doi: 10.5028/jatm.2012.

04033912

A Review of Welding Technologies for Thermoplastic Composites

in Aerospace Applications
Anahi Pereira da Costa1, Edson Cocchieri Botelho1,*, Michelle Leali Costa2, Nilson Eiji Narita3, Jos
Ricardo Tarpani4
Universidade Estadual Paulista Jlio de Mesquita Filho Guaratinguet/SP Brazil
Instituto de Aeronutica e Espao So Jos dos Campos/SP, Brazil
3
EMBRAER So Jos dos Campos/SP, Brazil
4
Universidade de So Paulo So Carlos/SP, Brazil
1
2

Abstract: Reinforced thermoplastic structural detail parts and assemblies are being developed to be included in
current aeronautic programs. Thermoplastic composite technology intends to achieve improved properties and low cost
processes. Welding of detail parts permits to obtain assemblies with weight reduction and cost saving. Currently, joining
composite materials is a matter of intense research because traditional joining technologies are not directly transferable to composite structures. Fusion bonding and the use of thermoplastic as hot melt adhesives offer an alternative
to mechanical fastening and thermosetting adhesive bonding. Fusion bonding technology, which originated from the
thermoplastic polymer industry, has gained a new interest with the introduction of thermoplastic matrix composites,
which are currently regarded as candidate for primary aircraft structures. This paper reviewed the state of the art of the
welding technologies devised to aerospace industry, including the elds that Universidade Estadual Paulista -~lio de
Mesquita Filho and Universidade de So Paulo are deeply involved.
Keywords: Aircraft structural joint, Thermoplastic composite, Welding technology.

List of Symbols
Q
I
R
t
IR
ITA
LBW
P
PEEK
PES
PPS
PEI
T

Heat generation
Electrical current
Ohmic resistance
Time
Infrared
Instituto Tecnolgico de Aeronutica
Laser Beam Welding
Pressure
Poly-etheretherketone
Poly-ethersulphone
Poly-phenylenesulphide
Poly-etherimide
Temperature

Received: 05/07/12

Accepted: 03/08/12

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'HSDUWDPHQWR GH 0DWHULDLV H 7HFQRORJLD ) (* $Y $ULEHUWR
Pereira da Cunha, 333 Bairro Pedregulho / CEP:12.516-410
Guaratinguet/SP Brazil

Tg
Tm
UNESP
USP

Glass transition temperature

Melting temperature
Universidade Estadual Paulista Jlio de Mesquita Filho
Universidade de So Paulo

INTRODUCTION
 &RQWLQXRXVEHUUHLQIRUFHGWKHUPRSODVWLFPDWUL[FRPSRVLWH
laminates have shown great promise as materials for current and
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reinforced composite laminates, thermoplastic laminates are
HDVLHUWRSURFHVVDVWKH\GRQRWUHTXLUHFRPSOH[FKHPLFDOUHDFtion nor lengthy curing process, they are easily recycled and do
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VKHOIOLIH7KHUPRSODVWLFFRPSRVLWHVDOVRH[KLELWYHU\ORZOHYHORI
moisture uptake, which means their mechanical properties are less
degraded under hot/wet conditions, not to mention their higher
GDPDJHWROHUDQFHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDQGJUHDWHUUHSDUDELOLW\SRWHQWLDO
DVFRPSDUHGWRWKHUPRVHWWLQJPDWUL[ODPLQDWHV1LQJet al., 2007;
Sinmazelik, 2006; Jayamol et al., 1998; Mallick, 1993).

J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., So Jos dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012

255

Costa, A.P. et al.

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an important role in manufacturing of composite structures
in marine, automotive and aerospace industry. Mechanical
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metals or composite components. However, there are
disadvantages associated with these methods such as stress
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plate, electromagnetic induction, dielectric/microwave and IR
ZHOGLQJ0RX]DNLVet al., 2008; Botelho and Rezende, 2007;
Wang and Hahn, 2007; Jones, 1994; Loos et al., 1981).
Researches involving welding in composites in Brazil were
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RI81(63,7$DQG(VFRODGH(QJHQKDULDGH6mR&DUORVRI
USP. The work started in these universities with cooperation
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in Portuguese) focused on the mechanical and thermal
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PPS thermoplastic polymer) reinforced with continuous
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resistance welding technology whereas USP is advancing in
IR lamp welding methodology.
 7KLV SDSHU DLPHG WR H[DPLQH GLIIHUHQW ZHOGLQJ WHFKniques for thermoplastic composite laminates devised
to structural aerospace applications, focusing on recent
developments in this area.

