Spirituality

2 Etymology

Not to be confused with Spiritualism.

The term spirit means animating or vital principle in

man and animals.[web 1] It is derived from the Old French
espirit [web 1] which comes from the Latin word spiritus
(soul, courage, vigor, breath)[web 1] and is related to spirare (to breathe).[web 1] In the Vulgate the Latin word spirIt may denote almost any kind of meaningful
itus is used to translate the Greek pneuma and Hebrew
activity[4][note 2] or blissful experience.[6] It denotes
ruah.[web 1]
a process of transformation, but in a context separate
from organized religious institutions, termed "spiritual The term spiritual, matters concerning the
but not religious".[7] In modern times the emphasis spirit,[web 2] is derived from Old French spirituel
is on subjective experience.[8] Houtman and Aupers (12c.), which is derived from Latin spiritualis, which
suggest that modern spirituality is a blend of humanistic comes from spiritus or spirit.[web 2]
psychology, mystical and esoteric traditions and eastern The term spirituality is derived from Middle French
religions.[9]
spiritualit,[web 3] from Late Latin spiritualitatem (nomThere is no single, agreed-upon denition of spirituality.[1][2][note 1] Surveys of the denition of the term, as
used in scholarly research, show a broad range of denitions, with very limited similitude.[3]

inative spiritualitas),[web 3] which is also derived from

Latin spiritualis.[web 3]

3 Development of the meaning of

spirituality

Denition

There is no single, widely-agreed denition of 3.1 Classical, medieval and early modern
spirituality.[1][2][note 1] Surveys of the denition of
periods
the term, as used in scholarly research, show a broad
range of denitions, with very limited similitude.[3]
Words translatable as 'spirituality' rst began to arise in
According to Waaijman, the traditional meaning of spiri- the 5th century and only entered common use toward
tuality is a process of re-formation which aims to recover the end of the Middle Ages.[12] In a Biblical context the
the original shape of man, the image of God. To accom- term means being animated by God,[13] to be driven by
plish this, the re-formation is oriented at a mold, which the Holy Spirit, as opposed to a life which rejects this
represents the original shape: in Judaism the Torah, in inuence.[14]
Christianity Christ, in Buddhism Buddha, in the Islam In the 11th century this meaning changed. Spirituality
Muhammad.[note 3]
began to denote the mental aspect of life, as opposed to
In modern times the emphasis is on subjective the material and sensual aspects of life, the ecclesiastical
experience.[8] It may denote almost any kind of sphere of light against the dark world of matter.[15][note 5]
meaningful activity[4][note 4] or blissful experience.[6] It In the 13th century spirituality acquired a social and
still denotes a process of transformation, but in a context psychological meaning. Socially it denoted the territory
separate from organized religious institutions, termed of the clergy: The ecclesiastical against the temporary
"spiritual but not religious".[7] Houtman and Aupers possessions, the ecclesiastical against the secular authorsuggest that modern spirituality is a blend of humanistic ity, the clerical class against the secular class[16][note 6]
psychology, mystical and esoteric traditions and eastern Psychologically, it denoted the realm of the inner life:
The purity of motives, aections, intentions, inner disreligions.[9]
of the spiritual life, the analysis
Waaijman points out that spirituality is only one positions, the psychology
[17][note 7]
of
the
feelings.
term of a range of words which denote the praxis of
spirituality.[11] Some other terms are Hasidism, contem- In the 17th and 18th century a distinction was made beplation, kabbala, asceticism, mysticism, perfection, de- tween higher and lower forms of spirituality: A spiritual
votion and piety.[11]
man is one who is Christian 'more abundantly and deeper
1

3 DEVELOPMENT OF THE MEANING OF SPIRITUALITY

than others.[17][note 8] The word was also associated with Theosophical Society, which searched for 'secret teachmysticism and quietism, and acquired a negative mean- ings in Asian religions.[23] It has been inuential on
ing.
modernist streams in several Asian religions, notably
Neo-Vedanta, the revival of Theravada Buddhism, and
Buddhist modernism, which have taken over modern
3.2 Modern spirituality
western notions of personal experience and universalism
and integrated them in their religious concepts.[23] A
3.2.1 Transcendentalism and Unitarian Universal- second, related inuence was Anthroposophy, whose
founder, Rudolf Steiner, was particularly interested in deism
veloping a genuine Western spirituality, and in the ways
Ralph Waldo Emerson (18031882) was a pioneer of the that such a spirituality could transform practical instituidea of spirituality as a distinct eld.[18] He was one of tions such as education, agriculture, and medicine.[25][26]
the major gures in Transcendentalism, an early 19th- The inuence of Asian traditions on western modern spircentury liberal Protestant movement, which was rooted ituality was also furthered by the Perennial Philosophy,
in English and German Romanticism, the Biblical crit- whose main proponent Aldous Huxley was deeply inuicism of Herder and Schleiermacher, and the skepticism enced by Vivekandas Neo-Vedanta and Universalism,[27]
of Hume.[web 4] The Transcendentalists emphasised an in- and the spread of social welfare, education and mass
tuitive, experiential approach of religion.[web 5] Following travel after World War Two.
Schleiermacher,[19] an individuals intuition of truth was
taken as the criterion for truth.[web 5] In the late 18th and Important early 20th century western writers who studearly 19th century, the rst translations of Hindu texts ap- ied the phenomenon of spirituality, and their works, inpeared, which were also read by the Transcendentalists, clude William James, The Varieties of Religious Experiand inuenced their thinking.[web 5] They also endorsed ence (1902), and Rudolph Otto, especially The Idea of
universalist and Unitarianist ideas, leading to Unitarian the Holy (1917). James notions of spiritual experience
Universalism, the idea that there must be truth in other had a further inuence on the modernist streams in Asian
religions as well, since a loving God would redeem all traditions, making them even further recognisable for a
western audience.[19]
living beings, not just Christians.[web 5][web 6]
3.2.2

