Computers History

Computers Developments and History

Contents
1

History of personal computers

1.1

Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.1

Mainframes, minicomputers, and microcomputers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.2

Microprocessor and cost reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The beginnings of the personal computer industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.1

Simon

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.2

IBM 610 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.3

Olivetti Programma 101 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.4

MIR

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.5

Kenbak-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.6

Datapoint 2200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.7

Micral N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.8

Xerox Alto and Star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.9

IBM 5100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.10 Altair 8800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.11 Homebrew Computer Club . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.12 Other machines of the era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1977 and the emergence of the Trinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.1

PET

1.4.2

Apple II

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.3

TRS-80 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Home computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5.1

Atari 400/800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5.2

Sinclair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5.3

TI-99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5.4

VIC-20 and Commodore 64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5.5

BBC Micro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5.6

Commodore/Atari price war and crash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5.7

Japanese computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The IBM PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.6.1

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

IBM PC clones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i

ii

CONTENTS
1.7

Apple Lisa and Macintosh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

1.7.1

GUIs spread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

1.8

PC clones dominate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

1.9

1990s and 2000s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

1.9.1

NeXT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

1.9.2

CD-ROM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

1.9.3

ThinkPad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

1.9.4

Dell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

1.9.5

Power Macintosh, PowerPC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

1.9.6

Risc PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

1.9.7

BeBox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

1.9.8

IBM clones, Apple back into protability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

1.9.9

Writable CDs, MP3, P2P le sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

1.9.10 USB, DVD player . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

1.9.11 Hewlett-Packard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

1.9.12 64 bits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

1.9.13 Lenovo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

1.9.14 Wi-Fi, LCD monitor, multi-core processor, ash memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

1.9.15 Local area networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

1.10 Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

1.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

1.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

1.13 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

1.14 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

History of computing

17

2.1

Concrete devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

2.2

Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

2.3

Early computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

2.4

Navigation and astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

2.5

Weather prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

2.6

Symbolic computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

2.7

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

2.8

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

2.9

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

2.9.1

20

British history links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

History of computing hardware

21

3.1

Early devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

3.1.1

Ancient era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

3.1.2

Medieval calculating tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

3.1.3

Mechanical calculators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

CONTENTS
3.1.4

Punched card data processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

3.1.5

Calculators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

3.2

First general-purpose computing device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

3.3

Analog computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

3.4

Advent of the digital computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

3.4.1

Electromechanical computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

3.4.2

Digital computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

3.4.3

Electronic data processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

3.4.4

The electronic programmable computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

The stored-program computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

3.5.1

Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

3.5.2

Manchester baby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

3.5.3

Manchester Mark 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

3.5.4

EDSAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

3.5.5

EDVAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

3.5.6

Commercial computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

3.5.7

Microprogramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

3.5.8

Magnetic storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

3.6

Early computer characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

3.7

Transistor computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

3.7.1

Transistorized peripherals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

33

3.7.2

Supercomputers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

33

3.8

The integrated circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

3.9

Post-1960 (integrated circuit based) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

3.10 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35

3.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35

3.12 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

3.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

3.14 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

3.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

Software

44

3.5

iii

4.1

History

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

4.2

Types of software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

4.2.1

Purpose, or domain of use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

4.2.2

Nature, or domain of execution

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

4.2.3

Programming tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

Software topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46

4.3.1

Architecture

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46

4.3.2

Execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46

4.3.3

Quality and reliability

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

46

4.3.4

License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

4.3

iv

CONTENTS
4.3.5

Patents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

4.4

Design and implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

47

4.5

Industry and organizations

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

4.6

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

4.7

References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

4.8

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

Computer science

49

5.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

5.1.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

5.2.1

Name of the eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

Areas of computer science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

52

5.3.1

Theoretical computer science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

52

5.3.2

Applied computer science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53

5.4

The great insights of computer science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

5.5

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

5.5.1

Conferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

5.5.2

Journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

5.6

Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

5.7

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

5.8

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

5.9

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

5.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

58

5.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59

History of articial intelligence

60

6.1

Precursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

6.1.1

AI in myth, ction and speculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

6.1.2

Automatons

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

60

6.1.3

Formal reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61

6.1.4

Computer science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

The birth of articial intelligence 19431956 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

6.2.1

Cybernetics and early neural networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

6.2.2

Turings test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

6.2.3

Game AI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

6.2.4

Symbolic reasoning and the Logic Theorist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

6.2.5

Dartmouth Conference 1956: the birth of AI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

The golden years 19561974 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

6.3.1

The work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

63

6.3.2

The optimism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

6.3.3

The money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

5.2
5.3

6.2

6.3

CONTENTS

6.4

The rst AI winter 19741980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

6.4.1

The problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

6.4.2

The end of funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

6.4.3

Critiques from across campus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65

6.4.4

Perceptrons and the dark age of connectionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

66

6.4.5

The neats: logic, Prolog and expert systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

66

6.4.6

The scrues: frames and scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

66

Boom 19801987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

6.5.1

The rise of expert systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

6.5.2

The knowledge revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

6.5.3

The money returns: the fth generation project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

6.5.4

The revival of connectionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

Bust: the second AI winter 19871993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68

6.6.1

AI winter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

68

6.6.2

The importance of having a body: Nouvelle AI and embodied reason . . . . . . . . . . . .

68

AI 1993present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

6.7.1

Milestones and Moores Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

6.7.2

Intelligent agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

6.7.3

Victory of the neats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

6.7.4

AI behind the scenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

6.7.5

Where is HAL 9000? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

6.7.6

2010s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

6.8

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

6.9

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

6.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

74

History of computer science

77

7.1

Binary logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

7.2

Birth of computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

7.3

Emergence of a discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

78

7.3.1

Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

78

7.3.2

Alan Turing and the Turing Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

78

7.3.3

Shannon and information theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79

7.3.4

Wiener and cybernetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79

7.3.5

John von Neumann and the von Neumann architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79

7.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

80

7.5

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

80

7.6

Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

81

7.7

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

81

7.8

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

81

6.5

6.6

6.7

History of operating systems

82

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CONTENTS
8.1

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

82

8.2

Mainframes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83

8.2.1

Systems on IBM hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83

8.2.2

Other mainframe operating systems

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83

8.3

Minicomputers and the rise of Unix

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

8.4

Microcomputers: 8-bit home computers and game consoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85

8.4.1

Home computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85

8.4.2

Rise of OS in video games and consoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85

8.5

Personal computer era

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85

8.6

Rise of virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

8.7

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

8.8

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

8.9

References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

8.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

History of programming languages

88

9.1

Early history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

88

9.2

First programming languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

88

9.3

Establishing fundamental paradigms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

89

9.4

1980s: consolidation, modules, performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

90

9.5

1990s: the Internet age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

90

9.6

Current trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

91

9.7

Prominent people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

91

9.8

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

92

9.9

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

92

9.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

92

9.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

92

10 History of software engineering

93

10.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

93

10.2 The Pioneering Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

93

10.3 1945 to 1965: The Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94

10.4 1965 to 1985: The Software Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94

10.5 1985 to 1989: No Silver Bullet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94

10.5.1 Software projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94

10.6 1990 to 1999: Prominence of the Internet

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

95

10.7 2000 to Present: Lightweight Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

95

10.7.1 Current Trends in Software Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

96

10.7.2 Software engineering today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

96

10.8 Prominent Figures in the History of Software Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

96

10.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

96

10.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

96

CONTENTS

vii

10.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11 History of the graphical user interface

97
98

11.1 Initial developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

98

11.1.1 Augmentation of Human Intellect (NLS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

99

11.1.2 Xerox PARC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

99

11.2 Early developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

99

11.2.1 Xerox Alto and Xerox Star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

99

11.2.2 SGI 1000 series and MEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

11.2.3 Apple Lisa and Macintosh (and later, the Apple IIgs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
11.2.4 Graphical Environment Manager (GEM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
11.2.5 DeskMate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
11.2.6 MSX-View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
11.2.7 Amiga Intuition and the Workbench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
11.2.8 Acorn BBC Master Compact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
11.2.9 Arthur / RISC OS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
11.2.10 MS-DOS le managers and utility suites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
11.2.11 Applications under MS-DOS with proprietary GUIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
11.2.12 Microsoft Windows (16-bit versions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
11.2.13 GEOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
11.2.14 The X Window System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
11.2.15 NeWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
11.3 The 1990s: Mainstream usage of the desktop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
11.3.1 Windows 95 and a computer in every home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
11.3.2 Mac OS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
11.3.3 GUIs built on the X Window System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
11.3.4 Amiga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
11.3.5 OS/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
11.3.6 NeXTSTEP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
11.3.7 BeOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.4 Current trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.4.1 Mobile devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.4.2 3D user interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.4.3 Virtual reality and presence

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

11.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

11.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
11.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
12 History of the Internet

113

12.1 Precursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

12.2 Three terminals and an ARPA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
12.3 Packet switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

viii

CONTENTS
12.4 Networks that led to the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
12.4.1 ARPANET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
12.4.2 NPL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
12.4.3 Merit Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
12.4.4 CYCLADES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
12.4.5 X.25 and public data networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
12.4.6 UUCP and Usenet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
12.5 Merging the networks and creating the Internet (197390) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
12.5.1 TCP/IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
12.5.2 From ARPANET to NSFNET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
12.5.3 Transition towards the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
12.6 TCP/IP goes global (19892010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.6.1 CERN, the European Internet, the link to the Pacic and beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.6.2 Global digital divide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.6.3 Opening the network to commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
12.7 Networking in outer space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
12.8 Internet governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
12.8.1 NIC, InterNIC, IANA and ICANN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
12.8.2 Internet Engineering Task Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
12.8.3 The Internet Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
12.8.4 Globalization and Internet governance in the 21st century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
12.9 Net neutrality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
12.10Use and culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
12.10.1 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
12.10.2 Email and Usenet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
12.10.3 From Gopher to the WWW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
12.10.4 Search engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
12.10.5 File sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
12.10.6 Dot-com bubble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
12.10.7 Mobile phones and the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
12.11Historiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
12.12See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
12.13Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
12.14References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
12.15External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

13 History of laptops

133

13.1 Osborne1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

13.2 Bondwell 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
13.3 Other CP/M laptops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
13.4 Compaq Portable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
13.5 Epson HX-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

CONTENTS

ix

13.6 GRiD Compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

13.7 Dulmont Magnum/Kookaburra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
13.8 Ampere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
13.9 Tandy Model 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
13.10Sharp and Gavilan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
13.11Kyotronic 85 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
13.12Commodore SX-64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
13.13Kaypro 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
13.14IBM PC Convertible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
13.15Toshiba T1100, T1000, and T1200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
13.16US Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
13.17Hewlett-Packard Vectra Portable CS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
13.18Cambridge Z88 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
13.19Compaq SLT/286 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
13.20NEC UltraLite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
13.21Apple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
13.21.1 Macintosh Portable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
13.21.2 Powerbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
13.22IBM RS/6000 N40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
13.23Windows 95 operating system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
13.24Intel Pentium processor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
13.25Improved technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
13.26Netbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
13.27Smartbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
13.28See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
13.29References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
13.30Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
14 History of the World Wide Web

140

14.1 Precursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

14.2 19801991: Invention of the Web

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

14.3 19921995: Growth of the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

14.3.1 Early browsers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
14.3.2 Web governance

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

14.4 19961998: Commercialization of the Web

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

14.5 19992001: Dot-com boom and bust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

14.6 2002present: The Web becomes ubiquitous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
14.6.1 Web 2.0

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

14.6.2 The semantic web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

14.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
14.8 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

14.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

CONTENTS

15 Timeline of computing hardware 2400 BC1949

145

15.1 Prehistory1640 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

15.2 1641-1850

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

15.3 18511930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

15.4 19311940 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
15.5 19411949 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
15.6 Computing timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
15.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
15.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
15.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
16 Timeline of computing 195079

148

16.1 1950s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

16.2 1960s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
16.3 1970s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
16.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
16.5 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

16.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

17 Timeline of computing 198089

149

17.1 1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

17.2 1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
17.3 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
17.4 1983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
17.5 1984 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
17.6 1985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
17.7 1986 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
17.8 1987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
17.9 1988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
17.101989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
17.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
17.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
18 Timeline of computing 199099

150

18.1 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

18.2 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
18.3 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
18.4 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
18.5 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
18.6 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
18.7 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
18.8 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

CONTENTS

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18.9 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

18.101999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
18.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
18.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
19 Timeline of computing 200009

151

19.1 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

19.2 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
19.3 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
19.4 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
19.5 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
19.6 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
19.7 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
19.8 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
19.9 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
19.102009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
19.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
19.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
19.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
20 Timeline of computing 201019

152

20.1 2010

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

20.2 2011

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

20.3 2012

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

20.4 2013

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

20.5 2014

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

20.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

21 Timeline of computing

153

21.1 Graphical timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

21.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
21.3 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
21.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
22 Microsoft

154

22.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

22.1.1 197283: Founding and company beginnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
22.1.2 198494: Windows and Oce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
22.1.3 19952005: Internet and the 32-bit era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
22.1.4 200610: Windows Vista, mobile, and Windows 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
22.1.5 2011present: Rebranding, Windows 8, Surface and Nokia devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
22.2 Businesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
22.2.1 Windows Division, Server and Tools, Online Services Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

xii

CONTENTS
22.2.2 Business Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
22.2.3 Entertainment and Devices Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
22.3 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
22.4 Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
22.5 Corporate aairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
22.5.1 Financial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
22.5.2 Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
22.5.3 Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
22.5.4 Lay o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
22.5.5 Cooperation with the United States Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
22.5.6 Logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
22.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
22.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
22.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

23 IBM

168

23.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

23.1.1 19301979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
23.1.2 1980Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
23.2 Rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
23.3 Corporate aairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
23.4 Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
23.5 Work environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
23.6 Research and inventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
23.7 Selected current projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
23.8 Environmental record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
23.9 Company logo and nickname . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
23.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
23.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
23.12Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
23.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
24 Apple Inc.

179

24.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

24.1.1 197680: Founding and incorporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
24.1.2 198189: Success with Macintosh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
24.1.3 199099: Decline, restructuring, acquisitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
24.1.4 200006: Return to protability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
24.1.5 200710: Success with mobile devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
24.1.6 201112: Steve Jobss death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
24.1.7 2013present: Acquisitions and expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
24.2 Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

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xiii

24.2.1 Mac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

24.2.2 iPad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
24.2.3 iPod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
24.2.4 iPhone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
24.2.5 Apple TV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
24.2.6 Apple Watch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
24.2.7 Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
24.3 Corporate identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
24.3.1 Logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
24.3.2 Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
24.3.3 Brand loyalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
24.3.4 Home page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
24.3.5 Headquarters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
24.4 Corporate aairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
24.4.1 Corporate culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
24.4.2 Customer service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
24.4.3 Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
24.4.4 Finance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
24.4.5 Litigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
24.4.6 Charitable causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
24.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
24.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
24.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
24.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
25 Operating system

205

25.1 Types of operating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

25.1.1 Real-time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
25.1.2 Multi-user . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
25.1.3 Multi-tasking vs. single-tasking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
25.1.4 Distributed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
25.1.5 Templated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
25.1.6 Embedded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
25.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
25.2.1 Mainframes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
25.2.2 Microcomputers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
25.3 Examples of operating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
25.3.1 Unix and Unix-like operating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
25.3.2 Microsoft Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
25.3.3 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
25.4 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
25.4.1 Kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

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25.4.2 Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
25.4.3 Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
25.4.4 User interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
25.5 Real-time operating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
25.6 Operating system development as a hobby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
25.7 Diversity of operating systems and portability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
25.8 Market share . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
25.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
25.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
25.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
25.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

26 Unix

220

26.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

26.2 History

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

26.3 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

26.4 Components
26.5 Impact

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

26.5.1 Free Unix and Unix-like operating systems

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

26.5.2 ARPANET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

26.6 Branding

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

26.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

26.8 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

26.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

26.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
27 Intel

228

27.1 Corporate history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

27.1.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
27.1.2 Early history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
27.1.3 Slowing demand and challenges to dominance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
27.1.4 Regaining of momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
27.1.5 Sale of XScale processor business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
27.1.6 Acquisitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
27.2 Acquisition table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
27.2.1 Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
27.2.2 Opening up the foundries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
27.3 Product and market history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
27.3.1 SRAMS and the microprocessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
27.3.2 From DRAM to microprocessors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
27.3.3 Intel, x86 processors, and the IBM PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
27.3.4 Solid-state drives (SSD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

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27.3.5 Supercomputers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

27.3.6 Competition, antitrust and espionage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
27.3.7 Partnership with Apple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
27.3.8 Core 2 Duo advertisement controversy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
27.3.9 Classmate PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
27.3.10 Mobile processor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
27.3.11 Server chips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
27.3.12 22 nm processors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
27.3.13 Personal Oce Energy Monitor (POEM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
27.3.14 IT Manager 3: Unseen Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
27.3.15 Car Security System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
27.3.16 High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
27.3.17 Move from Wintel desktop to open mobile platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
27.3.18 Wearable fashion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
27.4 Corporate aairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
27.4.1 Leadership and corporate structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
27.4.2 Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
27.4.3 Economic Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
27.4.4 Funding of a school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
27.4.5 Ultrabook Fund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
27.4.6 Finances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
27.4.7 Advertising and brand management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
27.4.8 Open source support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
27.4.9 Corporate responsibility record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
27.4.10 Religious controversy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
27.4.11 Age discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
27.5 Competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
27.5.1 Lawsuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
27.5.2 Anti-competitive allegations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
27.6 Market share . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
27.7 Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
27.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
27.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
27.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
28 Microsoft Windows

250

28.1 Genealogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

28.1.1 By marketing role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
28.2 Version history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
28.2.1 Early versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
28.2.2 Windows 3.0 and 3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
28.2.3 Windows 9x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

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28.2.4 Windows NT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
28.2.5 Windows CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
28.2.6 Xbox OS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
28.3 Timeline of releases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
28.4 Usage share . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
28.4.1 Usage share as a general platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
28.5 Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
28.5.1 File permissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
28.5.2 Windows Defender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
28.5.3 Third-party analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
28.6 Alternative implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
28.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
28.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
28.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

29 Linux
29.1 History

260
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

29.1.1 Antecedents
29.1.2 Creation

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

29.1.3 Naming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

29.1.4 Commercial and popular uptake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
29.1.5 Current development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
29.2 Design

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

29.2.1 User interface

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

29.2.2 Video input infrastructure

29.3 Development

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

29.3.1 Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

29.3.2 Programming on Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
29.4 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
29.4.1 Desktop

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

29.4.2 Netbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

29.4.3 Servers, mainframes and supercomputers

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

29.4.4 Smart devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

29.4.5 Embedded devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
29.4.6 Gaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
29.4.7 Specialized uses

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

29.5 Market share and uptake

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

29.6 Copyright, trademark, and naming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

29.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
29.8 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

29.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

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30 MS-DOS

277

30.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

30.2 Versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
30.3 Competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
30.4 Legal issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
30.5 Use of undocumented APIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
30.6 End of MS-DOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
30.7 Windows command-line interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
30.8 Legacy compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
30.9 Related systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
30.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
30.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
30.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
31 Google

286

31.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

31.1.1 Financing, 1998 and initial public oering, 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
31.1.2 Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
31.1.3 2013 onward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
31.1.4 Acquisitions and partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
31.1.5 Google data centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
31.2 Products and services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
31.2.1 Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
31.2.2 Search engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
31.2.3 Productivity tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
31.2.4 Enterprise products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
31.2.5 Other products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
31.3 Corporate aairs and culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
31.3.1 Employees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
31.3.2 Googleplex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
31.3.3 Doodles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
31.3.4 Easter eggs and April Fools Day jokes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
31.3.5 Philanthropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
31.3.6 Tax avoidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
31.3.7 Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
31.3.8 Lobbying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
31.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
31.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
31.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
32 IBM Personal Computer

307

32.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

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32.1.1 Rumors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
32.1.2 Too late? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
32.1.3 Predecessors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
32.1.4 Project Chess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
32.1.5 Open standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
32.1.6 Debut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
32.1.7 Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
32.1.8 Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
32.1.9 Domination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

32.2 IBM PC as standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

32.3 Third-party distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
32.4 Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
32.5 PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
32.5.1 XT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
32.5.2 XT/370 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
32.5.3 PCjr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
32.5.4 Portable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
32.5.5 AT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
32.5.6 AT/370 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
32.5.7 Convertible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
32.5.8 Next-generation IBM PS/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
32.6 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
32.6.1 Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
32.6.2 Peripheral integrated circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
32.6.3 Joystick port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
32.6.4 Keyboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
32.6.5 Character set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
32.6.6 Storage media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
32.6.7 BIOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
32.6.8 Video output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
32.6.9 Serial port addresses and interrupts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
32.6.10 Printer port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
32.7 Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
32.8 Longevity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
32.9 Collectability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
32.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
32.11Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
32.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
32.13Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
32.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
33 Digital Equipment Corporation

326

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33.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

33.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
33.2.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
33.2.2 Digital modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
33.2.3 PDP-1 family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
33.2.4 PDP-8 family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
33.2.5 PDP-10 family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
33.2.6 DECtape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
33.2.7 PDP-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
33.2.8 VAX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
33.2.9 Early microcomputers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
33.2.10 Networking and clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
33.2.11 Diversication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
33.2.12 Faltering in the market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
33.2.13 32-bit MIPS and 64-bit Alpha systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
33.2.14 StrongARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
33.2.15 Designing solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
33.2.16 Final years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
33.3 Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
33.4 Accomplishments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
33.5 User organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
33.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
33.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
33.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
34 Hewlett-Packard

341

34.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

34.1.1 Founding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
34.1.2 Early years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
34.1.3 1960s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
34.1.4 1970s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
34.1.5 1980s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
34.1.6 1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
34.1.7 2000s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
34.1.8 2010s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
34.2 Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
34.3 Products and organizational structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
34.4 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
34.5 Corporate social responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
34.6 Brand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
34.7 HP DISCOVER customer event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
34.8 Controversies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

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34.8.1 Restatement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
34.8.2 Spying scandal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
34.8.3 Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
34.8.4 Lawsuit against Oracle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
34.8.5 Takeover of Autonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
34.8.6 Bribery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
34.8.7 Divestment from HP regarding involvement in Israeli occupation and blockade of Palestinian
territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
34.9 Notable people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
34.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
34.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
34.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

35 Mainframe computer

358

35.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

35.2 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
35.3 Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
35.4 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
35.5 Dierences from supercomputers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
35.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
35.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
35.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
35.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
36 Macintosh

363

36.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

36.1.1 Development and introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
36.1.2 Inital phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
36.1.3 Team members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
36.1.4 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
36.1.5 Debut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
36.1.6 Desktop publishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
36.1.7 Decline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
36.1.8 Transition to PowerPC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
36.1.9 Revival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
36.1.10 Transition to Intel x86 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
36.2 Timeline of Macintosh models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
36.3 Product line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
36.4 Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
36.5 Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
36.6 Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
36.7 Market share and user demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

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36.7.1 1980s and early 1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

36.7.2 Late 1990s and early 2000s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
36.7.3 Late 2000s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
36.7.4 Post-PC era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
36.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
36.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
36.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
36.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
37 IBM PC compatible

382

37.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382

37.2 Compatibility issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
37.3 The decreasing inuence of IBM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
37.4 Expandability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
37.5 IBM PC compatible becomes Wintel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
37.6 Design limitations and more compatibility issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
37.7 Challenges to Wintel domination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
37.8 The IBM PC compatible today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
37.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
37.10References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388

37.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388

38 X86

389

38.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

38.2 Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
38.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
38.3.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
38.3.2 Other manufacturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
38.3.3 Extensions of word size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
38.4 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
38.4.1 Basic properties of the architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
38.4.2 Current implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
38.5 Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
38.6 Addressing modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
38.7 x86 registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
38.7.1 16-bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
38.7.2 32-bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
38.7.3 64-bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
38.7.4 128-bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
38.7.5 256-bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
38.7.6 512-bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
38.7.7 Miscellaneous/special purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

xxii

CONTENTS
38.7.8 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
38.7.9 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

38.8 Operating modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

38.8.1 Real mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
38.8.2 Protected mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
38.8.3 Long mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
38.9 Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
38.9.1 Floating point unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
38.9.2 MMX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
38.9.3 3DNow! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
38.9.4 SSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
38.9.5 Physical Address Extension (PAE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
38.9.6 x86-64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
38.9.7 Virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
38.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
38.11Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
38.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
38.13Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
38.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
39 Computer hardware

403

39.1 Von Neumann architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

39.2 Sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
39.3 Dierent systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
39.3.1 Personal computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
39.3.2 Mainframe computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
39.3.3 Departmental computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
39.3.4 Supercomputer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
39.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
39.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
39.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
40 Personal computer
40.1 History

407

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

40.1.1 Market and sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

40.1.2 Average selling price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
40.2 Terminology

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

40.3 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

40.3.1 Stationary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
40.3.2 Portable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
40.4 Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
40.4.1 Computer case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

CONTENTS

xxiii

40.4.2 Power supply unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

40.4.3 Processor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
40.4.4 Motherboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
40.4.5 Main memory

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

40.4.6 Hard disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

40.4.7 Visual display unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
40.4.8 Video card . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
40.4.9 Keyboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
40.4.10 Mouse

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419

40.4.11 Other components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419

40.5 Software

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420

40.5.1 Operating system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420

40.5.2 Applications

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

40.5.3 Gaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

40.6 Toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
40.6.1 Electronic waste regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
40.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
40.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
40.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
40.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
40.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
40.12Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
40.12.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
40.12.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
40.12.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479

Chapter 1

History of personal computers

Main article: Personal computer
Main article: History of computing hardware (1960s
present)

ing sucient processing power and storage capabilities to

satisfy the needs of an individual user.[6] Two years later,
when what Byte was to call the 1977 Trinity of preassembled small computers hit the markets,[7] the Apple
II and the PET 2001 were advertised as personal computers,[8][9] while the TRS-80 was a described as a microcomputer used for household tasks including "personal
nancial management. By 1979 over half a million microcomputers were sold and the youth of the day had a
new concept of the personal computer.[10]

The history of the personal computer as mass-market

consumer electronic devices eectively began in 1977
with the introduction of microcomputers, although some
mainframe and maincomputers had been applied as
single-user systems much earlier. A personal computer
is one intended for interactive individual use, as opposed to a mainframe computer where the end users
requests are ltered through operating sta, or a time
sharing system in which one large processor is shared 1.2 Introduction
by many individuals. After the development of the
microprocessor, individual personal computers were low
enough in cost that they eventually became aordable 1.2.1 Mainframes, minicomputers, and
microcomputers
consumer goods. Early personal computers generally
called microcomputers were sold often in electronic kit
form and in limited numbers, and were of interest mostly Computer terminals were used for time sharing access
to hobbyists and technicians.
to central computers. Before the introduction of the
microprocessor in the early 1970s, computers were generally large, costly systems owned by large corporations,
universities, government agencies, and similar-sized in1.1 Etymology
stitutions. End users generally did not directly interact
with the machine, but instead would prepare tasks for the
An early use of the term personal computer appeared computer on o-line equipment, such as card punches. A
in a November 3, 1962, New York Times article report- number of assignments for the computer would be gathing John W. Mauchly's vision of future computing as de- ered up and processed in batch mode. After the job had
tailed at a recent meeting of the American Institute of completed, users could collect the results. In some cases
Industrial Engineers. Mauchly stated, There is no rea- it could take hours or days between submitting a job to
son to suppose the average boy or girl cannot be master the computing center and receiving the output.
of a personal computer".[1]
A more interactive form of computer use developed comSix years later a manufacturer took the risk of referring
to their product this way, when Hewlett-Packard advertised their Powerful Computing Genie as The New
Hewlett-Packard 9100A personal computer.[2] This advertisement was deemed too extreme for the target audience and replaced with a much drier ad for the HP 9100A
programmable calculator.[3][4]

mercially by the middle 1960s. In a time-sharing system, multiple computer terminals let many people share
the use of one mainframe computer processor. This was
common in business applications and in science and engineering.
A dierent model of computer use was foreshadowed
by the way in which early, pre-commercial, experimental computers were used, where one user had exclusive
use of a processor.[11] In places such as MIT, students
with access to some of the rst computers experimented
with applications that would today be typical of a personal computer; for example, computer aided drafting

Over the next seven years the phrase had gained enough
recognition that when Byte magazine published its rst
edition, it referred to its readers as "[in] the personal computing eld,[5] and Creative Computing dened the personal computer as a non-(time)shared system contain1

CHAPTER 1. HISTORY OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS

was foreshadowed by T-square, a program written in

1961, and an ancestor of todays computer games was
found in Spacewar! in 1962. Some of the rst computers
that might be called personal were early minicomputers
such as the LINC and PDP-8, and later on VAX and
larger minicomputers from Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), Data General, Prime Computer, and others. By todays standards they were very large (about the
size of a refrigerator) and cost prohibitive (typically tens
of thousands of US dollars). However, they were much
smaller, less expensive, and generally simpler to operate than many of the mainframe computers of the time.
Therefore, they were accessible for individual laboratories and research projects. Minicomputers largely freed
these organizations from the batch processing and bureaucracy of a commercial or university computing center.
In addition, minicomputers were relatively interactive
and soon had their own operating systems. The minicomputer Xerox Alto (1973) was a landmark step in the development of personal computers, because of its graphical
user interface, bit-mapped high resolution screen, large
internal and external memory storage, mouse, and special software.[12]

After the 1972 introduction of the Intel 4004, microprocessor costs declined rapidly. In 1974 the American electronics magazine Radio-Electronics described the Mark-8
computer kit, based on the Intel 8008 processor. In January of the following year, Popular Electronics magazine
published an article describing a kit based on the Intel
8080, a somewhat more powerful and easier to use processor. The Altair 8800 sold remarkably well even though
initial memory size was limited to a few hundred bytes
and there was no software available. However, the Altair
kit was much less costly than an Intel development system
of the time and so was purchased by companies interested
in developing microprocessor control for their own products. Expansion memory boards and peripherals were
soon listed by the original manufacturer, and later by plug
compatible manufacturers. The very rst Microsoft product was a 4 kilobyte paper tape BASIC interpreter, which
allowed users to develop programs in a higher-level language. The alternative was to hand-assemble machine
code that could be directly loaded into the microcomputers memory using a front panel of toggle switches,
pushbuttons and LED displays. While the hardware front
panel emulated those used by early mainframe and minicomputers, after a very short time I/O through a terminal was the preferred human/machine interface, and front
panels became extinct.

As early as 1945, Vannevar Bush, in an essay called "As

We May Think", outlined a possible solution to the growing problem of information storage and retrieval. In what
was later to be called The Mother of All Demos, SRI researcher Douglas Engelbart in 1968 gave a preview of 1.3 The beginnings of the
what would become the staples of daily working life in the
computer industry
21st century e-mail, hypertext, word processing, video
conferencing, and the mouse. The demo was the culmination of research in Engelbarts Augmentation Research 1.3.1 Simon
Center laboratory, which concentrated on applying comMain article: Simon (computer)
puter technology to facilitate creative human thought.

1.2.2

Microprocessor and cost reduction

The minicomputer ancestors of the modern personal

computer used early integrated circuit (microchip) technology, which reduced size and cost, but they contained
no microprocessor. This meant that they were still large
and dicult to manufacture just like their mainframe
predecessors. After the computer-on-a-chip was commercialized, the cost to manufacture a computer system
dropped dramatically. The arithmetic, logic, and control
functions that previously occupied several costly circuit
boards were now available in one integrated circuit, making it possible to produce them in high volume. Concurrently, advances in the development of solid state memory
eliminated the bulky, costly, and power-hungry magnetic
core memory used in prior generations of computers.

personal

Simon [13] was a project developed by Edmund Berkeley and presented in a thirteen articles series issued in
Radio-Electronics magazine, from October 1950. Although there were far more advanced machines at the
time of its construction, the Simon represented the rst
experience of building an automatic simple digital computer, for educational purposes. In 1950, it was sold for
US$600.

1.3.2 IBM 610

Main article: IBM 610

The IBM 610 was designed between 1948 and 1957 by

John Lentz at the Watson Lab at Columbia University as
the Personal Automatic Computer (PAC) and announced
A few researchers at places such as SRI and Xerox PARC by IBM as the 610 Auto-Point in 1957. Although it was
were working on computers that a single person could use faulted for its speed, the IBM 610 handled oating-point
and that could be connected by fast, versatile networks: arithmetic naturally. With a price tag of $55,000, only
not home computers, but personal ones.
180 units were produced.[14]

1.3. THE BEGINNINGS OF THE PERSONAL COMPUTER INDUSTRY

1.3.3

Olivetti Programma 101

Main article: Programma 101

1.3.6 Datapoint 2200

Main article: Datapoint 2200
A programmable terminal called the Datapoint 2200

The Programma 101 was the rst commercially produced

desktop computer,[15][16] designed and produced by the
Italian company Olivetti and presented at the 1965 New
York Worlds Fair. Over 44,000 units were sold worldwide; in the US its cost at launch was $3,200. The Programma 101 had many of the features incorporated in
modern personal computers, such as memory, keyboard,
printing unit, magnetic card reader/recorder, control and
arithmetic unit[17] and is considered by many as the rst
commercially produced desktop computer, showing the
world that it was possible to create a desktop computer[18]
(HP later copied the Programma 101 architecture for its
HP9100 series).[19] [20]
1970: Datapoint 2200.

1.3.4

MIR

Main article: MIR (computer)

The Soviet MIR series of computers was developed from
1965 to 1969 in a group headed by Victor Glushkov.
It was designed as a relatively small-scale computer for
use in engineering and scientic applications and contained a hardware implementation of a high-level programming language. Another innovative feature for that
time was the user interface combining a keyboard with a
monitor and light pen for correcting texts and drawing on
screen.[21]

1.3.5

Kenbak-1

Main article: Kenbak-1

The Kenbak-1 is considered by the Computer History
Museum to be the worlds rst personal computer. It was
designed and invented by John Blankenbaker of Kenbak
Corporation in 1970, and was rst sold in early 1971. Unlike a modern personal computer, the Kenbak-1 was built
of small-scale integrated circuits, and did not use a microprocessor. The system rst sold for US$750. Only
around 40 machines were ever built and sold. In 1973,
production of the Kenbak-1 stopped as Kenbak Corporation folded.
With only 256 bytes of memory, an 8-bit word size, and
input and output restricted to lights and switches, the
Kenbak-1 was most useful for learning the principles of
programming but not capable of running application programs.

is the earliest known device that bears some signicant

resemblance to the modern personal computer, with a
screen, keyboard, and program storage.[22] It was made
by CTC (now known as Datapoint) in 1970 and was a
complete system in a small case bearing the approximate
footprint of an IBM Selectric typewriter. The systems
CPU was constructed from a variety of discrete components, although the company had commissioned Intel to
develop a single-chip processing unit; there was a falling
out between CTC and Intel, and the chip Intel had developed wasn't used. Intel soon released a modied version of that chip as the Intel 8008, the worlds rst 8bit microprocessor.[23] The needs and requirements of
the Datapoint 2200 therefore determined the nature of
the 8008, upon which all successive processors used in
IBM-compatible PCs were based. Additionally, the design of the Datapoint 2200s multi-chip CPU and the nal design of the Intel 8008 were so similar that the two
are largely software-compatible; therefore, the Datapoint
2200, from a practical perspective, can be regarded as
if it were indeed powered by an 8008, which makes it a
strong candidate for the title of rst microcomputer" as
well.

1.3.7 Micral N
Main article: Micral
The French company R2E was formed by two former
engineers of the Intertechnique company to sell their
Intel 8008-based microcomputer design. The system
was developed at the Institut National de la Recherche
Agronomique to automate hygrometric measurements.
The system ran at 500 kHz and included 16 kB of memory, and sold for 8500 Francs, about $1300US.

CHAPTER 1. HISTORY OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS

A bus, called Pluribus, was introduced that allowed connection of up to 14 boards. Boards for digital I/O, analog
I/O, memory, oppy disk were available from R2E. The
Micral operating system was initially called Sysmic, and
was later renamed Prologue.

While its use was limited to the engineers at Xerox

PARC, the Alto had features years ahead of its time.
Both the Xerox Alto and the Xerox Star would inspire
the Apple Lisa and the Apple Macintosh.

R2E was absorbed by Groupe Bull in 1978. Although

Groupe Bull continued the production of Micral computers, it was not interested in the personal computer market,
and Micral computers were mostly conned to highway
toll gates (where they remained in service until 1992) and
similar niche markets.

1.3.9 IBM 5100

1.3.8

Xerox Alto and Star

IBM 5100 was a desktop computer introduced in September 1975, six years before the IBM PC. It was the evolution of a prototype called the SCAMP (Special Computer
APL Machine Portable) that IBM demonstrated in 1973.
In January 1978 IBM announced the IBM 5110, its larger
cousin. The 5100 was withdrawn in March 1982.
When the PC was introduced in 1981, it was originally
designated as the IBM 5150, putting it in the 5100
series, though its architecture wasn't directly descended
from the IBM 5100.

1.3.10 Altair 8800

Main article: Altair 8800
Development of the single-chip microprocessor was the

1973: Xerox Alto

The Xerox Alto, developed at Xerox PARC in 1973, was

the rst computer to use a mouse, the desktop metaphor,
and a graphical user interface (GUI), concepts rst introduced by Douglas Engelbart while at International. It was
the rst example of what would today be recognized as a
complete personal computer.

>1975: Altair 8800

gateway to the popularization of cheap, easy to use, and

truly personal computers. It was only a matter of time before one such design was able to hit a sweet spot in terms
of pricing and performance, and that machine is generally considered to be the Altair 8800, from MITS, a small
In 1981, Xerox Corporation introduced the Xerox Star company that produced electronics kits for hobbyists.
workstation, ocially known as the 8010 Star Informa- The Altair was introduced in a Popular Electronics magtion System. Drawing upon its predecessor, the Xe- azine article in the January 1975 issue. In keeping with
rox Alto, it was the rst commercial system to incorpo- MITSs earlier projects, the Altair was sold in kit form,
rate various technologies that today have become com- although a relatively complex one consisting of four cirmonplace in personal computers, including a bit-mapped cuit boards and many parts. Priced at only $400, the Aldisplay, a windows-based graphical user interface, icons, tair tapped into pent-up demand and surprised its creators
folders, mouse, Ethernet networking, le servers, print when it generated thousands of orders in the rst month.
servers and e-mail. It also included a programming lan- Unable to keep up with demand, MITS sold the design
guage system called Smalltalk.
after about 10,000 kits had shipped.

1.4. 1977 AND THE EMERGENCE OF THE TRINITY

The introduction of the Altair spawned an entire industry

based on the basic layout and internal design. New companies like Cromemco started up to supply add-on kits,
while Microsoft was founded to supply a BASIC interpreter for the systems. Soon after a number of complete
clone designs, typied by the IMSAI 8080, appeared on
the market. This led to a wide variety of systems based
on the S-100 bus introduced with the Altair, machines
of generally improved performance, quality and ease-ofuse.

we would recognize today, the basic concept was already

rippling through other members of the group, and interested external companies.

1.3.12 Other machines of the era

Other 1977 machines that were important within the hobbyist community at the time included the Exidy Sorcerer, the NorthStar Horizon, the Cromemco Z-2, and
the Heathkit H8.

The Altair, and early clones, were relatively dicult to

use. The machines contained no operating system in
ROM, so starting it up required a machine language pro1.4 1977 and the emergence of the
gram to be entered by hand via front-panel switches, one
location at a time. The program was typically a small
Trinity
driver for an attached paper tape reader, which would
then be used to read in another real program. Later sys- See also: Microcomputer revolution
tems added bootstrapping code to improve this process,
and the machines became almost universally associated
with the CP/M operating system, loaded from oppy disk. By 1976 there were several rms racing to introduce
the rst truly successful commercial personal computers.
The Altair created a new industry of microcomputers and Three machines, the Apple II, PET 2001 and TRS-80
computer kits, with many others following, such as a wave were all released in 1977,[24] eventually selling millions
of small business computers in the late 1970s based on of machines. Byte magazine later referred to their launch
the Intel 8080, Zilog Z80 and Intel 8085 microproces- as the 1977 Trinity.
sor chips. Most ran the CP/M-80 operating system developed by Gary Kildall at Digital Research. CP/M-80
was the rst popular microcomputer operating system to 1.4.1 PET
be used by many dierent hardware vendors, and many
software packages were written for it, such as WordStar Main article: Commodore PET
and dBase II.
Chuck Peddle designed the Commodore PET (short for

1.3.11

Homebrew Computer Club

Although the Altair spawned an entire business, another

side eect it had was to demonstrate that the microprocessor had so reduced the cost and complexity of building
a microcomputer that anyone with an interest could build
their own. Many such hobbyists met and traded notes at
the meetings of the Homebrew Computer Club (HCC) in
Silicon Valley. Although the HCC was relatively shortlived, its inuence on the development of the modern PC
was enormous.
Members of the group complained that microcomputers
would never become commonplace if they still had to be
built up, from parts like the original Altair, or even in
terms of assembling the various add-ons that turned the
machine into a useful system. What they felt was needed
was an all-in-one system. Out of this desire came the
Sol-20 computer, which placed an entire S-100 system
QWERTY keyboard, CPU, display card, memory and
ports into an attractive single box. The systems were
packaged with a cassette tape interface for storage and a
12 monochrome monitor. Complete with a copy of BASIC, the system sold for US$2,100. About 10,000 Sol-20
systems were sold.

Oct. 1977: Commodore PET.

Personal Electronic Transactor) around his MOS 6502

processor. It was essentially a single-board computer with
a new display chip (the MOS 6545) driving a small builtin monochrome monitor with 4025 character graphics.
The processor card, keyboard, monitor and cassette drive
were all mounted in a single metal case. In 1982, Byte
referred to the PET design as the worlds rst personal
computer.[25]

The PET shipped in two models; the 2001-4 with 4 kB

of RAM, or the 2001-8 with 8 kB. The machine also included a built-in Datassette for data storage located on the
Although the Sol-20 was the rst all-in-one system that front of the case, which left little room for the keyboard.

CHAPTER 1. HISTORY OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS

The 2001 was announced in June 1977 and the rst 100
units were shipped in mid October 1977.[26] However
they remained back-ordered for months, and to ease deliveries they eventually canceled the 4 kB version early
the next year.

About 200 of the machines sold before the company announced the Apple II as a complete computer. It had color
graphics, a full QWERTY keyboard, and internal slots for
expansion, which were mounted in a high quality streamlined plastic case. The monitor and I/O devices were sold
Although the machine was fairly successful, there were separately. The original Apple II operating system was
frequent complaints about the tiny calculator-like key- only the built-in BASIC interpreter contained in ROM.
board, often referred to as a "Chiclet keyboard" due to Apple DOS was added to support the diskette drive; the
last version was Apple DOS 3.3.
the keys resemblance to the popular gum candy. This
was addressed in the upgraded dash N and dash B ver- Its higher price and lack of oating point BASIC, along
sions of the 2001, which put the cassette outside the case, with a lack of retail distribution sites, caused it to lag in
and included a much larger keyboard with a full stroke sales behind the other Trinity machines until 1979, when
non-click motion. Internally a newer and simpler moth- it surpassed the PET. It was again pushed into 4th place
erboard was used, along with an upgrade in memory to when Atari introduced its popular Atari 8-bit systems.[28]
8, 16, or 32 KB, known as the 2001-N-8, 2001-N-16 or Despite slow initial sales, the Apple IIs lifetime was about
2001-N-32, respectively.
eight years longer than other machines, and so accumuThe PET was the least successful of the 1977 Trinity ma- lated the highest total sales. By 1985 2.1 million had sold
chines, with under 1 million sales.[27]
and more than 4 million Apple IIs were shipped by the
end of its production in 1993.[27]

1.4.2

Apple II

1.4.3 TRS-80

Main article: Apple II

Steve Wozniak (known as Woz), a regular visitor Main article: TRS-80
Tandy Corporation (Radio Shack) introduced the TRS-

Nov. 1977: TRS-80 Model I

Apr. 1977: Apple II

to Homebrew Computer Club meetings, designed the

single-board Apple I computer and rst demonstrated it
there. With specications in hand and an order for 100
machines at US$500 each from the Byte Shop, Woz and
his friend Steve Jobs founded Apple Computer.

