not a film score, as the music that Kubrick uses is not playing the drama of the film, and that the
cues would feel randomly placed. 2001: A Space Oddysey, directed by Stanley Kubrick,
combines pre-existent music with sound effects and silence to create a unique film score in
which the placement of these elements symbolize parts of the films narrative.

Stanley Kubrick
Stanley Kubrick was born on July 26th, 1928, in New York, the Bronx. He came from a
Jewish family. His parents wanted him to study hard, but Stanley showed little interest in school.
His father taught him chess, which would become a lifelong obsession, and is referenced to in
many of his films. At age 13, he started studying photography and film techniques. He often
skipped classes to see and study double-feature films. As he graduated with poor grades, his
parents sent him to relatives in Los Angeles for a year, hoping it would help with academic
growth.
At age 16, his talent for photography was discovered by Helen OBrian, the head of Looks
photographic department. She found him a place on the magazines team.1 This is where
Kubrick developed his skill for picture, as he came to be regarded one of the magazines best
photographers.2 Like chess, photography is a major recurring element in Kubricks films.
After having made a couple of short documentaries for TV due to connections he gained by
working at Looks, Kubrick decided to make his first feature-length films: The Killing (1956).
Although not a huge financial success, The Killing attracted the attention of Hollywood. Kubrick
obtained a contract to work for MGM and moved to Los Angeles. His most famous works for
MGM are Paths of Glory, a war film set during World War I and the blockbuster Spartacus,
winning four Oscars. However, while achieving great commercial success working on these
films, Kubrick felt uncomfortable doing so, because he had no control over all components of the
film. He quit working for MGM and said From now on, I want to do pictures where I really
have final cut.3
1 Michael Ciment, Kubrick: The Definitive Version (London: Faber & Faber: 2003), 33.
2 Ibid., 33.
3 Stanley Kubrick: A Life in Pictures. Directed by Jan Harlan. (2007: Los Angeles, CA: Warner Bros, 2007), DVD.

Kubrick moved to England to start working on his own films, so he had control over every
parameter. He lived like a recluse; he worked on the films without telling the media or doing
interviews. During these years he made the films he is renowned for; his films contained a lot of
controversial subjects and often feature abstract and visual elements. Every single film he made
in England are considered masterpieces and cult-classics, and have had a great influence on films
that followed: Dr. Strangelove (1964), 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), A Clockwork Orange
(1971) and of course, one of the most famous horror films: The Shining (1980).
Stanley Kubrick was an enormously perfectionistic in every way of filmmaking. He
demanded a lot of his crew, and was known to shoot many takes before he was satisfied.
Stanleys approach is: How can we do it better than its ever been done before?4 While only
having made 11 feature-length films, this attitude granted him the reputation of being one of the
most controversial and influential film directors ever. Kubrick died in his sleep from a fatal heart
attack March 7th, 1999.
2001: A Space Odyssey
Kubrick wanted to make a space epic centred on human evolution, but with dialogues in less
than half in the film, he focused on letting the visuals and sound tell the story, so that every
viewer has a different interpretation. His idea of making this film came originally from Arthur C.
Clarkes The Sentinel, a short story about the discovery of a mysterious artefact on the moon, left
by extra-terrestrials. This short was the inspiration for both the novel 2001: A Space Odyssey
and, of course, the film.
How could we possibly appreciate La Gioconda [the Mona Lisa] if Leonardo had
written at the bottom of the canvas: The lady is smiling because she has rotten
teeth or because she is hiding a secret from her lover? This would shackle the
viewer to reality, and I dont want this to happen to 2001.5
4 Ciment, Kubrick, 38
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The film wasnt always named 2001: A Space Odyssey though; On Monday, February 22,
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer announced that it would finance production of Stanley Kubricks next
motion picture, Journey Beyond the Stars (Figure 1).6 Little did they know that the film
ultimately would go $4,500,000 beyond the original budget, as the films total cost were about
$10,500,000. 7
Kubrick hired film composer Alex North to write the soundtrack, but eventually decided to
reject this soundtrack and compose a compilation score using pre-written works. In addition,
Kubrick also emphasized silence and sound effects. This decision had a lot of consequences and
even led to a lawsuit. There has been a lot of debate about whether Kubrick made the right
choice or not. Some people think Kubricks compilation score does not match the images at all,
or does not fit the story. Composer Jerry Goldsmith even wrote:
I remember seeing Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey and cringing at what I
consider to be an abominable use of music.... It is a mistake to force music into a
film, and for me 2001 was ruined by Kubrick's choice of music. His selections had
no relationship, and the pieces could not comment on the film because they were not
a part of it.... a score is a fabric which must be tailored to the film.8
Kubrick really wanted to make an impact on people and having them think about what they just
experienced, he said: If 2001 has stirred your emotions and penetrates the subconscious of the
viewer, if it stimulates, however inchoately, his mythological and religious yearnings and
impulses, then it has succeeded.9