Neo-Vedanta

Main article: Neo-Vedanta

An important inuence on western spirituality was NeoVedanta, also called neo-Hinduism[20] and Hindu Universalism,[web 7] a modern interpretation of Hinduism
which developed in response to western colonialism and
orientalism. It aims to present Hinduism as a homogenized ideal of Hinduism[21] with Advaita Vedanta as its
central doctrine.[22] Due to the colonisation of Asia by
the western world, since the 19th century an exchange of
ideas has been taking place between the western world
and Asia, which also inuenced western religiosity.[23]
Unitarianism, and the idea of Universalism, was brought
to India by missionaries, and had a major inuence on
neo-Hinduism via Ram Mohan Roy's Brahmo Samaj and
Brahmoism. Roy attempted to modernise and reform
Hinduism, from the idea of Universalism.[24] This universalism was further popularised, and brought back to
the west as neo-Vedanta, by Swami Vivekananda.[24]

3.2.4 Spiritual but not religious

Main article: Spiritual but not religious
After the Second World War spirituality and religion became disconnected,[17] and spirituality became more oriented on subjective experience, instead of attempts to
place the self within a broader ontological context.[28]
A new discourse developed, in which (humanistic) psychology, mystical and esoteric traditions and eastern religions are being blended, to reach the true self by selfdisclosure, free expression and meditation.[9]
The distinction between the spiritual and the religious
became more common in the popular mind during the
late 20th century with the rise of secularism and the advent of the New Age movement. Authors such as Chris
Griscom and Shirley MacLaine explored it in numerous
ways in their books. Paul Heelas noted the development within New Age circles of what he called seminar spirituality":[29] structured oerings complementing
consumer choice with spiritual options.

Among other factors, declining membership of orgaTheosophy, Anthroposophy, and the Perennized religions and the growth of secularism in the
nial Philosophy
western world have given rise to this broader view of
spirituality.[30] The term spiritual is now frequently
See also: Esotericism
used in contexts in which the term religious was formerly employed.[31] Both theists and atheists have critiAnother major inuence on modern spirituality was the cized this development.[32][33]
3.2.3

4.1

Abrahamic faiths

Traditional spirituality

4.1

Abrahamic faiths

3
tual articulation of inner dimensions of mystical thought.
4.1.2 Christianity

Main articles: Catholic spirituality and Christian mysticism

Rabbinic Judaism (or in some Christian traditions, Rab- Catholic spirituality is the spiritual practice of living out
binism) (Hebrew: Yahadut Rabanit - ) has
been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codication of the Talmud. It is characterised by the belief that the Written Torah (Law or
Instruction) cannot be correctly interpreted without reference to the Oral Torah and by the voluminous literature
specifying what behavior is sanctioned by the law (called
halakha, the way).
4.1.1

Judaism

Judaism knows a variety of religious observances: ethical rules, prayers, religious clothing, holidays, shabbat,
pilgrimages, Torah reading, dietary laws.
Kabbalah (literally receiving), is an esoteric method,
discipline and school of thought of Judaism. Its denition varies according to the tradition and aims of those
following it,[34] from its religious origin as an integral part
of Judaism, to its later Christian, New Age, or Occultist
syncretic adaptations. Kabbalah is a set of esoteric teachings meant to explain the relationship between an unchanging, eternal and mysterious Ein Sof (no end) and
the mortal and nite universe (his creation). While it is
heavily used by some denominations, it is not a religious
denomination in itself. Inside Judaism, it forms the
foundations of mystical religious interpretation. Outside
Judaism, its scriptures are read outside the traditional
canons of organised religion. Kabbalah seeks to dene
the nature of the universe and the human being, the nature
and purpose of existence, and various other ontological
questions. It also presents methods to aid understanding
of these concepts and to thereby attain spiritual realisation.

Union with Christ is the purpose of Christian mysticism.

a personal act of faith (des qua creditur) following the

acceptance of faith (des quae creditur). Although all
Catholics are expected to pray together at Mass, there are
many dierent forms of spirituality and private prayer
which have developed over the centuries. Each of the
major religious orders of the Catholic Church and other
Hasidic Judaism, meaning piety (or "loving kindness"), lay groupings have their own unique spirituality - its own
is a branch of Orthodox Judaism that promotes spiri- way of approaching God in prayer and in living out the
tuality through the popularisation and internalisation of Gospel.
Jewish mysticism as the fundamental aspect of the faith.
It was founded in 18th-century Eastern Europe by Rabbi Christian mysticism refers to the development of mystical
Israel Baal Shem Tov as a reaction against overly legalistic practices and theory within Christianity. It has often
Judaism. His example began the characteristic veneration been connected to mystical theology, especially in the
of leadership in Hasidism as embodiments and interces- Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions. The attributes
sors of Divinity for the followers. Opposite to this, Ha- and means by which Christian mysticism is studied and
sidic teachings cherished the sincerity and concealed ho- practiced are varied and range from ecstatic visions of
liness of the unlettered common folk, and their equality the souls mystical union with God to simple prayerful
with the scholarly elite. The emphasis on the Immanent contemplation of Holy Scripture (i.e., Lectio Divina).
Divine presence in everything gave new value to prayer Progressive Christianity is a contemporary movement
and deeds of kindness, alongside Rabbinic supremacy of which seeks to remove the supernatural claims of the faith
study, and replaced historical mystical (kabbalistic) and and replace them with a post-critical understanding of
ethical (musar) asceticism and admonishment with opti- biblical spirituality based on historical and scientic remism, encouragement, and daily fervour. This populist search. It focuses on the lived experience of spirituality
emotional revival accompanied the elite ideal of nullica- over historical dogmatic claims, and accepts that the faith
tion to paradoxical Divine Panentheism, through intellec- is both true and a human construction, and that spiritual