80, retroactively known as the Model I as improved models were introduced. The Model I combined the motherboard and keyboard into one unit with a separate monitor and power supply. Although the PET and the Apple
II oered certain features that were greatly advanced in
comparison, Tandys 3000+ Radio Shack storefronts ensured that it would have widespread distribution that nei-

1.5. HOME COMPUTERS

ther Apple nor Commodore could touch.
The Model I used a Zilog Z80 processor clocked at 1.77
MHz (the later models were shipped with a Z80A processor). The basic model originally shipped with 4 kB of
RAM, and later 16 kB, in the main computer. The expansion unit allowed for RAM expansion for a total of 48K.
Its other strong features were its full stroke QWERTY
keyboard, small size, well written Microsoft oatingpoint BASIC and inclusion of a monitor and tape deck for
approximately half the cost of the Apple II. Eventually,
5.25 inch oppy drives were made available by Tandy and
several third party manufacturers. The expansion unit allowed up to four oppy drives to be connected, provided a
slot for the RS-232 option and a parallel port for printers.
The Model I ran into some trouble meeting FCC regulations on radio interference due to its plastic case and
exterior cables. Apple had resolved this issue with an interior metallic foil but this patch wouldn't work on the
Model I.[29] Since the Model II and Model III were already in production Tandy decided to stop manufacturing
the Model I. Radio Shack had sold 1.5 million Model Is
by the cancellation in 1981.[27]

1.5 Home computers

See also: Home computer
Although the success of the Trinity machines was relatively limited in overall terms, as component prices continued to fall, many companies entered the computer
business. This led to an explosion of low-cost machines
known as home computers that sold millions of units
before the market imploded in a price war in the early
1980s.

1.5.1

Atari 400/800

Main article: Atari 8-bit family

7
1978, but production problems meant widespread sales
did not start until the next year.
At the time, the machines oered what was then much
higher performance than contemporary designs and a
number of graphics and sound features that no other microcomputer could match. They became very popular as
a result, quickly eclipsing the Trinity machines in sales.
In spite of a promising start with about 600,000 sold by
1981, the looming price war left Atari in a bad position. They were unable to compete eectively with Commodore, and only about 2 million machines were produced by the end of their production run.[27]

1.5.2 Sinclair
Sinclair Research Ltd is a British consumer electronics
company founded by Sir Clive Sinclair in Cambridge.
It was incorporated in 1973 as Ablesdeal Ltd. and renamed Westminster Mail Order Ltd and then Sinclair
Instrument Ltd. in 1975. The company remained dormant until 1976, when it was activated with the intension
of continuing Sinclairs commercial work from his earlier
company Sinclair Radionics; it adopted the name Sinclair
Research in 1981. In 1980, Clive Sinclair entered the
home computer market with the ZX80 at 99.95, at the
time the cheapest personal computer for sale in the UK.
In 1982 the ZX Spectrum was released, later becoming
Britains best selling computer, competing aggressively
against Commodore and Amstrad. At the height of its
success, and largely inspired by the Japanese Fifth Generation Computer programme, the company established
the MetaLab research centre at Milton Hall (near Cambridge), in order to pursue articial intelligence, waferscale integration, formal verication and other advanced
projects. The combination of the failures of the Sinclair
QL computer and the TV80 led to nancial diculties
in 1985, and a year later Sinclair sold the rights to their
computer products and brand name to Amstrad. Sinclair
Research Ltd exists today as a one man company, continuing to market Sir Clive Sinclairs newest inventions.
ZX80

Atari was a well-known brand in the late 1970s, both due

to their hit arcade games like Pong, as well as the hugely
successful Atari VCS game console. Realizing that the
VCS would have a limited lifetime in the market before
a technically advanced competitor came along, Atari decided they would be that competitor, and started work on
a new console design that was much more advanced.
While these designs were being developed, the Trinity machines hit the market with considerable fanfare.
Ataris management decided to change their work to a
home computer system instead. Their knowledge of the
home market through the VCS resulted in machines that
were almost indestructible and just as easy to use as a
games machine simply plug in a cartridge and go. The
new machines were rst introduced as the 400 and 800 in

Main article: Sinclair ZX80

The ZX80 home computer was launched in February
1980 at 79.95 in kit form and 99.95 ready-built. In
November of the same year Science of Cambridge was
renamed Sinclair Computers Ltd.
ZX81
Main article: Sinclair ZX81
The ZX81 (known as the TS 1000 in the United States)
was priced at 49.95 in kit form and 69.95 ready-built,
by mail order.

CHAPTER 1. HISTORY OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS

performance was untouchable, and TI had enormous cash
reserves and development capability.
When it was released in late 1979, TI took a somewhat slow approach to introducing it, initially focusing
on schools. Contrary to earlier predictions, the TI-99s
limitations meant it was not the giant-killer everyone expected, and a number of its design features were highly
controversial. A total of 2.8 million units were shipped
before the TI-99/4A was discontinued in March 1984.

1985 : Sinclair ZX Spectrum+ 128

1.5.4 VIC-20 and Commodore 64

ZX Spectrum
Main article: Sinclair Spectrum
The ZX Spectrum was launched on 23 April 1982, priced
at 125 for the 16 KB RAM version and 175 for the 48
KB version.
Sinclair QL
Main article: Sinclair QL

1982: Commodore 64.

Realizing that the PET could not easily compete with

color machines like the Apple II and Atari, Commodore
introduced the VIC-20 to address the home market. Limitations due to tiny 4 kB memory and its relatively limited
display in comparison to those machines was oset by a
low and ever falling price. Millions of VIC-20s were sold.

The Sinclair QL was announced in January 1984, priced

at 399. Marketed as a more sophisticated 32-bit microcomputer for professional users, it used a Motorola 68008
processor. Production was delayed by several months,
due to unnished development of hardware and software
The best-selling personal computer of all time was
at the time of the QLs launch.
released by Commodore International in 1982: the
Commodore 64 (C64) sold over 17 million units before
ZX Spectrum+
its end.[27] [30] The C64 name derived from its 64kb of
RAM and it also came with a side mount ROM cartridge
The ZX Spectrum+ was a repackaged ZX Spectrum 48K slot. It used the 6510 microprocessor CPU; MOS Techlaunched in October 1984.
nology, Inc. was then owned by Commodore.
ZX Spectrum 128

1.5.5 BBC Micro

The ZX Spectrum 128, with RAM expanded to 128 kB,
a sound chip and other enhancements, was launched in The BBC became interested in running a computer literSpain in September 1985 and the UK in January 1986, acy series, and sent out a tender for a standardized small
priced at 179.95.
computer to be used with the show. After examining several entrants, they selected what was then known as the
Acorn Proton and made a number of minor changes to
1.5.3 TI-99
produce the BBC Micro. The Micro was relatively expensive, which limited its commercial appeal, but with
Main article: TI-99
widespread marketing, BBC support and wide variety of
programs, the system eventually sold as many as 1.5 milTexas Instruments (TI), at the time the worlds largest lion units. Acorn was rescued from obscurity, and went
chip manufacturer, decided to enter the home computer on to develop the ARM processor (Acorn RISC Machine)
market with the Texas Instruments TI-99/4A. Announced to power follow-on designs. The ARM is widely used
long before its arrival, most industry observers expected to this day, powering a wide variety of products like the
the machine to wipe out all competition on paper its iPhone.

1.6. THE IBM PC

1.5.6

Commodore/Atari price war and

crash

TI had forced Commodore from the calculator market

by dropping the price of its own-brand calculators to
less than the cost of the chipsets it sold to third parties to make the same design. Commodores CEO, Jack
Tramiel, vowed that this would not happen again, and
purchased MOS Technology to ensure a supply of chips.
With his supply guaranteed, and good control over the
component pricing, Tramiel launched a war against TI
soon after the introduction of the Commodore 64.
Now vertically integated,[32] Commodore lowered the retail price of the 64 to $300 at the June 1983 Consumer
Electronics Show, and stores sold it for as little as $199.
At one point the company was selling as many computers as the rest of the industry combined.[33] TI responded
by lowering the list price of the 99/4A from $400 in the
fall of 1982 to $99 by June, causing a loss of hundreds
of millions of dollars; a Service Merchandise executive
stated I've been in retailing 30 years and I have never
seen any category of goods get on a self-destruct pattern
like this.[32] While Tramiels target was TI, everyone in
the home computer market was hurt by the process; many
companies went bankrupt or exited the business. In the
end even Commodores own nances were crippled by
the demands of nancing the massive building expansion
needed to deliver the machines, and Tramiel was forced
from the company.

1.5.7

Japanese computers

From the late 1970s to the early 1990s, Japan's personal computer market was largely dominated by domestic computer products. NEC's PC-88 and PC-98 was
the market leader, though with some competition from
the Sharp X1 and X68000, the FM-7 and FM Towns,
and the MSX and MSX2, the latter also gaining some
popularity in Europe. A key dierence between Western and Japanese systems at the time was the latters
higher display resolutions (640x400) in order to accommodate Japanese text. Japanese computers also employed Yamaha FM synthesis sound boards since the early
1980s, allowing the production of higher quality sound.
Japanese computers were widely used to produce video
games, though only a small portion of Japanese PC games
were released outside of the country.[34] The most successful Japanese personal computer was NECs PC-98,
which sold more than 18 million units by 1999.[35]

1.6 The IBM PC

1981: IBM 5150

the IBM PC, released in August, 1981. Like the Apple II

and S-100 systems, it was based on an open, card-based
architecture, which allowed third parties to develop for
it. It used the Intel 8088 CPU running at 4.77 MHz, containing 29,000 transistors. The rst model used an audio
cassette for external storage, though there was an expensive oppy disk option. The cassette option was never
popular and was removed in the PC XT of 1983.[36] The
XT added a 10MB hard drive in place of one of the two
oppy disks and increased the number of expansion slots
from 5 to 8. While the original PC design could accommodate only up to 64k on the main board, the architecture
was able to accommodate up to 640KB of RAM, with the
rest on cards. Later revisions of the design increased the
limit to 256K on the main board.
The IBM PC typically came with PC DOS, an operating system based upon Gary Kildall's CP/M-80 operating system. In 1980, IBM approached Digital Research,
Kildalls company, for a version of CP/M for its upcoming IBM PC. Kildalls wife and business partner, Dorothy
McEwen, met with the IBM representatives who were
unable to negotiate a standard non-disclosure agreement
with her. IBM turned to Bill Gates, who was already providing the ROM BASIC] interpreter for the PC. Gates
oered to provide 86-DOS, developed by Tim Paterson
of Seattle Computer Products. IBM rebranded it as PC
DOS, while Microsoft sold variations and upgrades as
MS-DOS.
The impact of the Apple II and the IBM PC was fully
demonstrated when Time named the home computer the
Machine of the Year, or Person of the Year for 1982
(January 3, 1983, The Computer Moves In). It was the
rst time in the history of the magazine that an inanimate
object was given this award.

1.6.1 IBM PC clones

The original PC design was followed up in 1983 by the

Main article: IBM PC
The IBM PC was the rst PC that justied widespread IBM XT, which was an incrementally improved design; it
use. IBM responded to the success of the Apple II with omitted support for the cassette, had more card slots, and

10

CHAPTER 1. HISTORY OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS

was available with a 10MB hard drive. Although mandatory at rst, the hard drive was later made an option and
a two oppy disk XT was sold. While the architectural
memory limit of 640K was the same, later versions were
more readily expandable.

In 1984, IBM introduced the IBM Personal Computer/AT (more often called the PC/AT or AT) built
around the Intel 80286 microprocessor. This chip was
much faster, and could address up to 16MB of RAM but
only in a mode that largely broke compatibility with the
Although the PC and XT included a version of the BA- earlier 8086 and 8088. In particular, the MS-DOS operSIC language in read-only memory, most were purchased ating system was not able to take advantage of this capawith disk drives and run with an operating system; three bility.
operating systems were initially announced with the PC.
One was CP/M-86 from Digital Research, the second
was PC DOS from IBM, and the third was the UCSD p- 1.7 Apple Lisa and Macintosh
System (from the University of California at San Diego).
PC DOS was the IBM branded version of an operating
system from Microsoft, previously best known for supplying BASIC language systems to computer hardware
companies. When sold by Microsoft, PC DOS was called
MS-DOS. The UCSD p-System OS was built around the
Pascal programming language and was not marketed to
the same niche as IBMs customers. Neither the p-System
nor CPM-86 was a commercial success.
Because MS-DOS was available as a separate product,
some companies attempted to make computers available which could run MS-DOS and programs. These
early machines, including the ACT Apricot, the DEC
rainbow 100, the Hewlett-Packard HP-150, the Seequa
Chameleon and many others were not especially successful, as they required a customized version of MSDOS, and could not run programs designed specically
for IBMs hardware. (See List of early non-IBM-PCcompatible PCs.) The rst truly IBM PC compatible
machines came from Compaq, although others soon followed.
Because the IBM PC was based on relatively standard integrated circuits, and the basic card-slot design was not
patented, the key portion of that hardware was actually
the BIOS software embedded in read-only memory. This
critical element got reverse engineered, and that opened
the oodgates to the market for IBM PC imitators, which
were dubbed PC clones. At the time that IBM had decided to enter the personal computer market in response
to Apples early success, IBM was the giant of the computer industry and was expected to crush Apples market
share. But because of these shortcuts that IBM took to enter the market quickly, they ended up releasing a product
that was easily copied by other manufacturers using o
the shelf, non-proprietary parts. So in the long run, IBMs
biggest role in the evolution of the personal computer was
to establish the de facto standard for hardware architecture amongst a wide range of manufacturers. IBMs pricing was undercut to the point where IBM was no longer
the signicant force in development, leaving only the PC
standard they had established. Emerging as the dominant
force from this battle amongst hardware manufacturers
who were vying for market share was the software company Microsoft that provided the operating system and
utilities to all PCs across the board, whether authentic
IBM machines or the PC clones.

1984: Apple Macintosh.

In 1983 Apple Computer introduced the rst massmarketed microcomputer with a graphical user interface,
the Lisa. The Lisa ran on a Motorola 68000 microprocessor and came equipped with 1 megabyte of RAM, a
12-inch (300 mm) black-and-white monitor, dual 5inch oppy disk drives and a 5 megabyte Prole hard
drive. The Lisas slow operating speed and high price
(US$10,000), however, led to its commercial failure.
Drawing upon its experience with the Lisa, Apple
launched the Macintosh in 1984, with an advertisement
during the Super Bowl. The Macintosh was the rst
successful mass-market mouse-driven computer with a
graphical user interface or 'WIMP' (Windows, Icons,
Menus, and Pointers). Based on the Motorola 68000 microprocessor, the Macintosh included many of the Lisas
features at a price of US$2,495. The Macintosh was
introduced with 128 kb of RAM and later that year a
512 kb RAM model became available. To reduce costs
compared the Lisa, the year-younger Macintosh had a
simplied motherboard design, no internal hard drive,
and a single 3.5 oppy drive. Applications that came

1.8. PC CLONES DOMINATE

11

with the Macintosh included MacPaint, a bit-mapped 1.8 PC clones dominate

graphics program, and MacWrite, which demonstrated
WYSIWYG word processing.
The transition from a PC-compatible market being driven
While not a success upon its release, the Macintosh was by IBM to one driven primarily by a broader market bea successful personal computer for years to come. This is gan to become clear in 1986 and 1987; in 1986, the
particularly due to the introduction of desktop publishing 32-bit Intel 80386 microprocessor was released, and the
in 1985 through Apples partnership with Adobe. This rst '386-based PC-compatible was the Compaq Deskpro
partnership introduced the LaserWriter printer and Aldus 386. IBMs response came nearly a year later with the iniPageMaker (now Adobe PageMaker) to users of the per- tial release of the IBM Personal System/2 series of comsonal computer. During Steve Jobs' hiatus from Apple, a puters, which had a closed architecture and were a signifnumber of dierent models of Macintosh, including the icant departure from the emerging standard PC. These
Macintosh Plus and Macintosh II, were released to a great models were largely unsuccessful, and the PC Clone style
degree of success. The entire Macintosh line of comput- machines outpaced sales of all other machines through
ers was IBMs major competition up until the early 1990s. the rest of this period.[38] Toward the end of the 1980s
PC XT clones began to take over the home computer
market segment from the specialty manufacturers such as
Commodore International and Atari that had previously
1.7.1 GUIs spread
dominated. These systems typically sold for just under
the magic $1000 price point (typically $999) and were
In the Commodore world, GEOS was available on the sold via mail order rather than a traditional dealer netCommodore 64 and Commodore 128. Later, a version work. This price was achieved by using the older 8/16 bit
was available for PCs running DOS. It could be used with technology, such as the 8088 CPU, instead of the 32-bits
a mouse or a joystick as a pointing device, and came with of the latest Intel CPUs. These CPUs were usually made
a suite of GUI applications. Commodores later prod- by a third party such as Cyrix or AMD. Dell started out as
uct line, the Amiga platform, ran a GUI operating sys- one of these manufacturers, under its original name PC
tem by default. The Amiga laid the blueprint for fu- Limited.
ture development of personal computers with its groundbreaking graphics and sound capabilities. Byte called it
the rst multimedia computer... so far ahead of its time
that almost nobody could fully articulate what it was all 1.9 1990s and 2000s
about.[37]

1.9.1 NeXT
In 1990, the NeXTstation workstation computer went
on sale, for interpersonal computing as Steve Jobs described it. The NeXTstation was meant to be a new computer for the 1990s, and was a cheaper version of the
previous NeXT Computer. Despite its pioneering use
of Object-oriented programming concepts, the NeXTstation was somewhat a commercial failure, and NeXT shut
down hardware operations in 1993.

1985: Atari ST.

In 1985, the Atari ST, also based on the Motorola 68000

microprocessor, was introduced with the rst color GUI
in the Atari TOS. It could be modied to emulate the
Macintosh using the third-party Spectre GCR device.
In 1987, Acorn launched the Archimedes range of highperformance home computers in Europe and Australasia.
Based on their own 32-bit ARM RISC processor, the systems were shipped with a GUI OS called Arthur. In 1989,
Arthur was superseded by a multi-tasking GUI-based op- The CD-ROM and CD-RW drives became standards for most
erating system called RISC OS. By default, the mice used personal computers.
on these computers had three buttons.

12

1.9.2

CHAPTER 1. HISTORY OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS

CD-ROM

In the early 1990s, the CD-ROM became an industry

standard, and by the mid-1990s one was built into almost
all desktop computers, and towards the end of the 1990s,
in laptops as well. Although introduced in 1982, the CD
ROM was mostly used for audio during the 1980s, and
then for computer data such as operating systems and applications into the 1990s. Another popular use of CD
ROMs in the 1990s was multimedia, as many desktop
computers started to come with built-in stereo speakers
capable of playing CD quality music and sounds with the
Sound Blaster sound card on PCs.

1.9.3

ThinkPad

1.9.6 Risc PC
Also in 1994, Acorn Computers launched its Risc PC series of high-end desktop computers. The Risc PC (codenamed Medusa) was Acorns next generation ARMbased RISC OS computer, which superseded the Acorn
Archimedes.

1.9.7 BeBox
In 1995, Be Inc. released the BeBox computer, which
used dual PowerPC 603 processors running at 66 MHz,
and later 133 MHz with the Be operating system. The
BeBox was largely a failure, with fewer than 2,000 units
produced between October 1995 and January 1997, when
production was ceased.

IBM introduced its successful ThinkPad range at

COMDEX 1992 using the series designators 300, 500
and 700 (allegedly analogous to the BMW car range and
used to indicate market), the 300 series being the budget, the 500 series midrange and the 700 series high
end. This designation continued until the late 1990s
when IBM introduced the T series as 600/700 series
replacements, and the 3, 5 and 7 series model designations were phased out for A (3&7) & X (5) series. The A
series was later partially replaced by the R series.

1.9.4

Dell

By the mid-1990s, Amiga, Commodore and Atari systems were no longer on the market, pushed out by strong
IBM PC clone competition and low prices. Other previous competition such as Sinclair and Amstrad were no
longer in the computer market. With less competition
The 1998 iMac, the iMac G3 brought Apple back into prot.
than ever before, Dell rose to high prots and success,
introducing low-cost systems targeted at consumers and
business markets using a direct-sales model. Dell surpassed Compaq as the worlds largest computer manu- 1.9.8 IBM clones, Apple back into proffacturer, and held that position until October 2006.
itability

1.9.5

Power Macintosh, PowerPC

In 1994, Apple introduced the Power Macintosh series

of high-end professional desktop computers for desktop
publishing and graphic designers. These new computers
made use of new Motorola PowerPC processors as part
of the AIM alliance, to replace the previous Motorola
68k architecture used for the Macintosh line. During the
1990s, the Macintosh remained with a low market share,
but as the primary choice for creative professionals, particularly those in the graphics and publishing industries.

Due to the sales growth of IBM clones in the '90s, they

became the industry standard for business and home use.
This growth was augmented by the introduction of Microsofts Windows 3.0 operating environment in 1990,
and followed by Windows 3.1 in 1992 and the Windows
95 operating system in 1995. The Macintosh was sent
into a period of decline by these developments coupled
with Apples own inability to come up with a successor
to the Macintosh operating system, and by 1996 Apple
was almost bankrupt. In December 1996 Apple bought
NeXT and in what has been described as a reverse
takeover, Steve Jobs returned to Apple in 1997. The
NeXT purchase and Jobs return brought Apple back to

1.9. 1990S AND 2000S

protability, rst with the release of Mac OS 8, a major new version of the operating system for Macintosh
computers, and then with the PowerMac G3 and iMac
computers for the professional and home markets. The
iMac was notable for its transparent bondi blue casing in
an ergonomic shape, as well as its discarding of legacy
devices such as a oppy drive and serial ports in favor of
Ethernet and USB connectivity. The iMac sold several
million units and a subsequent model using a dierent
form factor remains in production as of January 2012.
In 2001 Mac OS X, the long awaited next generation
Mac OS based on the NeXT technologies was nally introduced by Apple, cementing its comeback.

13

1.9.12 64 bits
In 2003, AMD shipped its 64-bit based microprocessor
line for desktop computers, Opteron and Athlon 64. Also
in 2003, IBM released the 64-bit based PowerPC 970 for
Apples high-end Power Mac G5 systems. Intel, in 2004,
reacted to AMDs success with 64-bit based processors,
releasing updated versions of their Xeon and Pentium 4
lines. 64-bit processors were rst common in high end
systems, servers and workstations, and then gradually replaced 32-bit processors in consumer desktop and laptop
systems since about 2005.

1.9.13 Lenovo
1.9.9

Writable CDs, MP3, P2P le sharing

The ROM in CD-ROM stands for Read Only Memory. In the late 1990s CD-R and later, rewritable CDRW drives were included instead of standard CD ROM
drives. This gave the personal computer user the capability to copy and burn standard Audio CDs which were
playable in any CD player. As computer hardware grew
more powerful and the MP3 format became pervasive,
ripping CDs into small, compressed les on a computers hard drive became popular. "Peer to peer" le
sharing networks such as Napster, Kazaa and Gnutella
arose to be used almost exclusively for sharing music les
and became a primary computer activity for many individuals.

1.9.10

USB, DVD player

Since the late 1990s, many more personal computers

started shipping that included USB (Universal Serial Bus)
ports for easy plug and play connectivity to devices such
as digital cameras, video cameras, personal digital assistants, printers, scanners, USB ash drives and other
peripheral devices. By the early 21st century, all shipping computers for the consumer market included at least
two USB ports. Also during the late 1990s DVD players
started appearing on high-end, usually more expensive,
desktop and laptop computers, and eventually on consumer computers into the rst decade of the 21st century.

In 2004, IBM announced the proposed sale of its PC business to Chinese computer maker Lenovo Group, which is
partially owned by the Chinese government, for US$650
million in cash and $600 million US in Lenovo stock. The
deal was approved by the Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States in March 2005, and completed
in May 2005. IBM will have a 19% stake in Lenovo,
which will move its headquarters to New York State and
appoint an IBM executive as its chief executive ocer.
The company will retain the right to use certain IBM
brand names for an initial period of ve years. As a result
of the purchase, Lenovo inherited a product line that featured the ThinkPad, a line of laptops that had been one
of IBMs most successful products.

1.9.14 Wi-Fi, LCD monitor, multi-core

processor, ash memory

In the early 21st century, Wi-Fi began to become increasingly popular as many consumers started installing
their own wireless home networks. Many of todays laptops and desktop computers are sold pre-installed with
wireless cards and antennas. Also in the early 21st century, LCD monitors became the most popular technology for computer monitors, with CRT production being slowed down. LCD monitors are typically sharper,
brighter, and more economical than CRT monitors. The
rst decade of the 21st century also saw the rise of multicore processors and ash memory. Once limited to highend industrial use due to expense, these technologies are
now mainstream and available to consumers. In 2008 the
MacBook Air and Asus Eee PC were released, laptops
1.9.11 Hewlett-Packard
that dispense with an optical drive and hard drive entirely
In 2002, Hewlett-Packard (HP) purchased Compaq. relying on ash memory for storage.
Compaq itself had bought Tandem Computers in 1997
(which had been started by ex-HP employees), and
Digital Equipment Corporation in 1998. Following this 1.9.15 Local area networks
strategy HP became a major player in desktops, laptops,
and servers for many dierent markets. The buyout made The invention in the late 1970s of local area networks
HP the worlds largest manufacturer of personal comput- (LANs), notably Ethernet, allowed PCs to communicate
with each other (peer-to-peer) and with shared printers.
ers, until Dell later surpassed HP.

14

CHAPTER 1. HISTORY OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS

As the microcomputer revolution continued, more robust

versions of the same technology were used to produce
microprocessor based servers that could also be linked
to the LAN. This was facilitated by the development of
server operating systems to run on the Intel architecture,
including several versions of both Unix and Microsoft
Windows.

SCELBI, another 1974 microcomputer

Simon (computer), a 1949 demonstration of computing principles

1.12 References
[1] Pocket Computer May Replace Shopping List. The New
York Times. November 3, 1962.

1.10 Market
In 2001, 125 million personal computers were shipped in
comparison to 48,000 in 1977. More than 500 million
PCs were in use in 2002 and one billion personal computers had been sold worldwide since mid-1970s till this
time. Of the latter gure, 75 percent were professional
or work related, while the rest sold for personal or home
use. About 81.5 percent of PCs shipped had been desktop
computers, 16.4 percent laptops and 2.1 percent servers.
United States had received 38.8 percent (394 million) of
the computers shipped, Europe 25 percent and 11.7 percent had gone to Asia-Pacic region, the fastest-growing
market as of 2002.[39] Almost half of all the households
in Western Europe had a personal computer and a computer could be found in 40 percent of homes in United
Kingdom, compared with only 13 percent in 1985.[40]
The third quarter of 2008 marked the rst time laptops
outsold desktop PCs in the United States.[41]

[2] 9100A desktop calculator, 1968 (PDF). HewlettPackard. Retrieved 2008-02-13.

[3] Hewlett-Packard (October 25, 1966). Restoring the Balance between Analysis and Computation (PDF). Science
Magazine 169 (3852): 409. Retrieved 2008-02-13.
[4] Shapiro, F.R.; Shapiro, F.R. (December 2000). Annals of the History of Computing. IEEE Annals of the
History of Computing (IEEE Journal) 22 (4): 7071.
doi:10.1109/MAHC.2000.887997.
[5] Helmers, Carl (October 1975). What is BYTE. BYTE.
pp. 4, col 3, para 2. Retrieved 2008-02-13.
[6] Horn, B.; Winston, P. (May 1975). Personal Computers. Datamation. p. 11. Retrieved 2008-02-13.
[7] Most Important Companies. Byte. September 1995.
Retrieved 2008-06-10.
[8] Birth of an Industry 197677. Apple Computer Inc.

advertisements. Kelley Advertising and Marketing. ReAs of June 2008, the number of personal computers
trieved 2008-06-14. Introducing Apple II. You've just run
worldwide in use hit one billion. Mature markets like
out of excuses for not owning a personal computer.
the United States, Western Europe and Japan accounted
for 58 percent of the worldwide installed PCs. About [9] Oldest Known Commodore PET Brochure. Retrieved
180 million PCs (16 percent of the existing installed
2008-06-14.
base) were expected to be replaced and 35 million to be
dumped into landll in 2008. The whole installed base [10] Reimer, Jeremy (December 14, 2005). Total share: 30
years of personal computer market share gures; The 8-bit
grew 12 percent annually.[42][43]
era (19801984)". Ars Technica. p. 4. Retrieved 200802-13.

1.11 See also

Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering
Computer museum and Personal Computer Museum
Expensive Desk Calculator
MIT Computer Science and Articial Intelligence
Laboratory
Educ-8 a
computer

1974

pre-microprocessor

micro-

Mark-8, a 1974 microprocessor-based microcomputer

Programma 101, a 1965 programmable calculator
with some attributes of a personal computer

[11] Athony Ralston and Edwin D. Reilly (ed), Encyclopedia

of Computer Science 3rd Edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold,
1993 ISBN 0-442-27679-6, article Digital Computers History
[12] Rheingold, H. (2000). Tools for thought: the history and
future of mind-expanding technology (New ed.). Cambridge, MA etc.: The MIT Press.
[13] What was the rst personal computer? at Blinkenlights
Archaeological Institute. Accessed: March 15, 2008.
[14] The IBM 610 Auto-Point Computer. Columbia University.
[15] "'Desk-top' computer is typewriter size. Business Week.
October 23, 1965.
[16] Desk-Top Size Computer Is Being Sold by Olivetti For
First Time in U.S.. Wall Street Journal. October 15,
1965.
[17]

1.13. FURTHER READING

[18] Documentary highlights how Programma 101 put people

rst. February 15, 2011.
[19] Olivetti Programma P101/P102. old-computers.com.
Retrieved 10:12 PM 11/8/2010. The P101, and particularly the magnetic card, was covered by a US patent
(3,495,222, Perotto et al.) and this gave to Olivetti over
$900.000 in royalties by HP alone, for the re-use of this
technology in the HP9100 series. Check date values in:
|accessdate= (help)
[20] Perotto, Pier Giorgio; et al. (Feb 10, 1970). 3,495,222
PROGRAM CONTROLLED ELECTRONIC COMPUTER (multiple). United States Patent Oce. Google
patents. Retrieved Nov 8, 2010.
[21] Pospelov, Dmitry. - [MIR series of computers. The rst personal computers]. Glushkov Foundation (in Russian). Institute of Applied Informatics. Retrieved 19 Nov 2012.

15

[34] Szczepaniak, John. Retro Japanese Computers: Gamings Final Frontier. Hardcore Gaming 101. Retrieved
2011-03-29. Reprinted from Retro Gamer (67), 2009
[35] Computing Japan. Computing Japan (LINC Japan). 5459: 18. 1999. Retrieved 6 February 2012. ...its venerable
PC 9800 series, which has sold more than 18 million units
over the years, and is the reason why NEC has been the
number one PC vendor in Japan for as long as anyone can
remember.
[36] The Old Computer Hut Intel family microcomputers (1)
[37]
[38] Reimer, Jeremy (December 14, 2005). Total share: 30
years of personal computer market share gures; The rise
of the PC (19871990)". Ars Technica. pp. 6;. Retrieved
2008-02-13.

[22] ;

[39] PCs: More than 1 billion served

[23] A History of Modern Computing, (MIT Press), pp. 220

21

[40] Computers reach one billion mark

[41] Notebook sales surpass PCs for rst time in US

[24] Alfred Dupont Chandler, Takashi Hikino, Andrew Von

Nordenycht, Inventing the Electronic Century: The Epic
Story of the Consumer Electronics and Computer Industries, Harvard University Press, 2009, page 134
[25] Lemmons, Phil (November 1982). Chuck Peddle: Chief
Designer of the Victor 9000 (PDF). Byte Magazine. Retrieved 2008-06-14.
[26] Whats New (February 1978). Commodore Ships First
PET Computers. BYTE (Byte Publications) 3 (2): 190.
Commodore press release. The PET computer made its
debut recently as the rst 100 units were shipped to waiting customers in mid October 1977.
[27] Reimer, Jeremy (December 2005). Personal Computer
Market Share: 19752004. Ars Technica. Retrieved
2008-02-13.
[28] Reimer, Jeremy (December 14, 2005). Total share: 30
years of personal computer market share gures; The new
era (2001 )". Ars Technica. p. 9. Retrieved 2008-02-13.
[29] Veit, Stan. TRS-80 the Trash-80"". pc-history.org. Retrieved 2010-0-0. Check date values in: |accessdate=
(help)
[30] Kahney, Leander (2003-09-09). Grandiose Price for a
Modest PC. Wired (Lycos). Retrieved 2006-10-25.
[31] Williams, Gregg; Welch, Mark; Avis, Paul (September
1985). A Microcomputing Timeline. BYTE. p. 198.
Retrieved 27 October 2013.
[32] Pollack, Andrew (1983-06-19). The Coming Crisis in
Home Computers. The New York Times. Retrieved 19
January 2015.
[33] Mitchell, Peter W. (1983-09-06). A summer-CES report. Boston Phoenix. p. 4. Retrieved 10 January 2015.

[42] Gartner Says More than 1 Billion PCs In Use Worldwide

and Headed to 2 Billion Units by 2014
[43] Computers in use pass 1 billion mark: Gartner

1.13 Further reading

Veit, Stan (1993). Stan Veits History of the Personal
Computer. WorldComm. p. 304. ISBN 978-156664-030-5.
Douglas K. Smith, Douglas K. Smith, Robert C.
Alexander (1999). Fumbling the Future: How Xerox
Invented, then Ignored, the First Personal Computer.
Authors Choice Press. p. 276. ISBN 978-1-58348266-7.
Freiberger, Paul; Swaine, Michael (2000). Fire in
the Valley: The Making of The Personal Computer.
McGraw-Hill Companies. p. 463. ISBN 978-0-07135892-7.
Allan, Roy A. (2001). A History of the Personal
Computer: The People and the Technology. Allan
Publishing. p. 528. ISBN 978-0-9689108-0-1.
Sherman, Josepha (2003). The History of the Personal Computer. Franklin Watts. p. 64. ISBN 9780-531-16213-2.
Laing, Gordon (2004). Digital Retro: The Evolution
and Design of the Personal Computer. Sybex. p.
192. ISBN 978-0-7821-4330-0.

16

1.14 External links

A history of the personal computer: the people and
the technology (PDF)
BlinkenLights Archaeological Insititute Personal
Computer Milestones
Personal Computer Museum A publicly viewable
museum in Brantford, Ontario, Canada
Old Computers Museum Displaying over 100 historic machines.
Chronology of Personal Computers a chronology
of computers from 1947 on
Total share: 30 years of personal computer market
share gures
Obsolete Technology Old Computers

CHAPTER 1. HISTORY OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS

Chapter 2

History of computing
The history of computing is longer than the history of
computing hardware and modern computing technology
and includes the history of methods intended for pen and
paper or for chalk and slate, with or without the aid of
tables. The timeline of computing presents a summary
list of major developments in computing by date.

2.1 Concrete devices

Computing is intimately tied to the representation of
numbers. But long before abstractions like the number
arose, there were mathematical concepts to serve the purposes of civilization. These concepts are implicit in concrete practices such as :
one-to-one correspondence, a rule to count how
many items, say on a tally stick, eventually abstracted into numbers;
comparison to a standard, a method for assuming
reproducibility in a measurement, for example, the
number of coins;

formally, and even proven. See, for example, Euclids algorithm for nding the greatest common divisor of two
numbers.
By the High Middle Ages, the positional Hindu-Arabic
numeral system had reached Europe, which allowed for
systematic computation of numbers. During this period,
the representation of a calculation on paper actually allowed calculation of mathematical expressions, and the
tabulation of mathematical functions such as the square
root and the common logarithm (for use in multiplication and division) and the trigonometric functions. By
the time of Isaac Newton's research, paper or vellum was
an important computing resource, and even in our present
time, researchers like Enrico Fermi would cover random
scraps of paper with calculation, to satisfy their curiosity about an equation.[2] Even into the period of programmable calculators, Richard Feynman would unhesitatingly compute any steps which overowed the memory
of the calculators, by hand, just to learn the answer.

2.3 Early computation

the 3-4-5 right triangle was a device for assuring a Main article: Timeline of computing hardware 2400
right angle, using ropes with 12 evenly spaced knots, BC1949
for example.
The earliest known tool for use in computation was the
abacus, and it was thought to have been invented in
Babylon circa 2400 BC. Its original style of usage was by
2.2 Numbers
lines drawn in sand with pebbles. Abaci, of a more modEventually, the concept of numbers became concrete and ern design, are still used as calculation tools today. This
familiar enough for counting to arise, at times with sing- was the rst known computer and most advanced system
song mnemonics to teach sequences to others. All known of calculation known to date - preceding Greek methods
languages have words for at least one and two (al- by 2,000 years.
though this is disputed: see Piraha language), and even In 1110 BC, the south-pointing chariot was invented in
some animals like the blackbird can distinguish a surpris- ancient China. It was the rst known geared mechanism
ing number of items.[1]
to use a dierential gear, which was later used in analog
The Chinese also invented a more sophisticomputers.
Advances in the numeral system and mathematical notacated
abacus
from around the 2nd century BC known as
tion eventually led to the discovery of mathematical opChinese
abacus).
the
erations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, squaring, square root, and so forth. Eventually In the 5th century BC in ancient India, the grammarian
the operations were formalized, and concepts about the Pini formulated the grammar of Sanskrit in 3959 rules
operations became understood well enough to be stated known as the Ashtadhyayi which was highly systematized
17

18

CHAPTER 2. HISTORY OF COMPUTING

and technical. Panini used metarules, transformations as an internal scratch memory equivalent to RAM, muland recursions.[3]
tiple forms of output including a bell, a graph-plotter, and
In the 3rd century BC, Archimedes used the me- simple printer, and a programmable input-output hard
chanical principle of balance (see Archimedes memory of punch cards which it could modify as well
Palimpsest#Mathematical content) to calculate mathe- as read. The key advancement which Babbages devices
matical problems, such as the number of grains of sand possessed beyond those created before his was that each
in the universe (The sand reckoner), which also required component of the device was independent of the rest of
a recursive notation for numbers, the myriad myriad ... . the machine, much like the components of a modern electronic computer. This was a fundamental shift in thought;
The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest previous computational devices served only a single purknown mechanical analog computer.[4] It was designed pose, but had to be at best disassembled and recongured
to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in to solve a new problem. Babbages devices could be re1901 in the Antikythera wreck o the Greek island of programed to solve new problems by the entry of new
Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been data, and act upon previous calculations within the same
dated to circa 100 BC.
series of instructions. Ada Lovelace took this concept
Mechanical analog computer devices appeared again a one step further, by creating a program for the analytical
thousand years later in the medieval Islamic world and engine to calculate Bernoulli numbers, a complex calcuwere developed by Muslim astronomers, such as the me- lation requiring a recursive algorithm. This is considered
chanical geared astrolabe by Ab Rayhn al-Brn,[5] to be the rst example of a true computer program, a seand the torquetum by Jabir ibn Aah.[6] According to ries of instructions that act upon data not known in full
Simon Singh, Muslim mathematicians also made impor- until the program is run.
tant advances in cryptography, such as the development Several examples of analog computation survived into reof cryptanalysis and frequency analysis by Alkindus.[7][8] cent times. A planimeter is a device which does integrals,
Programmable machines were also invented by Muslim using distance as the analog quantity. Until the 1980s,
engineers, such as the automatic ute player by the HVAC systems used air both as the analog quantity and
Ban Ms brothers,[9] and Al-Jazari's humanoid robots the controlling element. Unlike modern digital computand castle clock, which is considered to be the rst ers, analog computers are not very exible, and need to
programmable analog computer.[10]
be recongured (i.e., reprogrammed) manually to switch
During the Middle Ages, several European philoso- them from working on one problem to another. Analog
phers made attempts to produce analog computer de- computers had an advantage over early digital computvices. Inuenced by the Arabs and Scholasticism, Ma- ers in that they could be used to solve complex problems
jorcan philosopher Ramon Llull (12321315) devoted a using behavioral analogues while the earliest attempts at
great part of his life to dening and designing several digital computers were quite limited.
logical machines that, by combining simple and undeniable philosophical truths, could produce all possible
knowledge. These machines were never actually built,
as they were more of a thought experiment to produce
new knowledge in systematic ways; although they could
make simple logical operations, they still needed a human being for the interpretation of results. Moreover,
they lacked a versatile architecture, each machine serving only very concrete purposes. In spite of this, Llulls
work had a strong inuence on Gottfried Leibniz (early
18th century), who developed his ideas further, and built
several calculating tools using them.
Indeed, when John Napier discovered logarithms for
computational purposes in the early 17th century, there
followed a period of considerable progress by inventors
and scientists in making calculating tools. The apex of
this early era of formal computing can be seen in the
dierence engine and its successor the analytical engine
(which was never completely constructed but was designed in detail), both by Charles Babbage. The analytical engine combined concepts from his work and that of
others to create a device that if constructed as designed
would have possessed many properties of a modern elec- A Smith Chart is a well-known nomogram.
tronic computer. These properties include such features
Since computers were rare in this era, the solu-

2.8. REFERENCES
tions were often hard-coded into paper forms such as
nomograms,[11] which could then produce analog solutions to these problems, such as the distribution of pressures and temperatures in a heating system.
None of the early computational devices were really computers in the modern sense, and it took considerable advancement in mathematics and theory before the rst
modern computers could be designed.
The Z3 computer from 1941, by German inventor
Konrad Zuse was the rst working programmable, fully
automatic computing machine.
The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) was the rst electronic general-purpose computer,
announced to the public in 1946. It was Turing-complete,
digital, and capable of being reprogrammed to solve a full
range of computing problems.

2.4 Navigation and astronomy

Starting with known special cases, the calculation of logarithms and trigonometric functions can be performed
by looking up numbers in a mathematical table, and
interpolating between known cases. For small enough
dierences, this linear operation was accurate enough for
use in navigation and astronomy in the Age of Exploration. The uses of interpolation have thrived in the past
500 years: by the twentieth century Leslie Comrie and
W.J. Eckert systematized the use of interpolation in tables of numbers for punch card calculation.

2.5 Weather prediction

19
Computing timelines category
History of software
Index of history of computing articles
IT History Society
List of mathematicians
Timeline of quantum computing

2.8 References
[1] Konrad Lorenz, King Solomons Ring
[2] DIY: Enrico Fermis Back of the Envelope Calculations.
[3] Sinha, A. C. (1978). On the status of recursive rules
in transformational grammar. Lingua 44 (23): 169.
doi:10.1016/0024-3841(78)90076-1.
[4] The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project, The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. Retrieved 200707-01
[5] Islam, Knowledge, and Science. University of Southern
California. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
[6] Lorch, R. P. (1976), The Astronomical Instruments of Jabir ibn Aah and the Torquetum,
Centaurus 20 (1): 1134, Bibcode:1976Cent...20...11L,
doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1976.tb00214.x
[7] Simon Singh, The Code Book, pp. 14-20
[8] Al-Kindi, Cryptgraphy, Codebreaking and Ciphers.
Retrieved 2007-01-12.
[9] Koetsier, Teun (2001), On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators, Mechanism and Machine Theory (Elsevier) 36 (5):
589603, doi:10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2..

The numerical solution of dierential equations, notably

the Navier-Stokes equations was an important stimulus
to computing, with Lewis Fry Richardson's numerical
approach to solving dierential equations. To this day, [10] Ancient Discoveries, Episode 11: Ancient Robots, History
Channel, retrieved 2008-09-06
some of the most powerful computer systems on Earth
are used for weather forecasts.
[11] Steinhaus, H. (1999). Mathematical Snapshots (3rd ed.).
New York: Dover. pp. 9295, p. 301.

2.6 Symbolic computations

By the late 1960s, computer systems could perform
symbolic algebraic manipulations well enough to pass
college-level calculus courses.