5 Stanley Kubrick and Gene Phillips, Stanley Kubrick: Interviews (Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi,
2001), 48.
6 Jerome Agel, The Making of Kubrick's 2001 (New York: New American Library, 1970), 2.
7 Agel, The Making of 2001: A Space Odyssey, 7.
8 David W. Patterson, Music, Structure and Metaphor in Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey, American
Music 22, no. 3 (Autumn, 2004): 470.
9 Kubrick and Phillips, Interviews, 92

Kubrick divided 2001 into four acts. These acts feel independent at first, but turn out to be fully
connected and part of a bigger story. The film starts with roughly two minutes of Ligetis
Atmosphres, cuts to the MGM and opens with the main titles, accompanied by Strauss Also
Sprach Zarathustra.
Synopsis
Act 1 opens in a pre-historic setting, where apes roam a deserted landscape, looking for
food and water. After a leopard kills one of apes, and a rivalling tribe attacks the group, the group
is driven out of a water springthey found. The next morning, the group wakes up only to
discover a giant black rectangular monolith has inexplicably appeared next to them. After
discovering the monolith, the apes seem to have acquired the first stage of human intelligence,
demonstrated by their ability to use a bone as a tool. Also, the apes have become hunters as they
hunt tapirs and eat their meat. The next day, the group goes back to the water spring, and kills the
leader of the rivalling tribe. One of the apes throws a bone in the air and we shift to a satellite
scene using a match cut (Figure 2).
During Act II, millions of years have passed. Humanity has evolved and has developed
technology to the point where space traveling is a common thing. We see satellites and
spacecrafts twirling, almost dancing to Johann Strauss Jrs The Blue Danube. Dr. Heywood
Floyd is on his way to the Hilton Space Station, to do research at a mysterious excavation on the
moon, as scientists dug a monolith, possibly the same as we have seen before. While they are
trying to take a picture with it, the sun shines its light on the monolith. The monolith produces a
high-pitched screeching sound signal, headed toward Jupiter.
One and a half year later, in Act III, a mission to Jupiter is executed. Dr. David Dave
Bowman and Dr. Frank Poole are accompanied by three colleagues, who are being kept in a state

of hibernated cryosleep in order to save nutrition and food. The space shuttle is controlled by
HAL-9000, a super-computer that turns out to possess human intelligence and emotions. After
HAL-9000 hits a false alarm regarding a defect of a telecommunication system, Dr. Bowman and
Dr. Frank start to question HALs reliability and consider turning him off. HAL overheard this
conversation and tries to prevent this from happening. When Dr. Poole gets out of the space
shuttle in his pod to replace communication unit, HAL, who controls this pod, kills the scientist
by disconnecting his oxygen hose. Dave, unknowing of HALs misdeed, jumps to the rescue and
leaves the shuttle in his own pod. While Dave is out, HAL murders the remaining crew by
turning off their life support. Dave grabs Frank and heads back while HAL refuses to let Frank
in, revealing his awareness of Daves plan. Dave gets into the ship, via the emergency exit, and
plans to disconnect a scared HAL, who tries to convince Dave not to go through with it. Dave
removes all of the computers memory until the earliest programmed memory plays, the song
Daisy Bell. After the disconnection, Dr. Floyds pre-recorded message plays, explaining the real
reason of the mission and the existence of the mysterious monolith.
Act IV begins, and Dave steps into his own pod and leaves the spaceship, to examine the
monolith that appeared. When Daves pod gets close to it, it is sucked into the monolith, entering
a wormhole of coloured lights, traveling at high speed, and seeing absurd textures. Leaving
the wormhole, we see the pod in a white, stark bedroom. Dave sees multiple versions of himself,
progressively getting older and older. Dave becomes that older version and we see him lying in
his deathbed, when the monolith appears again. Dave reaches for the monolith and is
transformed into a glowing foetus. The film ends with the foetus floating around the earth,
staring at it.

The Production
Regarding the production of 2001, it is safe to say that Kubrick was far ahead of his time,
innovating special effects and was using rigorous approaches. Most of the films interiors and
exteriors were filmed on set, however, the first act features a scene with a leopard attacking the
man-apes. This scene was filmed in Africa, and featured a real leopard and a real dead horse,
which was painted to look like a zebra. The scene was filmed with tranquilizer guns at the ready.
Due to the horses stench, the leopard and camera crew were unenthusiastic about doing the
scene.10 Other notable locations the film used for shooting 2001 were Hebrides and Monument
Valley; these locations were filmed for the Star gate sequence and were heavily transformed
by using special effects.
Kubrick was an innovative visionary when it came to the use of special effects. He wanted to
create an image of space that was very realistic, so he made sure every little detail was thought
of. A rather amusing example is the scene where a pen is floating out of Dr. Floyds pocket, who
is asleep. This pen is obviously not really floating, but the viewer is unable to detect some sort of
nylon cord. This is due Kubricks smart idea; for close-up shots, the pen was glued to a sheet of
transparent acrylic, which was moving in front of the camera. For distant shots, the pen was
indeed hanging from a nylon cord.11 Details like this and the overly convincing spacecraft
models for the Orion, The Discovery One and the pods, made 2001 an outstandingly realistic
science fiction movie. Kubrick even won his only Oscar for Best Special Visual Effects for his
work.