HIGH PERFORMANCE THERMOPLASTIC

COMPOSITES FOR AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
The automotive industry has traditionally produced a wide
range of thermoplastic parts with the advantage of shorter
SURFHVVLQJWLPHVDQGIXOO\DXWRPDWHGHTXLSPHQWV5D\
Botelho et al., 2005; Botelho et al., 2002; Botelho et al., 2001;
Todo et al., 2000).
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* DQG * EXVLQHVV MHWV DQG$LUEXV %HOXJD WUDQVSRUW
DLUFUDIWDVWKHUPRIRUPHGRRULQJSDQHOV&RVWDet al., 2010;
Vieille et al., 2009; Young and Ye, 2005; Botelho et al., 2003).
More recently, thermoplastic composites have found utilizaWLRQLQODQGLQJJHDUGRRUVZLQJOHWVHOHYDWRUVDLOHURQVDSV
256

VSRLOHUVVSHHGEUDNHVVODWVWRFLWHDIHZDSSOLFDWLRQV'H)DULD
et al., 2011; Rezende et al., 2011; Chevali et al., 2010; Bates
et al., 2009; Arici, 2007; Espert et al., 2004; Lee et al., 1993).
A wide range of high performance thermoplastic matrices
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studied and reported. Both of them are semi-crystalline polymers, and crystallinity in high-performance polymers is quite
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mechanical properties. Crystallinity tends to increase stiffness
and tensile strength while amorphous areas are more effective
LQDEVRUELQJLPSDFWHQHUJ\7KHGHJUHHRIFU\VWDOOLQLW\LVGHWHUPLQHGE\PDQ\IDFWRUVLQFOXGLQJWKHW\SHRISRO\PHUDQGWKH
SURFHVVLQJFRQGLWLRQV1LQRet al., 2009; Mazur et al. 2008).
Today, joining thermoplastic composite structures
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composite usage is rapidly replacing metallic and thermoset
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fatigue loads applied to aerospace vehicles. Many welding
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own advantages and pitfalls.

WELDING PROCESSES
In choosing a structural engineered material for aerospace
application, an important consideration is how easy is to manufacture, join, inspect, repair and replace it in service. One of the
many advantages of thermoplastic over thermoset composites
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reformed. In theory, using adequate temperature and P levels, a
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developed and evaluated for thermoplastic applications in the
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Fusion bonding

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WKHUPRSODVWLFFRPSRVLWHV$JHRUJHVet al., 2001).

J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., So Jos dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012

A Review of Welding Technologies for Thermoplastic Composites in Aerospace Applications

 6HYHQPDLQZHOGLQJWHFKQLTXHVDUHGHVFULEHGEHORZDFFRUGing the order they appear in the schematic provided in Fig. 1.

Ultrasonic welding
Ultrasonic welding is a process in which high frequenFLHVDUHXVHGW\SLFDOIUHTXHQFLHVUDQJHIURPWRN+]
in order to induce molecular motion, thus creating friction,
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components using ultrasonic welding depends on material
physical properties, frequency and amplitude of ultrasonic
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LQGLVWLQFWO\WRDPRUSKRXVZHOGLQJWHPSHUDWXUHEHWZHHQWKH
Tg and TmDQGVHPLFU\VWDOOLQHSRO\PHUVZHOGLQJRFFXUVDW
WKHPHOWLQJSRLQW/HY\et al., 2008; Siddiq and Ghassemieh,
.UJHUet al. 2004; Ageorges and Ye, 2002).
Figure 2 presents a schematic of an ultrasonic welding
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frequency. All ultrasonic welding systems are composed of
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ultrasonic generator to provide and control the ultrasonic
HQHUJ\$JHRUJHVet al..UJHUet al., 2004; Yousefpour et al., 2004; Siddiq and Ghassemieh, 2008; Levy et al.,
2008; Ageorges and Ye, 2002).
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et al., 2004; Ageorges et al., 2001; Ageorges et al., 2000).