2.7 See also

Algorithm
Charles Babbage Institute - research center for history of computing at University of Minnesota

2.9 External links

The History of Computing by J.A.N. Lee
Things that Count: the rise and fall of calculators
The History of Computing Project
SIG on Computers, Information and Society of the
Society for the History of Technology
The Modern History of Computing
Cringelys Triumph of the Nerds

20
Top 25 Days in Computing History
A Chronology of Digital Computing Machines (to
1952) by Mark Brader
Bitsavers, an eort to capture, salvage, and archive
historical computer software and manuals from
minicomputers and mainframes of the 50s, 60s, 70s,
and 80s
Cyberhistory (2002) by Keith Falloon. UWA digital
thesis repository.
Arithmometre.org, The reference about Thomas de
Colmars arithmometers
Yahoo Computers and History
All-Magnetic Logic Computer. Timeline of Innovations. SRI International. Developed at SRI International in 1961
Famous Names in the History of Computing. Free
source for history of computing biographies.
Stephen Whites excellent computer history site (the
above article is a modied version of his work, used
with Permission)
Soviet Calculators Collection - a big collection of
Soviet calculators, computers, computer mices and
other devices
Logarithmic timeline of greatest breakthroughs
since start of computing era in 1623 by Jrgen
Schmidhuber, from The New AI: General & Sound
& Relevant for Physics, In B. Goertzel and C. Pennachin, eds.: Articial General Intelligence, p. 175198, 2006.
IEEE computer history timeline
Konrad Zuse, inventor of rst working programmable digital computer by Jrgen Schmidhuber
The Moore School Lectures and the British Lead
in Stored Program Computer Development (1946
1953), article from Virtual Travelog
Technology
and-Society/STS035Spring2004/CourseHome/index.htm
MIT
STS.035 History of Computing from MIT
OpenCourseWare for undergraduate level
Key Resources in the History of Computing
Italian computer database of brands
Computer History - a collection of articles by Bob
Bemer

CHAPTER 2. HISTORY OF COMPUTING

YouTube video comparing 1980s home computers
to 2010s technology
A visual timeline of the development of computers
since COLOSSUS' inception in 1943
History of Computing Visualisation

2.9.1 British history links

Resurrection Bulletin of the Computer Conservation
Society (UK) 19902006
The story of the Manchester Mark I, 50th Anniversary website at the University of Manchester
Richmond Arabian History of Computing Group
Linking the Gulf and Europe

Chapter 3

INFORMATION

INPUT

PROCESSOR

STORAGE

OUTPUT

History of computing hardware

INFORMATION

Computing hardware is a platform for information processing.

The history of computing hardware covers the developments from early simple devices to aid calculation to
modern day computers.
Before the 20th century, most calculations were done by
humans. Early mechanical tools to help humans with digital calculations were called calculating machines, by
proprietary names, or even as they are now, calculators.
The machine operator was called the computer.
The rst aids to computation were purely mechanical devices which required the operator to set up the initial values of an elementary arithmetic operation, then manipulate the device to obtain the result. Later, computers
represented numbers in a continuous form, for instance
distance along a scale, rotation of a shaft, or a voltage.
Numbers could also be represented in the form of digits, automatically manipulated by a mechanical mechanism. Although this approach generally required more
complex mechanisms, it greatly increased the precision
of results. The invention of transistor and then integrated circuits made a breakthrough in computers. As a
result digital computers largely replaced analog computers. The price of computers gradually became so low that The Ishango bone
rst the personal computers and later mobile computers
(smartphones and tablets) became ubiquitous.
ably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay
containers.[1][2] The use of counting rods is one example.

3.1 Early devices

The abacus was early used for arithmetic tasks. What we

now call the Roman abacus was used in Babylonia as early
as
2400 BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning
3.1.1 Ancient era
boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval EuroDevices have been used to aid computation for thou- pean counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed
sands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence on a table, and markers moved around on it according to
with ngers. The earliest counting device was probably a certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money.
form of tally stick. Later record keeping aids through- Several analog computers were constructed in ancient
out the Fertile Crescent included calculi (clay spheres, and medieval times to perform astronomical calculacones, etc.) which represented counts of items, prob- tions. These include the Antikythera mechanism and the
21

22

CHAPTER 3. HISTORY OF COMPUTING HARDWARE

A slide rule

Suanpan (the number represented on this abacus is

6,302,715,408)

Since real numbers can be represented as distances or intervals on a line, the slide rule was invented in the 1620s,
shortly after Napiers work, to allow multiplication and
division operations to be carried out signicantly faster
than was previously possible.[6] Edmund Gunter built a
calculating device with a single logarithmic scale at the
University of Oxford. His device greatly simplied arithmetic calculations, including multiplication and division.
William Oughtred greatly improved this in 1630 with his
circular slide rule. He followed this up with the modern slide rule in 1632, essentially a combination of two
Gunter rules, held together with the hands. Slide rules
were used by generations of engineers and other mathematically involved professional workers, until the invention of the pocket calculator.[7]

astrolabe from ancient Greece (c. 150100 BC), which

are generally regarded as the earliest known mechanical
analog computers.[3] Hero of Alexandria (c. 1070 AD)
made many complex mechanical devices including automata and a programmable cart.[4] Other early versions
of mechanical devices used to perform one or another
type of calculations include the planisphere and other
mechanical computing devices invented by Abu Rayhan
al-Biruni (c. AD 1000); the equatorium and universal
latitude-independent astrolabe by Abu Ishaq Ibrahim alZarqali (c. AD 1015); the astronomical analog computers of other medieval Muslim astronomers and engineers; 3.1.3 Mechanical calculators
and the astronomical clock tower of Su Song (c. AD
Wilhelm Schickard, a German polymath, designed a cal1090) during the Song Dynasty.
culating machine in 1623 which combined a mechanised
form of Napiers rods with the worlds rst mechanical
adding machine built into the base. Because it made
3.1.2 Medieval calculating tools
use of a single-tooth gear there were circumstances in
which its carry mechanism would jam.[8] A re destroyed
at least one of the machines in 1624 and it is believed
Schickard was too disheartened to build another.

A set of John Napier's calculating tables from around 1680.

View through the back of Pascals calculator. Pascal invented

his machine in 1642.

Scottish mathematician and physicist John Napier discovered that the multiplication and division of numbers
could be performed by the addition and subtraction, respectively, of the logarithms of those numbers. While
producing the rst logarithmic tables, Napier needed to
perform many tedious multiplications. It was at this point
that he designed his 'Napiers bones', an abacus-like device that greatly simplied calculations that involved multiplication and division.[5]

In 1642, while still a teenager, Blaise Pascal started

some pioneering work on calculating machines and after three years of eort and 50 prototypes[9] he invented a
mechanical calculator.[10][11] He built twenty of these machines (called Pascals Calculator or Pascaline) in the following ten years.[12] Nine Pascalines have survived, most
of which are on display in European museums.[13] A continuing debate exists over whether Schickard or Pascal
should be regarded as the inventor of the mechanical

3.1. EARLY DEVICES

23

calculator and the range of issues to be considered is discussed elsewhere.[14]

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented the Stepped
Reckoner and his famous stepped drum mechanism
around 1672. He attempted to create a machine that
could be used not only for addition and subtraction but
would utilise a moveable carriage to enable long multiplication and division. Leibniz once said It is unworthy
of excellent men to lose hours like slaves in the labour
of calculation which could safely be relegated to anyone
else if machines were used.[15] However, Leibniz did not
incorporate a fully successful carry mechanism. Leibniz
also described the binary numeral system,[16] a central ingredient of all modern computers. However, up to the
1940s, many subsequent designs (including Charles Babbage's machines of the 1822 and even ENIAC of 1945)
were based on the decimal system.[17]
Around 1820, Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar created what would over the rest of the century become
the rst successful, mass-produced mechanical calculator, the Thomas Arithmometer. It could be used to add
and subtract, and with a moveable carriage the operator
IBM punched card Accounting Machines, pictured in 1936.
could also multiply, and divide by a process of long multi[18]
plication and long division. It utilised a stepped drum
similar in conception to that invented by Leibniz. Me- workers.[22] Punch cards became ubiquitous in industry
chanical calculators remained in use until the 1970s.
and government for accounting and administration.

3.1.4

Punched card data processing

In 1801, Joseph-Marie Jacquard developed a loom in

which the pattern being woven was controlled by punched
cards. The series of cards could be changed without
changing the mechanical design of the loom. This was a
landmark achievement in programmability. His machine
was an improvement over similar weaving looms. Punch
cards were preceded by punch bands, as in the machine
proposed by Basile Bouchon. These bands would inspire
information recording for automatic pianos and more recently numerical control machine tools.
In the late 1880s, the American Herman Hollerith invented data storage on punched cards that could then be
read by a machine.[19] To process these punched cards
he invented the tabulator, and the key punch machine.
His machines used mechanical relays (and solenoids) to
increment mechanical counters. Holleriths method was
used in the 1890 United States Census and the completed
results were "... nished months ahead of schedule and
far under budget.[20] Indeed, the census was processed
years faster than the prior census had been. Holleriths
company eventually became the core of IBM.

Leslie Comrie's articles on punched card methods and

W.J. Eckert's publication of Punched Card Methods in
Scientic Computation in 1940, described punch card
techniques suciently advanced to solve some dierential equations[23] or perform multiplication and division
using oating point representations, all on punched cards
and unit record machines. Such machines were used during World War II for cryptographic statistical processing,
as well as a vast number of administrative uses. The Astronomical Computing Bureau, Columbia University performed astronomical calculations representing the state
of the art in computing.[24][25]

3.1.5 Calculators
Main article: Calculator
By the 20th century, earlier mechanical calculators,
cash registers, accounting machines, and so on were redesigned to use electric motors, with gear position as the
representation for the state of a variable. The word computer was a job title assigned to people who used these
calculators to perform mathematical calculations. By the
1920s, British scientist Lewis Fry Richardson's interest
in weather prediction led him to propose human computers and numerical analysis to model the weather; to this
day, the most powerful computers on Earth are needed
to adequately model its weather using the NavierStokes
equations.[26]

By 1920, electro-mechanical tabulating machines could

add, subtract and print accumulated totals.[21] Machines
were programmed by inserting dozens of wire jumpers
into removable control panels. When the United States
instituted Social Security in 1935, IBM punched card Companies like Friden, Marchant Calculator and Monroe
systems were used to process records of 26 million made desktop mechanical calculators from the 1930s that

24

The Curta calculator could also do multiplication and division.

CHAPTER 3. HISTORY OF COMPUTING HARDWARE

A portion of Babbages Dierence engine.

could add, subtract, multiply and divide.[27] In 1948, the

Curta was introduced by Austrian inventor, Curt Herzstark. It was a small, hand-cranked mechanical calculator
and as such, a descendant of Gottfried Leibniz's Stepped
Reckoner and Thomas's Arithmometer.

chine via punched cards, a method being used at the time

to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom.
For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve
plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to
The worlds rst all-electronic desktop calculator was the punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. It employed
British Bell Punch ANITA, released in 1961.[28][29] It ordinary base-10 xed-point arithmetic.
used vacuum tubes, cold-cathode tubes and Dekatrons in The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, control
its circuits, with 12 cold-cathode Nixie tubes for its dis- ow in the form of conditional branching and loops,
play. The ANITA sold well since it was the only elec- and integrated memory, making it the rst design for
tronic desktop calculator available, and was silent and a general-purpose computer that could be described in
quick. The tube technology was superseded in June 1963 modern terms as Turing-complete.[31][32]
by the U.S. manufactured Friden EC-130, which had an
all-transistor design, a stack of four 13-digit numbers dis- There was to be a store, or memory, capable of holdplayed on a 5-inch (13 cm) CRT, and introduced reverse ing 1,000 numbers of 40 decimal digits each (ca. 16.7
kB). An arithmetical unit, called the mill, would be
Polish notation (RPN).
able to perform all four arithmetic operations, plus comparisons and optionally square roots. Initially it was conceived as a dierence engine curved back upon itself, in
3.2 First general-purpose comput- a generally circular layout,[33] with the long store exiting o to one side. (Later drawings depict a regularized
ing device
grid layout.)[34] Like the central processing unit (CPU)
in a modern computer, the mill would rely upon its own
Main article: Analytical Engine
Charles Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and internal procedures, roughly equivalent to microcode in
polymath, originated the concept of a programmable modern CPUs, to be stored in the form of pegs inserted
computer. Considered the "father of the computer",[30] into rotating drums called barrels, to carry out some of
he conceptualized and invented the rst mechanical com- the more[35]complex instructions the users program might
puter in the early 19th century. After working on his rev- specify.
olutionary dierence engine, designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much more
general design, an Analytical Engine, was possible. The
input of programs and data was to be provided to the ma-

The programming language to be employed by users was

akin to modern day assembly languages. Loops and conditional branching were possible, and so the language as
conceived would have been Turing-complete as later de-

3.3. ANALOG COMPUTERS

Reconstruction of Babbages Analytical Engine, the rst generalpurpose programmable computer.

25

Sir William Thomson's third tide-predicting machine design,

1879-81

ned by Alan Turing. Three dierent types of punch

cards were used: one for arithmetical operations, one for
numerical constants, and one for load and store operations, transferring numbers from the store to the arithmetical unit or back. There were three separate readers
for the three types of cards.

of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or

hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved,
in contrast to digital computers that represented varying
quantities symbolically, as their numerical values change.
As an analog computer does not use discrete values, but
rather continuous values, processes cannot be reliably reThe machine was about a century ahead of its time. How- peated with exact equivalence, as they can with Turing
ever, the project was slowed by various problems includ- machines.[37]
ing disputes with the chief machinist building parts for it.
All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand The rst modern analog computer was a tide-predicting
- this was a major problem for a machine with thou- machine, invented by Sir William Thomson, later Lord
sands of parts. Eventually, the project was dissolved with Kelvin, in 1872. It used a system of pulleys and wires
the decision of the British Government to cease fund- to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set
ing. Babbages failure to complete the analytical engine period at a particular location and was of great utility to
can be chiey attributed to diculties not only of pol- navigation in shallow waters. His device was the founda[38]
itics and nancing, but also to his desire to develop an tion for further developments in analog computing.
increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead The dierential analyser, a mechanical analog computer
faster than anyone else could follow. Ada Lovelace, designed to solve dierential equations by integration usLord Byron's daughter, translated and added notes to ing wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in
the "Sketch of the Analytical Engine" by Federico Luigi, 1876 by James Thomson, the brother of the more famous
Conte Menabrea. This appears to be the rst published Lord Kelvin. He explored the possible construction of
description of programming.[36]
such calculators, but was stymied by the limited output
[39]
In a dierenFollowing Babbage, although unaware of his earlier work, torque of the ball-and-disk integrators.
tial
analyzer,
the
output
of
one
integrator
drove
the input
was Percy Ludgate, an accountant from Dublin, Ireland.
of
the
next
integrator,
or
a
graphing
output.
He independently designed a programmable mechanical
computer, which he described in a work that was pub- An important advance in analog computing was the delished in 1909.
velopment of the rst re-control systems for long range
ship gunlaying. When gunnery ranges increased dramatically in the late 19th century it was no longer a simple matter of calculating the proper aim point, given the
3.3 Analog computers
ight times of the shells. Various spotters on board the
ship would relay distance measures and observations to
Main article: Analog computer
a central plotting station. There the re direction teams
In the rst half of the 20th century, analog computers fed in the location, speed and direction of the ship and
were considered by many to be the future of computing. its target, as well as various adjustments for Coriolis efThese devices used the continuously changeable aspects fect, weather eects on the air, and other adjustments;

26

CHAPTER 3. HISTORY OF COMPUTING HARDWARE

3.4 Advent of the digital computer

The principle of the modern computer was rst described
by computer scientist Alan Turing, who set out the idea
in his seminal 1936 paper,[43] On Computable Numbers.
Turing reformulated Kurt Gdel's 1931 results on the
limits of proof and computation, replacing Gdels universal arithmetic-based formal language with the formal and simple hypothetical devices that became known
as Turing machines. He proved that some such machine would be capable of performing any conceivable
mathematical computation if it were representable as an
algorithm. He went on to prove that there was no solution to the Entscheidungsproblem by rst showing that
the halting problem for Turing machines is undecidable:
in general, it is not possible to decide algorithmically
whether a given Turing machine will ever halt.
A Mk. I Drift Sight. The lever just in front of the bomb aimers
ngertips sets the altitude, the wheels near his knuckles set the
wind and airspeed.

the computer would then output a ring solution, which

would be fed to the turrets for laying. In 1912, British engineer Arthur Pollen developed the rst electrically powered mechanical analogue computer (called at the time
the Argo Clock).[40] It was used by the Imperial Russian
Navy in World War I. The alternative Dreyer Table re
control system was tted to British capital ships by mid1916.
Mechanical devices were also used to aid the accuracy
of aerial bombing. Drift Sight was the rst such aid, developed by Harry Wimperis in 1916 for the Royal Naval
Air Service; it measured the wind speed from the air, and
used that measurement to calculate the winds eects on
the trajectory of the bombs. The system was later improved with the Course Setting Bomb Sight, and reached
a climax with World War II bomb sights, Mark XIV
bomb sight (RAF Bomber Command) and the Norden[41]
(United States Army Air Forces).
The art of mechanical analog computing reached its
zenith with the dierential analyzer,[42] built by H. L.
Hazen and Vannevar Bush at MIT starting in 1927, which
built on the mechanical integrators of James Thomson
and the torque ampliers invented by H. W. Nieman.
A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious; the most powerful was constructed at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School
of Electrical Engineering, where the ENIAC was built.
By the 1950s the success of digital electronic computers
had spelled the end for most analog computing machines,
but hybrid analog computers, controlled by digital electronics, remained in substantial use into the 1950s and
1960s, and later in some specialized applications.

He also introduced the notion of a 'Universal Machine'

(now known as a Universal Turing machine), with the
idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any
other machine, or in other words, it is provably capable of computing anything that is computable by executing a program stored on tape, allowing the machine to
be programmable. Von Neumann acknowledged that the
central concept of the modern computer was due to this
paper.[44] Turing machines are to this day a central object of study in theory of computation. Except for the
limitations imposed by their nite memory stores, modern computers are said to be Turing-complete, which is to
say, they have algorithm execution capability equivalent
to a universal Turing machine.

3.4.1 Electromechanical computers

The era of modern computing began with a urry of development before and during World War II. Most digital computers built in this period were electromechanical - electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These devices had a low operating
speed and were eventually superseded by much faster allelectric computers, originally using vacuum tubes.
The Z2 was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer, and was created by German engineer Konrad Zuse in 1939. It was an improvement
on his earlier Z1; although it used the same mechanical
memory, it replaced the arithmetic and control logic with
electrical relay circuits.[45]
In the same year, the electro-mechanical bombes
were built by British cryptologists to help decipher
German Enigma-machine-encrypted secret messages
during World War II. The initial design of the bombe
was produced in 1939 at the UK Government Code and
Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park by Alan Turing,[46] with an important renement devised in 1940 by
Gordon Welchman.[47] The engineering design and construction was the work of Harold Keen of the British Tab-

3.4. ADVENT OF THE DIGITAL COMPUTER

27

3.4.2 Digital computation

The mathematical basis of digital computing was established by the British mathematician George Boole,
in his work The Laws of Thought, published in 1854.
His Boolean algebra was further rened in the 1860s by
William Jevons and Charles Sanders Peirce, and was rst
presented systematically by Ernst Schrder and A. N.
Whitehead.[54]
In the 1930s and working independently, American
electronic engineer Claude Shannon and Soviet logician
Victor Shestakov both showed a one-to-one correspondence between the concepts of Boolean logic and certain
electrical circuits, now called logic gates, which are now
Replica of Zuse's Z3, the rst fully automatic, digital (electrome- ubiquitous in digital computers.[55] They showed[56] that
chanical) computer.
electronic relays and switches can realize the expressions
of Boolean algebra. This thesis essentially founded practical digital circuit design.

3.4.3 Electronic data processing

ulating Machine Company. It was a substantial development from a device that had been designed in 1938 by
Polish Cipher Bureau cryptologist Marian Rejewski, and
known as the "cryptologic bomb" (Polish: bomba kryptologiczna).
In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with
the Z3,[48] the worlds rst working electromechanical
programmable, fully automatic digital computer.[49] The
Z3 was built with 2000 relays, implementing a 22 bit word
length that operated at a clock frequency of about 510
Hz.[50] Program code and data were stored on punched
lm. It was quite similar to modern machines in some
respects, pioneering numerous advances such as oating
point numbers. Replacement of the hard-to-implement
decimal system (used in Charles Babbage's earlier design) by the simpler binary system meant that Zuses machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable,
given the technologies available at that time.[51] The Z3
was probably a complete Turing machine. In two 1936
patent applications, Zuse also anticipated that machine
instructions could be stored in the same storage used for
AtanasoBerry Computer replica at 1st oor of Durham Cendatathe key insight of what became known as the von
ter, Iowa State University.
Neumann architecture, rst implemented in the British
SSEM of 1948.[52]
Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their meZuse suered setbacks during World War II when some chanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same
of his machines were destroyed in the course of Allied time that digital calculation replaced analog. Machines
bombing campaigns. Apparently his work remained such as the Z3, the AtanasoBerry Computer, the
largely unknown to engineers in the UK and US until Colossus computers, and the ENIAC were built by hand,
much later, although at least IBM was aware of it as it using circuits containing relays or valves (vacuum tubes),
nanced his post-war startup company in 1946 in return and often used punched cards or punched paper tape for
input and as the main (non-volatile) storage medium.
for an option on Zuses patents.
In 1944, the Harvard Mark I was constructed at IBMs
Endicott laboratories;[53] it was a similar general purpose
electro-mechanical computer to the Z3 and was not quite
Turing-complete.

The engineer Tommy Flowers joined the telecommunications branch of the General Post Oce in 1926. While
working at the research station in Dollis Hill in the 1930s,
he began to explore the possible use of electronics for

28

CHAPTER 3. HISTORY OF COMPUTING HARDWARE

Newman by Alan Turing[63] and spent eleven months

from early February 1943 designing and building the
rst Colossus.[64][65] After a functional test in December
1943, Colossus was shipped to Bletchley Park, where it
was delivered on 18 January 1944[66] and attacked its rst
[59]
In the US, John Vincent Atanaso and Cliord E. message on 5 February.
Berry of Iowa State University developed and tested the
AtanasoBerry Computer (ABC) in 1942,[57] the rst
electronic digital calculating device.[58] This design was
also all-electronic, and used about 300 vacuum tubes,
with capacitors xed in a mechanically rotating drum
for memory. However, its paper card writer/reader
was unreliable, and work on the machine was discontinued. The machines special-purpose nature and lack of
a changeable, stored program distinguish it from modern
computers.[59]
the telephone exchange. Experimental equipment that he
built in 1934 went into operation 5 years later, converting
a portion of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum
tubes.[38]

3.4.4

The electronic programmable computer

Main articles: Colossus computer and ENIAC

During World War II, the British at Bletchley Park
Colossus rebuild seen from the rear.

Colossus was the rst electronic digital programmable computing

device, and was used to break German ciphers during World War
II.

(40 miles north of London) achieved a number of successes at breaking encrypted German military communications. The German encryption machine, Enigma,
was rst attacked with the help of the electro-mechanical
bombes.[60] They ruled out possible Enigma settings by
performing chains of logical deductions implemented
electrically. Most possibilities led to a contradiction, and
the few remaining could be tested by hand.
The Germans also developed a series of teleprinter encryption systems, quite dierent from Enigma. The
Lorenz SZ 40/42 machine was used for high-level Army
communications, termed Tunny by the British. The
rst intercepts of Lorenz messages began in 1941. As
part of an attack on Tunny, Max Newman and his colleagues helped specify the Colossus.[61]
Tommy Flowers, still a senior engineer at the Post
Oce Research Station[62] was recommended to Max

Colossus was the worlds rst electronic digital

programmable computer.[38] It used a large number
of valves (vacuum tubes). It had paper-tape input and
was capable of being congured to perform a variety
of boolean logical operations on its data, but it was not
Turing-complete. Nine Mk II Colossi were built (The
Mk I was converted to a Mk II making ten machines
in total). Colossus Mark I contained 1500 thermionic
valves (tubes), but Mark II with 2400 valves, was both 5
times faster and simpler to operate than Mark 1, greatly
speeding the decoding process. Mark 2 was designed
while Mark 1 was being constructed. Allen Coombs
took over leadership of the Colossus Mark 2 project
when Tommy Flowers moved on to other projects.[67]
Colossus was able to process 5,000 characters per second with the paper tape moving at 40 ft/s (12.2 m/s;
27.3 mph). Sometimes, two or more Colossus computers
tried dierent possibilities simultaneously in what now is
called parallel computing, speeding the decoding process
by perhaps as much as double the rate of comparison.
Colossus included the rst ever use of shift registers and
systolic arrays, enabling ve simultaneous tests, each involving up to 100 Boolean calculations, on each of the ve
channels on the punched tape (although in normal operation only one or two channels were examined in any run).
Initially Colossus was only used to determine the initial
wheel positions used for a particular message (termed
wheel setting). The Mark 2 included mechanisms intended to help determine pin patterns (wheel breaking).
Both models were programmable using switches and plug
panels in a way the Robinsons had not been.

3.5. THE STORED-PROGRAM COMPUTER

29
at the end of 1945. The machine was huge, weighing 30
tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and contained
over 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, and hundreds of
thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.[70] One
of its major engineering feats was to minimize the eects
of tube burnout, which was a common problem in machine reliability at that time. The machine was in almost
constant use for the next ten years.

3.5 The stored-program computer

Further information: List of vacuum tube computers
ENIAC was the rst Turing-complete electronic device, and performed ballistics trajectory calculations for the United States
Army.[68]

Without the use of these machines, the Allies would

have been deprived of the very valuable intelligence
that was obtained from reading the vast quantity of
encrypted high-level telegraphic messages between the
German High Command (OKW) and their army commands throughout occupied Europe. Details of their existence, design, and use were kept secret well into the
1970s. Winston Churchill personally issued an order for
their destruction into pieces no larger than a mans hand,
to keep secret that the British were capable of cracking
Lorenz SZ cyphers (from German rotor stream cipher
machines) during the oncoming cold war. Two of the
machines were transferred to the newly formed GCHQ
and the others were destroyed. As a result the machines
were not included in many histories of computing.[69] A
reconstructed working copy of one of the Colossus machines is now on display at Bletchley Park.
The US-built ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Computer) was the rst electronic programmable
computer built in the US. Although the ENIAC was similar to the Colossus it was much faster and more exible. It
was unambiguously a Turing-complete device and could
compute any problem that would t into its memory. Like
the Colossus, a program on the ENIAC was dened by
the states of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from
the stored program electronic machines that came later.
Once a program was written, it had to be mechanically
set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and
switches.
It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems. It
could add or subtract 5000 times a second, a thousand
times faster than any other machine. It also had modules
to multiply, divide, and square root. High speed memory was limited to 20 words (about 80 bytes). Built under the direction of John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania, ENIACs development and construction lasted from 1943 to full operation

Early computing machines had xed programs. For example, a desk calculator is a xed program computer.
It can do basic mathematics, but it cannot be used as
a word processor or a gaming console. Changing the
program of a xed-program machine requires re-wiring,
re-structuring, or re-designing the machine. The earliest computers were not so much programmed as they
were designed. Reprogramming, when it was possible at all, was a laborious process, starting with owcharts
and paper notes, followed by detailed engineering designs, and then the often-arduous process of physically
re-wiring and re-building the machine.[71]
With the proposal of the stored-program computer this
changed. A stored-program computer includes by design
an instruction set and can store in memory a set of instructions (a program) that details the computation.

3.5.1 Theory

Memory

Control
Unit

Arithmetic
Logic
Unit
Accumulator

Input

Output

Design of the von Neumann architecture (1947)

The theoretical basis for the stored-program computer

had been laid by Alan Turing in his 1936 paper. In
1945 Turing joined the National Physical Laboratory and

30

CHAPTER 3. HISTORY OF COMPUTING HARDWARE

began work on developing an electronic stored-program the University of Manchester in 1946 and 1947, it was
digital computer. His 1945 report Proposed Electronic a cathode ray tube that used an eect called secondary
Calculator was the rst specication for such a device.
emission to temporarily store electronic binary data, and
Meanwhile, John von Neumann at the Moore School of was used successfully in several early computers.
Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, circulated his First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC in 1945.
Although substantially similar to Turings design and containing comparatively little engineering detail, the computer architecture it outlined became known as the "von
Neumann architecture". Turing presented a more detailed paper to the National Physical Laboratory (NPL)
Executive Committee in 1946, giving the rst reasonably
complete design of a stored-program computer, a device
he called the Automatic Computing Engine (ACE). However, the better-known EDVAC design of John von Neumann, who knew of Turings theoretical work, received
more publicity, despite its incomplete nature and questionable lack of attribution of the sources of some of the
ideas.[38]
Turing felt that speed and size of memory were crucial
and he proposed a high-speed memory of what would today be called 25 KB, accessed at a speed of 1 MHz. The
ACE implemented subroutine calls, whereas the EDVAC
did not, and the ACE also used Abbreviated Computer Instructions, an early form of programming language.

3.5.2

Manchester baby

Main article: Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine

The Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine,

Although the computer was considered small and primitive by the standards of its time, it was the rst working
machine to contain all of the elements essential to a modern electronic computer.[76] As soon as the SSEM had
demonstrated the feasibility of its design, a project was
initiated at the university to develop it into a more usable
computer, the Manchester Mark 1. The Mark 1 in turn
quickly became the prototype for the Ferranti Mark 1,
the worlds rst commercially available general-purpose
computer.[77]
The SSEM had a 32-bit word length and a memory of
32 words. As it was designed to be the simplest possible
stored-program computer, the only arithmetic operations
implemented in hardware were subtraction and negation;
other arithmetic operations were implemented in software. The rst of three programs written for the machine found the highest proper divisor of 218 (262,144),
a calculation that was known would take a long time to
runand so prove the computers reliabilityby testing
every integer from 218 - 1 downwards, as division was
implemented by repeated subtraction of the divisor. The
program consisted of 17 instructions and ran for 52 minutes before reaching the correct answer of 131,072, after
the SSEM had performed 3.5 million operations (for an
eective CPU speed of 1.1 kIPS).

3.5.3 Manchester Mark 1

The Experimental machine led on to the development of the Manchester Mark 1 at the University of
Manchester.[78] Work began in August 1948, and the rst
version was operational by April 1949; a program written to search for Mersenne primes ran error-free for nine
hours on the night of 16/17 June 1949. The machines
successful operation was widely reported in the British
press, which used the phrase electronic brain in describing it to their readers.

A section of the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine,

the rst stored-program computer

nicknamed Baby, was the worlds rst stored-program

computer. It was built at the Victoria University of
Manchester by Frederic C. Williams, Tom Kilburn and
Geo Tootill, and ran its rst program on 21 June
1948.[72]
The machine was not intended to be a practical computer
but was instead designed as a testbed for the Williams
tube, the rst random-access digital storage device.[73] Invented by Freddie Williams and Tom Kilburn[74][75] at

The computer is especially historically signicant because of its pioneering inclusion of index registers, an
innovation which made it easier for a program to read sequentially through an array of words in memory. Thirtyfour patents resulted from the machines development,
and many of the ideas behind its design were incorporated
in subsequent commercial products such as the IBM 701
and 702 as well as the Ferranti Mark 1. The chief designers, Frederic C. Williams and Tom Kilburn, concluded
from their experiences with the Mark 1 that computers
would be used more in scientic roles than in pure mathematics. In 1951 they started development work on Meg,
the Mark 1s successor, which would include a oating
point unit.

3.5. THE STORED-PROGRAM COMPUTER

3.5.4

EDSAC

The other contender for being the rst recognizably

modern digital stored-program computer[79] was the
EDSAC,[80] designed and constructed by Maurice Wilkes
and his team at the University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory in England at the University of Cambridge
in 1949. The machine was inspired by John von Neumann's seminal First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC and
was one of the rst usefully operational electronic digital
stored-program computer.[81]

31
In October 1947, the directors of J. Lyons & Company, a
British catering company famous for its teashops but with
strong interests in new oce management techniques, decided to take an active role in promoting the commercial
development of computers. The LEO I computer became operational in April 1951[87] and ran the worlds
rst regular routine oce computer job. On 17 November 1951, the J. Lyons company began weekly operation
of a bakery valuations job on the LEO (Lyons Electronic
Oce). This was the rst business application to go live
on a stored program computer.[88]

EDSAC ran its rst programs on 6 May 1949, when it

calculated a table of squares[82] and a list of prime numbers.The EDSAC also served as the basis for the rst
commercially applied computer, the LEO I, used by food
manufacturing company J. Lyons & Co. Ltd. EDSAC
1 and was nally shut down on 11 July 1958, having
been superseded by EDSAC 2 which stayed in use until 1965.[83]

3.5.5

EDVAC

ENIAC inventors John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert

proposed the EDVAC's construction in August 1944,
and design work for the EDVAC commenced at the
University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering, before the ENIAC was fully operational.
The design would implement a number of important architectural and logical improvements conceived during
the ENIACs construction and would incorporate a high
speed serial access memory.[84] However, Eckert and Front panel of the IBM 650.
Mauchly left the project and its construction oundered.
In June 1951, the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic ComIt was nally delivered to the U.S. Army's Ballistics Reputer) was delivered to the U.S. Census Bureau. Remingsearch Laboratory at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in
ton Rand eventually sold 46 machines at more than US$1
August 1949, but due to a number of problems, the commillion each ($9.09 million as of 2015).[89] UNIVAC was
puter only began operation in 1951, and then only on a
the rst mass produced computer. It used 5,200 vaclimited basis.
uum tubes and consumed 125 kW of power. Its primary
storage was serial-access mercury delay lines capable of
storing 1,000 words of 11decimal digits plus sign (72-bit
3.5.6 Commercial computers
words).
The rst commercial computer was the Ferranti Mark
1, built by Ferranti and delivered to the University of
Manchester in February 1951. It was based on the
Manchester Mark 1. The main improvements over the
Manchester Mark 1 were in the size of the primary storage (using random access Williams tubes), secondary
storage (using a magnetic drum), a faster multiplier, and
additional instructions. The basic cycle time was 1.2 milliseconds, and a multiplication could be completed in
about 2.16 milliseconds. The multiplier used almost a
quarter of the machines 4,050 vacuum tubes (valves).[85]
A second machine was purchased by the University of
Toronto, before the design was revised into the Mark 1
Star. At least seven of these later machines were delivered between 1953 and 1957, one of them to Shell labs
in Amsterdam.[86]

IBM introduced a smaller, more aordable computer in

1954 that proved very popular.[90] The IBM 650 weighed
over 900 kg, the attached power supply weighed around
1350 kg and both were held in separate cabinets of
roughly 1.5 meters by 0.9 meters by 1.8 meters. It
cost US$500,000[91] ($4.39 million as of 2015) or could
be leased for US$3,500 a month ($30 thousand as of
2015).[89] Its drum memory was originally 2,000 tendigit words, later expanded to 4,000 words. Memory
limitations such as this were to dominate programming
for decades afterward. The program instructions were
fetched from the spinning drum as the code ran. Ecient
execution using drum memory was provided by a combination of hardware architecture: the instruction format
included the address of the next instruction; and software:
the Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program, SOAP,[92] as-

32

CHAPTER 3. HISTORY OF COMPUTING HARDWARE

signed instructions to the optimal addresses (to the extent

possible by static analysis of the source program). Thus
many instructions were, when needed, located in the next
row of the drum to be read and additional wait time for
drum rotation was not required.

computer. The IBM 704, introduced in 1954, used magnetic core memory, which became the standard for large
machines.

3.5.7

Microprogramming

IBM introduced the rst disk storage unit, the IBM 350
RAMAC (Random Access Method of Accounting and
Control) in 1956. Using fty 24-inch (610 mm) metal
disks, with 100 tracks per side, it was able to store 5
megabytes of data at a cost of US$10,000 per megabyte
($90 thousand as of 2015).[89][98]

In 1951, British scientist Maurice Wilkes developed the

concept of microprogramming from the realisation that
the Central Processing Unit of a computer could be controlled by a miniature, highly specialised computer pro- 3.6 Early computer characteristics
gram in high-speed ROM. Microprogramming allows the
base instruction set to be dened or extended by built-in
3.7 Transistor computers
programs (now called rmware or microcode).[93] This
concept greatly simplied CPU development. He rst described this at the University of Manchester Computer In- Main article: Transistor computer
augural Conference in 1951, then published in expanded Further information: List of transistorized computers
form in IEEE Spectrum in 1955.
It was widely used in the CPUs and oating-point units of The bipolar transistor was invented in 1947. From
mainframe and other computers; it was implemented for 1955 onwards transistors replaced vacuum tubes in com[99]
giving rise to the second generation
the rst time in EDSAC 2,[94] which also used multiple puter designs,
of
computers.
Initially
the only devices available were
identical bit slices to simplify design. Interchangeable,
germanium
point-contact
transistors.[100]
replaceable tube assemblies were used for each bit of the
processor.[95]

3.5.8

Magnetic storage

A bipolar junction transistor

Magnetic core memory. Each core is one bit.

By 1954, magnetic core memory was rapidly displacing most other forms of temporary storage, including the
Williams tube. It went on to dominate the eld through
the mid-1970s.[96]
A key feature of the American UNIVAC I system of
1951 was the implementation of a newly invented type
of metal magnetic tape, and a high-speed tape unit, for
non-volatile storage. Magnetic tape is still used in many
computers.[97] In 1952, IBM publicly announced the IBM
701 Electronic Data Processing Machine, the rst in its
successful 700/7000 series and its rst IBM mainframe

Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages: they are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give o less heat. Silicon junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had
longer, indenite, service life. Transistorized computers
could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in
a relatively compact space. Transistors greatly reduced
computers size, initial cost, and operating cost. Typically, second-generation computers were composed of
large numbers of printed circuit boards such as the IBM
Standard Modular System[101] each carrying one to four
logic gates or ip-ops.
At the University of Manchester, a team under the leadership of Tom Kilburn designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves. Initially the only devices available were germanium point-

3.7. TRANSISTOR COMPUTERS

contact transistors, less reliable than the valves they replaced but which consumed far less power.[102] Their rst
transistorised computer and the rst in the world, was
operational by 1953,[103] and a second version was completed there in April 1955.[104] The 1955 version used
200 transistors, 1,300 solid-state diodes, and had a power
consumption of 150 watts. However, the machine did
make use of valves to generate its 125 kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic
drum memory, so it was not the rst completely transistorized computer.
That distinction goes to the Harwell CADET of 1955,[105]
built by the electronics division of the Atomic Energy
Research Establishment at Harwell. The design featured
a 64-kilobyte magnetic drum memory store with multiple moving heads that had been designed at the National
Physical Laboratory, UK. By 1953 his team had transistor circuits operating to read and write on a smaller
magnetic drum from the Royal Radar Establishment.
The machine used a low clock speed of only 58 kHz
to avoid having to use any valves to generate the clock
waveforms.[106][107]

33
interchangeability guarantees a nearly unlimited quantity
of data close at hand. Magnetic tape provided archival
capability for this data, at a lower cost than disk.
Many second-generation CPUs delegated peripheral device communications to a secondary processor. For example, while the communication processor controlled
card reading and punching, the main CPU executed calculations and binary branch instructions. One databus
would bear data between the main CPU and core memory at the CPUs fetch-execute cycle rate, and other
databusses would typically serve the peripheral devices.
On the PDP-1, the core memorys cycle time was 5
microseconds; consequently most arithmetic instructions
took 10 microseconds (100,000 operations per second)
because most operations took at least two memory cycles;
one for the instruction, one for the operand data fetch.

During the second generation remote terminal units (often in the form of Teleprinters like a Friden Flexowriter) saw greatly increased use.[112] Telephone connections provided sucient speed for early remote terminals and allowed hundreds of kilometers separation between remote-terminals and the computing center. EvenCADET used 324 point-contact transistors provided by tually these stand-alone computer networks would be genthe UK company Standard Telephones and Cables; 76 eralized into an interconnected network of networksthe
junction transistors were used for the rst stage ampli- Internet.[113]
ers for data read from the drum, since point-contact
transistors were too noisy. From August 1956 CADET
was oering a regular computing service, during which it 3.7.2 Supercomputers
often executed continuous computing runs of 80 hours
or more.[108][109] Problems with the reliability of early
batches of point contact and alloyed junction transistors
meant that the machines mean time between failures was
about 90 minutes, but this improved once the more reliable bipolar junction transistors became available.[110]
The Transistor Computers design was adopted by the
local engineering rm of Metropolitan-Vickers in their
Metrovick 950, the rst commercial transistor computer
anywhere.[111] Six Metrovick 950s were built, the rst
completed in 1956. They were successfully deployed
within various departments of the company and were in
use for about ve years.[104]
A second generation computer, the IBM 1401, captured
about one third of the world market. IBM installed more The University of Manchester Atlas in January 1963
than ten thousand 1401s between 1960 and 1964.
The early 1960s saw the advent of supercomputing. The
Atlas Computer was a joint development between the
University of Manchester, Ferranti, and Plessey, and
3.7.1 Transistorized peripherals
was rst installed at Manchester University and oTransistorized electronics improved not only the CPU cially commissioned in 1962 as one of the worlds rst
(Central Processing Unit), but also the peripheral devices. supercomputers - considered to be the most powerful
The second generation disk data storage units were able computer in the world at that time.[114] It was said
to store tens of millions of letters and digits. Next to that whenever Atlas went oine half of the United
the xed disk storage units, connected to the CPU via Kingdoms computer capacity was lost.[115] It was a
high-speed data transmission, were removable disk data second-generation machine, using discrete germanium
storage units. A removable disk pack can be easily ex- transistors. Atlas also pioneered the Atlas Supervisor,
changed with another pack in a few seconds. Even if the considered by many to be the rst recognisable modern
removable disks capacity is smaller than xed disks, their operating system".[116]

34

CHAPTER 3. HISTORY OF COMPUTING HARDWARE

In the US, a series of computers at Control Data Corporation (CDC) were designed by Seymour Cray to
use innovative designs and parallelism to achieve superior computational peak performance.[117] The CDC
6600, released in 1964, is generally considered the rst
supercomputer.[118][119] The CDC 6600 outperformed its
predecessor, the IBM 7030 Stretch, by about a factor of
three. With performance of about 1 megaFLOPS,[120]
the CDC 6600 was the worlds fastest computer from
1964 to 1969, when it relinquished that status to its successor, the CDC 7600.

3.8 The integrated circuit

Intel 8742 eight-bit microcontroller IC

The next great advance in computing power came with

the advent of the integrated circuit. The idea of the integrated circuit was conceived by a radar scientist working
for the Royal Radar Establishment of the Ministry of Defence, Georey W.A. Dummer. Dummer presented the
rst public description of an integrated circuit at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in
Washington, D.C. on 7 May 1952:[121]
With the advent of the transistor and the work
on semi-conductors generally, it now seems
possible to envisage electronic equipment in a
solid block with no connecting wires.[122] The
block may consist of layers of insulating, conducting, rectifying and amplifying materials,
the electronic functions being connected directly by cutting out areas of the various layers.