10 Agel, The Making of 2001: A Space Odyssey, 74.

11 Paul Joyce, 2001: The Making of a Myth. YouTube. https://youtu.be/F7HGwVqI_FM (accessed April 10, 2015)
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Controversies
2001 caused more controversies than Kubrick could have ever known when he started it. First of
all, the movie received extremely mixed responses from the general audience; Most of its
young admirers considered it a prophetic masterpiece. Its detractors praised the special effects
but found it confusing and pretentious as a drama12 Many scientists and physicists, however,
were impressed by Kubricks view on the future, especially by the depth of realism he put into it.
Little could they have known some of Kubricks predictions in 1968 would actually become real;
the portable television screens Dr. Bowman and Dr. Poole use for watching the news (Figure 3)
actually closely resemble the tablet computers we are so used to nowadays.
Musically speaking, the film caused a lot of commotion as well. Film composer Alex North was
first hired to score the music for the film. North wrote over 40 minutes of music for the film, and
the whole score was rejected. Kubrick decided to use the music he originally compiled as the
temp track.
One possible explanation for the rejection of Norths score for 2001 is that
Kubrick was already moving away from the standard practice of hiring a
composer to write a score and toward the compilation scores that he came to
use exclusively. For 2001 Kubrick used his authority as director
autocratically and micro- managerially on all aspects of the production,
from discarding an expensive centrifuge he did not like to criticizing details
of sewing on the costumes for the hominids. Perhaps he wished to exercise a
greater measure of control over the music in his films than he felt he could
by hiring a composer, and this desire came to a head in the ambitious project
of 2001.13

As many of the aspects of 2001, this was widely uncommon. North had two weeks to write
all the music and meet the recording deadlines, but he already felt like whatever [he] wrote
12 Kubrick and Phillips, Stanley Kubrick, 80.
13 Merkley, Paul A, 'Stanley Hates This but I Like It! North vs. Kubrick on the Music for 2001: A Space
Odyssey, The Journal of Film Music 2, no. 1, (Fall-Winter 2007): 6.

to supplant Strauss Zarathrustra, it would not satisfy Kubrick.14 Kubrick would make a
compilation score, using the concert music of Richard Strauss, Johann Strauss Jr., Gyrgy
Ligeti and Aram Khachaturian.
The use of pre-existent music caused Kubrick a lot of trouble. He used four of Ligetis
pieces in 2001: Atmosphres, Lux Aeterna, Requiem and Adventures. However, its
questioned whether Ligeti was treated fairly in this process. Kubrick did manage to obtain
licenses to use Ligetis music as background music: background music in a cinematic
context does simply mean music of which the execution is not visualized in the picture15.
However, while requesting the sync licenses, MGM did not specify how the music was
going to be used. In other words, it was never made clear that Ligetis music was going to be
such a big artistic element in the film. Also, Adventures was edited without permission, and
therefore does not appear in the credits of the film. All of these deals were made with little
communication to Ligeti himself; he claims he only knew about the use of Requiem before
he actually saw the film. His first reaction to seeing the film was extremely negative:
I am now negotiating with lawyers; I cannot tolerate that a 10 million dollar Hollywood
movie gets a ridiculous symbolic remuneration for 32 minutes of my music (totally
kitschy female choirs as space music). Unfortunately Peters has betrayed me, while UE
supports me. Used as musicwithout my permissionRequiem (only Kyrie),
Atmosphres, Lux Aeterna, and Adventures electronically reworked (shit)but
Artikulation is not in there. I am now looking for an international star lawyer, only such a
one could win a case against MGM (and Peters if necessary). A lot of work and time
because of this matter. The film itselfhighly praised in the reviews, is a piece of
Hollywood shit, some wonderful photographs, but as a story nonsense, as regards taste
totally tasteless. I have been compromised. I am now fighting against it.16

Ligeti claimed he only received $3000 after taking legal steps, but this is not true. In addition to
14 Agel, The Making of 2001: A Space Odyssey, 199.
15 Julia Heimerdinger, I have been compromised. I am now fighting against it. Ligeti vs. Kubrick and the Music
for 2001: A Space Odyssey," The Journal of Film Music 3, no. 2 (2011): 137.
16 Heimerdinger. I have been compromised, 134.