automotive, aerospace, energy, medical and packaging. In

particular, aerospace industry employs this methodology to
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parameters and process windows to produce high quality
ZHOGV6LGGLTDQG*KDVVHPLHK.UJHUet al., 2004).
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Lockheed-Georgia to weld together thermoplastic/graphite tape
PDWHULDOIRUWKH&+HUFXOHVDLUFUDIW/HY\et al., 2008).
Induction welding
Induction welding utilizes inductive heating for melting
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to convert the magnetic energy into thermal energy. In the
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namely, the energy dissipation due to Joule heating and energy
dissipation due to magnetic hysteresis. The heat generation is
GHVFULEHGE\(T.DJDQDQG1LFKROV, 2005):
2

Q = I R t

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WLPHtRKPLFUHVLVWDQFHR), and the square of the induced
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WKHFDVHRIWKHPDWHULDOWREHZHOGHGLVQRWLQVLGHWKHFRLO
DVGHSLFWHGLQ)LJ0RVHUet al..DJDQDQG1LFKROV
2005; Yousefpour et al., 2004; Stokes, 2003; Velthuis and
Mitschang, 2003; Hou et al., 1999).
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thermoplastic composites:
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LQKHUHQWUHVLVWDQFHKHDWLQJRIEHUV0RVHUet al., 2008);

J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., So Jos dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012

257

Costa, A.P. et al.

 GLHOHFWULFK\VWHUHVLVKHDWLQJWKLQOD\HURIPDWUL[PDWHULDO
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laminates. A capacitor is then created and dielectric heating occurs due to the movement of charge and rotation of
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A special type of induction welding is the so-called

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the joining parts. The Emaweld-process is fast compared to
conventional induction welding. However, due to the metal
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in the welding zone thus reducing the mechanical properties
RIWKHMRLQW+RXet al. 1999).
 $VIRUYLEUDWLRQZHOGLQJVLQJOHODSMRLQWVKHDUVWUHQJWKVRI
RUGHURI03DKDYHDOVREHHQUHSRUWHGIRULQGXFWLRQZHOGHG
336FDUERQEHUODPLQDWHV$GGUHVVHGLQYHVWLJDWLRQVFRPSDUing resistance and induction welding showed that, under
equivalent heating conditions, induction welded specimens
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Microwave welding
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reported in the literature to weld thermoplastic composites
.Xet al., 2003; Wise and Froment, 2001; Chung-Yuan et al.,
1999; Vodicka, 1996).
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to microwaves and an applied P melting of the surrounding
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SURFHVV<RXVHISRXUet al..Xet al., 2003; Wise and
Froment, 2001; Chung-Yuan et al., 1999; Vodicka, 1996).
The particular advantage of microwave welding over other
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and Froment, 2001).
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what are normally straight-line heating tasks in the welding of
OPVDQGVKHHWLQJ.Xet al., 2003; Wise and Froment, 2001;
Chung-Yuan et al., 1999; Vodicka, 1996).
 +HDWLQJLQDPLFURZDYHHOGHVVHQWLDOO\WDNHVSODFHE\WKH
following physical processes, depending on the target material:
SRODUL]DWLRQKHDWLQJSRODUPDWHULDOHOHFWULFDOUHVLVWDQFHKHDWLQJ
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LRQSRODUL]DWLRQHOHFWURO\WHVVDOLQHVROXWLRQVDQGFHUDPLFVDW
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and Froment, 2001; Chung-Yuan et al., 1999; Vodicka, 1996).
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welding of joint elements with low, medium and high

J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., So Jos dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012

A Review of Welding Technologies for Thermoplastic Composites in Aerospace Applications

dielectric loss factors using focused microwave energy

:LVHDQG)URPHQW$W\SLFDOVFKHPDWLFRIWKHVHW
up is shown in Fig. 4. Joint elements with low-to-medium
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increases and reaches the polymer TmDVWKHERQGOLQHSDVVHV
underneath the focused microwave energy. Meanwhile,
localized fusion occurs in the presence of P, resulting
in a weld. Joint elements with high dielectric loss factor
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elements, and then evaporate, leaving a localized melting
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ERQGOLQHLQWKHSUHVHQFHRIP, producing a weld. Materials
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process, some of these materials evaporate and some remain
LQWKHZHOGDUHD.Xet al., 2003; Wise and Froment, 2001;
Chung-Yuan et al., 1999; Vodicka, 1996).