The explosion in the use of computers began with thirdgeneration computers, making use of Jack St. Clair
Kilbys and Robert Noyces independent invention of the
integrated circuit (or microchip). This led to the invention of the microprocessor. While the subject of exactly which device was the rst microprocessor is contentious, partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term microprocessor, it is largely undisputed that the rst single-chip microprocessor was the Intel 4004,[128] designed and realized by Ted Ho, Federico
Faggin, and Stanley Mazor at Intel.[129]

While the earliest microprocessor ICs literally contained

only the processor, i.e. the central processing unit, of
a computer, their progressive development naturally led
to chips containing most or all of the internal electronic
parts of a computer. The integrated circuit in the image on the right, for example, an Intel 8742, is an 8-bit
The rst practical ICs were invented by Jack Kilby microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz,
at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in
Semiconductor.[123] Kilby recorded his initial ideas con- the same chip.
cerning the integrated circuit in July 1958, successfully
During the 1960s there was considerable overlap between
demonstrating the rst working integrated example on 12
second and third generation technologies.[130] IBM imSeptember 1958.[124] In his patent application of 6 Februplemented its IBM Solid Logic Technology modules in
ary 1959, Kilby described his new device as a body of
hybrid circuits for the IBM System/360 in 1964. As late
semiconductor material ... wherein all the components of
as 1975, Sperry Univac continued the manufacture of
the electronic circuit are completely integrated.[125] The
second-generation machines such as the UNIVAC 494.
rst customer for the invention was the US Air Force.[126]
The Burroughs large systems such as the B5000 were
Noyce also came up with his own idea of an integrated stack machines, which allowed for simpler programming.
circuit half a year later than Kilby.[127] His chip solved These pushdown automatons were also implemented in
many practical problems that Kilbys had not. Pro- minicomputers and microprocessors later, which inuduced at Fairchild Semiconductor, it was made of silicon, enced programming language design. Minicomputers
whereas Kilbys chip was made of germanium.
served as low-cost computer centers for industry, business and universities.[131] It became possible to simulate analog circuits with the simulation program with inte3.9 Post-1960 (integrated circuit grated circuit emphasis, or SPICE (1971) on minicomputers, one of the programs for electronic design automation
based)
(EDA). The microprocessor led to the development of
the microcomputer, small, low-cost computers that could
Main articles: History of computing hardware (1960s be owned by individuals and small businesses. Micropresent) and History of general purpose CPUs
computers, the rst of which appeared in the 1970s, be-

3.10. FUTURE
came ubiquitous in the 1980s and beyond.
In April 1975 at the Hannover Fair, Olivetti presented
the P6060, the worlds rst personal computer with builtin oppy disk: a central processing unit on two cards,
code named PUCE1 and PUCE2, with TTL components.
It had one or two 8 oppy disk drives, a 32-character
plasma display, 80-column graphical thermal printer, 48
Kbytes of RAM, and BASIC language. It weighed 40 kg
(88 lb). It was in competition with a similar product by
IBM that had an external oppy disk drive.
MOS Technology KIM-1 and Altair 8800, were sold as
kits for do-it-yourselfers, as was the Apple I, soon afterward. The rst Apple computer with graphic and sound
capabilities came out well after the Commodore PET.
Computing has evolved with microcomputer architectures, with features added from their larger brethren, now
dominant in most market segments.
Systems as complicated as computers require very high
reliability. ENIAC remained on, in continuous operation from 1947 to 1955, for eight years before being shut down. Although a vacuum tube might fail, it
would be replaced without bringing down the system. By
the simple strategy of never shutting down ENIAC, the
failures were dramatically reduced. The vacuum-tube
SAGE air-defense computers became remarkably reliable installed in pairs, one o-line, tubes likely to fail
did so when the computer was intentionally run at reduced
power to nd them. Hot-pluggable hard disks, like the
hot-pluggable vacuum tubes of yesteryear, continue the
tradition of repair during continuous operation. Semiconductor memories routinely have no errors when they
operate, although operating systems like Unix have employed memory tests on start-up to detect failing hardware. Today, the requirement of reliable performance
is made even more stringent when server farms are the
delivery platform.[132] Google has managed this by using
fault-tolerant software to recover from hardware failures,
and is even working on the concept of replacing entire
server farms on-the-y, during a service event.[133][134]
In the 21st century, multi-core CPUs became commercially available.[135] Content-addressable memory
(CAM)[136] has become inexpensive enough to be used
in networking, although no computer system has yet implemented hardware CAMs for use in programming languages. Currently, CAMs (or associative arrays) in software are programming-language-specic. Semiconductor memory cell arrays are very regular structures, and
manufacturers prove their processes on them; this allows
price reductions on memory products. During the 1980s,
CMOS logic gates developed into devices that could be
made as fast as other circuit types; computer power consumption could therefore be decreased dramatically. Unlike the continuous current draw of a gate based on other
logic types, a CMOS gate only draws signicant current during the 'transition' between logic states, except
for leakage.

35
This has allowed computing to become a commodity
which is now ubiquitous, embedded in many forms, from
greeting cards and telephones to satellites. The thermal
design power which is dissipated during operation has become as essential as computing speed of operation. In
2006 servers consumed 1.5% of the total energy budget
of the U.S.[137] The energy consumption of computer data
centers was expected to double to 3% of world consumption by 2011. The SoC (system on a chip) has compressed
even more of the integrated circuitry into a single chip;
SoCs are enabling phones and PCs to converge into single
hand-held wireless mobile devices.[138] Computing hardware and its software have even become a metaphor for
the operation of the universe.[139]

3.10 Future
Although DNA-based computing and quantum computing are years or decades in the future, the infrastructure is being laid today, for example, with DNA origami
on photolithography[140] and with quantum antennae for
transferring information between ion traps.[141] By 2011,
researchers had entangled 14 qubits.[142] Fast digital circuits (including those based on Josephson junctions and
rapid single ux quantum technology) are becoming more
nearly realizable with the discovery of nanoscale superconductors.[143]
Fiber-optic and photonic devices, which already have
been used to transport data over long distances, are now
entering the data center, side by side with CPU and semiconductor memory components. This allows the separation of RAM from CPU by optical interconnects.[144]
IBM has created an integrated circuit with both electronic
and optical (this is called photonic) information processing in one chip. This is denoted CMOS-integrated
nanophotonics or (CINP).[145] One benet of optical interconnects is that motherboards which formerly required
a certain kind of system on a chip (SoC) can now move
formerly dedicated memory and network controllers o
the motherboards, spreading the controllers out onto the
rack. This allows standardization of backplane interconnects and motherboards for multiple types of SoCs,
which allows more timely upgrades of CPUs.[146]
An indication of the rapidity of development of this eld
can be inferred by the history of the seminal article.[147]
By the time that anyone had time to write anything
down, it was obsolete. After 1945, others read John
von Neumanns First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC,
and immediately started implementing their own systems.
To this day, the pace of development has continued,
worldwide.[148][149][150]

3.11 See also

Antikythera mechanism

36

CHAPTER 3. HISTORY OF COMPUTING HARDWARE

History of computing

[14] See in particular, http://things-that-count.net

Information Age

[15] As quoted in Smith 1929, pp. 180181

IT History Society

[16] Leibniz 1703

Timeline of computing

[17] Binary-coded decimal (BCD) is a numeric representation,

or character encoding, which is still widely used.
[18] Discovering the Arithmometer, Cornell University

3.12 Notes
[1] According to Schmandt-Besserat 1981, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count
of objects being transferred. The containers thus served
as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In
order to avoid breaking open the containers, rst, clay
impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of
the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; nally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these
numerals were nally formalized as numbers. Eventually (Schmandt-Besserat estimates it took 4000 years)
the marks on the outside of the containers were all that
were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers
evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count.
[2] Robson, Eleanor (2008), Mathematics in Ancient Iraq,
ISBN 978-0-691-09182-2. p.5: calculi were in use in
Iraq for primitive accounting systems as early as 3200
3000 BCE, with commodity-specic counting representation systems. Balanced accounting was in use by 3000
2350 BCE, and a sexagesimal number system was in use
23502000 BCE.
[3] Lazos 1994
[4] Noel Sharkey (July 4, 2007), A programmable robot from
60 AD 2611, New Scientist
[5] A Spanish implementation of Napiers bones (1617), is
documented in Montaner & Simon 1887, pp. 1920.
[6] Kells, Kern & Bland 1943, p. 92
[7] Kells, Kern & Bland 1943, p. 82
[8] "...the single-tooth gear, like that used by Schickard,
would not do for a general carry mechanism. The singletooth gear works ne if the carry is only going to be propagated a few places but, if the carry has to be propagated
several places along the accumulator, the force needed to
operate the machine would be of such magnitude that it
would do damage to the delicate gear works. Williams
1997, p. 128
[9] (fr) La Machine darithmtique, Blaise Pascal, Wikisource

[19] Columbia University Computing History Herman

Hollerith. Columbia.edu. Retrieved 2010-01-30.
[20] U.S. Census Bureau: Tabulation and Processing
[21] http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1920.
html
[22] http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/decade_
1930.html
[23] Eckert 1935
[24] Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau
[25] Eckert 1940, pp. 101=114. Chapter XII is The Computation of Planetary Perturbations.
[26] Hunt 1998, pp. xiiixxxvi
[27] Old Calculator Museum
[28] Simple and Silent, Oce Magazine, December 1961,
p1244
[29] "'Anita' der erste tragbare elektonische Rechenautomat
[trans: the rst portable electronic computer"], Buromaschinen Mechaniker, November 1961, p207
[30] Halacy, Daniel Stephen (1970). Charles Babbage, Father of the Computer. Crowell-Collier Press. ISBN 0-02741370-5.
[31] Babbage. Online stu. Science Museum. 2007-01-19.
Retrieved 2012-08-01.
[32] Lets build Babbages ultimate mechanical computer.
opinion. New Scientist. 23 December 2010. Retrieved
2012-08-01.
[33] http://cse.stanford.edu/classes/sophomore-college/
projects-98/babbage/ana-mech.htm
[34] The Babbage Pages:
Calculating Engines.
Projects.ex.ac.uk. 1997-01-08. Retrieved 2012-0801.
[35] Tim Robinson (2007-05-28). Dierence Engines.
Meccano.us. Retrieved 2012-08-01.
[36] Menabrea & Lovelace 1843

[10] Marguin 1994, p. 48

[37] Chua 1971, pp. 507519

[11] Maurice d'Ocagne (1893), p. 245 Copy of this book found

on the CNAM site

[38] The Modern History of Computing. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

[12] Mourlevat 1988, p. 12

[39] Ray Girvan, The revealed grace of the mechanism:

computing after Babbage, Scientic Computing World,
May/June 2003

[13] All nine machines are described in Vidal & Vogt 2011.

3.12. NOTES

[40] Singer 1946

[41] Norden

37

[64] Bletchleys code-cracking Colossus, BBC News, 2

February 2010, retrieved 19 October 2012

[42] Coriolis 1836, pp. 59

[65] Fensom, Jim (8 November 2010), Harry Fensom obituary,

retrieved 17 October 2012

[43] Turing 1937, pp. 230265. Online versions: Proceedings

of the London Mathematical Society Another version online.

[66] The
Colossus
Rebuild
colossus-rebuild-story

http://www.tnmoc.org/

[44] von Neumann ... rmly emphasized to me, and to others I am sure, that the fundamental conception is owing to
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3.14 Further reading

Ceruzzi, Paul E., A History of Modern Computing,
MIT Press, 1998

3.15 External links

Obsolete Technology Old Computers
History of calculating technology
Historic Computers in Japan

3.15. EXTERNAL LINKS

The History of Japanese Mechanical Calculating
Machines
Computer History a collection of articles by Bob
Bemer
25 Microchips that shook the world a collection
of articles by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

43

Chapter 4

Software
For other uses, see Software (disambiguation).

4.1 History

Computer software, or simply software is any set of

machine-readable instructions that directs a computer's
processor to perform specic operations. Computer software contrasts with computer hardware, which is the
physical component of computers. Computer hardware
and software require each other and neither can be realistically used without the other. Using a musical analogy,
hardware is like a musical instrument and software is like
the notes played on that instrument.

Main article: History of software

An outline (algorithm) for what would have been the rst
piece of software was written by Ada Lovelace in the 19th
century, for the planned analytical engine. However, neither the analytical engine nor any software for it were ever
created.

The rst theory about software - prior to the creation

of computers as we know them today - was proposed
Computer software includes computer programs, by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay Computable numbers
libraries and their associated documentation. The word with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem (decision
software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, problem).
meaning application software only. Software is stored
in computer memory and is intangible, i.e. it cannot be This eventually led to the creation of the twin academic
elds of computer science and software engineering,
touched.[1]
which both study software and its creation. Computer
At the lowest level, executable code consists of machine science is more theoretical (Turings essay is an examlanguage instructions specic to an individual processor ple of computer science), whereas software engineering
typically a central processing unit (CPU). A machine is focused on more practical concerns.
language consists of groups of binary values signifying
processor instructions that change the state of the com- However, prior to 1946, software as we now understand it
puter from its preceding state. For example, an instruc- - programs stored in the memory of stored-program digition may change the value stored in a particular storage tal computers - did not yet exist. The very rst electronic
location inside the computer an eect that is not di- computing devices were instead rewired in order to rerectly observable to the user. An instruction may also program them.
(indirectly) cause something to appear on a display of the
computer system a state change which should be visible to the user. The processor carries out the instructions 4.2 Types of software
in the order they are provided, unless it is instructed to
jump to a dierent instruction, or interrupted.
See also: List of software categories
Software written in a machine language is known as machine code. However, in practice, software is usually A diagram showing how the operating system softwritten in high-level programming languages that are eas- ware and application software are layered on a typical
ier and more ecient for humans to use (closer to natural desktop computer. The arrows indicate information ow.
language) than machine language.[2] High-level languages
are translated, using compilation or interpretation or a
combination of the two, into machine language. Software On virtually all computer platforms, software can be
may also be written in a low-level assembly language, es- grouped into a few broad categories.
sentially, a vaguely mnemonic representation of a machine language using a natural language alphabet. Assembly language is translated into machine code using an 4.2.1 Purpose, or domain of use
assembler.
Based on the goal, computer software can be divided into:
44

4.2. TYPES OF SOFTWARE

Application software, which uses the computer
system to perform special functions or provide
entertainment functions beyond the basic operation
of the computer itself. There are many dierent
types of application software, because the range of
tasks that can be performed with a modern computer
is so large - see list of software.
System software, which is designed to directly
operate the computer hardware, to provide basic
functionality needed by users and other software,
and to provide a platform for running application
software.[3] System software includes:
Operating systems, which are essential collections of software that manage resources and
provides common services for other software
that runs on top of them. Supervisory programs, boot loaders, shells and window systems are core parts of operating systems. In
practice, an operating system comes bundled
with additional software (including application software) so that a user can potentially do
some work with a computer that only has an
operating system.
Device drivers, which operate or control a particular type of device that is attached to a computer. Each device needs at least one corresponding device driver; because a computer
typically has at minimum at least one input device and at least one output device, a computer
typically needs more than one device driver.
Utilities, which are computer programs designed to assist users in maintenance and care
of their computers.
Malicious software or malware, which are computer programs developed to harm and disrupt computers. As such, malware is undesirable. Malware
is closely associated with computer-related crimes,
though some malicious programs may have been designed as practical jokes.

4.2.2

Nature, or domain of execution

45
without the need for a web browser plugin. Software written in other programming languages can
also be run within the web browser if the software is
either translated into JavaScript, or if a web browser
plugin that supports that language is installed; the
most common example of the latter is ActionScript
scripts, which are supported by the Adobe Flash plugin.
Server software, including:
Web applications, which usually run on the
web server and output dynamically generated
web pages to web browsers, using e.g. PHP,
Java or ASP.NET, or even JavaScript that runs
on the server. In modern times these commonly include some JavaScript to be run in the
web browser as well, in which case they typically run partly on the server, partly in the web
browser.
Plugins and extensions are software that extends or
modies the functionality of another piece of software, and require that software be used in order to
function;
Embedded software resides as rmware within
embedded systems, devices dedicated to a single
use or a few uses such as cars and televisions (although some embedded devices such as wireless
chipsets can themselves be part of an ordinary,
non-embedded computer system such as a PC or
smartphone).[4] In the embedded system context
there is sometimes no clear distinction between the
system software and the application software. However, some embedded systems run embedded operating systems, and these systems do retain the distinction between system software and application
software (although typically there will only be one,
xed, application which is always ran).
Microcode is a special, relatively obscure type of
embedded software which tells the processor itself how to execute machine code, so it is actually a lower level than machine code.[5] It is typically proprietary to the processor manufacturer, and
any necessary correctional microcode software updates are supplied by them to users (which is much
cheaper than shipping replacement processor hardware). Thus an ordinary programmer would not expect to ever have to deal with it.

Desktop applications such as web browsers and

Microsoft Oce, as well as smartphone and tablet
applications (called "apps"). (There is a push in
some parts of the software industry to merge desktop applications with mobile apps, to some extent.
Windows 8, and later Ubuntu Touch, tried to allow
the same style of application user interface to be 4.2.3 Programming tools
used on desktops and laptops, mobile devices, and
hybrid tablets.)
Main article: Programming tool

JavaScript scripts are pieces of software traditionally embedded in web pages that are run directly Programming tools are also software in the form of
inside the web browser when a web page is loaded programs or applications that software developers (also

46

CHAPTER 4. SOFTWARE

known as programmers, coders, hackers or software engineers) use to create, debug, maintain (i.e. improve or
x), or otherwise support software. Software is written
in one or more programming languages; there are many
programming languages in existence, and each has at least
one implementation, each of which consists of its own
set of programming tools. These tools may be relatively
self-contained programs such as compilers, debuggers,
interpreters, linkers, and text editors, that can be combined together to accomplish a task; or they may form
an integrated development environment (IDE), which
combines much or all of the functionality of such selfcontained tools. IDEs may do this by either invoking
the relevant individual tools or by re-implementing their
functionality in a new way. An IDE can make it easier to
do specic tasks, such as searching in les in a particular
project. Many programming language implementations
provide the option of using both individual tools or an
IDE.

4.3 Software topics

4.3.1

Architecture

See also: Software architecture

Users often see things dierently from programmers.
People who use modern general purpose computers (as
opposed to embedded systems, analog computers and
supercomputers) usually see three layers of software performing a variety of tasks: platform, application, and user
software.
Platform software: Platform includes the rmware,
device drivers, an operating system, and typically
a graphical user interface which, in total, allow a
user to interact with the computer and its peripherals
(associated equipment). Platform software often
comes bundled with the computer. On a PC one
will usually have the ability to change the platform
software.
Application software: Application software or Applications are what most people think of when they
think of software. Typical examples include oce
suites and video games. Application software is often purchased separately from computer hardware.
Sometimes applications are bundled with the computer, but that does not change the fact that they run
as independent applications. Applications are usually independent programs from the operating system, though they are often tailored for specic platforms. Most users think of compilers, databases,
and other system software as applications.

ware include spreadsheet templates and word processor templates. Even email lters are a kind of
user software. Users create this software themselves
and often overlook how important it is. Depending on how competently the user-written software
has been integrated into default application packages, many users may not be aware of the distinction
between the original packages, and what has been
added by co-workers.

4.3.2 Execution
Main article: Execution (computing)
Computer software has to be loaded into the computers
storage (such as the hard drive or memory). Once the
software has loaded, the computer is able to execute the
software. This involves passing instructions from the
application software, through the system software, to
the hardware which ultimately receives the instruction
as machine code. Each instruction causes the computer
to carry out an operation moving data, carrying out a
computation, or altering the control ow of instructions.
Data movement is typically from one place in memory
to another. Sometimes it involves moving data between
memory and registers which enable high-speed data access in the CPU. Moving data, especially large amounts
of it, can be costly. So, this is sometimes avoided by using
pointers to data instead. Computations include simple
operations such as incrementing the value of a variable
data element. More complex computations may involve
many operations and data elements together.

4.3.3 Quality and reliability

Main articles: Software quality, Software testing and
Software reliability
Software quality is very important, especially for
commercial and system software like Microsoft Oce,
Microsoft Windows and Linux. If software is faulty
(buggy), it can delete a persons work, crash the computer and do other unexpected things. Faults and errors
are called "bugs. Software is often also a victim to what
is known as software aging, the progressive performance
degradation resulting from a combination of unseen bugs.

Many bugs are discovered and eliminated (debugged)

through software testing. However, software testing
rarely if ever eliminates every bug; some programmers say that every program has at least one more bug
(Lubarskys Law).[6] In the waterfall method of software
development, separate testing teams are typically employed, but in newer approaches, collectively termed agile
User-written software: End-user development tai- software development, developers often do all their own
lors systems to meet users specic needs. User soft- testing, and demonstrate the software to users/clients reg-

4.4. DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

ularly to obtain feedback. Software can be tested through
unit testing, regression testing and other methods, which
are done manually, or most commonly, automatically,
since the amount of code to be tested can be quite large.
For instance, NASA has extremely rigorous software testing procedures for many operating systems and communication functions. Many NASA-based operations interact and identify each other through command programs.
This enables many people who work at NASA to check
and evaluate functional systems overall. Programs containing command software enable hardware engineering
and system operations to function much easier together.

47
software patents are supposed to cover the middle area,
between requirements and concrete implementation. In
some countries, a requirement for the claimed invention
to have an eect on the physical world may also be part of
the requirements for a software patent to be held valid although since all useful software has eects on the physical world, this requirement may be open to debate.

Software patents are controversial in the software industry with many people holding dierent views about them.
One of the sources of controversy is that the aforementioned split between initial ideas and patent does not seem
to be honored in practice by patent lawyers - for example the patent for Aspect-Oriented Programming (AOP),
which purported to claim rights over any programming
4.3.4 License
tool implementing the idea of AOP, howsoever implemented. Another source of controversy is the eect on
Main article: Software license
innovation, with many distinguished experts and companies arguing that software is such a fast-moving eld that
The softwares license gives the user the right to use the software patents merely create vast additional litigation
software in the licensed environment, and in the case of costs and risks, and actually retard innovation. In the case
free software licenses, also grants other rights such as the of debates about software patents outside the US, the arright to make copies.
gument has been made that large American corporations
and patent lawyers are likely to be the primary beneciaProprietary software can be divided into two types:
ries of allowing or continue to allow software patents.
freeware, which includes the category of free
trial software or "freemium" software (in the
past, the term shareware was often used for free 4.4 Design and implementation
trial/freemium software). As the name suggests,
freeware can be used for free, although in the case of
free trials or freemium software, this is sometimes Main articles: Software development, Computer proonly true for a limited period of time or with limited gramming and Software engineering
functionality.
Design and implementation of software varies depend software available for a fee, often inaccurately ing on the complexity of the software. For instance, the
termed "commercial software", which can only be design and creation of Microsoft Word took much more
legally used on purchase of a license.
time than designing and developing Microsoft Notepad
because the latter has much more basic functionality.
Open source software, on the other hand, comes with a Software is usually designed and created (a.k.a.
free software license, granting the recipient the rights to coded/written/programmed) in integrated development
modify and redistribute the software.
environments (IDE) like Eclipse, IntelliJ and Microsoft

4.3.5

Patents

Main articles: Software patent and Software patent

debate
Software patents, like other types of patents, are theoretically supposed to give an inventor an exclusive, timelimited license for a detailed idea (e.g. an algorithm) on
how to implement a piece of software, or a component
of a piece of software. Ideas for useful things that software could do, and user requirements, are not supposed
to be patentable, and concrete implementations (i.e. the
actual software packages implementing the patent) are
not supposed to be patentable either - the latter are already covered by copyright, generally automatically. So

Visual Studio that can simplify the process and compile

the software (if applicable). As noted in a dierent
section, software is usually created on top of existing
software and the application programming interface
(API) that the underlying software provides like GTK+,
JavaBeans or Swing. Libraries (APIs) can be categorized
by their purpose. For instance, the Spring Framework
is used for implementing enterprise applications, the
Windows Forms library is used for designing graphical
user interface (GUI) applications like Microsoft Word,
and Windows Communication Foundation is used for
designing web services. When a program is designed, it
relies upon the API. For instance, if a user is designing a
Microsoft Windows desktop application, he or she might
use the .NET Windows Forms library to design the
desktop application and call its APIs like Form1.Close()
and Form1.Show()[7] to close or open the application,

48
and write the additional operations him/herself that it
needs to have. Without these APIs, the programmer
needs to write these APIs him/herself. Companies
like Oracle and Microsoft provide their own APIs so
that many applications are written using their software
libraries that usually have numerous APIs in them.
Data structures such as hash tables, arrays, and binary
trees, and algorithms such as quicksort, can be useful for
creating software.
Computer software has special economic characteristics
that make its design, creation, and distribution dierent
from most other economic goods.[8][9]
A person who creates software is called a programmer,
software engineer or software developer, terms that all
have a similar meaning. More informal terms for programmer also exist such as coder and "hacker" although use of the latter word may cause confusion, because it is more often used to mean someone who illegally
breaks into computer systems.

4.5 Industry and organizations

Main article: Software industry
A great variety of software companies and programmers in the world comprise a software industry. Software can be quite a protable industry: Bill Gates, the
founder of Microsoft was the richest person in the world
in 2009, largely due to his ownership of a signicant number of shares in Microsoft, the company responsible for
Microsoft Windows and Microsoft Oce software products.
Non-prot software organizations include the Free Software Foundation, GNU Project and Mozilla Foundation.
Software standard organizations like the W3C, IETF develop recommended software standards such as XML,
HTTP and HTML, so that software can interoperate
through these standards.
Other well-known large software companies include
Oracle, Novell, SAP, Symantec, Adobe Systems, and
Corel, while small companies often provide innovation.

4.6 See also

Software release life cycle
List of software

4.7 References
[1] "'Software' from Collins Concise English Dictionary.
Wordreference.com. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University.

CHAPTER 4. SOFTWARE

Retrieved 2007-08-19.
[2] Compiler construction.
[3] System Software. The University of Mississippi.
[4] Embedded SoftwareTechnologies and Trends. IEEE
Computer Society. Retrieved MayJune 2009.
[5] Microcode. Princeton University.
[6] scripting intelligence book examples.
[7] MSDN Library. Retrieved 2010-06-14.
[8] v. Engelhardt, Sebastian (2008). The Economic Properties of Software. Jena Economic Research Papers 2
(2008045.).
[9] Kaminsky, Dan (1999). Why Open Source Is The Optimum Economic Paradigm for Software.

4.8 External links

Software Wikia
Software in Open Directory Project
Software glitches are sometimes deadly

Chapter 5

Computer science
Computer science is the scientic and practical approach to computation and its applications. It is the
systematic study of the feasibility, structure, expression, and mechanization of the methodical procedures
(or algorithms) that underlie the acquisition, representation, processing, storage, communication of, and access to information, whether such information is encoded
as bits in a computer memory or transcribed in genes
and protein structures in a biological cell.[1] An alternate, more succinct denition of computer science is the
study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A
computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.[2]
Its subelds can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some elds, such as
computational complexity theory (which explores the
fundamental properties of computational and intractable
problems), are highly abstract, while elds such as
computer graphics emphasize real-world visual applications. Still other elds focus on the challenges in implementing computation. For example, programming
language theory considers various approaches to the description of computation, while the study of computer
programming itself investigates various aspects of the
use of programming language and complex systems.
Humancomputer interaction considers the challenges in
making computers and computations useful, usable, and
universally accessible to humans.

Charles Babbage is credited with inventing the rst mechanical

computer.

ther, algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before sophisticated computing equipment were created. The ancient Sanskrit treatise
Shulba Sutras, or Rules of the Chord, is a book of algorithms written in 800 BCE for constructing geometric
objects like altars using a peg and chord, an early precurComputer science deals with the theoretical foundations sor of the modern eld of computational geometry.
of information and computation, together with practical
Blaise Pascal designed and constructed the rst working
techniques for the implementation and application of
mechanical calculator, Pascals calculator, in 1642.[3] In
these foundations
1673 Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the 'Stepped Reckoner'.[4] He may
be considered the rst computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons, documenting the
binary number system. In 1820, Thomas de Colmar
5.1 History
launched the mechanical calculator industry[5] when he
released his simplied arithmometer, which was the rst
Main article: History of computer science
calculating machine strong enough and reliable enough
The earliest foundations of what would become com- to be used daily in an oce environment. Charles Babputer science predate the invention of the modern digital bage started the design of the rst automatic mechanical
computer. Machines for calculating xed numerical tasks calculator, his dierence engine, in 1822, which evensuch as the abacus have existed since antiquity, aiding in tually gave him the idea of the rst programmable mecomputations such as multiplication and division. Fur- chanical calculator, his Analytical Engine.[6] He started
49

50

CHAPTER 5. COMPUTER SCIENCE

program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science,
began at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory in 1953. The rst computer science degree program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962.[15] Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights.
Although many initially believed it was impossible that
computers themselves could actually be a scientic eld
of study, in the late fties it gradually became accepted
among the greater academic population.[16] It is the now
well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer
science revolution during this time. IBM (short for International Business Machines) released the IBM 704[17]
and later the IBM 709[18] computers, which were widely
used during the exploration period of such devices. Still,
working with the IBM [computer] was frustrating ... if
you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to
start the whole process over again.[16] During the late
1950s, the computer science discipline was very much in
its developmental stages, and such issues were commonplace.

Ada Lovelace is credited with writing the rst algorithm intended

for processing on a computer.

developing this machine in 1834 and in less than two

years he had sketched out many of the salient features
of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a punched card system derived from the Jacquard
loom[7] making it innitely programmable.[8] In 1843,
during the translation of a French article on the analytical engine, Ada Lovelace wrote, in one of the many
notes she included, an algorithm to compute the Bernoulli
numbers, which is considered to be the rst computer
program.[9] Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the
tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical information; eventually his company became part of
IBM. In 1937, one hundred years after Babbages impossible dream, Howard Aiken convinced IBM, which
was making all kinds of punched card equipment and was
also in the calculator business[10] to develop his giant programmable calculator, the ASCC/Harvard Mark I, based
on Babbages analytical engine, which itself used cards
and a central computing unit. When the machine was nished, some hailed it as Babbages dream come true.[11]
During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing
machines were developed, the term computer came
to refer to the machines rather than their human
predecessors.[12] As it became clear that computers could
be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the
eld of computer science broadened to study computation
in general. Computer science began to be established
as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early
1960s.[13][14] The worlds rst computer science degree

Time has seen signicant improvements in the usability

and eectiveness of computing technology. Modern society has seen a signicant shift in the users of computer
technology, from usage only by experts and professionals,
to a near-ubiquitous user base. Initially, computers were
quite costly, and some degree of human aid was needed
for ecient use - in part from professional computer operators. As computer adoption became more widespread
and aordable, less human assistance was needed for
common usage.

5.1.1 History
Despite its short history as a formal academic discipline,
computer science has made a number of fundamental
contributions to science and society - in fact, along with
electronics, it is a founding science of the current epoch
of human history called the Information Age and a driver
of the Information Revolution, seen as the third major
leap in human technological progress after the Industrial
Revolution (1750-1850 CE) and the Agricultural Revolution (8000-5000 BCE).
These contributions include:
The start of the "digital revolution", which includes
the current Information Age and the Internet.[20]
A formal denition of computation and
computability, and proof that there are computationally unsolvable and intractable problems.[21]
The concept of a programming language, a tool for
the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction.[22]

5.2. PHILOSOPHY

51
tronic systems and circuits, as well as societies and
social situations (notably war games) along with
their habitats, among many others. Modern computers enable optimization of such designs as complete
aircraft. Notable in electrical and electronic circuit
design are SPICE, as well as software for physical
realization of new (or modied) designs. The latter includes essential design software for integrated
circuits.
Articial intelligence is becoming increasingly important as it gets more ecient and complex. There
are many applications of the AI, some of which can
be seen at home, such as robotic vacuum cleaners.
It is also present in video games and on the modern
battleeld in drones, anti-missile systems, and squad
support robots.

5.2 Philosophy
Main article: Philosophy of computer science

The German military used the Enigma machine (shown here)

during World War II for communication they thought to be secret. The large-scale decryption of Enigma trac at Bletchley
Park was an important factor that contributed to Allied victory
in WWII.[19]

In cryptography, breaking the Enigma code was an

important factor contributing to the Allied victory in
World War II.[19]

A number of computer scientists have argued for the distinction of three separate paradigms in computer science.
Peter Wegner argued that those paradigms are science,
technology, and mathematics.[25] Peter Denning's working group argued that they are theory, abstraction (modeling), and design.[26] Amnon H. Eden described them as
the rationalist paradigm (which treats computer science
as a branch of mathematics, which is prevalent in theoretical computer science, and mainly employs deductive
reasoning), the technocratic paradigm (which might
be found in engineering approaches, most prominently
in software engineering), and the scientic paradigm
(which approaches computer-related artifacts from the
empirical perspective of natural sciences, identiable in
some branches of articial intelligence).[27]

Scientic computing enabled practical evaluation of

processes and situations of great complexity, as well
as experimentation entirely by software. It also enabled advanced study of the mind, and mapping
of the human genome became possible with the
Human Genome Project.[20] Distributed computing projects such as Folding@home explore protein
5.2.1
folding.
Algorithmic trading has increased the eciency and
liquidity of nancial markets by using articial intelligence, machine learning, and other statistical
and numerical techniques on a large scale.[23] High
frequency algorithmic trading can also exacerbate
volatility.[24]
Computer graphics and computer-generated
imagery have become ubiquitous in modern
entertainment, particularly in television, cinema,
advertising, animation and video games. Even lms
that feature no explicit CGI are usually lmed
now on digital cameras, or edited or postprocessed
using a digital video editor.
Simulation of various processes, including computational uid dynamics, physical, electrical, and elec-

Name of the eld

The term computer science appears in a 1959 article

in Communications of the ACM,[28] in which Louis Fein
argues for the creation of a Graduate School in Computer Sciences analogous to the creation of Harvard Business School in 1921,[29] justifying the name by arguing
that, like management science, the subject is applied and
interdisciplinary in nature, while having the characteristics typical of an academic discipline.[30] His eorts,
and those of others such as numerical analyst George
Forsythe, were rewarded: universities went on to create such programs, starting with Purdue in 1962.[31] Despite its name, a signicant amount of computer science does not involve the study of computers themselves. Because of this, several alternative names have
been proposed.[32] Certain departments of major universities prefer the term computing science, to emphasize

52
precisely that dierence. Danish scientist Peter Naur suggested the term datalogy,[33] to reect the fact that the
scientic discipline revolves around data and data treatment, while not necessarily involving computers. The
rst scientic institution to use the term was the Department of Datalogy at the University of Copenhagen,
founded in 1969, with Peter Naur being the rst professor in datalogy. The term is used mainly in the Scandinavian countries. Also, in the early days of computing, a number of terms for the practitioners of the eld
of computing were suggested in the Communications of
the ACM turingineer, turologist, ow-charts-man, applied meta-mathematician, and applied epistemologist.[34]
Three months later in the same journal, comptologist was
suggested, followed next year by hypologist.[35] The term
computics has also been suggested.[36] In Europe, terms
derived from contracted translations of the expression
automatic information (e.g. informazione automatica
in Italian) or information and mathematics are often
used, e.g. informatique (French), Informatik (German),
informatica (Italy, The Netherlands), informtica (Spain,
Portugal), informatika (Slavic languages and Hungarian)
or pliroforiki (, which means informatics)
in Greek. Similar words have also been adopted in the
UK (as in the School of Informatics of the University of
Edinburgh).[37]

CHAPTER 5. COMPUTER SCIENCE

that the principal focus of computer science is studying
the properties of computation in general, while the principal focus of software engineering is the design of specic
computations to achieve practical goals, making the two
separate but complementary disciplines.[39]
The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer
science tend to depend on whether a department formed
with a mathematical emphasis or with an engineering emphasis. Computer science departments with a mathematics emphasis and with a numerical orientation consider
alignment with computational science. Both types of departments tend to make eorts to bridge the eld educationally if not across all research.

5.3 Areas of computer science

As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of
computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software.[40][41] CSAB,
formerly called Computing Sciences Accreditation Board
which is made up of representatives of the Association for
Computing Machinery (ACM), and the IEEE Computer
Society (IEEE-CS)[42] identies four areas that it considers crucial to the discipline of computer science: theory of computation, algorithms and data structures, programming methodology and languages, and computer elements and architecture. In addition to these four areas, CSAB also identies elds such as software engineering, articial intelligence, computer networking and
telecommunications, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, computer-human interaction, computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and symbolic computation as being important areas
of computer science.[40]

A folkloric quotation, often attributed tobut almost

certainly not rst formulated byEdsger Dijkstra, states
that computer science is no more about computers than
astronomy is about telescopes.[note 1] The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than
computer science. For example, the study of computer
hardware is usually considered part of computer engineering, while the study of commercial computer systems and their deployment is often called information
technology or information systems. However, there has
been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science re5.3.1 Theoretical computer science
search also often intersects other disciplines, such as
philosophy, cognitive science, linguistics, mathematics,
Main article: Theoretical computer science
physics, biology, statistics, and logic.
Computer science is considered by some to have a much
closer relationship with mathematics than many scientic
disciplines, with some observers saying that computing is
a mathematical science.[13] Early computer science was
strongly inuenced by the work of mathematicians such
as Kurt Gdel and Alan Turing, and there continues to be
a useful interchange of ideas between the two elds in areas such as mathematical logic, category theory, domain
theory, and algebra.
The relationship between computer science and software
engineering is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by disputes over what the term software engineering means, and how computer science is dened.[38]
David Parnas, taking a cue from the relationship between
other engineering and science disciplines, has claimed

The broader eld of theoretical computer science encompasses both the classical theory of computation and a
wide range of other topics that focus on the more abstract,
logical, and mathematical aspects of computing.
Theory of computation
Main article: Theory of computation
According to Peter J. Denning, the fundamental question
underlying computer science is, What can be (eciently)
automated?" [13] The study of the theory of computation is
focused on answering fundamental questions about what
can be computed and what amount of resources are re-

5.3. AREAS OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

quired to perform those computations. In an eort to
answer the rst question, computability theory examines
which computational problems are solvable on various
theoretical models of computation. The second question
is addressed by computational complexity theory, which
studies the time and space costs associated with dierent approaches to solving a multitude of computational
problems.
The famous "P=NP?" problem, one of the Millennium
Prize Problems,[43] is an open problem in the theory of
computation.
Information and coding theory
Main articles: Information theory and Coding theory
Information theory is related to the quantication of information. This was developed by Claude E. Shannon
to nd fundamental limits on signal processing operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing
and communicating data.[44] Coding theory is the study
of the properties of codes (systems for converting information from one form to another) and their tness for a
specic application. Codes are used for data compression, cryptography, error detection and correction, and
more recently also for network coding. Codes are studied for the purpose of designing ecient and reliable data
transmission methods.

53
verication of software and hardware systems. The use
of formal methods for software and hardware design is
motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering
disciplines, performing appropriate mathematical analysis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a
design. They form an important theoretical underpinning
for software engineering, especially where safety or security is involved. Formal methods are a useful adjunct
to software testing since they help avoid errors and can
also give a framework for testing. For industrial use, tool
support is required. However, the high cost of using formal methods means that they are usually only used in the
development of high-integrity and life-critical systems,
where safety or security is of utmost importance. Formal methods are best described as the application of a
fairly broad variety of theoretical computer science fundamentals, in particular logic calculi, formal languages,
automata theory, and program semantics, but also type
systems and algebraic data types to problems in software
and hardware specication and verication.

5.3.2 Applied computer science

Applied computer science aims at identifying certain
computer science concepts that can be used directly in
solving real world problems.

Articial intelligence
Algorithms and data structures
Main article: Articial intelligence
Algorithms and data structures is the study of commonly
used computational methods and their computational ef- This branch of computer science aims to or is reciency.
quired to synthesise goal-orientated processes such as
problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation, learning and communication found in humans
Programming language theory
and animals. From its origins in cybernetics and in
the Dartmouth Conference (1956), articial intelligence
Main article: Programming language theory
(AI) research has been necessarily cross-disciplinary,
drawing on areas of expertise such as applied matheProgramming language theory is a branch of computer matics, symbolic logic, semiotics, electrical engineering,
science that deals with the design, implementation, anal- philosophy of mind, neurophysiology, and social intelliysis, characterization, and classication of programming gence. AI is associated in the popular mind with robotic
languages and their individual features. It falls within development, but the main eld of practical application
the discipline of computer science, both depending on has been as an embedded component in areas of software
and aecting mathematics, software engineering and development, which require computational understandlinguistics. It is an active research area, with numerous ing and modeling such as nance and economics, data
dedicated academic journals.
mining and the physical sciences. The starting-point in
the late 1940s was Alan Turing's question Can computers think?", and the question remains eectively unanFormal methods
swered although the "Turing Test" is still used to assess
computer output on the scale of human intelligence. But
Main article: Formal methods
the automation of evaluative and predictive tasks has been
increasingly successful as a substitute for human monitorFormal methods are a particular kind of mathematically ing and intervention in domains of computer application
based technique for the specication, development and involving complex real-world data.

54

CHAPTER 5. COMPUTER SCIENCE

Computer architecture and engineering

eld of study concerned with constructing mathematical

models and quantitative analysis techniques and using
Main articles: Computer architecture and Computer computers to analyze and solve scientic problems. In
engineering
practical use, it is typically the application of computer
simulation and other forms of computation to problems
Computer architecture, or digital computer organiza- in various scientic disciplines.
tion, is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It focuses largely Computer networks
on the way by which the central processing unit performs internally and accesses addresses in memory.[45] Main article: Computer network
The eld often involves disciplines of computer engineering and electrical engineering, selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet This branch of computer science aims to manage networks between computers worldwide.
functional, performance, and cost goals.
Computer Performance Analysis

Concurrent, parallel and distributed systems

Main article: Computer performance

Main articles: Concurrency (computer science) and

Distributed computing

Computer Performance Analysis is the study of work

owing through computers with the general goals of improving throughput, controlling response time, using resources eciently, eliminating bottlenecks, and predicting performance under anticipated peak loads.[46]

Concurrency is a property of systems in which several

computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other. A number of mathematical models have been developed for general concurrent computation including Petri nets, process calculi
and the Parallel Random Access Machine model. A disComputer graphics and visualization
tributed system extends the idea of concurrency onto multiple computers connected through a network. ComputMain article: Computer graphics (computer science)
ers within the same distributed system have their own private memory, and information is often exchanged among
Computer graphics is the study of digital visual contents, themselves to achieve a common goal.
and involves synthese and manipulations of image data.
The study is connected to many other elds in computer
Databases
science, including computer vision, image processing,
and computational geometry, and is heavily applied in the
Main articles: Database and Database management
elds of special eects and video games.
systems
Computer security and cryptography

A database is intended to organize, store, and retrieve

large amounts of data easily. Digital databases are manMain articles: Computer security and Cryptography
aged using database management systems to store, create,
maintain, and search data, through database models and
Computer security is a branch of computer technology, query languages.
whose objective includes protection of information from
unauthorized access, disruption, or modication while
Health informatics
maintaining the accessibility and usability of the system for its intended users. Cryptography is the practice
Main article: Health Informatics
and study of hiding (encryption) and therefore deciphering (decryption) information. Modern cryptography is
largely related to computer science, for many encryption Health Informatics in computer science deals with comand decryption algorithms are based on their computa- putational techniques for solving problems in health care.
tional complexity.
Information science
Computational science
Main article: Information science
Computational science (or scientic computing) is the

5.5. ACADEMIA
Software engineering
Main article: Software engineering
Software engineering is the study of designing, implementing, and modifying software in order to ensure it is of
high quality, aordable, maintainable, and fast to build.
It is a systematic approach to software design, involving
the application of engineering practices to software. Software engineering deals with the organizing and analyzing
of software it doesn't just deal with the creation or manufacture of new software, but its internal maintenance and
arrangement. Both computer applications software engineers and computer systems software engineers are projected to be among the fastest growing occupations from
2008 and 2018.
See also: computer programming

55
Bhm and Jacopini's insight: There are only 3 ways
of combining these actions (into more complex
ones) that are needed in order for a computer to do
anything
Only 3 rules are needed to combine any set of
basic instructions into more complex ones:
sequence:
rst do this; then do that
selection :
IF such-&-such is the case,
THEN do this
ELSE do that
repetition:
WHILE such & such is the case DO
this

5.4 The great insights of computer

science

Note that the 3 rules of Boehms and Jacopinis insight can

be further simplied with the use of goto (which means
its more elementary than structured programming.)

The philosopher of computing Bill Rapaport noted three See also: Elementary function arithmetic Friedmans
Great Insights of Computer Science[47]
grand conjecture
Leibniz's, Boole's, Alan Turing's, Shannon's, &
Morse's insight: There are only 2 objects that a
computer has to deal with in order to represent anything

5.5 Academia

All the information about any computable

problem can be represented using only 0 &
1 (or any other bistable pair that can ip-op
between two easily distinguishable states,such
as on"/"o, magnetized/de-magnetized,
high-voltage/low-voltage, etc.).