TRADITIONAL SPIRITUALITY

experiences are psychologically and neurally real and use- are two commonly accepted meanings of jihad: an inner
ful.
spiritual struggle and an outer physical struggle.[43] The
greater jihad is the inner struggle by a believer to fulll his religious duties.[43][44] This non-violent meaning is
4.1.3 Islam
stressed by both Muslim[45] and non-Muslim[46] authors.
Five pillars Main article: Five Pillars of Islam
The Pillars of Islam (arkan al-Islam; also arkan ad-din,
pillars of religion) are ve basic acts in Islam, considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents
them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the shahadah (creed), (2)
daily prayers (salat), (3) almsgiving (zakah), (4) fasting
during Ramadan and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj)
at least once in a lifetime. The Shia and Sunni sects both
agree on the essential details for the performance of these
acts.[35]

Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, an 11th-century Islamic scholar,

referenced a statement by the companion of Muhammad
Jabir ibn Abd-Allah:

The Prophet [...] returned from one of his

battles, and thereupon told us, 'You have arrived with an excellent arrival, you have come
from the Lesser Jihad to the Greater Jihad
the striving of a servant (of Allah) against his
desires (holy war).[47][48][note 9]

Susm Main article: Susm

4.2 Asian traditions

The best known form of Islamic mystic spirituality is the
Su tradition (famous through Rumi and Haz) in which 4.2.1 Buddhism
a spiritual master or pir transmits spiritual discipline to
students.[36]
Main article: Buddhism
Susm or taawwuf (Arabic: ) is dened by
its adherents as the inner, mystical dimension of Buddhist practices are known as Bhavana, which
Islam.[37][38][39] A practitioner of this tradition is gener- literally means development or cultivating[49]
ally known as a f (
Sus believe they are practic- or producing[50][51] in the sense of calling into
).
ing ihsan (perfection of worship) as revealed by Gabriel existence.[52] It is an important concept in Buddhist
to Muhammad,
praxis (Patipatti). The word bhavana normally appears
in conjunction with another word forming a compound
phrase such as citta-bhavana (the development or
cultivation of the heart/mind) or metta-bhavana (the
development/cultivation of lovingkindness).
When
used on its own bhavana signies 'spiritual cultivation'
Sus consider themselves as the original true proponents generally.
of this pure original form of Islam. They are strong ad- Various Buddhist Paths to liberation developed throughherents to the principal of tolerance, peace and against out the ages. Best-known is the Noble Eightfold Path, but
any form of violence. The Su have suered severe per- others include the Bodhisattva Path and Lamrim.
secution by their coreligionist brothers the Wahhabi and
the Salast. In 1843 the Senussi Su were forced to ee
Mecca and Medina and head to the Sudan and Libya.[40]
Worship and serve Allah as you are seeing
Him and while you see Him not yet truly He
sees you.

Classical Su scholars have dened Susm as a science 4.2.2 Hinduism

whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning
it away from all else but God.[41] Alternatively, in the
words of the Darqawi Su teacher Ahmad ibn Ajiba, a
science through which one can know how to travel into the
presence of the Divine, purify ones inner self from lth,
and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy traits.[42]
Jihad Main article: Jihad
Jihad is a religious duty of Muslims. In Arabic, the word
jihd translates as a noun meaning struggle. There Jna marga

4.2

Asian traditions

5
to peak experience.[66]
There is a rigorous debate in Indian literature on relative
merits of these theoretical spiritual practices. For example, Chandogyopanishad suggests that those who engage
in ritualistic oerings to gods and priests will fail in their
spiritual practice, while those who engage in tapas will
succeed; Svetasvataropanishad suggests that a successful
spiritual practice requires a longing for truth, but warns
of becoming false ascetic who go through the mechanics of spiritual practice without meditating on the nature
of Self and universal Truths.[67] In the practice of Hinduism, suggest modern era scholars such as Vivekananda,
the choice between the paths is up to the individual and a
persons proclivities.[56][68] Other scholars[69] suggest that
these Hindu spiritual practices are not mutually exclusive, but overlapping. These four paths of spirituality are
also known in Hinduism outside India, such as in Balinese
Hinduism, where it is called Catur Marga (literally: four
paths).[70]

Bhakti marga

Rja marga
Three of four paths of spirituality in Hinduism

Schools and spirituality Dierent schools of Hinduism encourage dierent spiritual practices. In Tantric
school for example, the spiritual practice has been referred to as sdhan. It involves initiation into the
school, undergoing rituals, and achieving moksha liberation by experiencing union of cosmic polarities.[71] The
Hare Krishna school emphasizes bhakti yoga as spiritual
practice.[72] In Advaita Vedanta school, the spiritual practice emphasizes jna yoga in stages: samnyasa (cultivate virtues), sravana (hear, study), manana (reect) and
dhyana (nididhyasana, contemplate).[73]

Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical order, no centralized religious authorities, no governing body, no
prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose
to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monistic, or atheistic.[53]
Within this diuse and open structure, spirituality in
Hindu philosophy is an individual experience, and referred to as ksaitraja (Sanskrit: [54] ). It denes spiritual practice as ones journey towards moksha,
awareness of self, the discovery of higher truths, true nature of reality, and a consciousness that is liberated and
content.[55][56]
4.2.3 Sikhism

[57]

Four paths Hinduism identies four ways - mrga

or yoga[58] - of spiritual practice.[59] The rst way is Jna
yoga, the way of knowledge. The second way is Bhakti
yoga, the way of devotion. The third way is Karma yoga,
the way of works. The fourth way is Rja yoga, the way
of contemplation and meditation.