OLWWOHDPRXQWRIPDWHULDODQGFDQEHDSSOLHGWRODUJHVWUXFtures. Good thermal insulation and a correct amount of input

energy can reduce the welding time and enhance weld qualLW\$JHRUJHVDQG<H&RVWD<RXVHISRXUet al.,
2004; Yang and Pitchumani, 2002a, Yang and Pitchumani,
E$JHRUJHVDQG<H;LDRet al., 1992). In this
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WR EH MRLQHG 7KLV FRQGXFWLYH HOHPHQW LV FRQQHFWHG WR D
SRZHUVXSSO\DQGWKHQDVXIFLHQWI is applied so that Joule
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Bersee, 2005; Stavrov et al., 2003; Yang and Pitchumani,
2002A, Yang and Pitchumani, 2002B; Don et al.;LDR
et al., 1992). Figure 5 shows a schematic of the resistance
welding process.

)LJXUH6FKHPDWLFVHWXSIRUUHVLVWDQFHZHOGLQJSURFHVV$JHRUJHV
and Ye, 2002).

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et al., 2004).
The technique is still in the development stages and, as
such, there are currently no reported industrial applications.
However, it is anticipated that microwave welding may prove
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and aerospace parts.
Resistance welding
 5HVLVWDQFHZHOGLQJKDVEHHQFRQVLGHUHGDYHU\SURPLVLQJ
joining technique for aerospace application. This process is
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and the power circuit is critical to the resistance welding
process. In order to introduce adequate current into the
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GLUHFWFODPSLQJRQWKHSUHSUHJFODPSLQJRQWKHEDUHEHUV
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among others. Instead of using continuous power during the
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pulses. This process is called impulsive resistance welding
DQGUHTXLUHVOHVVHQHUJ\WRPHOWWKHPDWUL[GXHWRORZHUKHDW
ORVVHV%DOOHet al., 2009).
 7KLVZHOGLQJSURFHVVFDQDOVREHFDUULHGRXWXQGHUHLWKHU
constant load or displacement control. The method can
produce lap shear strength values greater than 33 MPa, and
KDVEHHQXVHGLQRUGHUWRZHOG3((.DQG3(,ODPLQDWHVE\WKH
86$LU)RUFH:DQJet al., 2006).

J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., So Jos dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012

259

Costa, A.P. et al.

Hot plate welding

 7KHUPDOZHOGLQJLVDIXVLRQERQGLQJPHWKRGRORJ\WKDWEDVLFDOO\FRQVLVWVLQKHDWLQJSRO\PHUPDWUL[FRPSRVLWHVSLHFHVDWWKHLU
interface causing a decrease of viscosity thus allowing polymer
chains to interdifuse as the surfaces are held tightly together, with
IXUWKHUVORZFRROLQJIRUMRLQWFRQVROLGDWLRQ<RXVHISRXUet al.,
2004; Ageorges et al., 2001; Ageorges et al., 2000).
Inside of this concept, hot plate or hot-tool welding is one of
WKHPRVWSRSXODUPHWKRGVIRUMRLQLQJWKHUPRSODVWLFVEHFDXVHLW
LVDVLPSOHUHOLDEOHDQGHFRQRPLFDOZD\RISURGXFLQJVWURQJ
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WHWUDXRURHWK\OHQHFRDWHGKRWPHWDOSODWHLQRUGHUWKHLQWHUIDFH
WR EH ZHOGHG WR PHOW :KHQ QHFHVVDU\ DGHTXDWH P PXVW EH
DSSOLHGWRHQIRUFHWKHKRWWRRODJDLQVWWKHODPLQDWHV)LJ,Q
FDVHRIH[FHVVLYHPWKHPHOWZLOOEHSUHVVHGLQWRWKHDVKDQG
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Often mechanical stops are employed to prevent squeezing the
HQWLUHPHOWRXWRIWKHERQGOLQHZKLFKFRXOGUHVXOWLQDFROG
weld. In case of too little pressure, full contact and thus good
KHDWFRQGXFWLRQEHWZHHQKRWSODWHDQGMRLQLQJSDUWVPLJKWQRW
EHHQVXUHG7KHDSSOLHGSUHVVXUHVKRXOGEHPDLQWDLQHGXQWLOWKH
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hot element is removed and melted surfaces are pressed against
each other until consolidation occurs. Small parts demand
EHWZHHQWRVHFRQGVWREHZHOGHGZKHUHDVODUJHSDUWVWDNH
at least 30 minutes to guarantee a good connection. Risks of
VXUIDFHFRQWDPLQDWLRQDUHDPRQJVWWKHPDLQGUDZEDFNVRIWKLV
WHFKQLTXH$JHRUJHVet al., 2001; Ageorges et al., 2000).