5.5.1 Conferences

Every algorithm can be expressed in a language

for a computer consisting of only 5 basic instructions:

5.5.2 Journals

Further information: List of computer science conferences

Conferences are strategic events of the Academic Research in computer science. During those conferences,
See also: digital physics
researchers from the public and private sectors present
their recent work and meet. Proceedings of these conferences are an important part of the computer science
Alan Turing's insight: There are only 5 actions that literature.
a computer has to perform in order to do anything

* move left one location

* move right one location
* read symbol at current location
* print 0 at current location
* print 1 at current location
See also: Turing machine

Further information: Category:Computer science journals

5.6 Education
Some universities teach computer science as a theoretical study of computation and algorithmic reasoning.
These programs often feature the theory of computation,

56
analysis of algorithms, formal methods, concurrency theory, databases, computer graphics, and systems analysis, among others. They typically also teach computer
programming, but treat it as a vessel for the support of
other elds of computer science rather than a central focus of high-level study. The ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Curriculum Task Force Computing Curriculum 2005 (and
2008 update)[48] gives a guideline for university curriculum.
Other colleges and universities, as well as secondary
schools and vocational programs that teach computer science, emphasize the practice of advanced programming
rather than the theory of algorithms and computation in
their computer science curricula. Such curricula tend to
focus on those skills that are important to workers entering the software industry. The process aspects of computer programming are often referred to as software engineering.
While computer science professions increasingly drive
the U.S. economy, computer science education is absent in most American K-12 curricula. A report entitled Running on Empty: The Failure to Teach K-12
Computer Science in the Digital Age was released in
October 2010 by Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) and Computer Science Teachers Association
(CSTA), and revealed that only 14 states have adopted
signicant education standards for high school computer
science. The report also found that only nine states count
high school computer science courses as a core academic
subject in their graduation requirements. In tandem with
Running on Empty, a new non-partisan advocacy coalition - Computing in the Core (CinC) - was founded to
inuence federal and state policy, such as the Computer
Science Education Act, which calls for grants to states to
develop plans for improving computer science education
and supporting computer science teachers.
Within the United States a gender gap in computer science education has been observed as well. Research conducted by the WGBH Educational Foundation and the
Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) revealed
that more than twice as many high school boys considered computer science to be a very good or good
college major than high school girls.[49] In addition, the
high school Advanced Placement (AP) exam for computer science has displayed a disparity in gender. Compared to other AP subjects it has the lowest number of
female participants, with a composition of about 15 percent women.[50] This gender gap in computer science is
further witnessed at the college level, where 31 percent of
undergraduate computer science degrees are earned by
women and only 8 percent of computer science faculty
consists of women.[51] According to an article published
by the Epistemic Games Group in August 2012, the number of women graduates in the computer science eld has
declined to 13 percent.[52]
A 2014 Mother Jones article, We Can Code It, advo-

CHAPTER 5. COMPUTER SCIENCE

cates for adding computer literacy and coding to the K-12
curriculum in the United States, and notes that computer
science is not incorporated into the requirements for the
Common Core State Standards Initiative.[53]

5.7 See also

Main article: Outline of computer science

Academic genealogy of computer scientists

Informatics (academic eld)
List of academic computer science departments
List of computer science conferences
List of computer scientists
List of publications in computer science
List of pioneers in computer science
Technology transfer in computer science
List of software engineering topics
List of unsolved problems in computer science
Women in computing
Computer science Wikipedia book

5.8 Notes
[1] See the entry "Computer science" on Wikiquote for the
history of this quotation.

5.9 References
[1] What is Computer Science?". Boston University Department of Computer Science. Spring 2003. Retrieved December 12, 2014.
[2] WordNet Search - 3.1. Wordnetweb.princeton.edu. Retrieved 2012-05-14.
[3] Blaise Pascal. School of Mathematics and Statistics
University of St Andrews, Scotland.
[4] A Brief History of Computing.
[5] In 1851
[6] Science Museum - Introduction to Babbage. Archived
from the original on 2006-09-08. Retrieved 2006-09-24.
[7] Anthony Hyman (1982). Charles Babbage, pioneer of the
computer.

5.9. REFERENCES

57

[8] The introduction of punched cards into the new engine

was important not only as a more convenient form of control than the drums, or because programs could now be of
unlimited extent, and could be stored and repeated without the danger of introducing errors in setting the machine
by hand; it was important also because it served to crystallize Babbages feeling that he had invented something
really new, something much more than a sophisticated calculating machine. Bruce Collier, 1970
[9] A Selection and Adaptation From Adas Notes found in
Ada, The Enchantress of Numbers, by Betty Alexandra
Toole Ed.D. Strawberry Press, Mill Valley, CA. Retrieved 2006-05-04.
[10] In this sense Aiken needed IBM, whose technology included the use of punched cards, the accumulation of numerical data, and the transfer of numerical data from one
register to another, Bernard Cohen, p.44 (2000)

[23] Black box traders are on the march. The Telegraph. August 26, 2006.
[24] The Impact of High Frequency Trading on an Electronic
Market. Papers.ssrn.com. doi:10.2139/ssrn.1686004.
Retrieved 2012-05-14.
[25] Wegner, P. (October 1315, 1976). Proceedings of the
2nd international Conference on Software Engineering.
San Francisco, California, United States: IEEE Computer
Society Press, Los Alamitos, CA.
[26] Denning, P. J.; Comer, D. E.; Gries, D.; Mulder, M.
C.; Tucker, A.; Turner, A. J.; Young, P. R. (Jan 1989).
Computing as a discipline. Communications of the ACM
32: 923. doi:10.1145/63238.63239.
[27] Eden, A. H. (2007). Three Paradigms of Computer
Science. Minds and Machines 17 (2): 135167.
doi:10.1007/s11023-007-9060-8.

[11] Brian Randell, p. 187, 1975

[12] The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) was
founded in 1947.
[13] Denning, P.J. (2000).
Computer Science: The
Discipline (PDF). Encyclopedia of Computer Science.
Archived from the original on 2006-05-25.
[14] Some EDSAC statistics.
2011-11-19.

Cl.cam.ac.uk.

Retrieved

[15] Computer science pioneer Samuel D. Conte dies at 85.

Purdue Computer Science. July 1, 2002. Retrieved December 12, 2014.
[16] Levy, Steven (1984). Hackers: Heroes of the Computer
Revolution. Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-19195-2.
[17] IBM 704 Electronic Data Processing System - CHM
Revolution. Computerhistory.org. Retrieved 2013-0707.

[28] Louis Fine (1959).

The Role of the University in Computers, Data Processing, and Related
Fields. Communications of the ACM 2 (9): 714.
doi:10.1145/368424.368427.
[29] Stanford University Oral History. Stanford University.
Retrieved May 30, 2013.
[30] id., p. 11
[31] Donald Knuth (1972). George Forsythe and the Development of Computer Science. Comms. ACM.
[32] Matti Tedre (2006). The Development of Computer Science: A Sociocultural Perspective. p. 260. Retrieved
December 12, 2014.
[33] Peter Naur (1966).
The science of datalogy.
Communications of the ACM 9 (7): 485.
doi:10.1145/365719.366510.
[34] Communications of the ACM 1 (4): 6.

[18] IBM 709: a powerful new data processing system.

Computer History Museum. Retrieved December 12,
2014.

[35] Communications of the ACM 2(1):p.4

[36] IEEE Computer 28(12):p.136

[19] David Kahn, The Codebreakers, 1967, ISBN 0-68483130-9.

[20] http://www.cis.cornell.edu/Dean/Presentations/Slides/
bgu.pdf[]
[21] Constable, R. L. (March 2000). Computer Science:
Achievements and Challenges circa 2000 (PDF).
[22] Abelson, H.; G.J. Sussman with J. Sussman (1996). Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs (2nd ed.).
MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-01153-0. The computer revolution is a revolution in the way we think and in the way
we express what we think. The essence of this change
is the emergence of what might best be called procedural
epistemology the study of the structure of knowledge
from an imperative point of view, as opposed to the more
declarative point of view taken by classical mathematical
subjects.

[37] P. Mounier-Kuhn, L'Informatique en France, de la seconde guerre mondiale au Plan Calcul. L'mergence d'une
science, Paris, PUPS, 2010, ch. 3 & 4.
[38] Tedre, M. (2011). Computing as a Science: A Survey
of Competing Viewpoints. Minds and Machines 21 (3):
361387. doi:10.1007/s11023-011-9240-4.
[39] Parnas, D. L. (1998). Annals of Software Engineering 6:
1937. doi:10.1023/A:1018949113292., p. 19: Rather
than treat software engineering as a subeld of computer
science, I treat it as an element of the set, Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering,
Electrical Engineering, [...]"
[40] Computing Sciences Accreditation Board (May 28,
1997). Computer Science as a Profession. Archived
from the original on 2008-06-17. Retrieved 2010-05-23.

58

CHAPTER 5. COMPUTER SCIENCE

[41] Committee on the Fundamentals of Computer Science:

Challenges and Opportunities, National Research Council (2004). Computer Science: Reections on the Field, Reections from the Field. National Academies Press. ISBN
978-0-309-09301-9.
[42] CSAB Leading Computer Education. CSAB. 2011-0803. Retrieved 2011-11-19.
[43] Clay Mathematics Institute P=NP
[44] P. Collins, Graham (October 14, 2002). Claude E. Shannon: Founder of Information Theory. Scientic American. Retrieved December 12, 2014.
[45] A. Thisted, Ronald. Computer Architecture. The University of Chicago. Retrieved April 7, 1997.
[46] Wescott, Bob (2013). The Every Computer Performance
Book, Chapter 3: Useful laws. CreateSpace. ISBN
1482657759.
[47] What Is Computation?". bualo.edu.
[48] ACM Curricula Recommendations. Retrieved 201211-18.
[49] New Image for Computing Report on Market Research.
WGBH Educational Foundation and the Association for
Computing Machinery (ACM). April 2009. Retrieved
December 12, 2014.
[50] Gilbert, Alorie. Newsmaker: Computer sciences gender
gap. CNET News.
[51] Dovzan, Nicole. Examining the Gender Gap in Technology. University of Michigan.
[52] Encouraging the next generation of women in computing. Microsoft Research Connections Team. Retrieved
September 3, 2013.
[53] Raja, Tasneem (August 2014). Is Coding the New Literacy?". Mother Jones. Retrieved 2014-06-21.

van Leeuwen, Jan (1994). Handbook of Theoretical

Computer Science. The MIT Press. ISBN 0-26272020-5.
"[...] this set is the most unique and possibly
the most useful to the [theoretical computer
science] community, in support both of teaching and research [...]. The books can be used
by anyone wanting simply to gain an understanding of one of these areas, or by someone
desiring to be in research in a topic, or by instructors wishing to nd timely information on
a subject they are teaching outside their major areas of expertise. (Rocky Ross, SIGACT
News)
Ralston,
Anthony;
Reilly,
Edwin D.;
Hemmendinger, David (2000).
Encyclopedia
of Computer Science (4th ed.). Groves Dictionaries. ISBN 1-56159-248-X.
Since 1976, this has been the denitive reference work on computer, computing, and computer science. [...] Alphabetically arranged
and classied into broad subject areas, the entries cover hardware, computer systems, information and data, software, the mathematics of
computing, theory of computation, methodologies, applications, and computing milieu.
The editors have done a commendable job of
blending historical perspective and practical
reference information. The encyclopedia remains essential for most public and academic
library reference collections. (Joe Accardin,
Northeastern Illinois Univ., Chicago)
Edwin D. Reilly (2003). Milestones in Computer Science and Information Technology. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-57356-521-9.

Computer Software Engineer. U.S. Bureau of Labor

Statistics. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, n.d. Web.
Selected papers
February 5, 2013.

5.10 Further reading

Overview
Tucker, Allen B. (2004). Computer Science Handbook (2nd ed.). Chapman and Hall/CRC. ISBN 158488-360-X.
Within more than 70 chapters, every one
new or signicantly revised, one can nd any
kind of information and references about computer science one can imagine. [...] all
in all, there is absolute nothing about Computer Science that can not be found in the 2.5
kilogram-encyclopaedia with its 110 survey
articles [...]. (Christoph Meinel, Zentralblatt
MATH)

Knuth, Donald E. (1996). Selected Papers on Computer Science. CSLI Publications, Cambridge University Press.
Collier, Bruce. The little engine that could've: The
calculating machines of Charles Babbage. Garland
Publishing Inc. ISBN 0-8240-0043-9.
Cohen, Bernard (2000). Howard Aiken, Portrait of
a computer pioneer. The MIT press. ISBN 978-02625317-9-5.
Randell, Brian (1973). The origins of Digital computers, Selected Papers. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3540-06169-X.
Covering a period from 1966 to 1993, its interest lies not only in the content of each of
these papers still timely today but also in

5.11. EXTERNAL LINKS

their being put together so that ideas expressed
at dierent times complement each other
nicely. (N. Bernard, Zentralblatt MATH)

59
The Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies
(article)
Professional organizations

Articles
Peter J. Denning. Is computer science science?,
Communications of the ACM, April 2005.
Peter J. Denning, Great principles in computing curricula, Technical Symposium on Computer Science
Education, 2004.

Association for Computing Machinery

IEEE Computer Society
Informatics Europe
AAAI

AAAS Computer Science

Research evaluation for computer science, Informatics Europe report. Shorter journal version: Bertrand Meyer, Christine Choppy, Jan van Misc
Leeuwen and Jorgen Staunstrup, Research evalua Computer Science - Stack Exchange a community
tion for computer science, in Communications of the
run question and answer site for computer science
ACM, vol. 52, no. 4, pp. 3134, April 2009.
Curriculum and classication

What is computer science

Is computer science science?

Association for Computing Machinery. 1998 ACM

Computing Classication System. 1998.
Joint Task Force of Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), Association for Information Systems (AIS) and IEEE Computer Society (IEEECS). Computing Curricula 2005: The Overview Report. September 30, 2005.
Norman Gibbs, Allen Tucker. A model curriculum
for a liberal arts degree in computer science. Communications of the ACM, Volume 29 Issue 3, March
1986.

5.11 External links

Computer science at DMOZ
Scholarly Societies in Computer Science
Best Papers Awards in Computer Science since
1996
Photographs of computer scientists by Bertrand
Meyer
EECS.berkeley.edu
Bibliography and academic search engines
CiteSeerx (article): search engine, digital library and
repository for scientic and academic papers with a
focus on computer and information science.
DBLP Computer Science Bibliography (article):
computer science bibliography website hosted at
Universitt Trier, in Germany.

Chapter 6

History of articial intelligence

See also: Timeline of articial intelligence

distance ahead, admitted Alan Turing, in a famous 1950

paper that catalyzed the modern search for machines that
think. But, he added, we can see much that must be
The history of articial intelligence (AI) began in
[3]
antiquity, with myths, stories and rumors of articial be- done.
ings endowed with intelligence or consciousness by master craftsmen; as Pamela McCorduck writes, AI began
with an ancient wish to forge the gods.[1]
6.1 Precursors
The seeds of modern AI were planted by classical
philosophers who attempted to describe the process of
human thinking as the mechanical manipulation of symbols. This work culminated in the invention of the
programmable digital computer in the 1940s, a machine
based on the abstract essence of mathematical reasoning.
This device and the ideas behind it inspired a handful of
scientists to begin seriously discussing the possibility of
building an electronic brain.
The eld of AI research was founded at a conference
on the campus of Dartmouth College in the summer of
1956. Those who attended would become the leaders of
AI research for decades. Many of them predicted that
a machine as intelligent as a human being would exist
in no more than a generation and they were given millions of dollars to make this vision come true. Eventually it became obvious that they had grossly underestimated the diculty of the project. In 1973, in response
to the criticism of James Lighthill and ongoing pressure
from congress, the U.S. and British Governments stopped
funding undirected research into articial intelligence.
Seven years later, a visionary initiative by the Japanese
Government inspired governments and industry to provide AI with billions of dollars, but by the late 80s the investors became disillusioned and withdrew funding again.
This cycle of boom and bust, of "AI winters" and summers, continues to haunt the eld. Undaunted, there are
those who make extraordinary predictions even now.[2]
Progress in AI has continued, despite the rise and fall of
its reputation in the eyes of government bureaucrats and
venture capitalists. Problems that had begun to seem impossible in 1970 have been solved and the solutions are
now used in successful commercial products. However,
no machine has been built with a human level of intelligence, contrary to the optimistic predictions of the rst
generation of AI researchers. We can only see a short

McCorduck (2004) writes "articial intelligence in one

form or another is an idea that has pervaded Western intellectual history, a dream in urgent need of being realized, expressed in humanitys myths, legends, stories,
speculation and clockwork automatons.[4]

6.1.1 AI in myth, ction and speculation

Main article: Articial intelligence in ction
Mechanical men and articial beings appear in Greek
myths, such as the golden robots of Hephaestus and
Pygmalions Galatea.[5] In the Middle Ages, there were
rumors of secret mystical or alchemical means of placing mind into matter, such as Jbir ibn Hayyn's
Takwin, Paracelsus' homunculus and Rabbi Judah Loew's
Golem.[6] By the 19th century, ideas about articial men
and thinking machines were developed in ction, as in
Mary Shelley's Frankenstein or Karel apek's R.U.R.
(Rossums Universal Robots),[7] and speculation, such as
Samuel Butler's "Darwin among the Machines.[8] AI has
continued to be an important element of science ction
into the present.

6.1.2 Automatons
Main article: Automaton
Realistic humanoid automatons were built by craftsman
from every civilization, including Yan Shi,[9] Hero of
Alexandria,[10] Al-Jazari[11] and Wolfgang von Kempelen.[12] The oldest known automatons were the sacred
statues of ancient Egypt and Greece. The faithful believed that craftsman had imbued these gures with very
real minds, capable of wisdom and emotionHermes

60

6.1. PRECURSORS

61

Al-Jazari's programmable automata (1206 CE)

Trismegistus wrote that by discovering the true nature

of the gods, man has been able to reproduce it.[13][14]

6.1.3

Formal reasoning

Articial intelligence is based on the assumption that the

process of human thought can be mechanized. The study
of mechanicalor formalreasoning has a long history. Chinese, Indian and Greek philosophers all developed structured methods of formal deduction in the rst
millennium BCE. Their ideas were developed over the
centuries by philosophers such as Aristotle (who gave a
formal analysis of the syllogism), Euclid (whose Elements
was a model of formal reasoning), al-Khwrizm (who
developed algebra and gave his name to "algorithm")
and European scholastic philosophers such as William of
Ockham and Duns Scotus.[15]
Majorcan philosopher Ramon Llull (12321315) developed several logical machines devoted to the production
of knowledge by logical means;[16] Llull described his
machines as mechanical entities that could combine basic
and undeniable truths by simple logical operations, produced by the machine by mechanical meanings, in such
ways as to produce all the possible knowledge.[17] Llulls
work had a great inuence on Gottfried Leibniz, who redeveloped his ideas.[18]

Gottfried Leibniz, who speculated that human reason could be

reduced to mechanical calculation

such works as Boole's The Laws of Thought and Frege's

Begrisschrift. Building on Frege's system, Russell and
Whitehead presented a formal treatment of the foundations of mathematics in their masterpiece, the Principia
Mathematica in 1913. Inspired by Russell's success,
David Hilbert challenged mathematicians of the 1920s
and 30s to answer this fundamental question: can all of
mathematical reasoning be formalized?"[15] His question
was answered by Gdel's incompleteness proof, Turing's
machine and Church's Lambda calculus.[15][22] Their answer was surprising in two ways.

In the 17th century, Leibniz, Thomas Hobbes and Ren

Descartes explored the possibility that all rational thought
could be made as systematic as algebra or geometry.[19]
Hobbes famously wrote in Leviathan: reason is nothing but reckoning.[20] Leibniz envisioned a universal language of reasoning (his characteristica universalis) which
would reduce argumentation to calculation, so that there
would be no more need of disputation between two
philosophers than between two accountants. For it would
suce to take their pencils in hand, down to their slates,
and to say each other (with a friend as witness, if they
liked): Let us calculate.[21] These philosophers had begun to articulate the physical symbol system hypothesis
The ENIAC, at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering. This
that would become the guiding faith of AI research.
photo has been articially darkened, obscuring details such as
[23]
In the 20th century, the study of mathematical logic pro- the women who were present and the IBM equipment in use.
vided the essential breakthrough that made articial intelligence seem plausible. The foundations had been set by First, they proved that there were, in fact, limits to what

62

CHAPTER 6. HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

mathematical logic could accomplish. But second (and

more important for AI) their work suggested that, within
these limits, any form of mathematical reasoning could
be mechanized. The Church-Turing thesis implied that a
mechanical device, shuing symbols as simple as 0 and
1, could imitate any conceivable process of mathematical
deduction. The key insight was the Turing machinea
simple theoretical construct that captured the essence of
abstract symbol manipulation. This invention would inspire a handful of scientists to begin discussing the possibility of thinking machines.[15][24]

6.1.4

Computer science

Main articles: history of computer hardware

and history of computer science

Calculating machines were built in antiquity and improved throughout history by many mathematicians, including (once again) philosopher Gottfried Leibniz. In
the early 19th century, Charles Babbage designed a programmable computer (the Analytical Engine), although
it was never built. Ada Lovelace speculated that the machine might compose elaborate and scientic pieces of
music of any degree of complexity or extent.[25] (She is
often credited as the rst programmer because of a set of
notes she wrote that completely detail a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers with the Engine.)
The rst modern computers were the massive code breaking machines of the Second World War (such as Z3,
ENIAC and Colossus).[26] The latter two of these machines were based on the theoretical foundation laid by
Alan Turing and developed by John von Neumann.[27]

intelligence research was founded as an academic discipline in 1956.

6.2.1 Cybernetics and early neural networks

The earliest research into thinking machines was inspired
by a conuence of ideas that became prevalent in the late
30s, 40s and early 50s. Recent research in neurology had
shown that the brain was an electrical network of neurons
that red in all-or-nothing pulses. Norbert Wiener's
cybernetics described control and stability in electrical networks. Claude Shannon's information theory described digital signals (i.e., all-or-nothing signals). Alan
Turing's theory of computation showed that any form of
computation could be described digitally. The close relationship between these ideas suggested that it might be
possible to construct an electronic brain.[29]
Examples of work in this vein includes robots such as
W. Grey Walter's turtles and the Johns Hopkins Beast.
These machines did not use computers, digital electronics or symbolic reasoning; they were controlled entirely
by analog circuitry.[30]
Walter Pitts and Warren McCulloch analyzed networks
of idealized articial neurons and showed how they might
perform simple logical functions. They were the rst
to describe what later researchers would call a neural
network.[31] One of the students inspired by Pitts and
McCulloch was a young Marvin Minsky, then a 24-year
old graduate student. In 1951 (with Dean Edmonds) he
built the rst neural net machine, the SNARC.[32] Minsky
was to become one of the most important leaders and innovators in AI for the next 50 years.

6.2.2 Turings test

6.2 The birth of articial intelligence 19431956

The IBM 702: a computer used by the rst generation of AI researchers.

A note on the sections in this article.[28]

In 1950 Alan Turing published a landmark paper in which

he speculated about the possibility of creating machines
that think.[33] He noted that thinking is dicult to dene and devised his famous Turing Test. If a machine
could carry on a conversation (over a teleprinter) that
was indistinguishable from a conversation with a human
being, then it was reasonable to say that the machine
was thinking. This simplied version of the problem
allowed Turing to argue convincingly that a thinking
machine was at least plausible and the paper answered
all the most common objections to the proposition.[34]
The Turing Test was the rst serious proposal in the
philosophy of articial intelligence.

6.2.3 Game AI

In the 1940s and 50s, a handful of scientists from a variety of elds (mathematics, psychology, engineering, eco- In 1951, using the Ferranti Mark 1 machine of the
nomics and political science) began to discuss the possi- University of Manchester, Christopher Strachey wrote
bility of creating an articial brain. The eld of articial a checkers program and Dietrich Prinz wrote one for

6.3. THE GOLDEN YEARS 19561974

63

chess.[35] Arthur Samuel's checkers program, developed

in the middle 50s and early 60s, eventually achieved sufcient skill to challenge a respectable amateur.[36] Game
AI would continue to be used as a measure of progress in
AI throughout its history.

6.2.4

gebra word problems, proving theorems in geometry and

learning to speak English. Few at the time would have
believed that such intelligent behavior by machines was
possible at all.[47] Researchers expressed an intense optimism in private and in print, predicting that a fully intelligent machine would be built in less than 20 years.[48]
Government agencies like ARPA poured money into the
Symbolic reasoning and the Logic new eld.[49]

Theorist
When access to digital computers became possible in the
middle fties, a few scientists instinctively recognized
that a machine that could manipulate numbers could also
manipulate symbols and that the manipulation of symbols
could well be the essence of human thought. This was a
new approach to creating thinking machines.[37]
In 1955, Allen Newell and (future Nobel Laureate)
Herbert A. Simon created the "Logic Theorist" (with help
from J. C. Shaw). The program would eventually prove
38 of the rst 52 theorems in Russell and Whiteheads
Principia Mathematica, and nd new and more elegant
proofs for some.[38] Simon said that they had solved the
venerable mind/body problem, explaining how a system
composed of matter can have the properties of mind.[39]
(This was an early statement of the philosophical position
John Searle would later call "Strong AI": that machines
can contain minds just as human bodies do.)[40]

6.3.1 The work

There were many successful programs and new directions
in the late 50s and 1960s. Among the most inuential
were these:

Reasoning as search
Many early AI programs used the same basic algorithm.
To achieve some goal (like winning a game or proving
a theorem), they proceeded step by step towards it (by
making a move or a deduction) as if searching through
a maze, backtracking whenever they reached a dead end.
This paradigm was called "reasoning as search".[50]

The principal diculty was that, for many problems, the

number of possible paths through the maze was simply
astronomical (a situation known as a "combinatorial ex6.2.5 Dartmouth Conference 1956: the plosion"). Researchers would reduce the search space by
birth of AI
using heuristics or rules of thumb that would eliminate
those paths that were unlikely to lead to a solution.[51]
[41]
The Dartmouth Conference of 1956
was organized
Newell and Simon tried to capture a general version of
by Marvin Minsky, John McCarthy and two senior scithis algorithm in a program called the "General Probentists: Claude Shannon and Nathan Rochester of IBM.
lem Solver".[52] Other searching programs were able
The proposal for the conference included this assertion:
to accomplish impressive tasks like solving problems
every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelliin geometry and algebra, such as Herbert Gelernter's
gence can be so precisely described that a machine can be
Geometry Theorem Prover (1958) and SAINT, written
made to simulate it.[42] The participants included Ray
by Minskys student James Slagle (1961).[53] Other proSolomono, Oliver Selfridge, Trenchard More, Arthur
grams searched through goals and subgoals to plan acSamuel, Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon, all of whom
tions, like the STRIPS system developed at Stanford to
would create important programs during the rst decades
control the behavior of their robot Shakey.[54]
of AI research.[43] At the conference Newell and Simon
debuted the "Logic Theorist" and McCarthy persuaded
the attendees to accept Articial Intelligence as the
name of the eld.[44] The 1956 Dartmouth conference
was the moment that AI gained its name, its mission, its
rst success and its major players, and is widely considered the birth of AI.[45]

6.3 The golden years 19561974

The years after the Dartmouth conference were an era of
discovery, of sprinting across new ground. The programs
that were developed during this time were, to most peo- An example of a semantic network
ple, simply astonishing":[46] computers were solving al-

64
Natural language
An important goal of AI research is to allow computers to
communicate in natural languages like English. An early
success was Daniel Bobrow's program STUDENT, which
could solve high school algebra word problems.[55]

CHAPTER 6. HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

1967, Marvin Minsky: Within a generation ... the
problem of creating 'articial intelligence' will substantially be solved.[63]
1970, Marvin Minsky (in Life Magazine): In from
three to eight years we will have a machine with the
general intelligence of an average human being.[64]

A semantic net represents concepts (e.g. house,"door)

as nodes and relations among concepts (e.g. has-a) as
links between the nodes. The rst AI program to use
a semantic net was written by Ross Quillian[56] and the 6.3.3 The money
most successful (and controversial) version was Roger
In June 1963, MIT received a $2.2 million grant from
Schank's Conceptual dependency theory.[57]
the newly created Advanced Research Projects Agency
Joseph Weizenbaum's ELIZA could carry out conversa- (later known as DARPA). The money was used to fund
tions that were so realistic that users occasionally were project MAC which subsumed the AI Group founded
fooled into thinking they were communicating with a hu- by Minsky and McCarthy ve years earlier. ARPA conman being and not a program. But in fact, ELIZA had tinued to provide three million dollars a year until the
no idea what she was talking about. She simply gave 70s.[65] ARPA made similar grants to Newell and Simons
a canned response or repeated back what was said to program at CMU and to the Stanford AI Project (founded
her, rephrasing her response with a few grammar rules. by John McCarthy in 1963).[66] Another important AI
ELIZA was the rst chatterbot.[58]
laboratory was established at Edinburgh University by
Donald Michie in 1965.[67] These four institutions would
continue to be the main centers of AI research (and fundMicro-worlds
ing) in academia for many years.[68]
In the late 60s, Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert of
the MIT AI Laboratory proposed that AI research should
focus on articially simple situations known as microworlds. They pointed out that in successful sciences
like physics, basic principles were often best understood
using simplied models like frictionless planes or perfectly rigid bodies. Much of the research focused on a
"blocks world, which consists of colored blocks of various shapes and sizes arrayed on a at surface.[59]

The money was proered with few strings attached: J.

C. R. Licklider, then the director of ARPA, believed that
his organization should fund people, not projects!" and
allowed researchers to pursue whatever directions might
interest them.[69] This created a freewheeling atmosphere
at MIT that gave birth to the hacker culture,[70] but this
hands o approach would not last.

This paradigm led to innovative work in machine vision

by Gerald Sussman (who led the team), Adolfo Guzman, David Waltz (who invented "constraint propagation"), and especially Patrick Winston. At the same time,
Minsky and Papert built a robot arm that could stack
blocks, bringing the blocks world to life. The crowning achievement of the micro-world program was Terry
Winograd's SHRDLU. It could communicate in ordinary
English sentences, plan operations and execute them.[60]

6.4 The rst AI winter 19741980

In the 70s, AI was subject to critiques and nancial setbacks. AI researchers had failed to appreciate the difculty of the problems they faced. Their tremendous
optimism had raised expectations impossibly high, and
when the promised results failed to materialize, funding for AI disappeared.[71] At the same time, the eld
of connectionism (or neural nets) was shut down almost
completely for 10 years by Marvin Minsky's devastating
criticism of perceptrons.[72] Despite the diculties with
6.3.2 The optimism
public perception of AI in the late 70s, new ideas were
The rst generation of AI researchers made these predic- explored in logic programming, commonsense reasoning
and many other areas.[73]
tions about their work:
1958, H. A. Simon and Allen Newell: within ten
years a digital computer will be the worlds chess 6.4.1 The problems
champion and within ten years a digital computer
will discover and prove an important new mathemat- In the early seventies, the capabilities of AI programs
were limited. Even the most impressive could only hanical theorem.[61]
dle trivial versions of the problems they were supposed
1965, H. A. Simon: machines will be capable, to solve; all the programs were, in some sense, toys.[74]
within twenty years, of doing any work a man can AI researchers had begun to run into several fundamental
limits that could not be overcome in the 1970s. Although
do.[62]

6.4. THE FIRST AI WINTER 19741980

some of these limits would be conquered in later decades,
others still stymie the eld to this day.[75]
Limited computer power: There was not enough
memory or processing speed to accomplish anything
truly useful. For example, Ross Quillian's successful work on natural language was demonstrated with
a vocabulary of only twenty words, because that
was all that would t in memory.[76] Hans Moravec
argued in 1976 that computers were still millions
of times too weak to exhibit intelligence. He suggested an analogy: articial intelligence requires
computer power in the same way that aircraft require horsepower. Below a certain threshold, its impossible, but, as power increases, eventually it could
become easy.[77] With regard to computer vision,
Moravec estimated that simply matching the edge
and motion detection capabilities of human retina in
real time would require a general-purpose computer
capable of 109 operations/second (1000 MIPS).[78]
As of 2011, practical computer vision applications
require 10,000 to 1,000,000 MIPS. By comparison,
the fastest supercomputer in 1976, Cray-1 (retailing at $5 million to $8 million), was only capable
of around 80 to 130 MIPS, and a typical desktop
computer at the time achieved less than 1 MIPS.
Intractability and the combinatorial explosion.
In 1972 Richard Karp (building on Stephen Cook's
1971 theorem) showed there are many problems that
can probably only be solved in exponential time (in
the size of the inputs). Finding optimal solutions
to these problems requires unimaginable amounts of
computer time except when the problems are trivial.
This almost certainly meant that many of the toy
solutions used by AI would probably never scale up
into useful systems.[79]

65
The frame and qualication problems. AI researchers (like John McCarthy) who used logic discovered that they could not represent ordinary deductions that involved planning or default reasoning without making changes to the structure of
logic itself. They developed new logics (like nonmonotonic logics and modal logics) to try to solve
the problems.[82]

6.4.2 The end of funding

See also: AI Winter
The agencies which funded AI research (such as the
British government, DARPA and NRC) became frustrated with the lack of progress and eventually cut o
almost all funding for undirected research into AI. The
pattern began as early as 1966 when the ALPAC report appeared criticizing machine translation eorts. After spending 20 million dollars, the NRC ended all
support.[83] In 1973, the Lighthill report on the state of
AI research in England criticized the utter failure of AI
to achieve its grandiose objectives and led to the dismantling of AI research in that country.[84] (The report
specically mentioned the combinatorial explosion problem as a reason for AIs failings.)[85] DARPA was deeply
disappointed with researchers working on the Speech Understanding Research program at CMU and canceled an
annual grant of three million dollars.[86] By 1974, funding
for AI projects was hard to nd.
Hans Moravec blamed the crisis on the unrealistic predictions of his colleagues. Many researchers were caught up
in a web of increasing exaggeration.[87] However, there
was another issue: since the passage of the Manseld
Amendment in 1969, DARPA had been under increasing
pressure to fund mission-oriented direct research, rather
than basic undirected research. Funding for the creative,
freewheeling exploration that had gone on in the 60s
would not come from DARPA. Instead, the money was
directed at specic projects with clear objectives, such as
autonomous tanks and battle management systems.[88]

Commonsense knowledge and reasoning. Many

important articial intelligence applications like
vision or natural language require simply enormous
amounts of information about the world: the program needs to have some idea of what it might be
looking at or what it is talking about. This requires
that the program know most of the same things
6.4.3 Critiques from across campus
about the world that a child does. Researchers soon
discovered that this was a truly vast amount of information. No one in 1970 could build a database so See also: Philosophy of articial intelligence
large and no one knew how a program might learn
so much information.[80]
Several philosophers had strong objections to the claims
being made by AI researchers. One of the earliest was
Moravecs paradox: Proving theorems and solving John Lucas, who argued that Gdels incompleteness
geometry problems is comparatively easy for com- theorem showed that a formal system (such as a computers, but a supposedly simple task like recognizing puter program) could never see the truth of certain statea face or crossing a room without bumping into any- ments, while a human being could.[89] Hubert Dreyfus
thing is extremely dicult. This helps explain why ridiculed the broken promises of the 60s and critiqued
research into vision and robotics had made so little the assumptions of AI, arguing that human reasoning
progress by the middle 1970s.[81]
actually involved very little symbol processing and a

66

CHAPTER 6. HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

great deal of embodied, instinctive, unconscious "know

how".[90][91] John Searle's Chinese Room argument, presented in 1980, attempted to show that a program could
not be said to understand the symbols that it uses (a
quality called "intentionality"). If the symbols have no
meaning for the machine, Searle argued, then the machine can not be described as thinking.[92]
These critiques were not taken seriously by AI researchers, often because they seemed so far o the point.
Problems like intractability and commonsense knowledge seemed much more immediate and serious. It was
unclear what dierence "know how" or "intentionality"
made to an actual computer program. Minsky said of
Dreyfus and Searle they misunderstand, and should be
ignored.[93] Dreyfus, who taught at MIT, was given a
cold shoulder: he later said that AI researchers dared
not be seen having lunch with me.[94] Joseph Weizenbaum, the author of ELIZA, felt his colleagues treatment
of Dreyfus was unprofessional and childish. Although he
was an outspoken critic of Dreyfus positions, he deliberately made it plain that theirs was not the way to treat a
human being.[95]
Weizenbaum began to have serious ethical doubts about
AI when Kenneth Colby wrote DOCTOR, a chatterbot
therapist. Weizenbaum was disturbed that Colby saw his
mindless program as a serious therapeutic tool. A feud
began, and the situation was not helped when Colby did
not credit Weizenbaum for his contribution to the program. In 1976, Weizenbaum published Computer Power
and Human Reason which argued that the misuse of articial intelligence has the potential to devalue human
life.[96]

6.4.4

6.4.5 The neats: logic, Prolog and expert

systems
Logic was introduced into AI research as early as 1958,
by John McCarthy in his Advice Taker proposal.[97] In
1963, J. Alan Robinson had discovered a simple method
to implement deduction on computers, the resolution
and unication algorithm. However, straightforward implementations, like those attempted by McCarthy and
his students in the late 60s, were especially intractable:
the programs required astronomical numbers of steps to
prove simple theorems.[98] A more fruitful approach to
logic was developed in the 70s by Robert Kowalski at
the University of Edinburgh, and soon this led to the
collaboration with French researchers Alain Colmerauer
and Philippe Roussel who created the successful logic
programming language Prolog.[99] Prolog uses a subset
of logic (Horn clauses, closely related to rules and
"production rules") that permit tractable computation.
Rules would continue to be inuential, providing a foundation for Edward Feigenbaum's expert systems and the
continuing work by Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon
that would lead to Soar and their unied theories of cognition.[100]
Critics of the logical approach noted, as Dreyfus had,
that human beings rarely used logic when they solved
problems. Experiments by psychologists like Peter Wason, Eleanor Rosch, Amos Tversky, Daniel Kahneman
and others provided proof.[101] McCarthy responded that
what people do is irrelevant. He argued that what is really needed are machines that can solve problemsnot
machines that think as people do.[102]

6.4.6 The scrues: frames and scripts

Perceptrons and the dark age of conAmong the critics of McCarthys approach were his
nectionism

A perceptron was a form of neural network introduced

in 1958 by Frank Rosenblatt, who had been a schoolmate of Marvin Minsky at the Bronx High School of Science. Like most AI researchers, he was optimistic about
their power, predicting that perceptron may eventually
be able to learn, make decisions, and translate languages.
An active research program into the paradigm was carried out throughout the 60s but came to a sudden halt
with the publication of Minsky and Paperts 1969 book
Perceptrons. It suggested that there were severe limitations to what perceptrons could do and that Frank Rosenblatt's predictions had been grossly exaggerated. The effect of the book was devastating: virtually no research at
all was done in connectionism for 10 years. Eventually, a
new generation of researchers would revive the eld and
thereafter it would become a vital and useful part of articial intelligence. Rosenblatt would not live to see this,
as he died in a boating accident shortly after the book was
published.[72]

colleagues across the country at MIT. Marvin Minsky,

Seymour Papert and Roger Schank were trying to solve
problems like story understanding and object recognition that required a machine to think like a person. In
order to use ordinary concepts like chair or restaurant
they had to make all the same illogical assumptions that
people normally made. Unfortunately, imprecise concepts like these are hard to represent in logic. Gerald
Sussman observed that using precise language to describe essentially imprecise concepts doesn't make them
any more precise.[103] Schank described their antilogic approaches as "scruy", as opposed to the "neat"
paradigms used by McCarthy, Kowalski, Feigenbaum,
Newell and Simon.[104]

In 1975, in a seminal paper, Minsky noted that many of

his fellow scruy researchers were using the same kind
of tool: a framework that captures all our common sense
assumptions about something. For example, if we use the
concept of a bird, there is a constellation of facts that immediately come to mind: we might assume that it ies,

6.5. BOOM 19801987

eats worms and so on. We know these facts are not always true and that deductions using these facts will not
be logical, but these structured sets of assumptions are
part of the context of everything we say and think. He
called these structures "frames". Schank used a version
of frames he called "scripts" to successfully answer questions about short stories in English.[105] Many years later
object-oriented programming would adopt the essential
idea of "inheritance" from AI research on frames.

6.5 Boom 19801987

In the 1980s a form of AI program called "expert systems" was adopted by corporations around the world
and knowledge became the focus of mainstream AI research. In those same years, the Japanese government
aggressively funded AI with its fth generation computer
project. Another encouraging event in the early 1980s
was the revival of connectionism in the work of John
Hopeld and David Rumelhart. Once again, AI had
achieved success.

6.5.1

The rise of expert systems

An expert system is a program that answers questions or

solves problems about a specic domain of knowledge,
using logical rules that are derived from the knowledge
of experts. The earliest examples were developed by
Edward Feigenbaum and his students. Dendral, begun
in 1965, identied compounds from spectrometer readings. MYCIN, developed in 1972, diagnosed infectious
blood diseases. They demonstrated the feasibility of the
approach.[106]
Expert systems restricted themselves to a small domain
of specic knowledge (thus avoiding the commonsense
knowledge problem) and their simple design made it relatively easy for programs to be built and then modied
once they were in place. All in all, the programs proved to
be useful: something that AI had not been able to achieve
up to this point.[107]
In 1980, an expert system called XCON was completed
at CMU for the Digital Equipment Corporation. It was
an enormous success: it was saving the company 40 million dollars annually by 1986.[108] Corporations around
the world began to develop and deploy expert systems and
by 1985 they were spending over a billion dollars on AI,
most of it to in-house AI departments. An industry grew
up to support them, including hardware companies like
Symbolics and Lisp Machines and software companies
such as IntelliCorp and Aion.[109]

67

6.5.2 The knowledge revolution

The power of expert systems came from the expert
knowledge they contained. They were part of a new
direction in AI research that had been gaining ground
throughout the 70s. AI researchers were beginning to
suspectreluctantly, for it violated the scientic canon
of parsimonythat intelligence might very well be based
on the ability to use large amounts of diverse knowledge in dierent ways,[110] writes Pamela McCorduck.
"[T]he great lesson from the 1970s was that intelligent
behavior depended very much on dealing with knowledge, sometimes quite detailed knowledge, of a domain
where a given task lay.[111] Knowledge based systems
and knowledge engineering became a major focus of AI
research in the 1980s.[112]
The 1980s also saw the birth of Cyc, the rst attempt
to attack the commonsense knowledge problem directly,
by creating a massive database that would contain all the
mundane facts that the average person knows. Douglas
Lenat, who started and led the project, argued that there
is no shortcut the only way for machines to know the
meaning of human concepts is to teach them, one concept
at a time, by hand. The project was not expected to be
completed for many decades.[113]

6.5.3 The money returns: the fth generation project

In 1981, the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and
Industry set aside $850 million for the Fifth generation
computer project. Their objectives were to write programs and build machines that could carry on conversations, translate languages, interpret pictures, and reason
like human beings.[114] Much to the chagrin of scrues,
they chose Prolog as the primary computer language for
the project.[115]
Other countries responded with new programs of their
own. The UK began the 350 million Alvey project.
A consortium of American companies formed the
Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation
(or MCC) to fund large scale projects in AI and information technology.[116][117] DARPA responded as well,
founding the Strategic Computing Initiative and tripling
its investment in AI between 1984 and 1988.[118]

6.5.4 The revival of connectionism

In 1982, physicist John Hopeld was able to prove that
a form of neural network (now called a "Hopeld net")
could learn and process information in a completely
new way. Around the same time, David Rumelhart
popularized a new method for training neural networks
called "backpropagation" (discovered years earlier by
Paul Werbos). These two discoveries revived the eld of

68

CHAPTER 6. HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

been steadily gaining speed and power and in 1987 they
became more powerful than the more expensive Lisp machines made by Symbolics and others. There was no
longer a good reason to buy them. An entire industry
worth half a billion dollars was demolished overnight.[122]
Eventually the earliest successful expert systems, such as
XCON, proved too expensive to maintain. They were difcult to update, they could not learn, they were "brittle"
(i.e., they could make grotesque mistakes when given unusual inputs), and they fell prey to problems (such as the
qualication problem) that had been identied years earlier. Expert systems proved useful, but only in a few special contexts.[123]
In the late 80s, the Strategic Computing Initiative cut
funding to AI deeply and brutally. New leadership at
DARPA had decided that AI was not the next wave and
directed funds towards projects that seemed more likely
to produce immediate results.[124]

By 1991, the impressive list of goals penned in 1981 for

Japans Fifth Generation Project had not been met. Indeed, some of them, like carry on a casual conversation
connectionism which had been largely abandoned since had not been met by 2010.[125] As with other AI projects,
[117][119]
1970.
expectations had run much higher than what was actually
The new eld was unied and inspired by the appearance possible.[125]
of Parallel Distributed Processing in 1986a two volume
collection of papers edited by Rumelhart and psychologist James McClelland. Neural networks would become 6.6.2 The importance of having a body:
commercially successful in the 1990s, when they began
Nouvelle AI and embodied reason
to be used as the engines driving programs like optical
character recognition and speech recognition.[117][120]
Main articles: Nouvelle AI, behavior-based AI, situated
and embodied cognitive science
A Hopeld net with four nodes.