what he earned and exacted at the time the film was released (ca. $5,000 for the background-use
plus ca. $4,000 with the settlement), he must have had a tremendous income from record sales
and most notably through royalties from GEMA (the German equivalent of ASCAP; an
organization protecting the copyrights of composers and musicians).17
Alex Norths original score was very different from the compilation score. To briefly
compare Alex Norths score to the compilation score that Kubrick eventually decided to use, Id
like to refer to Norths main titles for 2001 first: Bones. As we watch 2001, it becomes clear that
Kubrick has a less is more mentality when it comes to telling a story. Norths Bones, for
instance, does the opposite. Richard Strauss Also Sprach Zarathustra works so well because its
simple five-note motive fanfare is very effective. Bones is a beautiful openings fanfare as
well, but its also much more complex, in both orchestration and composition. North constantly
shifts between texture and timbre, as if he is bored of one sound very quickly, making the cue
less memorable. As we listen to the cue Space Station Docking, it becomes clear North had to
use Johann Strauss Jrs The Blue Danube as an inspiration, given its playfulness and elegance.
However, the listener simply doesnt have the same (unconscious) association with Space
Station Docking as it has with The Blue Danube, making Norths cue far less effective. Norths A
Trip to Moon is the cue that was replaced by Ligetis Lux Aeterna. Although Norths cue has an
ambiguous mood to it, there is still a lot of movement in both orchestration and composition,
very different from Ligetis static pulseless choral piece. Factors like these could be most
important in Kubricks ultimate decision: Norths score is a great score and contains the musical
elements Kubrick wanted in his film, but fails to live up to the works that eventually would be
used, both effectively and symbolically, as it would have been a more generic 60s film score.

17 Ibid., 140.
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The Use of Pre-existent Music and its Symbolic Meaning

Its very clear Kubrick has had a strong vision about what compositions he wanted to use
in his film. Every cue he uses has a grand symbolic and narrative function for the story.
Although, the pieces he used in 2001 were not as famous as they are today. Its safe to say that
when 2001 came out, only a minority of filmgoers knew the music of Gyrgy Ligeti.18 The
same can be said about Richard Strauss excerpt and Khachaturians piece; due to 2001, these
pieces were discovered by a wide audience, and have become well known today. When were
looking at these pieces on a deeper level, we find out these compositions work perfectly, both on
a narrative and a symbolic level. Since the pre-existent works Kubrick used in 2001 are very
different from each other, both in genre and in narrative function, these are divided these in subsections to take a closer look at each of them.
Gyrgy Ligeti, Atmosphres
Gyorgy Ligetis Atmosphres is a sound mass composition for full orchestra. It features
complex movement and dense micropolyphony, which causes the listener to lose the sense for
tonality and timing. Ligetis piece is used at two points in the movie where there is nothing
displayed on screen; the overture, before the main titles, and after the intermission (Table 1). The
screen is fully black, and the viewer experiences the complex orchestral textures of the
composition. This sound mass composition sets a rather dark, ominous mood and makes the
viewer unsure of what to expect. This proves Kubricks clever and innovative narrative vision
once again; He does not need an image or a dialogue to set a certain mood, the right music at the
right time does all the work, without feeling out of place.
18Michel Chion, Kubrick's Cinema Odyssey (London: BFI Pub, 2001), 91.

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The black screen combined with Ligeti's music can be also interpreted as the
announcement of the seriousness of what we are going to see. Possibilities
formany different interpretations of the film's structure (which was already
determined by Ligeti's Atmosphres) show Kubrick's readiness to stimulate the
imagination of scholars and common viewers. 19
Atmosphres is used again during the Star gate sequence, in a more literal sense. At this
point, it serves a different narrative purpose then before; whereas Atmosphres first is used to set
an ambiguous tone during a black display, its complex textures are now fully synergizing with
the psychedelic landscapes that are being displayed, as Dr. Bowman is soaring through
atmospheres.
Richard Strauss, Also Sprach Zarathustra
Also Sprach Zarasthustra is a symphonic poem, completed in 1896 by Richard Strauss.
The piece was inspired by Nietzschs novel by the same name, as Strauss later substituted as
the subtitle, freely after Nietzsche.20 When I first heard the iconic and majestic fanfare
passage during the main titles and Act 1 (Table 2), I assumed it represented something along the
lines of a beginning of an new era. This idea came up as we see the tribes leader becoming a
hunter, indicating a new era in the evolution of humanity. Near the end of the film, where
Bowman was transformed into the Star-Child, the piece is played again. At this point it
becomes clear it has not only something to do with the beginning of a new era. Zarathustra
symbolizes transformation and/or evolution. Evolution is one of the main themes of 2001, as we
experience the evolution of the primal ape becoming a hunter, mankind that has achieved a high
level of intellect and technology, and Bowman transforming into the Star-Child. Patterson
19 Irena Paulus. Stanley Kubrick's Revolution in Usage of Film Music: 2001: A Space Odyssey, International
Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music 40, no. 1 (2009): 104.
20 Bryan Gilliam, The Life of Richard Strauss (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 64.