WKHUPRSODVWLFSRO\PHUPDWUL[FRPSRVLWHV<RXVHISRXUet al.,

2004; Ageorges et al., 2001).
 0DLQDGYDQWDJHVRI,5VRXUFHVDUHWKHLUDELOLW\WRIDVWKHDWLQJW\SLFDOO\VHFRQGVFDSDFLW\WRDWWHQXDWHFRQWDPLQDWLRQ
ULVNVWKXVDOORZLQJKLJKSURGXFWLYLW\UDWHVRIUHSURGXFLEOH
strong joints in automated systems. For instance, retention
RIRISRO\PHUEXONVWUHQJWKKDVEHHQUHSRUWHGIRU
LQYROXPHRIVKRUWJODVVEHULQ3(6PDWUL[&KHQ
Besides high consistent, low scattered mechanical properties
of IR welded joints, which is translated in high structural
UHOLDELOLW\ DV FUXFLDOO\ UHTXLUHG LQ KLJKGHPDQGLQJ FRPSRnent devised to aeronautical industry, huge potential of this
PDQXIDFWXULQJWHFKQLTXHFDQEHIRUHFDVWLQWKHDHURQDXWLFDO
HQYLURQPHQWE\YLUWXHRILWVJUHDWH[LELOLW\DQGFDSDELOLW\
WRMRLQODUJHDWDQGFXUYHGDUHDV3RWHQWHet al., 1993; Chen,
2000; Miller, 2006). In the other hand, a main shortcoming of
IR welding is the detrimental effect of colorants and pigments
LQ FKDQJLQJ SRO\PHU DEVRUSWLRQ SURSHUWLHV WKXV UHGXFLQJ
the quality of the end product. Darker polymers are especially prone to display overheating surface degradation due
to low IR energy transfer rates down through melting zone,
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stage, as well as thermal residual stresses development along
FRROLQJVWDJH6ZDUW] 6ZDUW]3RWHQWHet al., 1993;
Chen, 2000; Ageorges et al., 2001;.DJDQ Bray, 2003;
Grewell et al.*UHZHOO %HQDWDU
 %DVLFDOO\ WKH WHFKQLTXH FRPSULVHV WKUHH VXEVHTXHQW
SKDVHV6LOYHUPDQDQG*ULHVH6FKZDUW]&KHQ
and Benatar, 1995). Figures 7 to 9 feature some important
aspects related to IR radiation welding, particularly in regard
to the welding system operation, applied thermomechanical
F\FOHDQGFRQWDFWLQWHUIDFHEHKDYLRURIWKHUPRSODVWLFMRLQW

IR welding
Laser welding
 ,5 ZHOGLQJ LV DQRWKHU VRPHZKDW QHZFRPHU WR WKH HOG
RI QRQFRQWDFW WHFKQLTXHV IRU MRLQLQJ ILEHU UHLQIRUFHG

)LJXUH 6FKHPDWLFRIWKHKRWSODWHZHOGLQJ<RXVHISRXUet al., 2004).