6.6 Bust: the second AI winter

19871993

In the late 80s, several researchers advocated a completely new approach to articial intelligence, based on
robotics.[126] They believed that, to show real intelligence,
a machine needs to have a body it needs to perceive,
move, survive and deal with the world. They argued that
these sensorimotor skills are essential to higher level skills
like commonsense reasoning and that abstract reasoning
was actually the least interesting or important human skill
(see Moravecs paradox). They advocated building intelligence from the bottom up.[127]

The business communitys fascination with AI rose and

fell in the 80s in the classic pattern of an economic bubble. The collapse was in the perception of AI by government agencies and investors the eld continued to make
advances despite the criticism. Rodney Brooks and Hans
Moravec, researchers from the related eld of robotics,
argued for an entirely new approach to articial intelliThe approach revived ideas from cybernetics and control
gence.
theory that had been unpopular since the sixties. Another precursor was David Marr, who had come to MIT
in the late 70s from a successful background in theoret6.6.1 AI winter
ical neuroscience to lead the group studying vision. He
The term "AI winter" was coined by researchers who had rejected all symbolic approaches (both McCarthys logic
survived the funding cuts of 1974 when they became con- and Minsky's frames), arguing that AI needed to undercerned that enthusiasm for expert systems had spiraled stand the physical machinery of vision from the bottom
out of control and that disappointment would certainly up before any symbolic processing took place. (Marrs
follow.[121] Their fears were well founded: in the late 80s work would be cut short by leukemia in 1980.)[128]
and early 90s, AI suered a series of nancial setbacks. In a 1990 paper Elephants Don't Play Chess, robotics reThe rst indication of a change in weather was the sud- searcher Rodney Brooks took direct aim at the physical
den collapse of the market for specialized AI hardware symbol system hypothesis, arguing that symbols are not
in 1987. Desktop computers from Apple and IBM had always necessary since the world is its own best model.

6.7. AI 1993PRESENT
It is always exactly up to date. It always has every detail
there is to be known. The trick is to sense it appropriately
and often enough.[129] In the 80s and 90s, many cognitive
scientists also rejected the symbol processing model of
the mind and argued that the body was essential for reasoning, a theory called the embodied mind thesis.[130]

69
into the study of AI.[138] When the economists denition of a rational agent was married to computer science's
denition of an object or module, the intelligent agent
paradigm was complete.

An intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of
success. By this denition, simple programs that solve
specic problems are intelligent agents, as are human
6.7 AI 1993present
beings and organizations of human beings, such as rms.
The intelligent agent paradigm denes AI research as the
The eld of AI, now more than a half a century old, - study of intelligent agents. This is a generalization of
nally achieved some of its oldest goals. It began to be used some earlier denitions of AI: it goes beyond studying
successfully throughout the technology industry, although human intelligence; it studies all kinds of intelligence.[139]
somewhat behind the scenes. Some of the success was The paradigm gave researchers license to study isolated
due to increasing computer power and some was achieved problems and nd solutions that were both veriable and
by focusing on specic isolated problems and pursuing useful. It provided a common language to describe probthem with the highest standards of scientic accountabil- lems and share their solutions with each other, and with
ity. Still, the reputation of AI, in the business world at other elds that also used concepts of abstract agents, like
least, was less than pristine. Inside the eld there was lit- economics and control theory. It was hoped that a comtle agreement on the reasons for AIs failure to fulll the plete agent architecture (like Newells SOAR) would one
dream of human level intelligence that had captured the day allow researchers to build more versatile and intelliimagination of the world in the 1960s. Together, all these gent systems out of interacting intelligent agents.[138][140]
factors helped to fragment AI into competing subelds focused on particular problems or approaches, sometimes
even under new names that disguised the tarnished pedi- 6.7.3 Victory of the neats
gree of articial intelligence.[131] AI was both more
cautious and more successful than it had ever been.
AI researchers began to develop and use sophisticated
mathematical tools more than they ever had in the
past.[141] There was a widespread realization that many of
6.7.1 Milestones and Moores Law
the problems that AI needed to solve were already being
On 11 May 1997, Deep Blue became the rst com- worked on by researchers in elds like mathematics, ecoputer chess-playing system to beat a reigning world chess nomics or operations research. The shared mathematical
champion, Garry Kasparov.[132] In February 2011, in a language allowed both a higher level of collaboration with
Jeopardy! quiz show exhibition match, IBM's question more established and successful elds and the achieveanswering system, Watson, defeated the two greatest ment of results which were measurable and provable;
Jeopardy! champions, Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings, by AI had become a more rigorous scientic discipline.
Russell & Norvig (2003) describe this as nothing less than
a signicant margin.[133]
a revolution and the victory of the neats".[142][143]
These successes were not due to some revolutionary new
[144]
brought
paradigm, but mostly on the tedious application of engi- Judea Pearl's highly inuential 1988 book
probability
and
decision
theory
into
AI.
Among
the
neering skill and on the tremendous power of computers
many
new
tools
in
use
were
Bayesian
networks,
hidden
[134]
today.
In fact, Deep Blues computer was 10 million
times faster than the Ferranti Mark 1 that Christopher Markov models, information theory, stochastic modelStrachey taught to play chess in 1951.[135] This dramatic ing and classical optimization. Precise mathematical deincrease is measured by Moores law, which predicts that scriptions were also developed for "computational intellilike neural networks and evolutionary
the speed and memory capacity of computers doubles ev- gence" paradigms
[142]
algorithms.
ery two years. The fundamental problem of raw computer power was slowly being overcome.

6.7.4 AI behind the scenes

6.7.2

Intelligent agents

A new paradigm called "intelligent agents" became

widely accepted during the 90s.[136] Although earlier researchers had proposed modular divide and conquer
approaches to AI,[137] the intelligent agent did not reach
its modern form until Judea Pearl, Allen Newell and others brought concepts from decision theory and economics

Algorithms originally developed by AI researchers began

to appear as parts of larger systems. AI had solved a lot
of very dicult problems[145] and their solutions proved
to be useful throughout the technology industry,[146]
such as data mining, industrial robotics, logistics,[147]
speech recognition,[148] banking software,[149] medical
diagnosis[149] and Google's search engine.[150]

70

CHAPTER 6. HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

The eld of AI receives little or no credit for these suc- some tools by watching YouTube videos.[164]
cesses. Many of AIs greatest innovations have been reduced to the status of just another item in the tool chest
of computer science.[151] Nick Bostrom explains A lot 6.8 See also
of cutting edge AI has ltered into general applications,
often without being called AI because once something
Outline of articial intelligence
becomes useful enough and common enough its not labeled AI anymore.[152]
Progress in articial intelligence
Many researchers in AI in 1990s deliberately called their
work by other names, such as informatics, knowledgebased systems, cognitive systems or computational intelligence. In part, this may be because they considered their
eld to be fundamentally dierent from AI, but also the
new names help to procure funding. In the commercial
world at least, the failed promises of the AI Winter continue to haunt AI research, as the New York Times reported in 2005: Computer scientists and software engineers avoided the term articial intelligence for fear of
being viewed as wild-eyed dreamers.[153][154][155]

Timeline of articial intelligence

History of natural language processing

6.9 Notes
[1] McCorduck 2004.
[2] For example Kurzweil (2005) argues that machines with
human level intelligence will exist by 2029.
[3] Turing 1950, p. 460

6.7.5

Where is HAL 9000?

[4] McCorduck 2004, pp. 535.

[5] McCorduck 2004, p. 5; Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 939

In 1968, Arthur C. Clarke and Stanley Kubrick had imagined that by the year 2001, a machine would exist with an
intelligence that matched or exceeded the capability of
human beings. The character they created, HAL 9000,
was based on a belief shared by many leading AI researchers that such a machine would exist by the year
2001.[156]
Marvin Minsky asks So the question is why didn't we
get HAL in 2001?"[157] Minsky believes that the answer
is that the central problems, like commonsense reasoning, were being neglected, while most researchers pursued things like commercial applications of neural nets
or genetic algorithms. John McCarthy, on the other
hand, still blames the qualication problem.[158] For Ray
Kurzweil, the issue is computer power and, using Moores
Law, he predicts that machines with human-level intelligence will appear by 2029.[159] Je Hawkins argues
that neural net research ignores the essential properties
of the human cortex, preferring simple models that have
been successful at solving simple problems.[160] There are
many other explanations and for each there is a corresponding research program underway.

6.7.6

2010s

[6] McCorduck 2004, pp. 1516; Buchanan 2005, p. 50

(Judah Loew's Golem); McCorduck 2004, pp. 1314
(Paracelsus); O'Connor 1994 (Gebers Takwin)
[7] McCorduck 2004, pp. 1725.
[8] Butler 1863.
[9] Needham 1986, p. 53
[10] McCorduck 2004, p. 6
[11] Nick 2005.
[12] McCorduck 2004, p. 17 and see also Levitt 2000
[13] Quoted in McCorduck 2004, p. 8. Crevier 1993, p. 1 and
McCorduck 2004, pp. 69 discusses sacred statues.
[14] Other important automatons were built by Haroun alRashid (McCorduck 2004, p. 10), Jacques de Vaucanson (McCorduck 2004, p. 16) and Leonardo Torres y
Quevedo (McCorduck 2004, pp. 5962)
[15] Berlinski 2000
[16] Cfr. Carreras Artau, Toms y Joaqun. Historia de la
losofa espaola. Filosofa cristiana de los siglos XIII al
XV. Madrid, 1939, Volume I
[17] Bonner, Anthonny, The Art and Logic of Ramn Llull: A

In February 2011, in a Jeopardy! quiz show exhibiUsers Guide, Brill, 2007.

tion match, IBM's question answering system, Watson,
defeated the two greatest Jeopardy champions, Brad [18] Anthony Bonner (ed.), Doctor Illuminatus. A Ramon
Llull Reader (Princeton University 1985). Vid. Llulls
Rutter and Ken Jennings, by a signicant margin.[161]
Inuence: The History of Lullism at 5771
The Kinect, which provides a 3D bodymotion interface for the Xbox 360 and the Xbox One, uses algo- [19] 17th century mechanism and AI:
rithms that emerged from lengthy AI research[162] as do
McCorduck 2004, pp. 3746
intelligent personal assistants in smartphones.[163] In 2015
researchers constructed robot, which learned how to use
Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 6

6.9. NOTES
Haugeland 1986, chpt. 2
Buchanan 2005, p. 53
[20] Hobbes and AI:
McCorduck 2004, p. 42
Hobbes 1651, chapter 5
[21] Leibniz and AI:
McCorduck 2004, p. 41
Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 6
Berlinski 2000, p. 12
Buchanan 2005, p. 53
[22] The Lambda calculus was especially important to AI,
since it was an inspiration for Lisp (the most important
programming language used in AI). (Crevier 1993, pp.
190 196,61)
[23] The original photo can be seen in the article: Rose, Allen
(April 1946). Lightning Strikes Mathematics. Popular
Science: 8386. Retrieved 15 April 2012.
[24] The Turing machine: McCorduck 2004, pp. 6364,
Crevier 1993, pp. 2224, Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 8
and see Turing 1936
[25] Menabrea 1843
[26] McCorduck 2004, pp. 6162, 6466, Russell & Norvig
2003, pp. 1415

71

[36] Schaeer, Jonathan. One Jump Ahead:: Challenging Human Supremacy in Checkers, 1997,2009, Springer, ISBN
978-0-387-76575-4. Chapter 6.
[37] McCorduck 2004, pp. 137170, Crevier, pp. 4447
[38] McCorduck 2004, pp. 123125, Crevier 1993, pp. 44
46 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 17
[39] Quoted in Crevier 1993, p. 46 and Russell & Norvig
2003, p. 17
[40] Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 947,952
[41] McCorduck 2004, pp. 111136, Crevier 1993, pp. 49
51 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 17
[42] See McCarthy et al. 1955. Also see Crevier 1993, p. 48
where Crevier states "[the proposal] later became known
as the 'physical symbol systems hypothesis". The physical
symbol system hypothesis was articulated and named by
Newell and Simon in their paper on GPS. (Newell & Simon 1963) It includes a more specic denition of a machine as an agent that manipulates symbols. See the
philosophy of articial intelligence.
[43] McCorduck (2004, pp. 129130) discusses how the Dartmouth conference alumni dominated the rst two decades
of AI research, calling them the invisible college.
[44] I won't swear and I hadn't seen it before, McCarthy told
Pamela McCorduck in 1979. (McCorduck 2004, p. 114)
However, McCarthy also stated unequivocally I came up
with the term in a CNET interview. (Skillings 2006)

[27] Von Neumann: McCorduck (2004, pp. 7680)

[45] Crevier (1993, pp. 49) writes the conference is generally

recognized as the ocial birthdate of the new science.

[28] The starting and ending dates of the sections in this article are adopted from Crevier 1993 and Russell & Norvig
2003, p. 1627. Themes, trends and projects are treated
in the period that the most important work was done.

[46] Russell and Norvig write it was astonishing whenever a

computer did anything remotely clever. Russell & Norvig
2003, p. 18

[29] McCorduck 2004, pp. 5157, 80107, Crevier 1993, pp.

2732, Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 15, 940, Moravec
1988, p. 3, Cordeschi & 2002 Chap. 5.
[30] McCorduck 2004, p. 98, Crevier 1993, pp. 2728,
Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 15, 940, Moravec 1988, p.
3, Cordeschi & 2002 Chap. 5.
[31] McCorduck 2004, pp. 5157, 8894, Crevier 1993, p.
30, Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 1516, Cordeschi & 2002
Chap. 5 and see also Pitts & McCullough 1943
[32] McCorduck 2004, p. 102, Crevier 1993, pp. 3435 and
Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 17
[33] McCorduck 2004, pp. 7072, Crevier 1993, p. 2225,
Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 23 and 948, Haugeland
1985, pp. 69, Cordeschi 2002, pp. 170176. See also
Turing 1950
[34] Norvig & Russell (2003, p. 948) claim that Turing answered all the major objections to AI that have been offered in the years since the paper appeared.
[35] See A Brief History of Computing at AlanTuring.net.

[47] Crevier 1993, pp. 52107, Moravec 1988, p. 9 and

Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 1821
[48] McCorduck 2004, p. 218, Crevier 1993, pp. 108109
and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 21
[49] Crevier 1993, pp. 52107, Moravec 1988, p. 9
[50] Means-ends analysis, reasoning as search: McCorduck
2004, pp. 247248. Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 5961
[51] Heuristic: McCorduck 2004, p. 246, Russell & Norvig
2003, pp. 2122
[52] GPS: McCorduck 2004, pp. 245250, Crevier 1993, p.
GPS?, Russell & Norvig 2003, p. GPS?
[53] Crevier 1993, pp. 5158,6566 and Russell & Norvig
2003, pp. 1819
[54] McCorduck 2004, pp. 268271, Crevier 1993, pp. 95
96, Moravec 1988, pp. 1415
[55] McCorduck 2004, p. 286, Crevier 1993, pp. 7679,
Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 19
[56] Crevier 1993, pp. 7983

72

[57] Crevier 1993, pp. 164172

[58] McCorduck 2004, pp. 291296, Crevier 1993, pp. 134
139
[59] McCorduck 2004, pp. 299305, Crevier 1993, pp. 83
102, Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 19 and Copeland 2000
[60] McCorduck 2004, pp. 300305, Crevier 1993, pp. 84
102, Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 19
[61] Simon & Newell 1958, p. 78 quoted in Crevier 1993, p.
108. See also Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 21
[62] Simon 1965, p. 96 quoted in Crevier 1993, p. 109
[63] Minsky 1967, p. 2 quoted in Crevier 1993, p. 109
[64] Minsky strongly believes he was misquoted.
See
McCorduck 2004, pp. 272274, Crevier 1993, p. 96 and
Darrach 1970.
[65] Crevier 1993, pp. 6465
[66] Crevier 1993, p. 94
[67] Howe 1994
[68] McCorduck 2004, p. 131, Crevier 1993, p. 51. McCorduck also notes that funding was mostly under the direction of alumni of the Dartmouth conference of 1956.
[69] Crevier 1993, p. 65
[70] Crevier 1993, pp. 6871 and Turkle 1984
[71] Crevier 1993, pp. 100144 and Russell & Norvig 2003,
pp. 2122
[72] McCorduck 2004, pp. 104107, Crevier 1993, pp. 102
105, Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 22
[73] Crevier 1993, pp. 163196
[74] Crevier 1993, p. 146
[75] Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 2021
[76] Crevier 1993, pp. 146148, see also Buchanan 2005, p.
56: Early programs were necessarily limited in scope by
the size and speed of memory

CHAPTER 6. HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

[83] McCorduck 2004, pp. 280281, Crevier 1993, p. 110,

Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 21 and NRC 1999 under Success in Speech Recognition.
[84] Crevier 1993, p. 117, Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 22,
Howe 1994 and see also Lighthill 1973.
[85] Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 22, Lighthill 1973, John McCarthy wrote in response that the combinatorial explosion problem has been recognized in AI from the beginning in Review of Lighthill report
[86] Crevier 1993, pp. 115116 (on whom this account is
based). Other views include McCorduck 2004, pp. 306
313 and NRC 1999 under Success in Speech Recognition.
[87] Crevier 1993, p. 115. Moravec explains, Their initial
promises to DARPA had been much too optimistic. Of
course, what they delivered stopped considerably short of
that. But they felt they couldn't in their next proposal
promise less than in the rst one, so they promised more.
[88] NRC 1999 under Shift to Applied Research Increases
Investment. While the autonomous tank was a failure,
the battle management system (called "DART") proved to
be enormously successful, saving billions in the rst Gulf
War, repaying the investment and justifying the DARPA's
pragmatic policy, at least as far as DARPA was concerned.
[89] Lucas and Penrose' critique of AI: Crevier 1993, p. 22,
Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 949950, Hofstadter 1980,
pp. 471477 and see Lucas 1961
[90] Know-how is Dreyfus term. (Dreyfus makes a distinction between knowing how and knowing that, a modern version of Heidegger's distinction of ready-to-hand
and present-at-hand.) (Dreyfus & Dreyfus 1986)
[91] Dreyfus critique of articial intelligence: McCorduck
2004, pp. 211239, Crevier 1993, pp. 120132, Russell
& Norvig 2003, pp. 950952 and see Dreyfus 1965,
Dreyfus 1972, Dreyfus & Dreyfus 1986
[92] Searles critique of AI: McCorduck 2004, pp. 443445,
Crevier 1993, pp. 269271, Russell & Norvig 2004, pp.
958960 and see Searle 1980
[93] Quoted in Crevier 1993, p. 143

[77] Moravec 1976. McCarthy has always disagreed with

Moravec, back to their early days together at SAIL. He
states I would say that 50 years ago, the machine capability was much too small, but by 30 years ago, machine
capability wasn't the real problem. in a CNET interview.
(Skillings 2006)

[94] Quoted in Crevier 1993, p. 122

[78] Hans Moravec, ROBOT: Mere Machine to Transcendent

Mind

[96] Weizenbaums critique of AI: McCorduck 2004, pp. 356

373, Crevier 1993, pp. 132144, Russell & Norvig 2003,
p. 961 and see Weizenbaum 1976

[79] Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 9,2122 and Lighthill 1973
[80] McCorduck 2004, pp. 300 & 421; Crevier 1993, pp.
113114; Moravec 1988, p. 13; Lenat & Guha 1989, (Introduction); Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 21
[81] McCorduck 2004, p. 456, Moravec 1988, pp. 1516
[82] McCarthy & Hayes 1969, Crevier 1993, pp. 117119

[95] I became the only member of the AI community to be

seen eating lunch with Dreyfus. And I deliberately made
it plain that theirs was not the way to treat a human being.
Joseph Weizenbaum, quoted in Crevier 1993, p. 123.

[97] McCorduck 2004, p. 51, Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 19,
23
[98] McCorduck 2004, p. 51, Crevier 1993, pp. 190192
[99] Crevier 1993, pp. 193196
[100] Crevier 1993, pp. 145149,25863

6.9. NOTES

73

[101] Wason (1966) showed that people do poorly on com- [121] Crevier 1993, pp. 203. AI winter was rst used as the
pletely abstract problems, but if the problem is restated
title of a seminar on the subject for the Association for
to allowed the use of intuitive social intelligence, perforthe Advancement of Articial Intelligence.
mance dramatically improves. (See Wason selection task)
Tversky, Slovic & Kahnemann (1982) have shown that [122] McCorduck 2004, p. 435, Crevier 1993, pp. 209210
people are terrible at elementary problems that involve uncertain reasoning. (See list of cognitive biases for several [123] McCorduck 2004, p. 435 (who cites institutional reasons
for their ultimate failure), Crevier 1993, pp. 204208
examples). Eleanor Rosch's work is described in Lako
(who cites the diculty of truth maintenance, i.e., learn1987
ing and updating), Lenat & Guha 1989, Introduction (who
[102] An early example of McCathys position was in the jouremphasizes the brittleness and the inability to handle exnal Science where he said This is AI, so we don't care
cessive qualication.)
if its psychologically real (Kolata 1982), and he recently
reiterated his position at the AI@50 conference where he [124] McCorduck 2004, pp. 430431
said Articial intelligence is not, by denition, simulation of human intelligence (Maker 2006).
[125] McCorduck 2004, p. 441, Crevier 1993, p. 212. McCorduck writes Two and a half decades later, we can see
[103] Crevier 1993, pp. 175
that the Japanese didn't quite meet all of those ambitious
goals.
[104] Neat vs. scruy: McCorduck 2004, pp. 421424 (who
picks up the state of the debate in 1984). Crevier 1993,
pp. 168 (who documents Schanks original use of the [126] McCorduck 2004, pp. 454462
term). Another aspect of the conict was called the pro[127] Moravec (1988, p. 20) writes: I am condent that this
cedural/declarative distinction but did not prove to be inbottom-up route to articial intelligence will one date
uential in later AI research.
meet the traditional top-down route more than half way,
ready to provide the real world competence and the com[105] McCorduck 2004, pp. 305306, Crevier 1993, pp. 170
monsense knowledge that has been so frustratingly elusive
173, 246 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 24. Minskys
in reasoning programs. Fully intelligent machines will reframe paper: Minsky 1974.
sult when the metaphorical golden spike is driven uniting
[106] McCorduck 2004, pp. 327335 (Dendral), Crevier 1993,
the two eorts.
pp. 148159, Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 2223
[128] Crevier 1993, pp. 183190.
[107] Crevier 1993, pp. 158159 and Russell & Norvig 2003,
p. 2324
[129] Brooks 1990, p. 3
[108] Crevier 1993, p. 198

[130] See, for example, Lako & Turner 1999

[109] McCorduck 2004, pp. 434435, Crevier 1993, pp. 161

[131] McCorduck (2004, p. 424) discusses the fragmentation
162,197203 and Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 24
and the abandonment of AIs original goals.
[110] McCorduck 2004, p. 299
[132] McCorduck 2004, pp. 480483
[111] McCorduck 2004, pp. 421
[133] Marko, John (16 February 2011). On Jeopardy!' Wat[112] Knowledge revolution: McCorduck 2004, pp. 266276,
son Win Is All but Trivial. The New York Times.
298300, 314, 421, Russell Norvig, pp. 2223
[113] Cyc: McCorduck 2004, p. 489, Crevier 1993, pp. 239
243, Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 363365 and Lenat &
Guha 1989

[134] Kurzweil 2005, p. 274 writes that the improvement in

computer chess, according to common wisdom, is governed only by the brute force expansion of computer hardware.

[114] McCorduck 2004, pp. 436441, Crevier 1993, pp. 211,

Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 24 and see also Feigenbaum & [135] Cycle time of Ferranti Mark 1 was 1.2 milliseconds,
which is arguably equivalent to about 833 ops. Deep
McCorduck 1983
Blue ran at 11.38 gigaops (and this does not even take
into account Deep Blues special-purpose hardware for
[115] Crevier 1993, pp. 195
chess). Very approximately, these dier by a factor of
[116] Crevier 1993, pp. 240.
10^7.
[117] Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 25
[118] McCorduck 2004, pp. 426432, NRC 1999 under Shift
to Applied Research Increases Investment
[119] Crevier 1993, pp. 214215.
[120] Crevier 1993, pp. 215216.

[136] McCorduck 2004, pp. 471478, Russell & Norvig 2003,

p. 55, where they write: The whole-agent view is
now widely accepted in the eld. The intelligent agent
paradigm is discussed in major AI textbooks, such as:
Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 3258, 968972, Poole,
Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 721, Luger & Stubbleeld 2004, pp. 235240

74

CHAPTER 6. HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

[137] Carl Hewitt's Actor model anticipated the modern definition of intelligent agents. (Hewitt, Bishop & Steiger
1973) Both John Doyle (Doyle 1983) and Marvin Minsky's popular classic The Society of Mind (Minsky 1986)
used the word agent. Other modular proposals included Rodney Brooks subsumption architecture, objectoriented programming and others.
[138] Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 27, 55
[139] This is how the most widely accepted textbooks of the 21st
century dene articial intelligence. See Russell & Norvig
2003, p. 32 and Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, p. 1
[140] McCorduck 2004, p. 478
[141] McCorduck 2004, pp. 486487, Russell & Norvig 2003,
pp. 2526
[142] Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 2526
[143] McCorduck (2004, p. 487): As I write, AI enjoys a Neat
hegemony.
[144] Pearl 1988
[145] See Computer science (in Applications of articial intelligence)
[146] NRC 1999 under Articial Intelligence in the 90s, and
Kurzweil 2005, p. 264
[147] Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 28
[148] For the new state of the art in AI based speech recognition,
see The Economist (2007)
[149] AI-inspired systems were already integral to many everyday technologies such as internet search engines, bank
software for processing transactions and in medical diagnosis. Nick Bostrom, quoted in CNN 2006
[150] Olsen (2004),Olsen (2006)
[151] McCorduck 2004, p. 423, Kurzweil 2005, p.
Hofstadter 1979, p. 601

265,

[152] CNN 2006

[153] Marko 2005
[154] The Economist 2007
[155] Tascarella 2006
[156] Crevier 1993, pp. 108109
[157] He goes on to say: The answer is, I believe we could have
... I once went to an international conference on neural
net[s]. There were 40 thousand registrants ... but ... if
you had an international conference, for example, on using
multiple representations for common sense reasoning, I've
only been able to nd 6 or 7 people in the whole world.
Minsky 2001
[158] Maker 2006
[159] Kurzweil 2005
[160] Hawkins & Blakeslee 2004

[161] Marko 2011.

[162] Kinects AI breakthrough explained
[163] http://readwrite.com/2013/01/15/
virtual-personal-assistants-the-future-of-your-smartphone-infographic
[164] http://www.kurzweilai.net/
robot-learns-to-use-tools-by-watching-youtube-videos

6.10 References
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Brooks, Rodney (1990), Elephants Don't Play
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CNN (26 July 2006), AI set to exceed human brain
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Cordeschi, Roberto (2002), The Discovery of the
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Crevier, Daniel (1993), AI: The Tumultuous Search
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Darrach, Brad (20 November 1970), Meet Shakey,
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Doyle, J. (1983), What is rational psychology? Toward a modern mental philosophy, AI Magazine 4
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Dreyfus, Hubert (1965), Alchemy and AI, RAND
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Dreyfus, Hubert (1972), What Computers Can't
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Me?", The Economist, retrieved 16 October 2008.
Feigenbaum, Edward A.; McCorduck, Pamela
(1983), The Fifth Generation: Articial Intelligence and Japans Computer Challenge to the World,
Michael Joseph, ISBN 0-7181-2401-4.

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Hebb, D.O. (1949), The Organization of Behavior,
New York: Wiley, ISBN 0-8058-4300-0, OCLC
48871099.
Hewitt, Carl; Bishop, Peter; Steiger, Richard
(1973), A Universal Modular Actor Formalism for
Articial Intelligence (PDF), IJCAI
Hobbes, Thomas (1651), Leviathan.
Hofstadter, Douglas (1999 (1979)), Gdel, Escher,
Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid, Basic Books, ISBN
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Kolata, G. (1982), How can computers
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PMID
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Kurzweil, Ray (2005), The Singularity is Near,
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71826177.
Lako, George (1987), Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the Mind,
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Lenat, Douglas; Guha, R. V. (1989), Building Large
Knowledge-Based Systems, Addison-Wesley, ISBN
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Levitt, Gerald M. (2000), The Turk, Chess Automaton, Jeerson, N.C.: McFarland, ISBN 0-78640778-6.
Lighthill, Professor Sir James (1973), "Articial
Intelligence: A General Survey", Articial Intelligence: a paper symposium, Science Research Council
Lucas, John (1961), Minds, Machines and
Gdel, Philosophy 36 (XXXVI): 112127,
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Maker, Meg Houston (2006), AI@50: AI Past,
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Marko, John (14 October 2005), Behind Articial Intelligence, a Squadron of Bright Real People,
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McCarthy, John; Minsky, Marvin; Rochester,
Nathan; Shannon, Claude (August 35, 1955), A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project
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McCarthy, John; Hayes, P. J. (1969), Some philosophical problems from the standpoint of articial
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Machine Intelligence 4, Edinburgh University Press,
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McCorduck, Pamela (2004), Machines Who Think
(2nd ed.), Natick, MA: A. K. Peters, Ltd., ISBN 156881-205-1, OCLC 52197627.
McCullough, W. S.; Pitts, W. (1943), A logical
calculus of the ideas immanent in nervous activity,
Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics 5 (4): 115127,
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Menabrea, Luigi Federico; Lovelace, Ada (1843),
Sketch of the Analytical Engine Invented by
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Innite Machines, Englewood Clis, N.J.: PrenticeHall
Minsky, Marvin; Papert, Seymour (1969), Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry, The MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-63111-3, OCLC
16924756
Minsky, Marvin (1974), A Framework for Representing Knowledge, retrieved 16 October 2008
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Newell, Allen; Simon, H. A. (1963), GPS: A Program that Simulates Human Thought, in Feigenbaum, E.A.; Feldman, J., Computers and Thought,
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Nick, Martin (2005), Al Jazari: The Ingenious 13th

Century Muslin Mechanic, Al Shindagah, retrieved
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creation of life (takwin) and other concepts of Genesis in medieval Islam, University of Pennsylvania,
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Olsen, Stefanie (10 May 2004), Newsmaker:

Googles man behind the curtain, CNET, retrieved
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Weizenbaum, Joseph (1976), Computer Power and

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Olsen, Stefanie (18 August 2006), Spying an intelligent search engine, CNET, retrieved 17 October .
2008.
Pearl, J. (1988), Probabilistic Reasoning in Intelligent
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Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003), Articial
Intelligence: A Modern Approach (2nd ed.), Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, ISBN 013-790395-2.
Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy
(1998), Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach, Oxford University Press., ISBN 0-19510270-3.
Samuel, Arthur L. (July 1959), Some studies in
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219, doi:10.1147/rd.33.0210, retrieved 2007-0820.
Searle, John (1980), Minds, Brains and Programs,
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Simon, H. A. (1965), The Shape of Automation for
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Skillings, Jonathan (2006), Newsmaker: Getting machines to think like us, CNET, retrieved 8 October
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Tascarella, Patty (11 Autgust 2006), Robotics rms
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Turing, Alan (1936-37), On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem, Proceedings of the London Mathematical

Chapter 7

History of computer science

The history of computer science began long before
the modern discipline of computer science that emerged
in the 20th century, and hinted at in the centuries
prior. The progression, from mechanical inventions
and mathematical theories towards the modern computer
concepts and machines, formed a major academic eld
and the basis of a massive worldwide industry.[1]

a memory capacity of less than 1 kilobyte of memory and

a clock speed of less than 10 Hertz .

The earliest known tool for use in computation was the

abacus, developed in period 27002300 BCE in Sumer .
The Sumerians abacus consisted of a table of successive
columns which delimited the successive orders of magnitude of their sexagesimal number system.[2] Its original
style of usage was by lines drawn in sand with pebbles .
Abaci of a more modern design are still used as calculation tools today.[3]

7.1 Binary logic

Considerable advancement in mathematics and electronics theory was required before the rst modern computers
could be designed .

In 1703, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz developed logic in

a formal, mathematical sense with his writings on the binary numeral system. In his system, the ones and zeros
also represent true and false values or on and o states.
But it took more than a century before George Boole published his Boolean algebra in 1854 with a complete sysThe Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest tem that allowed computational processes to be matheknown mechanical analog computer.[4] It was designed matically modeled .
to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in
By this time, the rst mechanical devices driven by a bi1901 in the Antikythera wreck o the Greek island of
nary pattern had been invented. The industrial revolution
Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been
had driven forward the mechanization of many tasks, and
dated to c. 100 BCE. Technological artifacts of similar
this included weaving. Punched cards controlled Joseph
complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when
Marie Jacquard's loom in 1801, where a hole punched
mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in Europe.[5]
in the card indicated a binary one and an unpunched spot
When John Napier discovered logarithms for computa- indicated a binary zero. Jacquards loom was far from betional purposes in the early 17th century, there followed ing a computer, but it did illustrate that machines could
a period of considerable progress by inventors and sci- be driven by binary systems .
entists in making calculating tools. In 1623 Wilhelm
Schickard designed a calculating machine, but abandoned
the project, when the prototype he had started building 7.2 Birth of computer
was destroyed by a re in 1624 . Around 1640, Blaise
Pascal, a leading French mathematician, constructed a
mechanical adding device based on a design described Before the 1920s, computers (sometimes computors) were
by Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria.[6] Then in human clerks that performed computations. They were
1672 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz invented the Stepped usually under the lead of a physicist. Many thousands
of computers were employed in commerce, government,
Reckoner which he completed in 1694.[7]
and research establishments. Most of these computers
In 1837 Charles Babbage rst described his Analytical were women, and they were known to have a degree in
Engine which is accepted as the rst design for a modern calculus. Some performed astronomical calculations for
computer. The analytical engine had expandable mem- calendars, others ballistic tables for the military.
ory, an arithmetic unit, and logic processing capabilities able to interpret a programming language with loops After the 1920s, the expression computing machine reand conditional branching. Although never built, the de- ferred to any machine that performed the work of a husign has been studied extensively and is understood to be man computer, especially those in accordance with efTuring equivalent. The analytical engine would have had fective methods of the Church-Turing thesis. The thesis
states that a mathematical method is eective if it could
77

78

CHAPTER 7. HISTORY OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

be set out as a list of instructions able to be followed by a bage as an assistant while Babbage was working on his
human clerk with paper and pencil, for as long as neces- Analytical Engine, the rst mechanical computer. Dursary, and without ingenuity or insight .
ing her work with Babbage, Ada Lovelace became the deMachines that computed with continuous values became signer of the rst computer algorithm, which had the abilknown as the analog kind. They used machinery that rep- ity to compute Bernoulli numbers. Moreover, Lovelaces
resented continuous numeric quantities, like the angle of work with Babbage resulted in her prediction of future
computers to not only perform mathematical calculaa shaft rotation or dierence in electrical potential .
tions, but also manipulate symbols, mathematical or not.
Digital machinery, in contrast to analog, were able to ren- While she was never able to see the results of her work, as
der a state of a numeric value and store each individual the Analytical Engine was not created in her lifetime,
digit. Digital machinery used dierence engines or relays her eorts in later years, beginning in the 1940s, did not
before the invention of faster memory devices .
go unnoticed.[9]
The phrase computing machine gradually gave away, after the late 1940s, to just computer as the onset of electronic digital machinery became common. These com- 7.3.2 Alan Turing and the Turing Machine
puters were able to perform the calculations that were
The mathematical foundations of modern computer
performed by the previous human clerks .
science began to be laid by Kurt Gdel with his
Since the values stored by digital machines were not incompleteness theorem (1931). In this theorem, he
bound to physical properties like analog devices, a log- showed that there were limits to what could be proved
ical computer, based on digital equipment, was able to and disproved within a formal system. This led to work
do anything that could be described purely mechanical. by Gdel and others to dene and describe these formal
The theoretical Turing Machine, created by Alan Turing, systems, including concepts such as mu-recursive funcis a hypothetical device theorized in order to study the tions and lambda-denable functions .
properties of such hardware .
1936 was a key year for computer science. Alan Turing
See also: Philosophy of physics, Philosophy of biology, and Alonzo Church independently, and also together, inPhilosophy of mathematics, Philosophy of language and troduced the formalization of an algorithm, with limits on
Philosophy of mind
what can be computed, and a purely mechanical model
for computing .
These topics are covered by what is now called the
ChurchTuring thesis, a hypothesis about the nature of
7.3 Emergence of a discipline
mechanical calculation devices, such as electronic computers. The thesis claims that any calculation that is pos7.3.1 Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace sible can be performed by an algorithm running on a computer, provided that sucient time and storage space are
Charles Babbage is often regarded as one of the rst pi- available .
oneers of computing. Beginning in the 1810s, Babbage In 1937, Alan Turing introduced his idea of what are
had a vision of mechanically computing numbers and ta- now referred to as Turing Machines, and, anticipating
bles. Putting this into reality, Babbage designed a cal- the modern stored program computer, described what beculator to compute numbers up to 8 decimal points long. came known as the Universal Turing machine. These
Continuing with the success of this idea, Babbage worked Turing machines were designed to formally determine,
to develop a machine that could compute numbers with mathematically, what can be computed, taking into acup to 20 decimal places. By the 1830s, Babbage had de- count limitations on computing ability. If a Turing mavised a plan to develop a machine that could use punched chine can complete the task, it is considered Turing
cards to perform arithmetical operations. The machine computable.[10]
would store numbers in memory units, and there would Turing machines are not physical objects, but mathematbe a form of sequential control. This means that one op- ical ones. They show if and how any given algorithm can
eration would be carried out before another in such a way be computed. Turing machines are state machines, where
that the machine would produce an answer and not fail. a state represents a position in a graph. State machines
This machine was to be known as the Analytical En- use various states, or graph positions, to determine the
gine, which was the rst true representation of what is outcome of the algorithm. To accomplish this, a theothe modern computer.[8]
retical one-dimensional tape is said to be divided into an
Ada Lovelace (Augusta Ada Byron) is credited as the
pioneer of computer programming and is regarded as
a mathematical genius, a result of the mathematically
heavy tutoring regimen her mother assigned to her as a
young girl. Lovelace began working with Charles Bab-

innite number of cells. Each cell contains a binary digit,

1 or 0. As the read/write head of the machine scans in
the subsequent value in the cell, it uses this value to determine what state to transition to next. To accomplish
this, the machine follows an input of rules, usually in the

7.3. EMERGENCE OF A DISCIPLINE

form of tables, that contain logic similar to: if the machine is in state A and a 0 is read in, the machine is going
to go to the next state, say, state B. The rules that the machines must follow are considered the program. These
Turing machines helped dene the logic behind modern
computer science. Memory in modern computers is represented by the innite tape, and the bus of the machine
is represented by the read/write head.[10]
Turing focused heavily on designing a machine that could
determine what can be computed. Turing concluded that
as long as a Turing machine exists that could compute
a precise approximation of the number, that value was
computable. This does include constants such as pi. Furthermore, functions can be computable when determining TRUE or FALSE for any given parameters. One
example of this would be a function IsEven. If this
function were passed a number, the computation would
produce TRUE if the number were even and FALSE if
the number were odd. Using these specications, Turing machines can determine if a function is computable
and terminate if said function is computable. Furthermore, Turing machines can interpret logic operators, such
as AND, OR, XOR, NOT, and IF-THEN-ELSE[10] to
determine if a function is computable.

79

7.3.3 Shannon and information theory

Up to and during the 1930s, electrical engineers were
able to build electronic circuits to solve mathematical and
logic problems, but most did so in an ad hoc manner,
lacking any theoretical rigor. This changed with Claude
Elwood Shannon's publication of his 1937 masters thesis, A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits. While taking an undergraduate philosophy class,
Shannon had been exposed to Booles work, and recognized that it could be used to arrange electromechanical
relays (then used in telephone routing switches) to solve
logic problems. This concept, of utilizing the properties
of electrical switches to do logic, is the basic concept that
underlies all electronic digital computers, and his thesis
became the foundation of practical digital circuit design
when it became widely known among the electrical engineering community during and after World War II .
Shannon went on to found the eld of information theory with his 1948 paper titled A Mathematical Theory of
Communication, which applied probability theory to the
problem of how to best encode the information a sender
wants to transmit. This work is one of the theoretical
foundations for many areas of study, including data compression and cryptography .

Turing is so important to computer science that his name

is also featured on the Turing Award and the Turing test.
He contributed greatly to British code-breaking successes 7.3.4 Wiener and cybernetics
in the Second World War, and continued to design computers and software through the 1940s until his untimely From experiments with anti-aircraft systems that interdeath in 1954 .
preted radar images to detect enemy planes, Norbert
At a symposium on large-scale digital machinery in Cam- Wiener coined the term cybernetics from the Greek word
bridge, Turing said, We are trying to build a machine to for steersman. He published Cybernetics in 1948,
do all kinds of dierent things simply by programming which inuenced articial intelligence. Wiener also compared computation, computing machinery, memory derather than by the addition of extra apparatus .
vices, and other cognitive similarities with his analysis of
In 1941, Konrad Zuse developed the worlds rst funcbrain waves .
tional program-controlled computer, the Z3; in 1998,
it was shown to be Turing-complete in principle.[11][12] The rst actual computer bug was a moth. It was stuck
Zuse was also noted for the S2 computing machine, in between the relays on the Harvard Mark II. While the
considered the rst process-controlled computer. He invention of the term 'bug' is often but erroneously atfounded one of the earliest computer businesses in 1941, tributed to Grace Hopper, a future rear admiral in the
producing the Z4, which became the worlds rst com- U.S. Navy, who supposedly logged the bug on Septemmercial computer. In 1946, he designed the rst high- ber 9, 1945, most other accounts conict at least with
level programming language, Plankalkl.[13] In 1969, these details. According to these accounts, the actual date
Zuse suggested the concept of a computation-based uni- was September 9, 1947 when operators led this 'inciverse in his book Rechnender Raum (Calculating Space) dent' along with the insect and the notation First actual case of bug being found (see software bug for de.
tails) .
In 1948, the rst practical computer that could run stored
programs, based on the Turing machine model, had been
built - the Manchester Baby .
7.3.5 John von Neumann and the von NeuIn 1950, Britains National Physical Laboratory commann architecture
pleted Pilot ACE, a small scale programmable computer,
based on Turings philosophy .[14]
In 1946, a model for computer architecture was introduced and became known as Von Neumann architecture.
Since 1950, the von Neumann model provided uniformity
in subsequent computer designs. The von Neumann architecture was considered innovative as it introduced an

80
idea of allowing machine instructions and data to share
memory space. The von Neumann model is composed
of three major parts, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the
memory, and the instruction processing unit (IPU). In von
Neumann machine design, the IPU passes addresses to
memory, and memory, in turn, is routed either back to
the IPU if an instruction is being fetched or to the ALU
if data is being fetched.[15]
Von Neumanns machine design uses a RISC (Reduced
instruction set computing) architecture, which means the
instruction set uses a total of 21 instructions to perform
all tasks. (This is in contrast to CISC, complex instruction set computing, instruction sets which have more instructions from which to choose.) With von Neumann
architecture, main memory along with the accumulator
(the register that holds the result of logical operations)[16]
are the two memories that are addressed. Operations can
be carried out as simple arithmetic (these are performed
by the ALU and include addition, subtraction, multiplication and division), conditional branches (these are more
commonly seen now as if statements or while loops. The
branches serve as go to statements), and logical moves
between the dierent components of the machine, i.e., a
move from the accumulator to memory or vice versa. Von
Neumann architecture accepts fractions and instructions
as data types. Finally, as the von Neumann architecture is
a simple one, its register management is also simple. The
architecture uses a set of seven registers to manipulate
and interpret fetched data and instructions. These registers include the IR (instruction register), IBR (instruction buer register), MQ (multiplier quotient register), MAR (memory address register), and MDR
(memory data register).[15] The architecture also uses a
program counter (PC) to keep track of where in the
program the machine is.[15]

7.4 See also

Computer Museum
History of computing
History of computing hardware
History of software

CHAPTER 7. HISTORY OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

7.5 Notes
[1] History of Computer Science
[2] Ifrah 2001:11
[3] Bellos, Alex (2012-10-25). Abacus adds up to number
joy in Japan. The Guardian (London). Retrieved 201306-25.
[4] The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project, The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. Retrieved 200707-01
[5] In search of lost time, Jo Marchant, Nature 444,
#7119 (November 30, 2006), pp.
534538,
doi:10.1038/444534a PMID 17136067.
[6] History of Computing Science: The First Mechanical Calculator
[7] Kidwell, Peggy Aldritch; Williams, Michael R. (1992).
The Calculating Machines: Their history and development.
USA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Tomash
Publishers., p.38-42, translated and edited from Martin,
Ernst (1925). Die Rechenmaschinen und ihre Entwicklungsgeschichte. Germany: Pappenheim.
[8] Charles Babbage. Encyclopedia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopedia Britannica In. Retrieved
2013-02-20.
[9] Isaacson, Betsy (2012-12-10).
Ada Lovelace,
Worlds First Computer Programmer,
Celebrated With Google Doodle.
The Hungton
Post
(http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/12/10/
google-doodle-ada-lovelace_n_2270668.html).
Retrieved 2013-02-20.
[10] Barker-Plummer, David. [<http://plato.stanford.edu/
archives/win2012/entries/turing-machine/>.
Turing
Machines"]. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Retrieved 2013-02-20.
[11] Rojas, R. (1998). How to make Zuses Z3 a universal
computer. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 20
(3): 5154. doi:10.1109/85.707574.
[12] Rojas, Ral. How to Make Zuses Z3 a Universal Computer.