Main article: Sikhism

Sikhism considers spiritual life and secular life to be

Jna marga is a path often assisted by a guru (teacher)

in ones spiritual practice.[60] Bhakti marga is a path of
faith and devotion to deity or deities; the spiritual practice often includes chanting, singing and music - such as
in kirtans - in front of idols, or images of one or more deity, or a devotional symbol of the holy.[61] Karma marga
is the path of ones work, where diligent practical work
or vartta (Sanskrit: , profession) becomes in itself a spiritual practice, and work in daily life is perfected
as a form of spiritual liberation and not for its material
rewards.[62][63] Rja marga is the path of cultivating necessary virtues, self-discipline, tapas (meditation), con- An 18th Century Sikh Raja
templation and self-reection sometimes with isolation
and renunciation of the world, to a pinnacle state called intertwined:[74] In the Sikh Weltanschauung...the temsamdhi.[64][65] This state of samdhi has been compared poral world is part of the Innite Reality and partakes

5 CONTEMPORARY SPIRITUALITY

of its characteristics.[75] Guru Nanak described living

an active, creative, and practical life of truthfulness,
delity, self-control and purity as being higher than a
purely contemplative life.[76]
The 6th Sikh Guru Guru Hargobind re-armed that the
political/temporal (Miri) and spiritual (Piri) realms are
mutually coexistent.[77] According to the 9th Sikh Guru,
Tegh Bahadhur, the ideal Sikh should have both Shakti
(power that resides in the temporal), and Bhakti (spiritual meditative qualities). This was developed into the
concept of the Saint Soldier by the 10th Sikh Guru, Gobind Singh.[78]

emphasizing the importance of nding ones own individual path to spirituality. According to one 2005 poll,
about 24% of the United States population identies itself as spiritual but not religious.[web 8]

5.1 Characteristics

Modern spirituality is centered on the deepest values and

meanings by which people live.[88] It embraces the idea
of an ultimate or an alleged immaterial reality.[89] It envisions an inner path enabling a person to discover the
According to Guru Nanak, the goal is to attain essence of his/her being.
the attendant balance of separation-fusion, self-other, Not all modern notions of spirituality embrace tranaction-inaction, attachment-detachment, in the course scendental ideas.
Secular spirituality emphasizes
of daily life,[79] the polar opposite to a self-centered humanistic ideas on moral character (qualities such as
existence.[79] Nanak talks further about the one God or love, compassion, patience, tolerance, forgiveness, conAkal (timelessness) that permeates all life[80] ).[81][82][83] tentment, responsibility, harmony, and a concern for
and which must be seen with 'the inward eye', or the others).[90]:22 These are aspects of life and human expe'heart', of a human being.[84]
rience which go beyond a purely materialist view of the
[85]
In Sikhism there is no dogma,
priests, monastics or world without necessarily accepting belief in a supernatural reality or divine being. Nevertheless, many humanyogis.
ists (e.g. Bertrand Russell) who clearly value the nonmaterial, communal and virtuous aspects of life reject
this usage of the term spirituality as being overly-broad
4.3 African spirituality
(i.e. it eectively amounts to saying everything and anything that is good and virtuous is necessarily spiritual)[91]
Main article: Traditional African religion
Similarly, Aristotleone of rst known Western thinkers
to demonstrate that morality, virtue and goodness can be
In some African contexts, spirituality is considered a be- derived without appealing to supernatural forceseven
lief system that guides the welfare of society and the peo- argued that men create Gods in their own image (not
ple therein, and eradicates sources of unhappiness occa- the other way around).
sioned by evil.
Although personal well-being, both physical and
psychological, is an important aspect of modern spirituality, this does not imply spirituality is essential to
5 Contemporary spirituality
achieving happiness (e.g. see). Atheists and others
who reject notions that the numinous/non-material is
The term spiritual is now frequently used in contexts important to living well can be just as happy as more
[92]
in which the term religious was formerly employed.[31] spiritually-oriented individuals (see)
Contemporary spirituality is also called post-traditional
spirituality and "New Age spirituality.[86] Hanegraaf
makes a distinction between two New Age movements:
New Age in a restricted sense, which originated primarily in mid-twentieth century England and had its roots in
Theosophy and Anthroposophy, and New Age in a general sense, which emerged in the later 1970s
...when increasing numbers of people [...]
began to perceive a broad similarity between
a wide variety of alternative ideas and pursuits, and started to think of them as part of
one movement"".[87]
Those who speak of spirituality outside of religion often
dene themselves as spiritual but not religious and generally believe in the existence of dierent spiritual paths,

Contemporary spirituality theorists assert that spirituality develops inner peace and forms a foundation for
happiness. For example, Meditation and similar practices are suggested to help practitioners cultivate his
or her inner life and character.[93] [94] Ellison and Fan
(2008) assert that spirituality causes a wide array of positive health outcomes, including morale, happiness, and
life satisfaction..[95] However, Schuurmans-Stekhoven
(2013) actively attempted to replicate this research and
found more mixed results.[96] Spirituality has played a
central role in self-help movements such as Alcoholics
Anonymous:
...if an alcoholic failed to perfect and enlarge his spiritual life through work and selfsacrice for others, he could not survive the
certain trials and low spots ahead....[97]

5.2

Spiritual experience

Spiritual practices may include meditation, mindfulness,

prayer, the contemplation of sacred texts, ethical
Main article: Religious experience
development,[90] and the use of psychoactive substances
(entheogens). Love and/or compassion are often de[90]
Spiritual experience plays a central role in modern scribed as the mainstay of spiritual development.
spirituality.[98] This notion has been popularised by both Within spirituality is also found a common emphasis
western and Asian authors.[99][100]
on the value of thoughtfulness, tolerance for breadth and
William James popularized the use of the term re- practices and beliefs, and appreciation for the insights of
as other sources of
ligious experience in his The Varieties of Religious other religious communities, as well[108]
authority
within
the
social
sciences.
[99]
Experience.
It has also inuenced the understanding
of mysticism as a distinctive experience which supplies
knowledge.[web 4]
Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of religious experience further back to the German theologian
Friedrich Schleiermacher (17681834), who argued that
religion is based on a feeling of the innite. The notion
of religious experience was used by Schleiermacher to
defend religion against the growing scientic and secular
critique. It was adopted by many scholars of religion, of
which William James was the most inuential.[101]
Major Asian inuences were Vivekananda[102] and D.T.
Suzuki.[98] Swami Vivekananda popularised a modern
syncretitistic Hinduism,[103][100] in which the authority of
the scriptures was replaced by an emphasis on personal
experience.[100][104] D.T. Suzuki had a major inuence
on the popularisation of Zen in the west and popularized
the idea of enlightenment as insight into a timeless, transcendent reality.[web 9][web 10][23] Another example can be
seen in Paul Bruntons A Search in Secret India, which introduced Ramana Maharshi and Meher Baba to a western
audience.