260

In order to produce integral composite structures and thus

PDNHWKHQDOFRPSRVLWHFRPSRQHQWPRUHFRVWHIIHFWLYHWKH
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EHXVHIXOLQWKHFDVHRIMRLQLQJHLWKHUWKHUPRSODVWLFSRO\PHUV
or thermoplastic composite components. Thermoplastic polyPHUVKDYHORQJPROHFXODUFKDLQVKHOGWRJHWKHUE\VHFRQGDU\
FKHPLFDOERQGVZKLFKDOORZVWKHPWREHKHDWHGDQGUHPHOWHG
Through the activation of this physicochemical mechanism,
WKHUPRSODVWLFVFDQEHMRLQHGXVLQJDZLGHYDULHW\RIIXVLRQ
DQGLQWHUOD\HUERQGLQJSURFHVVHV/DEHDVet al., 2010; 3UDEhakaran et al., 2006; Grewell et al., 2004).

J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., So Jos dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012

A Review of Welding Technologies for Thermoplastic Composites in Aerospace Applications

 /%: KDV EHHQ HQYLVLRQHG DV D VXLWDEOH WHFKQLTXH IRU

joining thin, as well as medium to thick thermoplastic
components used in the aeronautic sector. Moreover, size,
JHRPHWULFDO UHTXLUHPHQWV DQG VSHFLFDWLRQV RI DHURQDXWLFDOSDUWVDUHFODLPHGWREHPRUHHDVLO\IXOOOHGE\DSSO\LQJ

Figure 7. Schematic of infrared lamp welding system conceived

to join thermoplastic laminates highlighting the infrared
radiation source, polymer parts deployment and pressing
SODWHV <RXVHISRXU et al., 2004; Ageorges et al., 2001;
Potente et al., 1993).

/%:WHFKQLTXHUDWKHUWKDQDOWHUQDWLYHWHFKQRORJLHV/DEHDV
et al., 2010). LBW allows joining thermoplastics, provided
WKDWRQHRIWKHPDWHULDOVWRSPDWHULDOLVWUDQVSDUHQWWRODVHU
UDGLDWLRQDQGWKHRWKHUERWWRPPDWHULDOLVDEVRUEHQWHQRXJK
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WKURXJKWKHUVWPDWHULDODQGLVWRWDOO\DEVRUEHGZLWKLQWKH
VXUIDFH RI WKH DEVRUELQJ PDWHULDO 'LUHFW FRQWDFW EHWZHHQ
ERWK SDUWV HQVXUHV KHDWLQJ RI WKH WUDQVSDUHQW SDUW E\ KHDW
FRQGXFWLRQIURPWKHDEVRUELQJSDUW)LJ:HOGLQJRFFXUV
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WKHLQWHUIDFH7KH/%:WHFKQRORJ\RIIHUVWKHSRVVLELOLW\RI
joining separate parts ensuring full continuity of the resin
system without the addition of an adhesive system and avoidLQJDOVRULYHWLQVWDOODWLRQOHDGLQJWRDQXPEHURIVXEVWDQWLDO
advantages, such as cost savings, weight reduction, and
PDQXIDFWXULQJF\FOHWLPHUHGXFWLRQDVZHOODVDFFHSWDEOH
ERQGVWUHQJWK/DEHDVet al., 2010).
Only few studies of the application of LBW process for
the joining of structural thermoplastic composites such as
FDUERQ3((.RUFDUERQ336DUHDYDLODEOHLQWKHOLWHUDWXUH
VRWKDWUHOLDEOHDSSOLFDWLRQRI/%:WHFKQRORJ\IRUMRLQLQJ
primary aeronautic parts made of thermoplastic composites
VWLOO UHTXLUHV VLJQLFDQW GHYHORSPHQW DQG LQYHVWLJDWLRQ
/DEHDVet al., 2010).

REMARKABLE CONCLUSIONS
Figure 8. Typical thermomechanical cycle of the infrared welding
V\VWHP GHSLFWHG LQ )LJ  <RXVHISRXU et al., 2004;
Ageorges et al., 2001; Potente et al., 1993).

 )URPWKLVPDQXVFULSWLWFDQEHFRQFOXGHGWKDWQRWRQO\RQH
MRLQLQJWHFKQRORJ\FDQEHDSSOLFDEOHWRDOOVLWXDWLRQV$OOMRLQing methodologies showed in this work present advantages and
GUDZEDFNVDQGWKH\PD\EHPRUHRUOHVVVXLWDEOHWRDSDUWLFXODU

Figure 9. Macromolecular interdiffusion mechanism occurring in

EHWZHHQWZRFRQWDFWLQJSDUWVGXULQJWKHLQIUDUHGZHOGLQJ
SURFHVVSRUWUD\HGLQ)LJVDQG<RXVHISRXUet al., 2004;
Ageorges et al., 2001; Potente et al., 1993).