List of computer term etymologies, the origins of

computer science words

[13] Talk given by Horst Zuse to the Computer Conservation

Society at the Science Museum (London) on 18 November
2010

List of prominent pioneers in computer science

[14] BBC News - How Alan Turings Pilot ACE changed

computing. BBC News. May 15, 2010.

Timeline of algorithms
History of personal computers

[15] Cragon, Harvey G. (2000). Computer Architecture and

Implementation. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. pp. 113. ISBN 0521651689.

Bugbook Historical Computer Museum

[16] Accumlator Def. 3. Oxford Dictionaries.

7.8. EXTERNAL LINKS

7.6 Sources
Ifrah, Georges (2001), The Universal History of
Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer, New York: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-47139671-0

7.7 Further reading

Alan Turing
A Very Brief History of Computer Science
Computer History Museum
Computers: From the Past to the Present
The First Computer Bug at the Online Library of
the Naval Historical Center, retrieved February 28,
2006
Bitsavers, an eort to capture, salvage, and archive
historical computer software and manuals from
minicomputers and mainframes of the 1950s,
1960s, 1970s, and 1980s
Matti Tedre (2006). The Development of Computer
Science: A Sociocultural Perspective. Doctoral thesis
for University of Joensuu.

7.8 External links

Oral history interview with Albert H. Bowker at
Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.
Bowker discusses his role in the formation of the
Stanford University computer science department,
and his vision, as early as 1956, of computer science
as an academic discipline.
Oral history interview with Joseph F. Traub at
Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.
Traub discusses why computer science has developed as a discipline at institutions including Stanford, Berkeley, University of Pennsylvania, MIT,
and Carnegie-Mellon.
Oral history interview with Gene H. Golub at
Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.
Golub discusses his career in computer science at
Stanford University.
Oral history interview with John Herriot at Charles
Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Herriot
describes the early years of computing at Stanford
University, including formation of the computer science department, centering on the role of George
Forsythe.

81
Oral history interview with William F. Miller at
Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.
Miller contrasts the emergence of computer science
at Stanford with developments at Harvard and the
University of Pennsylvania.
Oral history interview with Alexandra Forsythe
at Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Forsythe discusses the career of her husband, George Forsythe, who established Stanford
Universitys program in computer science.
Oral history interview with Allen Newell at Charles
Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Newell
discusses his entry into computer science, funding
for computer science departments and research, the
development of the Computer Science Department
at Carnegie Mellon University, including the work
of Alan J. Perlis and Raj Reddy, and the growth of
the computer science and articial intelligence research communities. Compares computer science
programs at Stanford, MIT, and Carnegie Mellon.
Oral history interview with Louis Fein at Charles
Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Fein
discusses establishing computer science as an academic discipline at Stanford Research Institute
(SRI) as well as contacts with the University of
CaliforniaBerkeley, the University of North Carolina, Purdue, International Federation for Information Processing and other institutions.
Oral history interview with W. Richards Adrion at
Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.
Adrion gives a brief history of theoretical computer
science in the United States and NSFs role in funding that area during the 1970s and 1980s.
Oral history interview with Bernard A. Galler at
Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.
Galler describes the development of computer science at the University of Michigan from the 1950s
through the 1980s and discusses his own work in
computer science.
Michael S. Mahoney Papers at Charles Babbage Institute, University of MinnesotaMahoney was the
preeminent historian of computer science as a distinct academic discipline. Papers contain 38 boxes
of books, serials, notes, and manuscripts related to
the history of computing, mathematics, and related
elds.
The Modern History of Computing entry by B. Jack
Copeland in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Chapter 8

History of operating systems

Computer operating systems (OSes) provide a set of
functions needed and used by most application programs
on a computer, and the linkages needed to control and
synchronize computer hardware. On the rst computers,
with no operating system, every program needed the full
hardware specication to run correctly and perform standard tasks, and its own drivers for peripheral devices like
printers and punched paper card readers. The growing
complexity of hardware and application programs eventually made operating systems a necessity for everyday
use.

8.1 Background

Accounting for and paying for machine usage moved on

from checking the wall clock to automatic logging by
the computer. Run queues evolved from a literal queue
of people at the door, to a heap of media on a jobswaiting table, or batches of punch-cards stacked one on
top of the other in the reader, until the machine itself was
able to select and sequence which magnetic tape drives
processed which tapes. Where program developers had
originally had access to run their own jobs on the machine, they were supplanted by dedicated machine operators who looked after the well-being and maintenance of
the machine and were less and less concerned with implementing tasks manually. When commercially available
computer centers were faced with the implications of data
lost through tampering or operational errors, equipment
vendors were put under pressure to enhance the runtime
libraries to prevent misuse of system resources. Automated monitoring was needed not just for CPU usage
but for counting pages printed, cards punched, cards read,
disk storage used and for signaling when operator intervention was required by jobs such as changing magnetic
tapes and paper forms. Security features were added to
operating systems to record audit trails of which programs
were accessing which les and to prevent access to a production payroll le by an engineering program, for example.

The earliest computers were mainframes that lacked any

form of operating system. Each user had sole use of the
machine for a scheduled period of time and would arrive at the computer with program and data, often on
punched paper cards and magnetic or paper tape. The
program would be loaded into the machine, and the machine would be set to work until the program completed
or crashed. Programs could generally be debugged via a
control panel using toggle switches and panel lights. It is
said that Alan Turing was a master of this on the early
Manchester Mark 1 machine, and he was already deriv- All these features were building up towards the repering the primitive conception of an operating system from toire of a fully capable operating system. Eventually the
runtime libraries became an amalgamated program that
the principles of the Universal Turing machine.
was started before the rst customer job and could read
Symbolic languages, assemblers, and compilers were dein the customer job, control its execution, record its usveloped for programmers to translate symbolic programage, reassign hardware resources after the job ended, and
code into machine code that previously would have been
immediately go on to process the next job. These reshand-encoded. Later machines came with libraries of
ident background programs, capable of managing mulsupport code on punched cards or magnetic tape, which
tistep processes, were often called monitors or monitorwould be linked to the users program to assist in operprograms before the term OS established itself.
ations such as input and output. This was the genesis of
the modern-day operating system. However, machines An underlying program oering basic hardwaresoftware-scheduling and resourcestill ran a single job at a time. At Cambridge Univer- management,
sity in England the job queue was at one time a washing monitoring may seem a remote ancestor to the
line from which tapes were hung with dierent colored user-oriented OSes of the personal computing era.
But there has been a shift in the meaning of OS. Just
clothes-pegs to indicate job-priority.
as early automobiles lacked speedometers, radios, and
As machines became more powerful, the time to run proair-conditioners which later became standard, more
grams diminished and the time to hand o the equipand more optional software features became standard
ment to the next user became very large by comparison.
82

8.2. MAINFRAMES
features in every OS package, although some applications
such as data base management systems and spreadsheets
remain optional and separately priced. This has led to
the perception of an OS as a complete user-system with
an integrated graphical user interface, utilities, some
applications such as text editors and le managers, and
conguration tools.
The true descendant of the early operating systems is
what is now called the "kernel". In technical and development circles the old restricted sense of an OS persists because of the continued active development of embedded
operating systems for all kinds of devices with a dataprocessing component, from hand-held gadgets up to industrial robots and real-time control-systems, which do
not run user applications at the front-end. An embedded
OS in a device today is not so far removed as one might
think from its ancestor of the 1950s to 1990
The broader categories of systems and application software are discussed in the computer software article.

8.2 Mainframes

83
range and delays with software development, a whole
family of operating systems was introduced instead of a
single OS/360.[4][5]
IBM wound up releasing a series of stop-gaps followed by
two longer-lived operating systems:
OS/360 for mid-range and large systems. This was
available in three system generation options:
PCP for early users and for those without the
resources for multiprogramming.
MFT for mid-range systems, replaced by
MFT-II in OS/360 Release 15/16. This had
one successor, OS/VS1, which was discontinued in the 1980s.
MVT for large systems. This was similar in
most ways to PCP and MFT (most programs
could be ported among the three without being re-compiled), but has more sophisticated
memory management and a time-sharing facility, TSO. MVT had several successors including the current z/OS.

DOS/360 for small System/360 models had several

The rst operating system used for real work was GMsuccessors including the current z/VSE. It was sigNAA I/O, produced in 1956 by General Motors' Renicantly dierent from OS/360.
search division[1] for its IBM 704.[2] Most other early operating systems for IBM mainframes were also produced
IBM maintained full compatibility with the past, so that
by customers.[3]
programs developed in the sixties can still run under
Early operating systems were very diverse, with each ven- z/VSE (if developed for DOS/360) or z/OS (if developed
dor or customer producing one or more operating systems for MFT or MVT) with no change.
specic to their particular mainframe computer. Every
operating system, even from the same vendor, could have IBM also developed, but never ocially released,
radically dierent models of commands, operating pro- TSS/360, a time-sharing system for the System/360
cedures, and such facilities as debugging aids. Typically, Model 67.
each time the manufacturer brought out a new machine, Several operating systems for the IBM S/360 and S/370
there would be a new operating system, and most appli- architectures were developed by third parties, including
cations would have to be manually adjusted, recompiled, the Michigan Terminal System (MTS) and MUSIC/SP.
and retested.

8.2.1

Systems on IBM hardware

8.2.2 Other mainframe operating systems

Control Data Corporation developed the SCOPE operatMain article: History of IBM mainframe operating ing systems[NB 1] in the 1960s, for batch processing and
systems
later developed the MACE operating system for time
sharing, which was the basis for the later Kronos. In coopThe state of aairs continued until the 1960s when IBM, eration with the University of Minnesota, the Kronos and
already a leading hardware vendor, stopped work on ex- later the NOS operating systems were developed during
isting systems and put all their eort into developing the the 1970s, which supported simultaneous batch and timeSystem/360 series of machines, all of which used the sharing use. Like many commercial timesharing systems,
same instruction and input/output architecture. IBM in- its interface was an extension of the DTSS time sharing
tended to develop a single operating system for the new system, one of the pioneering eorts in timesharing and
hardware, the OS/360. The problems encountered in the programming languages.
development of the OS/360 are legendary, and are described by Fred Brooks in The Mythical Man-Montha
book that has become a classic of software engineering.
Because of performance dierences across the hardware

In the late 1970s, Control Data and the University of Illinois developed the PLATO system, which used plasma
panel displays and long-distance time sharing networks.
PLATO was remarkably innovative for its time; the

84

CHAPTER 8. HISTORY OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

shared memory model of PLATOs TUTOR program- several operating systems for the Sigma series of computming language allowed applications such as real-time chat ers, such as the Basic Control Monitor (BCM), Batch Proand multi-user graphical games.
cessing Monitor (BPM), and Basic Time-Sharing MoniFor the UNIVAC 1107, UNIVAC, the rst commercial tor (BTM). Later, BPM and BTM were succeeded by the
computer manufacturer, produced the EXEC I operating Universal Time-Sharing System (UTS); it was designed
system, and Computer Sciences Corporation developed to provide multi-programming services for online (interthe EXEC II operating system and delivered it to UNI- active) user programs in addition to batch-mode producVAC. EXEC II was ported to the UNIVAC 1108. Later, tion jobs, It was succeeded by the CP-V operating system,
which combined UTS with the heavily batch-oriented
UNIVAC developed the EXEC 8 operating system for
the 1108; it was the basis for operating systems for later Xerox Operating System (XOS).
members of the family. Like all early mainframe systems, EXEC I and EXEC II were a batch-oriented system
that managed magnetic drums, disks, card readers and 8.3 Minicomputers and the rise of
line printers; EXEC 8 supported both batch processing
Unix
and on-line transaction processing. In the 1970s, UNIVAC produced the Real-Time Basic (RTB) system to
support large-scale time sharing, also patterned after the Digital Equipment Corporation created several operating
systems for its 16-bit PDP-11 machines, including the
Dartmouth BASIC system.
simple RT-11 system, the time-sharing RSTS operating
Burroughs Corporation introduced the B5000 in 1961
systems, and the RSX-11 family of real-time operating
with the MCP (Master Control Program) operating syssystems, as well as the VMS system for the 32-bit VAX
tem. The B5000 was a stack machine designed to exmachines.
clusively support high-level languages, with no software,
not even at the lowest level of the operating system, be- Several competitors of Digital Equipment Corporation
ing written directly in machine language or assembly lan- such as Data General, Hewlett-Packard, and Computer
guage; the MCP was the rst OS to be written entirely Automation created their own operating systems. One
in a high-level language - ESPOL, a dialect of ALGOL such, MAX III, was developed for Modular Computer
60 - although ESPOL had specialized statements for each Systems Modcomp II and Modcomp III computers. It
syllable[6] in the B5000 instruction set. MCP also intro- was characterised by its target market being the indusduced many other ground-breaking innovations, such as trial control market. The Fortran libraries included one
being one of[NB 2] the rst commercial implementations that enabled access to measurement and control devices.
of virtual memory. The rewrite of MCP for the B6500 The Unix operating system was developed at AT&T Bell
is still in use today in the Unisys ClearPath/MCP line of Laboratories in the late 1960s, originally for the PDP-7,
computers.
and later for the PDP-11. Because it was essentially free
GE introduced the GE-600 series with the General Electric Comprehensive Operating Supervisor (GECOS) operating system in 1962. After Honeywell acquired GEs
computer business, it was renamed to General Comprehensive Operating System (GCOS). Honeywell expanded
the use of the GCOS name to cover all its operating systems in the 1970s, though many of its computers had
nothing in common with the earlier GE 600 series and
their operating systems were not derived from the original GECOS.
Project MAC at MIT, working with GE and Bell Labs,
developed Multics, which introduced the concept of
ringed security privilege levels.

in early editions, easily obtainable, and easily modied,

it achieved wide acceptance. It also became a requirement within the Bell systems operating companies. Since
it was written in the C language, when that language was
ported to a new machine architecture, Unix was also able
to be ported. This portability permitted it to become the
choice for a second generation of minicomputers and the
rst generation of workstations. By widespread use it exemplied the idea of an operating system that was conceptually the same across various hardware platforms. It
still was owned by AT&T Corporation and that limited
its use to groups or corporations who could aord to license it. It became one of the roots of the free software
and open source movements. In 1991 Linus Torvalds
began development of Linux, an open source kernel; a
kernel was the only piece missing in the GNU operating
system(developed by Richard Stallman). The combination of the Linux kernel and userland code from GNU
and elsewhere produced the GNU/Linux operating system (see GNU/Linux naming controversy).

Digital Equipment Corporation developed TOPS-10 for

its PDP-10 line of 36-bit computers in 1967. Before the
widespread use of Unix, TOPS-10 was a particularly popular system in universities, and in the early ARPANET
community. Bolt, Beranek, and Newman developed
TENEX for a modied PDP-10 that supported demand
paging; this was another popular system in the research
Another system which evolved in this time frame was the
and ARPANET communities, and was later developed by
Pick operating system. The Pick system was developed
DEC into TOPS-20.
and sold by Microdata Corporation who created the preScientic Data Systems/Xerox Data Systems developed cursors of the system. The system is an example of a

8.5. PERSONAL COMPUTER ERA

85

system which started as a database application support dard formats like ASCII text or CSV, or through specialprogram and graduated to system work.
ized le conversion programs.

8.4 Microcomputers: 8-bit home 8.4.2 Rise of OS in video games and consoles
computers and game consoles
Since virtually all video game consoles and arcade cabinets designed and built after 1980 were true digital machines (unlike the analog Pong clones and derivatives),
some of them carried a minimal form of BIOS or built-in
game, such as the ColecoVision, the Sega Master System
and the SNK Neo Geo.

Beginning in the mid-1970s, a new class of small computers came onto the marketplace. Featuring 8-bit processors, typically the MOS Technology 6502, Intel 8080
or the Zilog Z-80, along with rudimentary input and output interfaces and as much RAM as practical, these systems started out as kit-based hobbyist computers but soon Modern-day game consoles and videogames, starting
evolved into an essential business tool.
with the PC-Engine, all have a minimal BIOS that also
provides some interactive utilities such as memory card
management, audio or video CD playback, copy protec8.4.1 Home computers
tion and sometimes carry libraries for developers to use
etc. Few of these cases, however, would qualify as a true
While many 8-bit home computers of the 1980s, such operating system.
as the Commodore 64, Apple II series, the Atari 8-bit,
the Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum series and others could The most notable exceptions are probably the Dreamcast
load a third-party disk-loading operating system, such as game console which includes a minimal BIOS, like the
CP/M or GEOS, they were generally used without one. PlayStation, but can load the Windows CE operating sysTheir built-in operating systems were designed in an era tem from the game disk allowing easily porting of games
when oppy disk drives were very expensive and not ex- from the PC world, and the Xbox game console, which is
pected to be used by most users, so the standard storage little more than a disguised Intel-based PC running a sedevice on most was a tape drive using standard compact cret, modied version of Microsoft Windows in the backcassettes. Most, if not all, of these computers shipped ground. Furthermore, there are Linux versions that will
with a built-in BASIC interpreter on ROM, which also run on a Dreamcast and later game consoles as well.
served as a crude command line interface, allowing the Long before that, Sony had released a kind of
user to load a separate disk operating system to perform development kit called the Net Yaroze for its rst
le management commands and load and save to disk. PlayStation platform, which provided a series of proThe most popular home computer, the Commodore 64, gramming and developing tools to be used with a norwas a notable exception, as its DOS was on ROM in the mal PC and a specially modied Black PlayStation that
disk drive hardware, and the drive was addressed identi- could be interfaced with a PC and download programs
cally to printers, modems, and other external devices.
from it. These operations require in general a functional
More elaborate operating systems were not needed in part OS on both platforms involved.
because most such machines were used for entertainment In general, it can be said that videogame consoles and arand education, and seldom used for more serious business cade coin operated machines used at most a built-in BIOS
or science purposes.
during the 1970s, 1980s and most of the 1990s, while
Another reason is that the hardware they evolved on from the PlayStation era and beyond they started getting
initially shipped with minimal amounts of computer more and more sophisticated, to the point of requiring a
memory4-8 kilobytes was standard on early home generic or custom-built OS for aiding in development and
computersas well as 8-bit processors without special- expandability.
ized support circuitry like a MMU or even a dedicated
real-time clock. On this hardware, a complex operating systems overhead supporting multiple tasks and users 8.5 Personal computer era
would likely compromise the performance of the machine
without really being needed.
The development of microprocessors made inexpensive
Video games and even the available spreadsheet, database computing available for the small business and hobbyist,
and word processors for home computers were mostly which in turn led to the widespread use of interchangeable
self-contained programs that took over the machine com- hardware components using a common interconnection
pletely. Although integrated software existed for these (such as the S-100, SS-50, Apple II, ISA, and PCI buses),
computers, they usually lacked features compared to their and an increasing need for standard operating systems
standalone equivalents, largely due to memory limita- to control them. The most important of the early OSes
tions. Data exchange was mostly performed though stan- on these machines was Digital Research's CP/M80 for

86

CHAPTER 8. HISTORY OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

the 8080 / 8085 / Z-80 CPUs. It was based on several

systems, as exemplied by Hyper-V in Windows
Digital Equipment Corporation operating systems, mostly
Server 2008 or HP Integrity Virtual Machines in
for the PDP-11 architecture. Microsofts rst operating
HP-UX.
system, MDOS/MIDAS, was designed along many of the
In some systems, such as POWER5 and POWER6PDP-11 features, but for microprocessor based systems.
based servers from IBM, the hypervisor is no longer
MS-DOS, or PC DOS when supplied by IBM, was based
optional.[9]
originally on CP/M-80. Each of these machines had a
small boot program in ROM which loaded the OS itself
Applications have been re-designed to run directly
from disk. The BIOS on the IBM-PC class machines was
on a virtual machine monitor.[10]
an extension of this idea and has accreted more features
and functions in the 20 years since the rst IBM-PC was In many ways, virtual machine software today plays the
role formerly held by the operating system, including
introduced in 1981.
managing the hardware resources (processor, memory,
The decreasing cost of display equipment and procesI/O devices), applying scheduling policies, or allowing
sors made it practical to provide graphical user interfaces
system administrators to manage systems.
for many operating systems, such as the generic X Window System that is provided with many Unix systems, or
other graphical systems such as Microsoft Windows, the
RadioShack Color Computers OS-9 Level II/MultiVue, 8.7 See also
Commodore's AmigaOS, Atari TOS, Apple's Mac OS,
Charles Babbage Institute
or even IBM's OS/2. The original GUI was developed
on the Xerox Alto computer system at Xerox Palo Alto
IT History Society
Research Center in the early '70s and commercialized by
List of operating systems
many vendors throughout the 1980s and 1990s.
Since the late 1990s there have been three operating systems in widespread use on personal computers: Microsoft
Windows, Apple Inc.'s OS X, and the open source Linux.
Since 2005 and Apples transition to Intel processors,
all have been developed mainly on the x86 platform, although OS X retained PowerPC support until 2009 and
Linux remains ported to a multitude of architectures including ones such as 68k, PA-RISC, and DEC Alpha,
which have been long superseded and out of production,
and SPARC and MIPS, which are used in servers or embedded systems but no longer used in desktop computers.
Other operating systems such as AmigaOS and OS/2 remain in use, if at all, mainly by retrocomputing enthusiasts or for specialized embedded applications.

Timeline of operating systems

History of computer icons

8.8 Notes
[1] CDC used the SCOPE name for disparate operating systems on the upper 3000 series, the lower 3000 series, the
6000 series and the 7600
[2] The B5000 was contemporaneous with the Ferranti Atlas

8.9 References
[1] See Rand Corporation publication by Robert Patrick

8.6 Rise of virtualization

Operating systems originally ran directly on the hardware
itself and provided services to applications. With CP-67
on the IBM System/360 Model 67 and Virtual Machine
Facility/370 (VM/370) on System/370, IBM introduced
the notion of a virtual machine, where the operating system itself runs under the control of a hypervisor, instead
of being in direct control of the hardware. VMware popularized this technology on personal computers. Over
time, the line between virtual machines, monitors, and
operating systems was blurred:

[2] Timeline of Computer History: 1956: Software.

Computer History Museum. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
[3] A Brief History of Linux
[4] Johnston (April 1, 2005). VSE: A Look at the Past
40 Years. z/Journal (Thomas Communications, Inc.)
(April/May 2005).
[5] Chuck Boyer, The 360 Revolution
[6] A syllable in the B5000 could contain a 10-bit literal, an
operand call, a descriptor call or a 10-bit opcode.
[7] VMware API. VMware. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
[8] VMware le system. Retrieved 26 November 2008.

Hypervisors grew more complex, gaining their

own application programming interface,[7] memory
management or le system.[8]
Virtualization becomes a key feature of operating

[9] PowerVM Virtualization on IBM System p: Introduction

and Conguration. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
[10] JRockits Liquid VM could be the rst real Java OS.
Retrieved 26 November 2008.

8.10. FURTHER READING

8.10 Further reading

Neal Stephenson (1999). In the Beginning... Was
the Command Line. Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-38081593-1.

87

Chapter 9

History of programming languages

This article discusses the major developments in the his- TINUE. The use of a magnetic drum for memory meant
tory of programming languages. For a detailed time- that computer programs also had to be interleaved with
line of events, see: Timeline of programming languages. the rotations of the drum. Thus the programs were more
hardware-dependent.

9.1 Early history

During a nine-month period in 1840-1843, Ada Lovelace
translated the memoir of Italian mathematician Luigi
Menabrea about Charles Babbage's newest proposed machine, the Analytical Engine. With the article she appended a set of notes which specied in complete detail a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers with the
Analytical Engine, recognized by some historians as the
worlds rst computer program.[1]
Herman Hollerith realized that he could encode information on punch cards when he observed that train
conductors encode the appearance of the ticket holders
on the train tickets using the position of punched holes
on the tickets. Hollerith then encoded the 1890 census
data on punch cards.

To some people, what was the rst modern programming language depends on how much power and humanreadability is required before the status of programming
language is granted. Jacquard looms and Charles Babbages Dierence Engine both had simple, extremely limited languages for describing the actions that these machines should perform. One can even regard the punch
holes on a player piano scroll as a limited domain-specic
language, albeit not designed for human consumption.

9.2 First programming languages

In the 1940s, the rst recognizably modern electrically

powered computers were created. The limited speed
and memory capacity forced programmers to write hand
tuned assembly language programs. It was eventually realized that programming in assembly language required a
The rst computer codes were specialized for their appli- great deal of intellectual eort and was error-prone.
cations. In the rst decades of the 20th century, numerical calculations were based on decimal numbers. Even- The rst programming languages designed to communicate instructions to a computer were written in the 1950s.
tually it was realized that logic could be represented with
numbers, not only with words. For example, Alonzo An early high-level programming language to be designed
for a computer was Plankalkl, developed for the German
Church was able to express the lambda calculus in a formulaic way. The Turing machine was an abstraction Z3 by Konrad Zuse between 1943 and 1945.[2]However,
it was not implemented until 1998 and 2000.
of the operation of a tape-marking machine, for example, in use at the telephone companies. Turing machines John Mauchly's Short Code, proposed in 1949, was one
set the basis for storage of programs as data in the von of the rst high-level languages ever developed for an
Neumann architecture of computers by representing a electronic computer.[3] Unlike machine code, Short Code
machine through a nite number. However, unlike the statements represented mathematical expressions in unlambda calculus, Turings code does not serve well as a derstandable form. However, the program had to be
basis for higher-level languagesits principal use is in translated into machine code every time it ran, making
rigorous analyses of algorithmic complexity.
the process much slower than running the equivalent maLike many rsts in history, the rst modern program- chine code.
ming language is hard to identify. From the start, the
restrictions of the hardware dened the language. Punch
cards allowed 80 columns, but some of the columns had
to be used for a sorting number on each card. FORTRAN included some keywords which were the same as
English words, such as IF, GOTO (go to) and CON-

At the University of Manchester, Alick Glennie developed Autocode in the early 1950s. A programming language, it used a compiler to automatically convert the language into machine code. The rst code and compiler
was developed in 1952 for the Mark 1 computer at the
University of Manchester and is considered to be the rst

88

9.3. ESTABLISHING FUNDAMENTAL PARADIGMS

89
nested block structure: code sequences and associated declarations could be grouped into blocks
without having to be turned into separate, explicitly
named procedures;
lexical scoping: a block could have its own private variables, procedures and functions, invisible to
code outside that block, that is, information hiding.
Another innovation, related to this, was in how the language was described:

The Manchester Mark 1 ran programs written in Autocode from

1952.

compiled high-level programming language.[4][5]

The second autocode was developed for the Mark 1 by
R. A. Brooker in 1954 and was called the Mark 1 Autocode. Brooker also developed an autocode for the
Ferranti Mercury in the 1950s in conjunction with the
University of Manchester. The version for the EDSAC 2
was devised by D. F. Hartley of University of Cambridge
Mathematical Laboratory in 1961. Known as EDSAC
2 Autocode, it was a straight development from Mercury
Autocode adapted for local circumstances, and was noted
for its object code optimisation and source-language diagnostics which were advanced for the time. A contemporary but separate thread of development, Atlas Autocode was developed for the University of Manchester
Atlas 1 machine.
Another early programming language was devised by
Grace Hopper in the US, called FLOW-MATIC. It was
developed for the UNIVAC I at Remington Rand during
the period from 1955 until 1959. Hopper found that business data processing customers were uncomfortable with
mathematical notation, and in early 1955, she and her
team wrote a specication for an English programming
language and implemented a prototype.[6] The FLOWMATIC compiler became publicly available in early 1958
and was substantially complete in 1959.[7] Flow-Matic
was a major inuence in the design of COBOL, since
only it and its direct descendent AIMACO were in actual
use at the time.[8] The language Fortran was developed at
IBM in the mid 1950s, and became the rst widely used
high-level general purpose programming language.
Other languages still in use today, include LISP (1958),
invented by John McCarthy and COBOL (1959), created by the Short Range Committee. Another milestone
in the late 1950s was the publication, by a committee
of American and European computer scientists, of a
new language for algorithms"; the ALGOL 60 Report (the
"ALGOrithmic Language). This report consolidated
many ideas circulating at the time and featured three key
language innovations:

a mathematically exact notation, Backus-Naur Form

(BNF), was used to describe the languages syntax.
Nearly all subsequent programming languages have
used a variant of BNF to describe the context-free
portion of their syntax.
Algol 60 was particularly inuential in the design of later
languages, some of which soon became more popular.
The Burroughs large systems were designed to be programmed in an extended subset of Algol.
Algols key ideas were continued, producing ALGOL 68:
syntax and semantics became even more orthogonal,
with anonymous routines, a recursive typing system
with higher-order functions, etc.;
not only the context-free part, but the full language syntax and semantics were dened formally,
in terms of Van Wijngaarden grammar, a formalism
designed specically for this purpose.
Algol 68s many little-used language features (for example, concurrent and parallel blocks) and its complex system of syntactic shortcuts and automatic type coercions
made it unpopular with implementers and gained it a reputation of being dicult. Niklaus Wirth actually walked
out of the design committee to create the simpler Pascal
language.
Some important languages that were developed in this period include:

9.3 Establishing
paradigms

fundamental

The period from the late 1960s to the late 1970s brought
a major owering of programming languages. Most of
the major language paradigms now in use were invented
in this period:
Simula, invented in the late 1960s by Nygaard and
Dahl as a superset of Algol 60, was the rst language
designed to support object-oriented programming.

90

CHAPTER 9. HISTORY OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

C, an early systems programming language, was de- One important new trend in language design was an inveloped by Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson at creased focus on programming for large-scale systems
Bell Labs between 1969 and 1973.
through the use of modules, or large-scale organizational
units of code. Modula, Ada, and ML all developed no Smalltalk (mid-1970s) provided a complete table module systems in the 1980s. Module systems
ground-up design of an object-oriented language.
were often wedded to generic programming constructs--generics being, in essence, parametrized modules (see
Prolog, designed in 1972 by Colmerauer, Roussel, also polymorphism in object-oriented programming).
and Kowalski, was the rst logic programming lanAlthough major new paradigms for imperative programguage.
ming languages did not appear, many researchers ex ML built a polymorphic type system (invented by panded on the ideas of prior languages and adapted them
Robin Milner in 1973) on top of Lisp , pioneering to new contexts. For example, the languages of the Argus
statically typed functional programming languages. and Emerald systems adapted object-oriented programming to distributed systems.
Each of these languages spawned an entire family of de- The 1980s also brought advances in programming lanscendants, and most modern languages count at least one guage implementation. The RISC movement in computer
architecture postulated that hardware should be designed
of them in their ancestry.
for compilers rather than for human assembly programThe 1960s and 1970s also saw considerable debate over mers. Aided by processor speed improvements that enthe merits of "structured programming", which essen- abled increasingly aggressive compilation techniques, the
tially meant programming without the use of Goto. This RISC movement sparked greater interest in compilation
debate was closely related to language design: some lan- technology for high-level languages.
guages did not include GOTO, which forced structured
programming on the programmer. Although the debate Language technology continued along these lines well
raged hotly at the time, nearly all programmers now agree into the 1990s.
that, even in languages that provide GOTO, it is bad Some important languages that were developed in this peprogramming style to use it except in rare circumstances. riod include:
As a result, later generations of language designers have
found the structured programming debate tedious and
even bewildering.

9.5 1990s: the Internet age

To provide even faster compile times, some languages

were structured for "one-pass compilers" which expect
subordinate routines to be dened rst, as with Pascal, The rapid growth of the Internet in the mid-1990s was the
where the main routine, or driver function, is the nal next major historic event in programming languages. By
opening up a radically new platform for computer syssection of the program listing.
tems, the Internet created an opportunity for new lanSome important languages that were developed in this pe- guages to be adopted. In particular, the JavaScript proriod include:
gramming language rose to popularity because of its early
integration with the Netscape Navigator web browser.
Various other scripting languages achieved widespread
9.4 1980s: consolidation, modules, use in developing customized application for web servers
such as PHP. The 1990s saw no fundamental novelty
performance
in imperative languages, but much recombination and
maturation of old ideas. This era began the spread of
The 1980s were years of relative consolidation in functional languages. A big driving philosophy was proimperative languages.
Rather than inventing new grammer productivity. Many rapid application develparadigms, all of these movements elaborated upon the opment (RAD) languages emerged, which usually came
ideas invented in the previous decade. C++ combined with an IDE, garbage collection, and were descendants of
object-oriented and systems programming. The United older languages. All such languages were object-oriented.
States government standardized Ada, a systems program- These included Object Pascal, Visual Basic, and Java.
ming language intended for use by defense contractors. Java in particular received much attention. More radIn Japan and elsewhere, vast sums were spent investi- ical and innovative than the RAD languages were the
gating so-called fth-generation programming languages new scripting languages. These did not directly descend
that incorporated logic programming constructs. The from other languages and featured new syntaxes and more
functional languages community moved to standardize liberal incorporation of features. Many consider these
ML and Lisp. Research in Miranda, a functional lan- scripting languages to be more productive than even the
guage with lazy evaluation, began to take hold in this RAD languages, but often because of choices that make
decade.
small programs simpler but large programs more dicult

9.7. PROMINENT PEOPLE

91

to write and maintain. Nevertheless, scripting languages 9.7 Prominent people

came to be the most prominent ones used in connection
with the Web.
Some key people who helped develop programming lanSome important languages that were developed in this pe- guages (in alpha order):
riod include:
Joe Armstrong, creator of Erlang.

9.6 Current trends

John Backus, inventor of Fortran.

Alan Cooper, developer of Visual Basic.

Programming language evolution continues, in both industry and research. Some of the current trends include:

Edsger W. Dijkstra, developed the framework for

structured programming.

Increasing support for functional programming in

mainstream languages used commercially, including
pure functional programming for making code easier to reason about and easier to parallelise (at both
micro- and macro- levels)

Jean-Yves Girard, co-inventor of the polymorphic

lambda calculus (System F).

Constructs to support concurrent and distributed

programming.
Mechanisms for adding security and reliability verication to the language: extended static checking,
dependent typing, information ow control, static
thread safety.

James Gosling, developer of Oak, the precursor of

Java.
Anders Hejlsberg, developer of Turbo Pascal,
Delphi and C#.
Rich Hickey, creator of Clojure.
Grace Hopper, developer of Flow-Matic, inuencing COBOL.
Jean Ichbiah, chief designer of Ada, Ada 83

Alternative mechanisms for modularity: mixins,

delegates, aspects.

Kenneth E. Iverson, developer of APL, and codeveloper of J along with Roger Hui.

Component-oriented software development.

Alan Kay, pioneering work on object-oriented programming, and originator of Smalltalk.

Metaprogramming, reection or access to the

abstract syntax tree
Increased emphasis on distribution and mobility.
Integration with databases, including XML and
relational databases.
Support for Unicode so that source code (program
text) is not restricted to those characters contained in
the ASCII character set; allowing, for example, use
of non-Latin-based scripts or extended punctuation.
XML for graphical interface (XUL, XAML).
Open source as a developmental philosophy for languages, including the GNU compiler collection and
recent languages such as Python, Ruby, and Squeak.
AOP or Aspect Oriented Programming allowing developers to code by places in code extended behaviors.
Massively parallel languages for coding 2000 processor GPU graphics processing units and supercomputer arrays including OpenCL
Some important languages developed during this period
include:

Brian Kernighan, co-author of the rst book on

the C programming language with Dennis Ritchie,
coauthor of the AWK and AMPL programming languages.
Yukihiro Matsumoto, creator of Ruby.
John McCarthy, inventor of LISP.
Bertrand Meyer, inventor of Eiel.
Robin Milner, inventor of ML, and sharing credit
for HindleyMilner polymorphic type inference.
John von Neumann, originator of the operating system concept.
Martin Odersky, creator of Scala, and previously a
contributor to the design of Java.
John C. Reynolds, co-inventor of the polymorphic
lambda calculus (System F).
Dennis Ritchie, inventor of C. Unix Operating System, Plan 9 Operating System.
Nathaniel Rochester, inventor of rst assembler
(IBM 701).
Guido van Rossum, creator of Python.

92

CHAPTER 9. HISTORY OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Bjarne Stroustrup, developer of C++.

Ken Thompson, inventor of B, Go Programming
Language, Inferno Programming Language, and
Unix Operating System co-author.
Larry Wall, creator of the Perl programming language (see Perl and Perl 6).
Niklaus Wirth, inventor of Pascal, Modula and
Oberon.
Stephen Wolfram, creator of Mathematica.

9.8 See also

9.9 References
[1] J. Fuegi and J. Francis (OctoberDecember 2003),
Lovelace & Babbage and the creation of the 1843
'notes", Annals of the History of Computing 25 (4): 16,
19, 25, doi:10.1109/MAHC.2003.1253887
[2] Rojas, Ral, et al. (2000). Plankalkl: The First HighLevel Programming Language and its Implementation.
Institut fr Informatik, Freie Universitt Berlin, Technical
Report B-3/2000. (full text)
[3] Sebesta, W.S Concepts of Programming languages.
2006;M6 14:18 pp.44. ISBN 0-321-33025-0
[4] Knuth, Donald E.; Pardo, Luis Trabb. Early development
of programming languages. Encyclopedia of Computer
Science and Technology (Marcel Dekker) 7: 419493.
[5] Peter J. Bentley (2012). Digitized: The Science of Computers and how it Shapes Our World. Oxford University
Press. p. 87.
[6] Hopper (1978) p. 16.
[7] Sammet (1969) p. 316
[8] Sammet (1978) p. 204.

9.10 Further reading

Rosen, Saul, (editor), Programming Systems and
Languages, McGraw-Hill, 1967
Sammet, Jean E., Programming Languages: History
and Fundamentals, Prentice-Hall, 1969
Sammet, Jean E. (July 1972).
Programming Languages: History and Future. Communications of the ACM 15 (7): 601610.
doi:10.1145/361454.361485.
Richard L. Wexelblat (ed.): History of Programming
Languages, Academic Press 1981.
Thomas J. Bergin and Richard G. Gibson (eds.):
History of Programming Languages, Addison Wesley, 1996.

9.11 External links

History and evolution of programming languages.
Graph of programming language history

Chapter 10

History of software engineering

From its beginnings in the 1940s, writing software has
evolved into a profession concerned with how best to
maximize the quality of software and of how to create
it. Quality can refer to how maintainable software is,
to its stability, speed, usability, testability, readability,
size, cost, security, and number of aws or bugs, as
well as to less measurable qualities like elegance, conciseness, and customer satisfaction, among many other
attributes. How best to create high quality software is
a separate and controversial problem covering software
design principles, so-called best practices for writing
code, as well as broader management issues such as optimal team size, process, how best to deliver software on
time and as quickly as possible, work-place culture, hiring practices, and so forth. All this falls under the broad
rubric of software engineering.

ware engineering and are hailed for their potential to

improve software and sharply criticized for their potential to constrict programmers.
Cost of hardware: The relative cost of software
versus hardware has changed substantially over the
last 50 years. When mainframes were expensive
and required large support stas, the few organizations buying them also had the resources to
fund large, expensive custom software engineering
projects. Computers are now much more numerous
and much more powerful, which has several eects
on software. The larger market can support large
projects to create commercial o the shelf software,
as done by companies such as Microsoft. The cheap
machines allow each programmer to have a terminal
capable of fairly rapid compilation. The programs in
question can use techniques such as garbage collection, which make them easier and faster for the programmer to write. On the other hand, many fewer
organizations are interested in employing programmers for large custom software projects, instead using commercial o the shelf software as much as
possible.

10.1 Overview
There are a number of areas where the evolution of software engineering is notable:
Emergence as a profession: By the early 1980s,[1]
software engineering had already emerged as a bona
de profession, to stand beside computer science
and traditional engineering. See also software engineering professionalism.
Role of women: In the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s,
men often lled the more prestigious and better paying hardware engineering roles, but often delegated
the writing of software to women. Grace Hopper,
Jamie Fenton and many other unsung women lled
many computer programming jobs during the rst
several decades of software engineering. Today,
fewer women work in software engineering than in
other professions, a situation whose cause is not
clearly identied. It is often attributed to sexual
discrimination, cyberculture or bias in education.
Many academic and professional organizations consider this situation unbalanced and are trying hard to
solve it.

10.2 The Pioneering Era

The most important development was that new computers were coming out almost every year or two, rendering
existing ones obsolete. Software people had to rewrite
all their programs to run on these new machines. Programmers did not have computers on their desks and had
to go to the machine room. Jobs were run by signing
up for machine time or by operational sta. Jobs were
run by putting punched cards for input into the machines
card reader and waiting for results to come back on the
printer.

The eld was so new that the idea of management by

schedule was non-existent. Making predictions of a
projects completion date was almost impossible. Computer hardware was application-specic. Scientic and
business tasks needed dierent machines. Due to the
Processes: Processes have become a big part of soft- need to frequently translate old software to meet the needs
93

94

CHAPTER 10. HISTORY OF SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

of new machines, high-order languages like FORTRAN,

COBOL, and ALGOL were developed. Hardware vendors gave away systems software for free as hardware
could not be sold without software. A few companies sold
the service of building custom software but no software
companies were selling packaged software.

Life and Death: Software defects can kill. Some

embedded systems used in radiotherapy machines
failed so catastrophically that they administered
lethal doses of radiation to patients. The most famous of these failures is the Therac-25 incident.

The notion of reuse ourished. As software was free, user

organizations commonly gave it away. Groups like IBMs
scientic user group SHARE oered catalogs of reusable
components. Academia did not yet teach the principles of
computer science. Modular programming and data abstraction were already being used in programming.

Peter G. Neumann has kept a contemporary list of software problems and disasters.[5] The software crisis has
been fading from view, because it is psychologically extremely dicult to remain in crisis mode for a protracted
period (more than 20 years). Nevertheless, software especially real-time embedded software - remains risky
and is pervasive, and it is crucial not to give in to complacency. Over the last 1015 years Michael A. Jackson
has written extensively about the nature of software engineering, has identied the main source of its diculties
as lack of specialization, and has suggested that his problem frames provide the basis for a normal practice of
software engineering, a prerequisite if software engineering is to become an engineering science. {Michael Jackson, Engineering and Software Engineering in S Nanz
ed, The Future of Software Engineering, Springer Verlag
2010; Michael Jackson, Problem Frames: Analyzing and
Structuring Software Development Problems; AddisonWesley, 2001}.

10.3 1945 to 1965: The Origins

The term software engineering, coined by Margaret
Hamilton,[2] rst appeared in the late 1950s and early
1960s. Programmers have always known about civil,
electrical, and computer engineering and debated what
engineering might mean for software.
The NATO Science Committee sponsored two
conferences[3] on software engineering in 1968
(Garmisch, Germany see conference report) and
1969, which gave the eld its initial boost. Many
believe these conferences marked the ocial start of the
profession of software engineering.

10.4 1965 to 1985: The Software

Crisis
Software engineering was spurred by the so-called
software crisis of the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, which
identied many of the problems of software development.
Many software projects ran over budget and schedule.
Some projects caused property damage. A few projects
caused loss of life.[4] The software crisis was originally
dened in terms of productivity, but evolved to emphasize quality. Some used the term software crisis to refer
to their inability to hire enough qualied programmers.
Cost and Budget Overruns: The OS/360 operating system was a classic example. This decadelong project from the 1960s eventually produced
one of the most complex software systems at the
time. OS/360 was one of the rst large (1000 programmers) software projects. Fred Brooks claims
in The Mythical Man Month that he made a multimillion dollar mistake of not developing a coherent
architecture before starting development.
Property Damage: Software defects can cause property damage. Poor software security allows hackers
to steal identities, costing time, money, and reputations.

10.5 1985 to 1989: No Silver Bullet

For decades, solving the software crisis was paramount to
researchers and companies producing software tools. The
cost of owning and maintaining software in the 1980s was
twice as expensive as developing the software. During the 1990s, the cost of ownership and maintenance
increased by 30% over the 1980s. In 1995, statistics
showed that half of surveyed development projects were
operational, but were not considered successful. The
average software project overshoots its schedule by half.
Three-quarters of all large software products delivered
to the customer are failures that are either not used at all,
or do not meet the customers requirements.