6 Science
6.1 Antagonism
Since the scientic revolution, the relationship of science to religion and spirituality has developed in complex
ways.[109][110] Historian John Hedley Brooke describes
wide variations:
The natural sciences have been invested
with religious meaning, with antireligious implications and, in many contexts, with no religious signicance at all.[110]

It has been proposed that the currently held popular notion of antagonisms between science and religion[111][112]
has historically originated with thinkers with a social
or political axe to grind rather than with the natural
philosophers themselves.[110] Though physical and bioSpiritual experiences can include being connected to a logical scientists today avoid supernatural explanations to
[113][114][115][note 10]
, many scientists conlarger reality, yielding a more comprehensive self; join- describe reality
tinue
to
consider
science
and
spirituality
to be compleing with other individuals or the human community; with
[116][117]
[105]
mentary,
not
contradictory,
and
are willing to
nature or the cosmos; or with the divine realm.
debate.[118]

5.3

Spiritual practices

Main article: Spiritual practice

Waaijman discerns four forms of spiritual practices:[106]

A few religious leaders have also shown openness to

modern science and its methods. The 14th Dalai Lama
has proposed that if a scientic analysis conclusively
showed certain claims in Buddhism to be false, then the
claims must be abandoned and the ndings of science
accepted.[119]

1. Somatic practices, especially deprivation and diminishment. The deprivation puries the body. Dimin- 6.2 Holism
ishment concerns the repulsement of ego-oriented
impulses. Examples are fasting and poverty.[106]
Main article: Holism
2. Psychological
meditation.[107]

practices,

for

example

3. Social practices. Examples are the practice of

obedience and communal ownership reform egoorientedness into other-orientedness.[107]
4. Spiritual. All practices aim at purifying the egocenteredness, and direct the abilities at the divine
reality.[107]

During the twentieth century the relationship between

science and spirituality has been inuenced both by
Freudian psychology, which has accentuated the boundaries between the two areas by accentuating individualism
and secularism, and by developments in particle physics,
which reopened the debate about complementarity between scientic and religious discourse and rekindled for
many an interest in holistic conceptions of reality.[110]:322

8 NOTES

These holistic conceptions were championed by New

Age spiritualists in a type of quantum mysticism that
they claim justies their spiritual beliefs,[120][121] though
quantum physicists themselves on the whole reject such
attempts as being pseudoscientic.[122][123]

6.3
6.3.1

Scientic research
Health and well-being

Various studies have found a positive correlation between spirituality and mental well-being in both healthy
people and those encountering a range of physical illnesses or psychological disorders.[124][125][126][127] Spiritual individuals tend to be optimistic, report greater social support,[128] and experience higher intrinsic meaning
in life.[129] strength, and inner peace.[130]
The issue of whether the correlation of spirituality with
positive psychological factors represents a causal link
continues to be debated. Both supporters and opponents
of this claim agree that past statistical ndings are difcult to interpret, in part because of the ongoing disagreement over how spirituality should be dened and
measured.[131] There is evidence that positive emotions
and/or sociability (which both correlate with spirituality) might actually be prerequisite psychological features
needed before spirituality can emerge (i.e. past association with psychological well-being measures might reect
a reverse causation),[91][132][133][134][135][136][137] and that
the eects of agreeableness, conscientiousness, or virtue
personality traits common in many non-spiritual people yet known to be slightly more common among the
spiritual correlate more strongly with mental health
than spirituality itself.[138][139][140][141][142]
Intercessionary prayer Masters and Spielmans[143]
conducted a meta-analysis of all the available and reputable prior research examining the eects of distant
intercessory prayer. They found no discernible health effects from being praying for by others.
6.3.2

Spiritual experiences

Neuroscientists have examined how the brain functions

during reported spiritual experiences[144][145] nding that
certain neurotransmitters and specic areas of the brain
are involved.[146][147][148][149] Moreover, experimenters
have also successfully induced spiritual experiences in individuals by administering psychoactive agents known to
elicit euphoria and perceptual distortions.[150][151] Conversely, religiosity can also be dampened by electromagnetic stimulation of the brain.[152] These results have led some leading theorists to speculate that
spirituality may be a benign subtype of psychosis
(see).[133][153][154][155][156] Benign in the sense that the
same aberrant sensory perceptions that those suering

clinical psychoses evaluate as distressingly in-congruent

and inexplicable are instead interpreted by spiritual individuals as positiveas personal and meaningful transcendent experiences.[154][155]

7 See also
Anthroposophy
Awe
Esotericism
Evolutionary origin of religions
Glossary of spirituality terms
History of religion
New Age
Numinous
Outline of spirituality
Perennial philosophy
Reason
Relationship between religion and science
Religion
Timeline of religion
Sacredprofane dichotomy
Secular spirituality
Self-actualization
Self-help
Skepticism
Spiritual but not religious
Syncretism
Superstition
Theosophy

8 Notes
[1] Koenig e.a.: There is no widely agreed on denition of
spirituality today.[1] Cobb e.a.: The spiritual dimension
is deeply subjective and there is no authoritative denition of spirituality.[2] A survey of reviews by McCarroll
e.a. dealing with the topic of spirituality gave twentyseven explicit denitions among [...] there was little
agreement.[3]

[2] Snyder, a proponent of Positive psychology, denes spirituality as a search for the sacred,[5] which can also be
sought through movements such as liberalism, feminist
theology, and green politics. Spirituality is also now associated with mental health, managing substance abuse,
marital functioning, parenting, and coping. Spirituality
also leads to nding purpose and meaning in life.[4]

[12] Jones, L. G., A thirst for god or consumer spirituality? Cultivating disciplined practices of being engaged
by god, in L. Gregory Jones and James J. Buckley eds.,
Spirituality and Social Embodiment, Oxford: Blackwell,
1997, 3-28, p4, n4.