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writes: if Atmospheres serves as the film's musical question mark, Zarathustra is its exclamation
point.21
While it is true that Strauss subtitled this section of his tone-poem Sunrise, the cue
does not represent a literal dawning of time, for in a Deleuzian sense, time does not have
a beginning or a terminal point. What is does represent is a point of immanence, a
moment of becoming.22
At a deeper level, Kubrick could have chosen this theme because of its simplicity; in the
beginning, music was relatively simple. Early music, from the medieval era, consisted mainly of
fourth and fifth intervals. Also Sprach Zarathustras main theme consists of 5 notes, of which the
first intervals are a fifth and a fourth, the most basic intervals in music. This could be a
metaphorical nod to the idea of a new beginning a moment of becoming.

Gyrgy Ligeti, Requiem, Kyrie

Ligetis Requiem acts as the Leitmotiv (a recurring motive or theme associated with a
certain character or object) for the black rectangular monolith. The first time the viewer hears it
is during the trip to moon, where the ape tribe encounters the monolith (Table 3). The complex
textures of choral voices characterize the monolith as being a mythical, mystical appearance.
Requiem reflects Clarke's idea that any technology far in advance of our own will be
indistinguishable from magic, and, oddly enough, will have a certain irrational quality." 23
Requiems are associated with death. In this case, Requiem is symbolizing the end of an era,
contrasting Also Sprach Zarathursta; when the ape tribe encounters the monolith, it is the end of
the primal conscious, followed by becoming hunters. The second time its used, is when the
21 Patterson, Music, Structure, and Metaphor in Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey," 451.
22 Matthew J. Bartkowiak, ed., Sounds of the Future: Essays on Music in Science Fiction Film (Jefferson, NC:
McFarland & Co., 2010), 185.
23 Patterson, Music, Structure and Metaphor in Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey, 453.

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scientists approach the monolith. The end of an era has arrived, an era where humans are the only
creatures that possess both intellect and emotions, as we are introduced to the hyper-intelligent
HAL-9000, a super-computer that turns out to have human emotions as well. The third time
Requiem is used, is when Bowman confronts the monolith, and enters the Stargate. In this scene,
Requiem could represent the end of the era of time and space as we [humanity] are familiar with.
The stargate scene shows us that time and space is limitless, and Bowman travels through it, only
to arrive in the strange bedroom where he will ultimately transform into the Star-Child.
Paulus writes: Musical movement is not experienced as the music which is added to the
picture, but as the music which is the part of the picture, as if an unknown something emits
strange sounds, which are on the edge of becoming noise or a scream. Requiem is felt as diegetic
music!24 The thrilling voices in Requiem work in such a way it could be considered diegetic
music, because it feels like the voice of the Monolith calling. However, the fact that neither the
man-apes nor the scientists actually react to the voices of Requiem, proves that this cue is fully
non-diegetic.

Johann Strauss Jr., The Blue Danube

Kubrick mainly used J. Strauss Jr.s famous waltz The Blue Danube in Act II (Table 4). Whereas
Act I showed the viewer a primal form of human intellect, Act II contrasts this by showing
humanity has developed technology in such a way that space travel has become a common thing,
without difficulties. Reviewers wrote, "how men have turned the awesomeness of space travel to
a banal commuting chore"25 about the use of this piece. The Blue Danube perfectly fits in this
idea as the waltz rhythm sets a peaceful and casual mood, and makes the satellites twirl and
24 Paulus, Stanley Kubrick's Revolution in Usage of Film Music: 2001: A Space Odyssey, 108.
25 Patterson, Music, Structure, and Metaphor in Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey," 445.
14