)LJXUH /DVHUWUDQVPLVVLRQZHOGLQJWHFKQLTXH/DEHDVet al., 2010).

J. Aerosp. Technol. Manag., So Jos dos Campos, Vol.4, No 3, pp. 255-265, Jul.-Sep., 2012

261

Costa, A.P. et al.

DSSOLFDWLRQ GHSHQGLQJ RQ LWV VSHFLF UHTXLUHPHQWV )XVLRQ

ERQGLQJPHWKRGVSUHVHQWDKXJHSRWHQWLDOIRUYROXPHLQWHQVLYH
applications in which short processing cycles are necessary.
7KHVHERQGLQJSURFHVVHVRIIHUDGGLWLRQDODGYDQWDJHVLQFOXGLQJ
reduced surface preparation requirements, reprocessing, recyFODELOLW\DQGLPSURYHGLQWHJULW\GXUDELOLW\$PRQJWKHYDULRXV
WHFKQLTXHVRIWKLVFDWHJRU\WKHPRVWPDWXUHRQHVDUHXQGRXEWedly the ultrasonic, induction and the resistance welding.
Process integration is a critical aspect of joining technology. Particular requirements of each joining techniques should
EHFROODWHGLQGHVLJQVFRGHVLQRUGHUWRLQWHJUDWHWKHVHUHTXLUHments at the very early stage of the design process.
 ,QVLGHRIWKLVFRQWH[WVLQFH81(63DQG863KDYHJHW
involved in development and/or application of welding technoloJLHVLQDHURVSDFHHOG(PSKDVLVRIWKHZRUNLQ81(63LVLQ
the development of the resistance welding technology associated
ZLWKWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOLQXHQFHRQWKHWKHUPDODQGPHFKDQLcal properties of thermoplastic laminates, whereas USP is in
the forefront of IR lamp welding methodology and advanced
destructive and nondestructive characterization of the joints.
 0RVW RI WKH GDWD LQ WKLV SDSHU ZHUH REWDLQHG IURP WKH
literature, since this manuscript is a state-of-the-art review.
Therefore, such data do not provide information for deals of
UHSHDWDELOLW\RUUHSURGXFLELOLW\DQGWKH\DUHXVHIXORQO\IRU
an initial mapping of potential techniques over a wide range
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Ageorges, C. et al.   $GYDQFHV LQ IXVLRQ ERQGLQJ

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UHVLVWDQFHZHOGLQJIRUWKHUPRSODVWLFPDWUL[FRPSRVLWHV3DUW
,KHDWLQJHOHPHQWDQGKHDWWUDQVIHU&RPSRVLWHV6FLHQFHDQG
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Arici, A.A., 2007, Effect of hygrothermal aging on polyHWKHULPLGHFRPSRVLWHV-RXUQDORI5HLQIRUFHG3ODVWLFVDQG
&RPSRVLWHV9RO1RSS
Balle, F. et al., 2009, Ultrasonic metal welding of aluminium
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Bates, P.J. et al.6KHDUVWUHQJWKDQGPHOWGRZQEHKDYLRU RI UHLQIRUFHG SRO\SURS\OHQH DVVHPEOLHV &RPSRVLWHV
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Botelho, E.C. et al., 2005 Processing and hygrothermal effects
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Acknowledgements
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from Fundao de Amparo Pesquisa do Estado de So Paulo
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Botelho, E.C. et al., 2002, Study of polyamide 6/6 synthesis
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ZLWKSLQHDSSOHOHDIEUH&RPSRVLWHV6FLHQFHDQG7HFKQRORJ\9RO1RSS
-RQHV)50RLVWXUHDEVRUSWLRQDQRPDORXVHIIHFWV
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RQ LQWHUIDFHV RI JODVV DQG FDUERQ EHUV UHLQIRUFHG HSR[\
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