[3] Waaijman[10] uses the word omvorming, to change the

form. Dierent translations are possible: transformation,
re-formation, trans-mutation.

[14] Wong 2009.

[4] Snyder, a proponent of Positive psychology, denes spirituality as a search for the sacred,[5] which can also be
sought through movements such as liberalism, feminist
theology, and green politics. Spirituality is also now associated with mental health, managing substance abuse,
marital functioning, parenting, and coping. Spirituality
also leads to nding purpose and meaning in life.[4]
[5] In Dutch: de hemelse lichtsfeer tegenover de duistere
wereld van de materie. [15]

[13] Waaijman 2000, p. 359-360.

[15] Waaijman 2000, p. 360.

[16] Waaijman 2000, p. 360-361.
[17] Waaijman 2000, p. 361.
[18] Schmidt, Leigh Eric. Restless Souls : The Making of American Spirituality. San Francisco: Harper, 2005. ISBN 006-054566-6
[19] Sharf 1995.
[20] King 2002, p. 93.
[21] Yelle 2012, p. 338.

[6] In Dutch: de kerkelijke tegenover de tijdelijke goederen,

het kerkelijk tegenover het wereldlijk gezag, de geestelijke
stand tegenover de lekenstand.[16]
[7] In Dutch: Zuiverheid van motieven, aecties, wilsintenties, innerlijke disposities, de psychologie van het
geestelijk leven, de analyse van de gevoelens.[17]
[8] In Dutch: Een spiritueel mens is iemand die overvloediger en dieper dan de anderen christen is.[17]
[9] This reference gave rise to the distinguishing of two forms
of jihad: greater and lesser. Some Islamic scholars
dispute the authenticity of this reference and consider the
meaning of jihad as a holy war to be more important.[47]
[10] See naturalism

References

[22] King 2002, p. 135.

[23] McMahan 2008.
[24] King 2002.
[25] McDermott, Robert (2007). The Essential Steiner. Lindisfarne. ISBN 1584200510.
[26] William James and Rudolf Steiner, Robert A. McDermott,
1991, in ReVision, vol.13 no.4
[27] Roy 2003.
[28] Saucier 2007, p. 1259.
[29] Paul Heelas, The New Age Movement: The Celebration
of the Self and the Sacralization of Modernity. Oxford:
Blackwell, 1996, page 60. Cited in Anthony Giddens: Sociology. Cambridge: Polity, 2001, page 554.

[1] Koenig 2012, p. 36.

[30] Michael Hogan (2010). The Culture of Our Thinking in

Relation to Spirituality. Nova Science Publishers: New
York.

[2] Cobb 2012, p. 213.

[31] Gorsuch 1999.

[3] McCarroll 2005, p. 44.

[32] Hollywood, Amy (WinterSpring 2010). Spiritual but

Not Religious: The Vital Interplay between Submission
and Freedom. Harvard Divinity Bulletin (Harvard Divinity School) 38 (1 and 2). Retrieved 4 January 2014.

[4] Snyder 2007.

[5] Snyder 2007, p. 261-261.
[6] Sharf 2000.
[7] Wong 2008.

[33] David, Rabbi. Viewpoint: The Limitations of Being

Spiritual but Not Religious". Ideas.time.com. Retrieved
2014-01-04.

[8] Saucier 2006, p. 1259.

[34] Kabbalah: A very short introduction, Joseph Dan, Oxford

University Press, Chapter 1 The term and its uses

[9] Houtman 2007.

[35] Pillars of Islam, Oxford Islamic Studies Online

[10] Waaijman 2000, p. 460.

[11] Waaijman 2002, p. 315.

[36] Azeemi,K.S., Muraqaba: The Art and Science of Su

Meditation. Houston: Plato, 2005. (ISBN 0-97588754-8), Pg. xi

10

[37] Alan Godlas, University of Georgia, Susms Many Paths,

2000, University of Georgia
[38] Nuh Ha Mim Keller, How would you respond to the
claim that Susm is Bid'a?", 1995. Fatwa accessible at:
Masud.co.uk
[39] Zubair Fattani, The meaning of Tasawwuf, Islamic
Academy. Islamicacademy.org
[40] Hawting, Gerald R. (2000). The rst dynasty of Islam:
The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750. Routledge. ISBN
0-415-24073-5. See Google book search.
[41] Ahmed Zarruq, Zaineb Istrabadi, Hamza Yusuf
Hanson"The Principles of Susm. Amal Press. 2008.
[42] An English translation of Ahmad ibn Ajiba's biography
has been published by Fons Vitae.
[43] Morgan & 2010 87.
[44] Jihad. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
[45] Jihad and the Islamic Law of War
[46] Rudolph Peters, Islam and Colonialism. The doctrine of
Jihad in Modern History (Mouton Publishers, 1979), p.
118
[47] Jihad. BBC. 2009-08-03.
[48] Fayd al-Qadir vol.4 pg. 511
[49] Matthieu Ricard has said this in a talk.
[50] Rhys Davids & Stede (1921-25), p. 503, entry for
Bhvan, retrieved 9 December 2008 from University
Chicago. Dsal.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2014-01-04.
[51] Monier-Williams (1899), p. 755, see Bhvana and
Bhvan, retrieved 9 December 2008 from University
of Cologne (PDF)
[52] Nyanatiloka (1980), p. 67.
[53] See:
Julius J. Lipner, Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs
and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, ISBN 9780-415-45677-7, page 8; Quote: (...) one need not
be religious in the minimal sense described to be
accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself
perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an
agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered
a Hindu.;
Lester Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence,
Peace and Conict, ISBN 978-0123695031, Academic Press, 2008;
MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism, Editor: VB
Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According
to Gandhi, a man may not believe in God and still
call himself a Hindu.
[54] Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary,
Jim Funderburk and Peter Scharf (2012); Quote:

REFERENCES

[ kaitraja ] [ kaitraja ] n. ( fr. [

ketra-j ] g. [ yuvdi ], spirituality, nature of the
soul Lit. W.; the knowledge of the soul Lit. W.
[55] See the following two in Ewert Cousins series on World
Spirituality:
Bhavasar and Kiem, Spirituality and Health, in
Hindu Spirituality, Editor: Ewert Cousins (1989),
ISBN 0-8245-0755-X, Crossroads Publishing New
York, pp 319-337;
John Arapura, Spirit and Spiritual Knowledge in the
Upanishads, in Hindu Spirituality, Editor: Ewert
Cousins (1989), ISBN 0-8245-0755-X, Crossroads
Publishing New York, pp 64-85
[56] Gavin Flood, Brills Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Editor:
Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, ISBN 978-9004-17893-9, see Article on Wisdom and Knowledge, pp
881-884
[57] See:
John Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing New York,
ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, see articles on bhaktimrga,
jnanamrga, karmamrga;
Bhagwad Gita (The Celestial Song], Chapters 2:5657, 12, 13:1-28
[58] Feuerstein, Georg (2003), The deeper dimension of yoga:
Theory and practice, Shambhala, ISBN 1-57062-935-8,
page 3;
Quote: Yoga is not easy to dene. In most general terms, the Sanskrit word yoga stands for spiritual discipline in Hinduism, Jainism, and certain
schools of Buddhism. (...). Yoga is the equivalent
of Christian mysticism, Moslem Susm, or the Jewish Kabbalah. A spiritual practitioner is known as a
yogin (if male) or a yogini (if female).
[59] D. Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Cultural Psychology,
in Anthony Marsella (Series Editor), International and
Cultural Psychology, Springer New York, ISBN 978-14419-8109-7, pp 93-140
[60] Feuerstein, Georg (2003), The deeper dimension of yoga:
Theory and practice, Shambhala, ISBN 1-57062-935-8,
Chapter 55
[61] Jean Varenne (1976), Yoga and the Hindu Tradition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-85116-8, pp 97130
[62] See discussion of Hinduism and karma yoga in two different professions in these journal articles:
Donald W. McCormick, (1994) Spirituality and
Management, Journal of Managerial Psychology,
Vol. 9, Issue 6, pp 5-8;
Macrae, Janet (1995), Nightingales spiritual philosophy and its signicance for modern nursing,
Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 27(1), pp 8-10

11

[63] Klaus Klostermaier, Spirituality and Nature, in Hindu

Spirituality, Editor: Ewert Cousins (1989), ISBN 0-82450755-X, Crossroads Publishing New York, pp 319-337;
Klostermier discusses examples from Bhagavata
Purana, another ancient Hindu scripture, where a
forest worker discovers observing mother nature is
a spiritual practice, to wisdom and liberating knowledge. The Purana suggests that true knowledge of
nature leads to true knowledge of Self and God.
It illustrates 24 gurus that nature provides. For example, earth teaches steadfastness and the wisdom
that all things while pursuing their own activities, do
nothing but follow the divine laws that are universally established; another wisdom from earth is her
example of accepting the good and bad from everyone. Another guru, the honeybee teaches that one
must make eort to gain knowledge, a willingness
and exibility to examine, pick and collect essence
from dierent scriptures and sources. And so on.
Nature is a mirror image of spirit, perceptive awareness of nature can be spirituality.
[64] Vivekananda, S. (1980), Raja Yoga, Ramakrishna
Vivekanada Center, ISBN 978-0911206234
[65] Richard King (1999), Indian philosophy: An introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought, Edinburgh University
Press, ISBN 0-7486-0954-7, pp 69-71
[66] See:
Harung, Harald (April 2012), Illustrations of
Peak Experiences during Optimal Performance in
World-class Performers Integrating Eastern and
Western Insights, Journal of Human Values, 18(1),
pp 33-52
Levin, Je (2010), Religion and mental health:
Theory and research, International Journal of Applied Psychoanalytic Studies, 7(2), pp 102-115;
Meyer-Dinkgrfe, Daniel (2011). Opera and spirituality. Performance and Spirituality, 2(1), pp 3859
[67] See:
CR Prasad, Brills Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Editor: Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, ISBN
978-90-04-17893-9, see Article on Brahman, pp
724-729
David Carpenter, Brills Encyclopedia of Hinduism,
Editor: Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill,
ISBN 978-90-04-17893-9, see Article on Tapas, pp
865-869
[68] Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, 3rd
Edition, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-7081-7, pp 119260
[69] Mikel Burley (2000), Hatha-Yoga: Its context, theory and
practice, Motilal Banarsidass Publications, ISBN 81-2081706-0, pp 97-98; Quote: When, for example, in the
Bhagavad-Gita Lord Krsna speaks of jnana-, bhakti- and
karma-yoga, he is not talking about three entirely separate
ways of carrying out ones spiritual practice, but, rather,
about three aspects of the ideal life.