dance.
The Blue Danube is a magnificent piece of music for the beautiful, graceful motion of the
space station. To me it just seemed like a perfect representation of what was going on.
Also, it helped to get away from the idea that space would be eerie and strange. Space
travel will become ordinary very soon, and it will be particularly significant for its
beauty. It seemed to me The Blue Danube was a magnificent piece of music to use,
particularly since I had decided to use existing music and not original music.26
The use of this piece during the space scene was heavily discussed. People told Kubrick that The
Blue Danube would create a strong association with grand hotels and Viennese operettas. In
Changing Tunes, Claudia Gorbman says the use of The Blue Danube proves both ironic and
sincerely appropriate, because science fiction music normally was made of sounds of mystery
and futuristic otherworldness, which is the total opposite of this well known elegant waltz.27 If
Kubrick had used originally written waltz music for 2001, it would have seemed out of place, but
since most people have such a strong association with The Blue Danube, it works perfectly, as it
beautifully symbolizes a luxurious, classy yet comforting mood.
Gyrgy Ligeti, Lux Aeterna
Ligetis Lux Aeterna is also a sound mass composition. However, as opposed to
Atmospheres and Requiem, it has a smooth, almost divine, but still ambiguous timbre. The dense
micro polyphony in Lux Aeterna is introduced when the scientists are on their mission to the
moon to examine the crater and the monolith (Table 5). The viewer does not know what the
scientists are after yet, and Lux Aeterna sets an unpredictable atmosphere. The single pitch that
evolves into this complex sound mass, sung by altos and sopranos, is a perfect introduction to the
Requiem; this is not necessarily because it was also composed by Ligeti, but mainly because it

26 Kubrick and Phillips, Stanley Kubrick: Interviews, 75.

27 Phil Powrie and Robynn Stillwell, ed. Changing Tunes: The Use of Pre-existing Music in Film (Burlington, VT:
Ashgate Publishing, 2006), 6.

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too is based on an unintelligible singing voice, and on a sort of shimmering of high notes on the
edge of formlessness.28 The timbres connect in such a good way that people could have
believed it was all part of one piece. The sound mass characteristics of Lux Aeterna have become
a well-known technique in film scoring, as many science fiction films used it as in inspiration.
Also, the single, evolving pitch seems to have a metaphorical meaning; the scene it is used in,
starts with the scientists approaching, the viewer knows very little about the mission. However,
as the scene continues, it becomes more and more clear what Dr. Floyds real intentions on the
moon are. Lux Aeterna shares this narrative as it starts out as being a consonant single pitch, but
as time passes, it unravels more dissonance and complexity.
Khachaturian, Adagio from Gayane Ballet Suite
During Act III, we hear excerpts from Khachaturians Adagio (Table 6). This piece has
the least impact, compared to the other pieces, as it works in a way many film composers would
have handled these particular scenes as well. The story is set 18 months after the events on the
moon. Dr. Bowman and Dr. Poole are on their mission to Jupiter, accompanied by their
hibernated colleagues, held in a cryosleep. At first glance, Adagios sad character represents a
certain sense of loneliness, but also boredom among the scientists, as they barely have contact
with earth, and their main source of communication is HAL-9000. Also, Adagio sets an
ambiguous mood, which tells the viewer that somethings off about the scientists mission. Many
critics write about Khachaturians Adagio as being the least discussed of all the pre-existing
works in the 2001 soundtrack.29 One plausible explanation of this case could be that Adagio is
relatively consonant and therefore does not stand out as much as the other cues in 2001. This
28 Chion, Kubrick's Cinema Odyssey, 95.
29 David Code Real Feelings: Music as Path to Philosophy in 2001: A Space Odyssey Twentieth Century Music
7, no 2 (2010): 195-217.

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makes Adagio actual film music, according to one of Claudia Gorbmans famous, influential
principles of film music, stating that while the music is of course intended to be heard by the
audience, it is not - except in rare instances - meant to be heard consciously.30
David Code has an interesting view on this particular excerpt. He states that none of these
[interpretations of the critics] is a wholly satisfying interpretations of the crafty, formally
suggestive deployment of this excerpt in the film.31 Code also states that the association of
Adagio with the astronauts is the least convincing reading of all, which to me, is a bit
exaggerated. 32 Although, Code has a strong opinion and interpretation of the piece; he agrees that
Adagio has a sense of a discreetly poignant affect,33 but takes it to a deeper level. Code links
Khachaturians piece to HALs neurosis and human emotions, which eventually drives him
insane. Adagio is always used in scenes where typical human activities are shown (exercising,
playing games, Franks family singing birthday songs) while Hal is silently spectating.
If he is going to stay sane . . . well, the only one who fails to stay sane on this voyage
through uncharted space is HAL. However cool and controlled these men may seem as
they go about their professional tasks (and interact with relatives across vast temporal and
spatial distances), it is not the astronauts who fail to maintain their grip on a coherent
subjectivity, but rather the creature bereft of a primitive and visceral attachment to a
family, whose potential to care about anything at all has been shadowed from the start by
a suspicion of pre-programmed mimicry. Perhaps an inadmissible fallibility will always
be part of a rational explanation for this failure. But the path opened into more elusive
realms of subjective interiority by the restrained lyricism of the Khachaturian Adagio
suggests even deeper causes for HALs murderous turn on his fellow crew members,
whose human bodies and emotional potentialities stand as perpetual reminders of
everything he is not.34
This is an interesting theory; Adagio is indeed placed in situations where references to humanity
in a fully technological environment are shown, and we do learn that HAL has a sense of human
30 James Wierzbicki, ed. Film Music: A History (New York: Routledge, 2009), 140.
31 Code Real Feelings, 201.
32 Ibid., 201.
33 Ibid., 204.
34 Ibid., 208-209.
17