[70] Murdana, I. Ketut (2008), BALINESE ARTS AND

CULTURE: A ash understanding of Concept and Behavior, Mudra - JURNAL SENI BUDAYA, Indonesia;
Volume 22, page 5
[71] Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-43878-0
[72] Rochford, E. B. (1985), Hare Krishna in America, Rutgers University Press; ISBN 978-0813511146, page 12
[73] See:
Ramakrishna Puligandla (1985), Jna-Yoga - The
Way of Knowledge (An Analytical Interpretation),
University Press of America New York, ISBN 08191-4531-9;
Fort, A. O. (1998), Jvanmukti in Transformation:
Embodied Liberation in Advaita and Neo-Vedanta,
State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-79143903-8;
Richard King (1999), Indian philosophy: An introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought, Edinburgh
University Press, ISBN 0-7486-0954-7, pp 223;
Sawai, Y. (1987), The Nature of Faith in the
akaran Vednta Tradition, Numen, 34(1), pp 1844
[74] Nayar, Kamal Elizabeth and Sandhu, Jaswinder Singh
(2007). The Socially Involved Renunciate - Guru Nanaks
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[75] Kaur Singh, Nikky Guninder (30 Jan 2004). Hindu spirituality: Postclassical and modern. English: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 530. ISBN 8120819373.
[76] Marwha, Sonali Bhatt (2006). Colors of Truth, Religion
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[77] E. Marty, Martin and Appleby R. Scott (11 July
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Press. p. 278. ISBN 0226508846.
[78] Singh Gandhi, Surjit (1 Feb 2008). History of Sikh Gurus Retold: 1606 1708. English: Atlantic Publishers &
Distributors Pvt Ltd. pp. 676677. ISBN 8126908572.
[79] Mandair, Arvind-Pal Singh (October 22, 2009). Religion
and the Specter of the West - Sikhism, India, Postcoloniality and the Politics of Translation. United States of America: University of Columbia. pp. 372 onwards. ISBN
0231147244.
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[81] Philpott, Chris (2011). Green Spirituality: One Answer to
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[82] Singh Kalsi, Sewa Singh (2005). Sikhism. United States:
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[3] Online Etymology Dictionary, ''Spirituality''". Etymonline.com. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

[4] Stanford Encyclopdeia of Philosophy, ''Transcendentalism''". Plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2014-01-04.
[5] Jone Johnson Lewis. Jone John Lewis, ''What is Transcendentalism?". Transcendentalists.com. Retrieved
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[6] Barry Andrews, ''The Roots Of Unitarian Universalist Spirituality In New England Transcendentalism ''".
Archive.uua.org. 1999-03-12. Retrieved 2014-01-04.
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11 Further reading
Downey, Michael. Understanding Christian Spirituality. New York: Paulist Press, 1997.
Hanegraa, Wouter J. (1996), New Age Religion and
Western Culture. Esotericism in the mirror of Secular
Thought, Leiden/New York/Koln: E.J. Brill
Charlene Spretnak, The Spiritual Dynamic in Modern Art : Art History Reconsidered, 1800 to the
Present.
Eck, Diana L. A New Religious America. San Francisco: Harper, 2001.

Waaijman, Kees (2000), Spiritualiteit.

Vormen, grondslagen, methoden, Kampen/Gent:
Kok/Carmelitana

Schmidt, Leigh Eric. Restless Souls : The Making of

American Spirituality. San Francisco: Harper, 2005.
ISBN 0-06-054566-6

Waaijman, Kees (2002), Spirituality: Forms, Foundations, Methods, Peeters Publishers

Carrette, Jeremy R.; King, Richard (2005), Selling

Spirituality: The Silent Takeover of Religion, Taylor
& Francis Group

Wong, Yuk-Lin Renita; Vinsky, Jana (2009),

Speaking from the Margins: A Critical Reection
on the Spiritual-but-not-Religious Discourse in Social Work, British Journal of Social Work (2009)
39, pp.1343-1359

10.2

Web-sources

[1] Online Etymology Dictionary, ''Spirit''".

line.com. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

12 External links
Religion and Spirituality at the Open Directory
Project
Sociology of Religion Resources

Etymon-

[2] Online Etymology Dictionary, ''Spiritual''". Etymonline.com. Retrieved 2014-01-04.

16

13

13
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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Spirituality Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirituality?oldid=666754455 Contributors: Mav, Wesley, The Anome, Stephen Gilbert,
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Kbdank71, Sj, Rjwilmsi, Pariah, Vary, PinchasC, TheRingess, RexNL, Kolbasz, 2ct7, HKT, Bgwhite, Slasher600, YurikBot, 999~enwiki, RussBot, Bhny, Pigman, Leoshad, Poetryreader, Bryan8020, Vincej, Vaergoth, Vaikunda Raja, NawlinWiki, Nirvana2013, Grafen,
NickBush24, Akma, Tastemyhouse, Equilibrial, Nick, Larry laptop, Emersoni, Jimtron, Kwnd, Syrthiss, Dbrs, Sauseek, AdelaMae,
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Glane23, Maitreyasatsang, Dakota28, MisterB777, TimothyCR, Numbo3-bot, Madagascar periwinkle, Wikihelp1a, Tide rolls, Lightbot,
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Mvaldemar, Thechiefgood, Wiki emma johnson, Musketeer41, Sewblon, Ametzler, Josemanimala, Jasdeepharibhajan, SchoenfeldSJ,
FrescoBot, Canhaspancake, JMS Old Al, Tgou, Citation bot 1, Mosemamenti, Tjpbowman, Flint McRae, Biker Biker, SpacemanSpi,
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Lotje, Kennedyer, Begoon, Dagny1977, Ely1, Kitfoxxe, Coolchaz01, Tbhotch, BrightBlackHeaven, Alun Williamson, SGuerreiro1311,
RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Goodyes~enwiki, Chicagosailer, Raven Mew, Shuaybi, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Hamilton777, Themastertree, An Anonymous Visitor, Rzangyal, Jujhar.pannu, Nategreen, Tommy2010, Molliec, Udaysagar1, Acategory, Shanafeltc, Hillfree, MoonMaiden38, EWikist, BeNothing, Donner60, Klashnfolk, Pradeep Sharma 786, Vimal kapur, Michaelhogan73, Goldenwinds,
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331dot, Sponsel, Waywind, Andrewcort, Wisewolf1972, Lugia2453, Sehaulk, Jasssonpet, Faizan, Sonanto, Tentinator, Jlatigo, Knight of
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