emotion as well. David Codes theory about the pieces placement in these scenes, along with the
fact that Adagio is a duet for two celli, brings me to the following conclusion about this piece
actually represents the duality of technology versus humanity in 2001: A Space Odyssey.
Gyrgy Ligeti, Adventures
During the Star gate scene, Kubrick cleverly crossfades (unnoticeable switching between
audio tracks) between Ligetis Requiem, Atmosphres and Adventures. The scene starts with
Bowman entering the Stargate due to the monolith. As Requiem is the monoliths Leitmotiv,
Kubrick starts with that one. As the psychedelic images and textures turn into landscapes,
Kubrick switches to Atmosphres. This goes almost unnoticed as the dense timbres fit each other
perfectly. After the landscapes, Kubrick focuses on Bowman, and the viewer sees multiple closeups of his face and his eye. This is where Adventures comes in (Table 7), and literally represents
Bowmans adventure to the bedroom where he will be transformed into the Star Child. After the
arrival in the bedroom, the track slowly fades out and leaves the viewer with silence, creating an
open atmosphere that perfectly fits the bare white room.
Silence and Sound
Aside from using pre-written music in 2001: A Space Odyssey, Kubrick made clever use of
sound effects and silence as well. During Act III, little music is heard; during the first couple of
scenes where Dr. Poole, Dr. Bowman, HAL-9000 and the hibernated crew is being introduced,
Kubrick uses Khachaturians Gayanes Ballet Suite to create the ambiguous atmosphere.
However, during the acts most thrilling scenes, Kubrick decides not to use music at all.
Regarding the narrative use of silence and sound effects, Kubrick creates a realistic atmosphere
by letting the viewer hear exactly what the main characters would be hearing as well. When Dr.

18

Poole leaves spaceship to replace the telecommunication unit, only to be murdered by HAL9000, the viewer only hears Dr. Pooles breathing very loudly, making the viewer fully
experience this scene from his point-of-view. The breathing sound creates a lot of tension and
really sets the atmosphere for the scene, and therefore completely takes over the need for music.
After eleven tense days of waiting to see more film in order to record in early February, I
received word from Kubrick that no more score was necessary, that he was going to use
breathing effects for the remainder of the film.35
Kubrick expands this realistic experience by staying true to physics, sound-wise; when Dr.
Pooles oxygen tube is disconnected by HAL-9000, the viewer sees a shot of Dr. Pooles body
twirling in space, accompanied my complete silence. The use of silence is extremely effective
because of two reasons; firstly, Kubrick stays true to the realism as this was shot outside of Dr.
Pooles suit. As there is no air in space, sound is per definition impossible. Secondly, the silence
is contrasting to the heavy breathing in such an effective way the viewer immediately
understands that Dr. Poole is no more. The use of music in this scene would have created a far
lesser impact. Decisions on the use of sound like this have influenced many directors,
Christopher Nolan with his recent film Interstellar being a notable example.

Conclusion
Stanley Kubricks approach to using music, silence and sound effects in 2001: a Space
Odyssey was very unconventional and unique, especially for its time. However, the narrative
functions of these elements make this compilation score extremely effective. The pieces Kubrick
decided to use all line up with the film on a symbolic level, for instance; Zarathustra with its
35 Paulus, Stanley Kubrick's Revolution in Usage of Film Music: 2001: A Space Odyssey, 101.
19

majestic opening and its strong association to becoming and The Blue Danube and its
effective way of making space travel seem like an ordinary and luxurious thing. Kubricks
decisions in using silence and sound effects has also been a marvellous way to create tension,
fully replacing the need for music in these scenes. All these elements make 2001: A Space
Odyssey the classic masterpiece its still considered today. Without the clever and effective use of
music, its progressive use of special effects, and its many narrative layers, it would probably
have never reached this status.

20

Appendix

Figure 1: Newspaper announcement of filming of 2001: A Space Oddysey (Agel, The Makin

21

Figure 2: The famous Match cut: the bone and the satellite. (2001: A Space Odyssey. DV

Figure 3: Dr. Bowmans portable tablet computer (2001: A Space Odyssey. DVD. Stanley
Kubrick, 1968, Los Angeles, CA: Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 1968)

22

Table 1: Gyrgy Ligeti Atmosphres (excerpts)

Act
Overture

Timecode
00:00:00

Duration of Excerpt
02:23

Intermission
Act IV

01:27:54
02:03:10

03:40
08:10

Scene
The screen is fully
black

The Star-Gate
sequence

Table 2: Richard Strauss - Also Sprach Zarathustra (excerpts)

Act
Main Titles

Timecode
00:03:15

Duration of Excerpt
01:20

Act I

00:15:30

02:27

Act IV

02:19:00

01:30

Scene
We see the universe,
a planet and the
opening titles
The ape becomes a
hunter, learns how to
use tools
Dr. Dave Bowman
becomes the StarChild

Table 3: Gyrgy Ligeti Requiem (Kyrie movement)

Act
Act I

Timecode
00:11:50

Duration of Excerpt
02:46

Act II

00:50:57

03:38

Act IV

01:57:05

06:03

Act
Act II

Scene
The Monolith
appears near the
Apes tribe
The Monolith is
discovered on the
Moon
Dave encounters the
Monolith near
Jupiter

Table 4: Johann Strauss Jr. The Blue Danube (excerpts)

Timecode
Duration of Excerpt
00:20:12
05:17

Act II

00:33:48

07:20

End Titles

02:20:30

6:00
23

Scene
Were introduced to
the Orion, we see
twirling, satellites
We continue seeing
the ordinary life on
the spaceship
Credits

Table 5: Gyrgy Ligeti Lux Aeterna (excerpts)

Act
Act II

Timecode
00:45:38

Duration of Excerpt
01:20

Act II

00:49:10

01:45

Scene
The viewer is
introduced to the
moon
Investigation on the
moon goes on.

Table 6: Aram Khachaturian Adagio from Gayane Ballet Suite (excerpts)

Act
Act III

Timecode
00:54:45

Duration of Excerpt
03:25

Act III

01:03:32

03:50

Scene
The viewer is
introduced to the
Discovery One, the
daily routine of the
astronauts is shown
(exercise, watching
TV etc.)
Continuation of
human activities,
Franks family
singing Happy
Birthday

Table 7: Gyrgy Ligeti Adventures (excerpt)

Act
Act II

Timecode
02:11:22

Duration of Excerpt
03:08

24

Scene
The Star-Gate
Sequence

Bibliography
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Barron, Lee. What if Zarathustra Had Not Spoken? Alex North's Counterfactual Soundtrack
to 2001: A Space Odyssey. New Review of Film and Television Studies 9, no. 1 (January 2011):
84-94.
Bartkowiak, Matthew J. ed. Sounds of the Future: Essays on Music in Science Fiction Film.
Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 2010.
Brown, Royal S. Overtones and Undertones: Reading Film Music. Berkeley, CA: University of
California Press, 1994.
Clarke, Arthur C. The Lost Worlds of 2001. New York: New American Library, 1972
Chion, Michel. Kubrick's Cinema Odyssey. London: BFI Pub, 2001
Ciment, Michael. Kubrick: The Definitive Version, London: Faber & Faber, 2003
Code, David J. Real Feelings: Music as Path to Philosophy in 2001: A Space Odyssey.
Twentieth Century Music 7, no. 2 (September 2010): 195-217.
Donnelly, K.J. ed. Film Music: Critical Approaches, New York: Continuum, 2001.
Duncan, Dean. Charms That Soothe: Classical Music and the Narrative Film. New York:
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Falsetto, Mario. Stanley Kubrick: A Narrative and Stylistic Analysis, Westport, CT: Praeger,
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Gilliam, Bryan. The Life of Richard Strauss, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
Goldmark, Daniel, and Lawrence Kramer, eds. Beyond the Soundtrack: Representing Music in
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Heimerdinger, Julia. I Have Been Compromised. I Am Now Fighting Against It. Ligeti vs.
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Kolker, Robert Philip, ed. Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey: New Essays, New York:
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and Tears of Writing Music for Cinema. New York: HarperCollins, 2000
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Patterson, David W. Music, Structure, and Metaphor in Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space
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Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing, 2006
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(ca.1920),
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26

II. Audio Visual Materials

2001: A Space Odyssey. DVD. Stanley Kubrick, 1968, Los Angeles, CA: Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
(MGM), 1968
2001: Space Odyssey / Original Soundtrack. Audio CD. R. Strauss, G. Ligeti, J. Strauss II, A.
Khachaturian, Sony Australia, 2010.
Alex North's 2001: World Premiere Recording. Audio CD. Alex North, Varese Sarabande, 1993
Stanley Kubrick: A Life in Pictures. DVD. Jan Harlan, 2007, Los Angeles, CA: Warner Bros,
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III. Internet Sources
2001: A Space Odyssey. Internet Movie Database. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0062622/
(accessed May 14, 2015)
2001: A Space Odyssey (1968). Filmsite Movie Review. http://www.filmsite.org/twot.html
(accessed May 14, 2015)
Joyce, Paul, 2001: The Making of a Myth. YouTube. Flash video.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F7HGwVqI_FM (accessed March 31, 2015)

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