10.5.1 Software projects

Seemingly, every new technology and practice from the
1970s to the 1990s was trumpeted as a silver bullet to
solve the software crisis. Tools, discipline, formal methods, process, and professionalism were touted as silver
bullets:
Tools: Especially emphasized were tools: structured
object-oriented programming,
programming,
CASE tools such as ICLs CADES CASE system,
Ada, documentation, and standards were touted as
silver bullets.

10.6. 1990 TO 1999: PROMINENCE OF THE INTERNET

95

Discipline: Some pundits argued that the software

crisis was due to the lack of discipline of programmers.

10.6 1990 to 1999: Prominence of

the Internet

Formal methods: Some believed that if formal engineering methodologies would be applied to software
development, then production of software would become as predictable an industry as other branches of
engineering. They advocated proving all programs
correct.

The rise of the Internet led to very rapid growth in the

demand for international information display/e-mail systems on the World Wide Web. Programmers were required to handle illustrations, maps, photographs, and
other images, plus simple animation, at a rate never before seen, with few well-known methods to optimize image display/storage (such as the use of thumbnail images).

The growth of browser usage, running on the HTML lan Process: Many advocated the use of dened pro- guage, changed the way in which information-display and
cesses and methodologies like the Capability Matu- retrieval was organized. The widespread network connecrity Model.
tions led to the growth and prevention of international
computer viruses on MS Windows computers, and the
vast proliferation of spam e-mail became a major design
Professionalism: This led to work on a code of issue in e-mail systems, ooding communication channels
ethics, licenses, and professionalism.
and requiring semi-automated pre-screening. Keywordsearch systems evolved into web-based search engines,
and many software systems had to be re-designed, for
In 1986, Fred Brooks published his No Silver Bullet ar- international searching, depending on search engine opticle, arguing that no individual technology or practice timization (SEO) techniques. Human natural-language
would ever make a 10-fold improvement in productivity translation systems were needed to attempt to translate
within 10 years.
the information ow in multiple foreign languages, with
Debate about silver bullets raged over the following many software systems being designed for multi-language
decade. Advocates for Ada, components, and processes usage, based on design concepts from human translacontinued arguing for years that their favorite technology tors. Typical computer-user bases went from hundreds,
would be a silver bullet. Skeptics disagreed. Eventually, or thousands of users, to, often, many-millions of interalmost everyone accepted that no silver bullet would ever national users.
be found. Yet, claims about silver bullets pop up now and
again, even today.
Some interpret no silver bullet to mean that software engineering failed. However, with further reading, Brooks
goes on to say, We will surely make substantial progress
over the next 40 years; an order of magnitude over 40
years is hardly magical ....
The search for a single key to success never worked. All
known technologies and practices have only made incremental improvements to productivity and quality. Yet,
there are no silver bullets for any other profession, either.
Others interpret no silver bullet as proof that software engineering has nally matured and recognized that projects
succeed due to hard work.
However, it could also be said that there are, in fact,
a range of silver bullets today, including lightweight
methodologies (see "Project management"), spreadsheet
calculators, customized browsers, in-site search engines,
database report generators, integrated design-test codingeditors with memory/dierences/undo, and specialty
shops that generate niche software, such as information
websites, at a fraction of the cost of totally customized
website development. Nevertheless, the eld of software
engineering appears too complex and diverse for a single
silver bullet to improve most issues, and each issue accounts for only a small portion of all software problems.

10.7 2000 to Present: Lightweight

Methodologies
With the expanding demand for software in many smaller
organizations, the need for inexpensive software solutions led to the growth of simpler, faster methodologies that developed running software, from requirements
to deployment, quicker & easier. The use of rapidprototyping evolved to entire lightweight methodologies,
such as Extreme Programming (XP), which attempted
to simplify many areas of software engineering, including requirements gathering and reliability testing for the
growing, vast number of small software systems. Very
large software systems still used heavily-documented
methodologies, with many volumes in the documentation
set; however, smaller systems had a simpler, faster alternative approach to managing the development and maintenance of software calculations and algorithms, information storage/retrieval and display.

96

10.7.1

CHAPTER 10. HISTORY OF SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

Current Trends in Software Engi- 10.7.2 Software engineering today

neering

The profession is trying to dene its boundary and conSoftware engineering is a young discipline, and is still de- tent. The Software Engineering Body of Knowledge
veloping. The directions in which software engineering is SWEBOK has been tabled as an ISO standard during
2006 (ISO/IEC TR 19759).
developing include:
Aspects aspects help software engineers deal with
quality attributes by providing tools to add or remove boilerplate code from many areas in the source
code. Aspects describe how all objects or functions should behave in particular circumstances. For
example, aspects can add debugging, logging, or
locking control into all objects of particular types.
Researchers are currently working to understand
how to use aspects to design general-purpose code.
Related concepts include generative programming
and templates.
Agile agile software development guides software development projects that evolve rapidly with changing expectations and competitive markets. Proponents of this method believe that heavy, documentdriven processes (like TickIT, CMM and ISO 9000)
are fading in importance. Some people believe that
companies and agencies export many of the jobs that
can be guided by heavy-weight processes. Related
concepts include extreme programming, scrum, and
lean software development.
Experimental experimental software engineering is a
branch of software engineering interested in devising experiments on software, in collecting data from
the experiments, and in devising laws and theories
from this data. Proponents of this method advocate that the nature of software is such that we can
advance the knowledge on software through experiments only.
Model-driven model driven design develops textual and
graphical models as primary design artifacts. Development tools are available that use model transformation and code generation to generate wellorganized code fragments that serve as a basis for
producing complete applications.
Software product lines software product lines is a systematic way to produce families of software systems,
instead of creating a succession of completely individual products. This method emphasizes extensive,
systematic, formal code reuse, to try to industrialize
the software development process.
The Future of Software Engineering [6] conference
(FOSE), held at ICSE 2000, documented the state of the
art of SE in 2000 and listed many problems to be solved
over the next decade. The FOSE tracks at the ICSE 2000
[7]
and the ICSE 2007[8] conferences also help identify
the state of the art in software engineering.

In 2006, Money Magazine and Salary.com rated software

engineering as the best job in America in terms of growth,
pay, stress levels, exibility in hours and working environment, creativity, and how easy it is to enter and advance
in the eld.[9]

10.8 Prominent Figures in the History of Software Engineering

Charles Bachman (born 1924) is particularly known
for his work in the area of databases.
Laszlo Belady (born 1928) the editor-in-chief of the
IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering in the
1980s
Fred Brooks (born 1931) best known for managing
the development of OS/360.
Peter Chen, known for the development of entityrelationship modeling.
Edsger Dijkstra (19302002) developed the framework for proper programming.
David Parnas (born 1941) developed the concept of
information hiding in modular programming.
Michael A. Jackson (born 1936) software engineering methodologist responsible for JSP method of
program design; JSD method of system development (with John Cameron); and Problem Frames
method for analysing and structuring software development problems.

10.9 See also

History of software
History of computer science
History of programming languages

10.10 References
[1] Software engineering ... has recently emerged as a discipline in its own right. Sommerville, Ian (1985) [1982].
Software Engineering. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-20114229-5.

10.11. EXTERNAL LINKS

[2] Rayl, A.J.S. (October 16, 2008). NASA Engineers

and Scientists-Transforming Dreams Into Reality. http:
//www.nasa.gov/index.html''. NASA. Retrieved December
27, 2014.
[3] The NATO Software Engineering Conferences
[4] Therac-25
[5] Computer Risks
[6] Future of Software Engineering
[7] ICSE 2000
[8] ICSE 2007
[9] Kalwarski, Tara; Daphne Mosher, Janet Paskin and
Donna Rosato (2006). Best Jobs in America. MONEY
Magazine. CNN. Retrieved 2006-04-20. , MONEY
Magazine and Salary.com researched hundreds of jobs,
considering their growth, pay, stress-levels and other factors. These careers ranked highest. 1. Software Engineer...

10.11 External links

Oral history interview with Bruce H. Barnes,
Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.
Barnes describes the National Science Foundation
(NSF) and its support of research in theoretical
computer science, computer architecture, numerical
methods, and software engineering, and the development of networking.
Oral history interview with Laszlo A. Belady,
Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.
Brian Randell: The NATO Software Engineering
Conferences (The site includes the original two
NATO reportsfrom 1968 and 1969as well as
photographs of the participants and some of the sessions at Garmisch)

97

Chapter 11

History of the graphical user interface

Ivan Sutherland demonstrating Sketchpad (UVC via IA: video

and thumbnails).

The history of the graphical user interface, understood as

The rst prototype of a computer mouse, as designed by Bill Enthe use of graphic icons and a pointing device to control
glish from Engelbarts sketches[1]
a computer, covers a ve-decade span of incremental renements, built on some constant core principles. Several
vendors have created their own windowing systems based
on independent code, but with basic elements in common
that dene the WIMP window, icon, menu and pointing
device paradigm.
There have been important technological achievements,
and enhancements to the general interaction in small steps
over previous systems. There have been a few signicant
breakthroughs in terms of use, but the same organizational metaphors and interaction idioms are still in use.
Although many GUI operating systems are controlled by
using a mouse, the keyboard can also be used with keyboard shortcuts or arrow keys. The interface developments described, below, have been summarized and omit
many details in the interest of brevity. The inuence of
game computers and joystick operation has been omitted. Videoconferencing on NLS (1968)

11.1 Initial developments

Early dynamic information devices such as radar displays, where input devices were used for direct control
of computer-created data, set the basis for later improvements of graphical interfaces.[2] Some early cathode-raytube (CRT) screens used a lightpen, rather than a mouse,

as the pointing device.

The concept of a multi-panel windowing system was introduced by the rst real-time graphic display systems
for computers: the SAGE Project and Ivan Sutherland's
Sketchpad.

98

11.2. EARLY DEVELOPMENTS

11.1.1

99

Augmentation of Human Intellect menus (including the rst xed drop-down menu) to
support commands such as opening les, deleting les,
(NLS)

In the 1960s, Doug Engelbart's Augmentation of Human Intellect project at the Augmentation Research Center at SRI International in Menlo Park, California developed the oN-Line System (NLS). This computer incorporated a mouse-driven cursor and multiple windows used
to work on hypertext. Engelbart had been inspired, in
part, by the memex desk-based information machine suggested by Vannevar Bush in 1945.

moving les, etc. In 1974, work began at PARC on

Gypsy, the rst bitmap What-You-See-Is-What-You-Get
(WYSIWYG) cut & paste editor. In 1975, Xerox engineers demonstrated a Graphical User Interface including
icons and the rst use of pop-up menus.[3]

In 1981 Xerox introduced a pioneering product, Star,

a workstation incorporating many of PARCs innovations. Although not commercially successful, Star greatly
inuenced future developments, for example at Apple,
[4]
Much of the early research was based on how young chil- Microsoft and Sun Microsystems.
dren learn. So, the design was based on the childlike
primitives of hand-eye coordination, rather than use of
command languages, user-dened macro procedures, or
11.2 Early developments
automated transformations of data as later used by adult
professionals.

11.2.1 Xerox Alto and Xerox Star

11.1.2

Xerox PARC

Xerox Star workstation introduced the rst commercial GUI operating system

Engelbarts work directly led to the advances at Xerox

PARC. Several people went from SRI to Xerox PARC
in the early 1970s. In 1973, Xerox PARC developed
the Alto personal computer. It had a bitmapped screen,
and was the rst computer to demonstrate the desktop
metaphor and graphical user interface (GUI). It was not
a commercial product, but several thousand units were
built and were heavily used at PARC, as well as other XEROX oces, and at several universities for many years.
The Alto greatly inuenced the design of personal computers during the late 1970s and early 1980s, notably the
Three Rivers PERQ, the Apple Lisa and Macintosh, and
the rst Sun workstations.

The Xerox Alto had an early graphical user interface.

The Xerox Alto (and later Xerox Star) was an early personal computer developed at Xerox PARC in 1973. It
was the rst computer to use the desktop metaphor and
mouse-driven graphical user interface (GUI).

It was not a commercial product, but several thousand

units were built and were heavily used at PARC, other
Xerox facilities, at least one government facility and at
several universities for many years. The Alto greatly inThe GUI was rst developed at Xerox PARC by Alan uenced the design of some personal computers in the
Kay, Larry Tesler, Dan Ingalls, David Smith and a num- following decades, notably the Apple Macintosh and the
ber of other researchers. It used windows, icons, and rst Sun workstations.

100

11.2.2

CHAPTER 11. HISTORY OF THE GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE

SGI 1000 series and MEX

Founded 1982, SGI introduced the IRIS 1000 Series[5]

in 1983.[6] The rst graphical terminals (IRIS 1000)
shipped in late 1983, and the corresponding workstation model (IRIS 1400) was released in mid-1984. The
machines used an early version of the MEX windowing system on top of the GL2 Release 1 operating
environment.[7] Examples of the MEX user interface
can be seen in a 1988 article in the journal Computer
Graphics,[8] while earlier screenshots can not be found.
The rst commercial GUI-based systems, these did not
nd widespread use as to their (discounted) academic list
price of $22,500 and $35,700 for the IRIS 1000 and IRIS
1400, respectively.[6] However, these systems were commercially successful enough to start SGIs business as one
of the main graphical workstation vendors. In later revisions of graphical workstations, SGI switched to the
X window system, which had been developed starting
at MIT since 1984 and which became the standard for
UNIX workstations.

11.2.3

The Apple GS/OS desktop (1986).

place around the screen as desired; and the user could

delete les and folders by dragging them to a trash-can
icon on the screen. The Macintosh, in contrast to the Lisa,
used a program-centric rather than document-centric design. Apple revisited the document-centric design, in a
limited manner, much later with OpenDoc.

Apple Lisa and Macintosh (and

There is still some controversy over the amount of inulater, the Apple IIgs)

ence that Xeroxs PARC work, as opposed to previous

academic research, had on the GUIs of the Apple Lisa
Main article: Mac OS history
Beginning in 1979, started by Steve Jobs and led by Jef and Macintosh, but it is clear that the inuence was extensive, because rst versions of Lisa GUIs even lacked
icons. These prototype GUIs are at least mouse-driven,
but completely ignored the WIMP ( window, icon,
menu, pointing device) concept. Screenshots of rst
GUIs of Apple Lisa prototypes show the early designs.
Note also that Apple engineers visited the PARC facilities (Apple secured the rights for the visit by compensating Xerox with a pre-IPO purchase of Apple stock) and a
number of PARC employees subsequently moved to Apple to work on the Lisa and Macintosh GUI. However,
the Apple work extended PARCs considerably, adding
manipulatable icons, and drag&drop manipulation of objects in the le system (see Macintosh Finder) for example. A list of the improvements made by Apple, beyond
Macintosh Desktop (1984).
the PARC interface, can be read at Folklore.org.[9] Jef
Raskin warns that many of the reported facts in the hisRaskin, the Apple Lisa and Macintosh teams at Apple tory of the PARC and Macintosh development are inacComputer (which included former members of the Xerox curate, distorted or even fabricated, due to the lack of
PARC group) continued to develop such ideas. The Lisa, usage by historians of direct primary sources.[10]
released in 1983, featured a high-resolution stationarybased (document-centric) graphical interface atop an ad- In 1984, Apple released a television commercial which
during the telecast of
vanced hard disk based OS that featured such things as introduced the Apple Macintosh
[11]
Super
Bowl
XVIII
by
CBS,
with
allusions to George
multitasking and oce programs that users could paste
noted
novel,
Nineteen
Eighty-Four.
The comOrwell's
content, such as graphs, from other programs into. The
mercial
was
aimed
at
making
people
think
about
comcomparatively simplied Macintosh, released in 1984
puters,
identifying
the
user-friendly
interface
as
a
perand designed to be lower in cost, was the rst commersonal
computer
which
departed
from
previous
businesscially successful product to use a multi-panel window in[12]
becoming a signature representerface. A desktop metaphor was used, in which les oriented systems, and [13]
tation
of
Apple
products.
looked like pieces of paper. File directories looked like
le folders. There were a set of desk accessories like a In 1986 the Apple IIgs was launched, a very advanced
calculator, notepad, and alarm clock that the user could model of the successful Apple II series, based on 16-bit

11.2. EARLY DEVELOPMENTS

101

technology (in fact, virtually two machines into one). It

came with a new operating system, the Apple GS/OS,
which features a Finder-like GUI, very similar to that
of the Macintosh series, able to deal with the advanced
graphic abilities of its Video Graphics Chip (VGC).

11.2.4

Graphical Environment Manager

(GEM)

Main article: Graphical Environment Manager

Digital Research (DRI) created the Graphical Environment Manager (GEM) as an add-on program for personal computers. GEM was developed to work with existing CP/M and MS-DOS operating systems on business
computers such as IBM-compatibles. It was developed
from DRI software, known as GSX, designed by a former PARC employee. The similarity to the Macintosh
desktop led to a copyright lawsuit from Apple Computer,
and a settlement which involved some changes to GEM.
This was to be the rst of a series of 'look and feel' lawsuits related to GUI design in the 1980s.

DeskMate 3.02 running in VGA mode

a disk operating system such as TRS-DOS or MS-DOS.

The application was popular at the time and included a
number of programs like Draw, Text and Calendar, as
well as attracting outside investment such as Lotus 1-2-3
for DeskMate.

11.2.6 MSX-View

GEM on the Atari ST (1985)

GEM received widespread use in the consumer market

from 1985, when it was made the default user interface
built into the Atari TOS operating system of the Atari
ST line of personal computers. It was also bundled by
other computer manufacturers and distributors, such as
Amstrad. Later, it was distributed with the best-sold Digital Research version of DOS for IBM PC compatibles,
the DR-DOS 6.0. The GEM desktop faded from the market with the withdrawal of the Atari ST line in 1992 and MSX-View running VShell
with the popularity of the Microsoft Windows 3.0 in the
PC front around the same period of time.
Main article: MSX-View

11.2.5

DeskMate

MSX-View was developed for MSX computers by ASCII

Corporation and HAL Laboratory. MSX-View conMain article: DeskMate
tains software such as Page Edit, Page View, Page Link,
VShell, VTed, VPaint and VDraw. An external version
Tandys DeskMate appeared in the early 1980s on its of the built-in MSX View of the Panasonic FS-A1GT was
TRS-80 machines and was ported to its Tandy 1000 range released as an add-on for the Panasonic FS-A1ST on disk
in 1984. Like most PC GUIs of the time, it depended on instead of 512kB ROM DISK.

102

CHAPTER 11. HISTORY OF THE GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE

Like most GUIs of the day, Amigas Intuition followed
Xeroxs, and sometimes Apples, lead. But a CLI was
included which dramatically extended the functionality of
the platform. However, the CLI/Shell of Amiga is not
just a simple text-based interface like in MS-DOS, but
another graphic process driven by Intuition, and with the
same gadgets included in Amigas graphics.library. The
CLI/Shell interface integrates itself with the Workbench,
sharing privileges with the GUI.
The Amiga Workbench evolved over the 1990s, even after Commodores 1994 bankruptcy.

Amiga Workbench (1985)

11.2.8 Acorn BBC Master Compact

11.2.7

Amiga Intuition and the Workbench

The Amiga computer was launched by Commodore in

1985 with a GUI called Workbench. Workbench was
based on an internal engine developed mostly by RJ Mical, called Intuition, which drove all the input events.
The rst versions used a blue/orange/white/black default
palette, which was selected for high contrast on televisions and composite monitors. Workbench presented directories as drawers to t in with the "workbench" theme.
Intuition was the widget and graphics library that made
the GUI work. It was driven by user events through the
mouse, keyboard, and other input devices.
Due to a mistake made by the Commodore sales department, the rst oppies of AmigaOS (released with the
Amiga1000) named the whole OS Workbench. Since
then, users and CBM itself referred to Workbench as
the nickname for the whole AmigaOS (including Amiga
DOS, Extras, etc.). This common consent ended with
release of version 2.0 of AmigaOS, which re-introduced
proper names to the installation oppies of AmigaDOS,
Workbench, Extras, etc.
Starting with Workbench 1.0, AmigaOS treated the
Workbench as a backdrop, borderless window sitting atop
a blank screen. With the introduction of AmigaOS 2.0,
however, the user was free to select whether the main
Workbench window appeared as a normally layered window, complete with a border and scrollbars, through a
menu item.

The Master Compact GUI

Main article: BBC Master

Acorns 8-bit BBC Master Compact shipped with Acorns
rst public GUI interface in 1986.[14] Little commercial
software, beyond that included on the Welcome disk, was
ever made available for the system, despite the claim by
Acorn at the time that the major software houses have
worked with Acorn to make over 100 titles available on
compilation discs at launch.[15] The most avid supporter
of the Master Compact appeared to be Superior Software, who produced and specically labelled their games
as 'Master Compact' compatible.

Amiga users were able to boot their computer into a

command line interface (also known as the CLI or Amiga
Shell). This was a keyboard-based environment without 11.2.9 Arthur / RISC OS
the Workbench GUI. Later they could invoke it with the
CLI/SHELL command LoadWB which loaded Work- Main article: RISC OS
bench GUI.
One major dierence between other OSs of the time (and
for some time after) was the Amigas fully multi-tasking
operating system, a powerful built-in animation system
using a hardware blitter and copper and 4 channels of 26
kHz 8-bit sampled sound. This made the Amiga the rst
multi-media computer years before other OSs.

RISC OS /rskos/[16] is a series of graphical user

interface-based computer operating systems (OSes) designed for ARM architecture systems. It takes its name
from the RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) architecture supported. The OS was originally developed
by Acorn Computers for use with their 1987 range of

11.2. EARLY DEVELOPMENTS

Arthur Desktop

103

A typical RISC OS 3.7 session

Archimedes personal computers using the Acorn RISC The GUI is centred around the concept of les. The
Machine processors. It comprises a command-line inter- Filer displays the contents of a disc. Applications are run
face and desktop environment with a windowing system. from the Filer view and les can be dragged to the Filer
Originally branded as the Arthur 1.20 the subsequent view from applications to perform saves. Application diArthur 2 release was shipped under the name RISC OS rectories are used to store applications. The OS dierentiates them from normal directories through the use
2.
of a pling (exclamation mark, also called shriek) prex.
From 1988 to 1998, the OS was bundled with nearly ev- Double-clicking on such a directory launches the applicaery ARM-based Acorn computer model, including the tion rather than opening the directory. The applications
Archimedes range, RiscPC, NewsPad and A7000. A executable les and resources are contained within the diversion of the OS (called NCOS) was used in Oracle's rectory, but normally they remain hidden from the user.
Network Computer and compatible systems. After the Because applications are self-contained, this allows dragbreakup of Acorn in 1998, development of the OS was and-drop installation and removal.
forked and separately continued by several companies, including RISCOS Ltd, Pace Micro Technology and Castle The RISC OS Style Guide encourages a consistent look
Technology. Since 1998 it has been bundled with a and feel across applications. This was introduced in RISC
number of ARM-based desktop computers such as the OS 3 and species application appearance and behaviour.
Iyonix[17] and A9home. As of 2012, the OS remains Acorns own main bundled applications were not updated
forked and is independently developed by RISCOS Ltd to comply with the guide until RISCOS Ltd's Select release in 2001.[26]
and the RISC OS Open community.
Most recent stable versions run on the ARMv3/ARMv4
RiscPC[18] (or under emulation via VirtualAcorn
or RPCEmu), the ARMv5 Iyonix,[19] Raspberry
Pi[20][21][22] and ARMv7 Cortex-A8 processors[23][24]
(such as that used in the BeagleBoard and Touch Book).
In 2011, a port for the Cortex-A9 PandaBoard was
announced[25]
Desktop
The WIMP interface incorporates three mouse buttons (named Select, Menu and Adjust), context-sensitive
menus, window order control (i.e. send to back) and dynamic window focus (a window can have input focus at
any position on the stack). The Icon bar (Dock) holds
icons which represent mounted disc drives, RAM discs,
running applications, system utilities and docked: Files,
Directories or inactive Applications. These icons have
context-sensitive menus and support drag-and-drop behaviour. They represent the running application as a
whole, irrespective of whether it has open windows.

Font manager
The outline fonts manager provides spatial anti-aliasing
of fonts, the OS being the rst operating system to include such a feature,[27][28][29][30] having included it since
before January 1989.[31] Since 1994, in RISC OS 3.5, it
has been possible to use an outline anti-aliased font in the
WindowManager for UI elements, rather than the bitmap
system font from previous versions.[32]

11.2.10 MS-DOS le managers and utility

suites
Because most of the very early IBM PC and compatibles lacked any common true graphical capability (they
used the 80-column basic text mode compatible with the
original MDA display adapter), a series of le managers
arose, including Microsoft's DOS Shell, which features
typical GUI elements as menus, push buttons, lists with

104

CHAPTER 11. HISTORY OF THE GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE

DeluxePaint II for MS-DOS (1989)

Norton Utilities 6.01 (1991). Note the graphical widgets and the
arrow pointer in text mode.

The original Adobe Acrobat Reader executable le for

MS-DOS was able to run on both the standard Windows
3.x GUI and the standard DOS command prompt. When
scrollbars and mouse pointer. The name text-based user it was launched from the command prompt, on a machine
interface was later invented to name this kind of inter- with a VGA graphics card, it provided its own GUI.
face. Many MS-DOS text mode applications, like the
default text editor for MS-DOS 5.0 (and related tools,
11.2.12 Microsoft Windows (16-bit verlike QBasic), also used the same philosophy. The IBM
sions)
DOS Shell included with IBM DOS 5.0 (circa 1992) supported both text display modes and actual graphics display modes, making it both a TUI and a GUI, depending
on the chosen mode.
Advanced le managers for MS-DOS were able to redene character shapes with EGA and better display
adapters, giving some basic low resolution icons and
graphical interface elements, including an arrow (instead
of a coloured cell block) for the mouse pointer. When the
display adapter lacks the ability to change the characters
shapes, they default to the CP437 character set found in
the adapters ROM. Some popular utility suites for MSDOS, as Norton Utilities (pictured) and PC Tools used Windows 1.01 (1985)
these techniques as well.
DESQview was a text mode multitasking program introduced in July 1985. Running on top of MS-DOS, it allowed users to run multiple DOS programs concurrently
in windows. It was the rst program to bring multitasking and windowing capabilities to a DOS environment in
which existing DOS programs could be used. DESQview
was not a true GUI but oered certain components of
one, such as resizable, overlapping windows and mouse
pointing.

11.2.11

See also: History of Microsoft Windows

Windows 1.0, a GUI for the MS-DOS operating system

was released in 1985.[33] The markets response was less
than stellar.[34] Windows 2.0 followed, but it wasn't until the 1990 launch of Windows 3.0, based on Common
User Access that its popularity truly exploded. The GUI
has seen minor redesigns since, mainly the networking
enabled Windows 3.11 and its Win32s 32-bit patch. The
16-bit line of MS Windows were discontinued with the
introduction of Windows 95 and Windows NT 32-bit
Applications under MS-DOS with based architecture in the 1990s. See the next section.

proprietary GUIs
Before the MS-Windows age, and with the lack of a true
common GUI under MS-DOS, most graphical applications which worked with EGA, VGA and better graphic
cards had proprietary built-in GUIs. One of the best
known such graphical applications was Deluxe Paint, a
popular painting software with a typical WIMP interface.

The main window of a given application can occupy

the full screen in maximized status. The users must
then to switch between maximized applications using the
Alt+Tab keyboard shortcut; no alternative with the mouse
except for de-maximize. When none of the running application windows are maximized, switching can be done
by clicking on a partially visible window, as is the common way in other GUIs.

11.2. EARLY DEVELOPMENTS

105

11.2.14 The X Window System

Main article: X Window System
The standard windowing system in the Unix world is

Windows 3.11 (1993)

In 1988, Apple sued Microsoft for copyright infringement of the LISA and Apple Macintosh GUI. The court
case lasted 4 years before almost all of Apples claims
were denied on a contractual technicality. Subsequent
appeals by Apple were also denied. Microsoft and Ap- A Unix based X Window System desktop (circa 1990).
ple apparently entered a nal, private settlement of the
matter in 1997.
the X Window System (commonly X11 or X), rst released in the mid-1980s. The W Window System (1983)
was the precursor to X; X was developed at MIT as
11.2.13 GEOS
Project Athena. Its original purpose was to allow users
of the newly emerging graphic terminals to access remote graphics workstations without regard to the workstations operating system or the hardware. Due largely to
the availability of the source code used to write X, it has
become the standard layer for management of graphical
and input/output devices and for the building of both local and remote graphical interfaces on virtually all Unix,
Linux and other Unix-like operating systems, with the notable exceptions of Mac OS X and Android.

GEOS for the Commodore 64 (1986).

Main article: GEOS (8-bit operating system)

GEOS was launched in 1986. Originally written for the 8bit home computer Commodore 64 and shortly after, the
Apple II series. The name was later used by the company
as PC/Geos for IBM PC systems, then Geoworks Ensemble. It came with several application programs like a calendar and word processor, and a cut-down version served
as the basis for America Online's DOS client. Compared
to the competing Windows 3.0 GUI it could run reasonably well on simpler hardware, but its developer had a
restrictive policy towards third-party developers that prevented it from becoming a serious competitor. And it
was targeted at 8-bit machines and the 16-bit computer
age was dawning.

X allows a graphical terminal user to make use of remote

resources on the network as if they were all located locally
to the user by running a single module of software called
the X server. The software running on the remote machine is called the client application. Xs network transparency protocols allow the display and input portions of
any application to be separated from the remainder of the
application and 'served up' to any of a large number of remote users. X is available today as free software.

11.2.15 NeWS
Main article: NeWS
The PostScript-based NeWS (Network extensible Window System) was developed by Sun Microsystems in the
mid-1980s. For several years SunOS included a window system combining NeWS and the X Window System. Although NeWS was considered technically elegant
by some commentators, Sun eventually dropped the product. Unlike X, NeWS was always proprietary software.

106

CHAPTER 11. HISTORY OF THE GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE

Windows 95 desktop (1995).

HyperTIES authoring tool under NeWS window system.

11.3 The 1990s: Mainstream usage

of the desktop
The widespread adoption of the PC platform at homes
and small business popularized computers among people
with no formal training. This created a fast-growing market, opening an opportunity for commercial exploitation
and of easy-to-use interfaces and making economically
viable the incremental renement of the existing GUIs
for home systems.
Also, the spreading of Highcolor and True Color capabilities of display adapters providing thousands and millions
of colors, along with faster CPUs and accelerated graphic
cards, cheaper RAM, storage devices up to an order
of magnitude larger (from megabytes to gigabytes) and
larger bandwidth for telecom networking at lower cost
helped to create an environment in which the common
user was able to run complicated GUIs which began to
favor aesthetics.

linear address memory space. Windows 95 was touted

as a 32-bit based operating system but it was actually
based on a hybrid kernel (VWIN32.VXD) with the 16-bit
user interface (USER.EXE) and graphic device interface
(GDI.EXE) of Windows for Workgroups (3.11), which
had 16-bit kernel components with a 32-bit subsystem
(USER32.DLL and GDI32.DLL) that allowed it to run
native 16-bit applications as well as 32-bit applications.
In the marketplace, Windows 95 was an unqualied success, promoting a general upgrade to 32-bit technology,
and within a year or two of its release had become the
most successful operating system ever produced.
Accompanied by an extensive marketing campaign,[35]
Windows 95 was a major success in the marketplace at
launch and shortly became the most popular desktop operating system.

Windows 95 saw the beginning of the browser wars, when

the World Wide Web began receiving a great deal of
attention in the popular culture and mass media. Microsoft at rst did not see potential in the Web, and Windows 95 was shipped with Microsofts own online service
called The Microsoft Network, which was dial-up only
11.3.1 Windows 95 and a computer in ev- and was used primarily for its own content, not internet
access. As versions of Netscape Navigator and Internet
ery home
Explorer were released at a rapid pace over the following
few years, Microsoft used its desktop dominance to push
Main article: Windows 95. See also: Windows
its browser and shape the ecology of the web mainly as a
NT.
monoculture.
After Windows 3.11, Microsoft began to develop a new
consumer-oriented version of the operating system. Windows 95 was intended to integrate Microsofts formerly
separate MS-DOS and Windows products and included
an enhanced version of DOS, often referred to as MSDOS 7.0. It also featured a signicant redesign of the
GUI, dubbed Cairo. While Cairo never really materialized, parts of Cairo found their way into subsequent
versions of the operating system starting with Windows
95. Both Win95 and WinNT could run 32-bit applications, and could exploit the abilities of the Intel 80386
CPU, as the preemptive multitasking and up to 4GiB of

Windows 95 evolved through the years into Windows

98 and Windows ME. Windows ME was the last in the
line of the Windows 3.x-based operating systems from
Microsoft. Windows underwent a parallel 32-bit evolutionary path, where Windows NT 3.1 was released in
1993. Windows NT (for New Technology)[36] was a native 32-bit operating system with a new driver model, was
unicode-based, and provided for true separation between
applications. Windows NT also supported 16-bit applications in an NTVDM, but it did not support VXD based
drivers. Windows 95 was supposed to be released before
1993 as the predecessor to Windows NT. The idea was

11.3. THE 1990S: MAINSTREAM USAGE OF THE DESKTOP

to promote the development of 32-bit applications with
backward compatibility - leading the way for more successful NT release. After multiple delays, Windows 95
was released without unicode and used the VXD driver
model. Windows NT 3.1 evolved to Windows NT 3.5,
3.51 and then 4.0 when it nally shared a similar interface
with its Windows 9x desktop counterpart and included a
START button. The evolution continued with Windows
2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista, then Windows 7.
Windows XP and higher were also made available in 64bit modes. Windows server products branched o with
the introduction of Windows Server 2003 (available in
32-bit and 64-bit IA64 or x64), then Windows Server
2008 and then Windows Server 2008 R2. Windows 2000
and XP shared the same basic GUI although XP introduced Visual Styles. With Windows 98, the Active Desktop theme was introduced, allowing an HTML approach
for the desktop, but this feature was coldly received by
customers, who frequently disabled it. At the end, Windows Vista denitively discontinued it, but put a new
SideBar on the desktop.

107

With Mac OS X v10.4, new features were added, including Dashboard (a virtual alternate desktop for mini
specic-purpose applications) and a search tool called
Spotlight, which provides users with an option for searching through les instead of browsing through folders.

11.3.3 GUIs built on the X Window System

KDE Plasma 4.4 desktop (2010)

11.3.2

Mac OS

A GNOME 2.28 desktop (2010)

Screenshot of System 7.5.3

The Macintoshs GUI has been revised multiple times

since 1984, with major updates including System 7 and
Mac OS 8. It underwent its largest revision to date with
the introduction of the "Aqua" interface in 2001s Mac
OS X. It was a new operating system built primarily on
technology from NeXTStep with UI elements of the original Mac OS grafted on. Mac OS X uses a technology
known as Quartz (graphics layer), for graphics rendering and drawing on-screen. Some interface features of
Mac OS X are inherited from NeXTStep (such as the
Dock, the automatic wait cursor, or double-buered windows giving a solid appearance and icker-free window
redraws), while others are inherited from the old Mac
OS operating system (the single system-wide menu-bar).
Mac OS X v10.3 introduced features to improve usability including Expos, which is designed to make nding
open windows easier.

In the early days of X Window development, Sun Microsystems and AT&T attempted to push for a GUI standard called OPEN LOOK in competition with Motif.
OPEN LOOK was a well-designed standard developed
from scratch in conjunction with Xerox, while Motif was
a collective eort that fell into place, with a look and
feel patterned after Windows 3.11. Many who worked
on OPEN LOOK at the time appreciated its design coherence. Motif prevailed in the UNIX GUI battles and
became the basis for the Common Desktop Environment
(CDE). CDE was based on Visual User Environment
(VUE), a proprietary desktop from Hewlett-Packard that
in turn was based on the Motif look and feel.
In the late 1990s, there was signicant growth in the Unix
world, especially among the free software community.
New graphical desktop movements grew up around Linux
and similar operating systems, based on the X Window
System. A new emphasis on providing an integrated and

108

CHAPTER 11. HISTORY OF THE GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE

uniform interface to the user brought about new desktop

environments, such as KDE Plasma Desktop, GNOME
and XFCE which have supplanted CDE in popularity on
both Unix and Unix-like operating systems. The XFCE,
KDE and GNOME look and feel each tend to undergo
more rapid change and less codication than the earlier
OPEN LOOK and Motif environments.

color icons, increased use of wallpapers for screens and

windows, alpha channel, transparencies and shadows as
any modern GUI provides.

11.3.4

Use of object oriented graphic engines dramatically

changes the look and feel of a GUI to match actual
styleguides.

Amiga

Modern derivatives of Workbench are Ambient for

MorphOS, Scalos, Workbench for AmigaOS 4 and
Wanderer for AROS. There is a brief article on Ambient and descriptions of MUI icons, menus and gadgets at
aps.fr and images of Zune stay at main AROS site.

11.3.5 OS/2

Amiga Workbench 2.0 (1990)

OS/2 Workplace Shell

Amiga Workbench 4.1 (2009)

Later releases added improvements over the original

Workbench, like support for high-color Workbench
screens, context menus, and embossed 2D icons with
pseudo-3D aspect. Some Amiga users preferred alternative interfaces to standard Workbench, such as Directory
Opus Magellan.
The use of improved, third-party GUI engines became
common amongst users who preferred more attractive
interfaces such as Magic User Interface (MUI), and
ReAction. These object-oriented graphic engines driven
by user interface classes and methods were then standardized into the Amiga environment and changed Amiga
Workbench to a complete and modern guided interface,
with new standard gadgets, animated buttons, true 24-bit-

Originally collaboratively developed by Microsoft and

IBM to replace DOS, OS/2 version 1.0 (released in 1987)
had no GUI at all. Version 1.1 (released 1988) included
Presentation Manager (PM), an implementation of IBM
Common User Access, which looked a lot like the later
Windows 3.1 UI. After the split with Microsoft, IBM developed the Workplace Shell (WPS) for version 2.0 (released in 1992), a quite radical, object-oriented approach
to GUIs. Microsoft later imitated much of this look in
Windows 95.

11.3.6 NeXTSTEP
The NeXTSTEP user interface was used in the NeXT line
of computers. NeXTSTEPs rst major version was released in 1989. It used Display PostScript for its graphical underpinning. The NeXTSTEP interfaces most signicant feature was the Dock, carried with some modication into Mac OS X, and had other minor interface
details that some found made it easier and more intuitive
to use than previous GUIs. NeXTSTEPs GUI was the
rst to feature opaque dragging of windows in its user interface, on a comparatively weak machine by todays standards, ideally aided by high performance graphics hardware.

11.4. CURRENT TRENDS

109
Other portable devices such as MP3 players and cell
phones have been a burgeoning area of deployment for
GUIs in recent years. Since the mid-2000s, a vast majority of portable devices have advanced to having highscreen resolutions and sizes. (The iPhone 5's 1,136 640
pixel display is an example). Because of this, these devices have their own famed user interfaces and operating
systems that have large homebrew communities dedicated to creating their own visual elements, such as icons,
menus, wallpapers, and more. Post-WIMP interfaces are
often used in these mobile devices, where the traditional
pointing devices required by the desktop metaphor are
not practical.

NeXTStep 3.x running NetHack, help and more apps.

11.3.7

BeOS

As high-powered graphics hardware draws considerable

power and generates signicant heat, many of the 3D effects developed between 2000 and 2010 are not practical
on this class of device. This has led to the development of
simpler interfaces making a design feature of two dimensionality such as exhibited by Metro and the 2012 Gmail
redesign.

11.4.2 3D user interface

Main article: 3D interaction
In the 1st decade of the 21st century, the rapid devel-

BeOS Desktop

BeOS was developed on custom AT&T Hobbit-based

computers before switching to PowerPC hardware by a
team led by former Apple executive Jean-Louis Gasse
as an alternative to Mac OS. BeOS was later ported to Intel hardware. It used an object-oriented kernel written by
Be, and did not use the X Window System, but a dierent
GUI written from scratch. Much eort was spent by the
developers to make it an ecient platform for multimedia applications. Be Inc. was acquired by PalmSource,
Inc. (Palm Inc. at the time) in 2001. The BeOS GUI still
lives in Haiku, an open source software reimplementation
of the BeOS.

11.4 Current trends

11.4.1

Mobile devices

In 2007 with the iPhone[37] and later in 2010 with the

introduction of the iPad,[38] Apple popularized the postWIMP style of interaction for multi-touch screens, with
those devices considered to be milestones in the development of mobile devices.[39][40]

Compiz running on Fedora Core 6 with AIGLX.

opment of GPUs led to a trend for the inclusion of 3D

eects in window management. It is based in experimental research in User Interface Design trying to expand the
expressive power of the existing toolkits in order to enhance the physical cues that allow for direct manipulation.
New eects common to several projects are scale resizing and zooming, several windows transformations and
animations (wobbly windows, smooth minimization to
system tray...), composition of images (used for window
drop shadows and transparency) and enhancing the global
organization of open windows (zooming to virtual desktops, desktop cube, Expos, etc.) The proof-of-concept
BumpTop desktop combines a physical representation of
documents with tools for document classication possible
only in the simulated environment, like instant reordering

110

CHAPTER 11. HISTORY OF THE GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE

and automated grouping of related documents.

These eects are popularized thanks to the widespread
use of 3D video cards (mainly due to gaming) which allow for complex visual processing with low CPU use, using the 3D acceleration in most modern graphics cards to
render the application clients in a 3D scene. The application window is drawn o-screen in a pixel buer, and the
graphics card renders it into the 3D scene.

11.5 See also

Windowing system
Bill Atkinson
The Blit (graphics terminal by Rob Pike, 1982)
Direct manipulation interface

This can have the advantage of moving some of the window rendering to the GPU on the graphics card and thus
reducing the load on the main CPU, but the facilities that
allow this must be available on the graphics card to be
able to take advantage of this.

Doug Engelbart's On-Line System

Examples of 3D user-interface software include XGL and

Compiz from Novell, and AIGLX bundled with Red Hat
Fedora. Quartz Extreme for Mac OS X and Windows 7
and Vista's Aero interface use 3D rendering for shading
and transparency eects as well as Expose and Windows
Flip and Flip 3D, respectively. Windows Vista uses
Direct3D to accomplish this, whereas the other interfaces
use OpenGL.

History of computing hardware

At the IEEE 7th Symposium on 3D User Interfaces,

Ph.D. student Mengu Sukan, M.S. student Semih Energin
and Prof. Steve Feiner won best poster for research and
development of augmented reality, titled Manipulating
Virtual Objects in Hand-Held Augmented Reality using
Stored Snapshots. The poster presents a set of interaction techniques that allow a user to rst take snapshots of
a scene using a tablet computer, and then jump back and
forth between the snapshots, to revisit them virtually for
interaction. By storing for each snapshot a still image of
the scene, along with the camera position and orientation
determined by computer vision software, this approach
allows the overlaid 3D graphics to be dynamic and interactive. This makes it possible for the user to move and
rotate virtual 3D objects from the vantage points of different locations, without the overhead of physically traveling between those locations. 3DUI attendees tried a
real-time demo in which they laid out virtual furniture.
They could rapidly transition between the live view and
the viewpoints of multiple snapshots, as they moved and
rotated items of virtual furniture, iteratively designing a
desired layout.[41]

XGL

Graphical user interface

Text-based user interface

History of computer icons

Ivan Sutherland's Sketchpad
Jef Raskin
Oce of the future

AIGLX
DirectFB
Mezzo
tiling window manager
Macro command language
Texting
Skeuomorph
Apple v. Microsoft
IBM Common User Access

11.6 References
[1] The computer mouse turns 40. Retrieved June 12,
2012.
[2] Clive Akass. The men who really invented the GUI.
[3] History of PARC

11.4.3

Virtual reality and presence

See also: Head-up display

Virtual reality devices such as the Oculus Rift and Sonys
Project Morpheus[42] aim to provide users with presence,
a perception of full immersion into a virtual environment.

[4] Mike Tuck. The Real History of the GUI.

[5] Sgi Iris Faq. Futuretech.blinkenlights.nl. Retrieved
2014-03-07.
[6] Hardware : Systems : IRIS 1000. sgistu.net. Retrieved 2014-03-07.
[7] History of IRIX. Ryan.tliquest.net. Retrieved 2014-0307.

11.6. REFERENCES

111

[8] ConMan: a visual programming language for interactive graphics. Computer Graphics (Dx.doi.org) 22 (4):
103111. 1988. doi:10.1145/378456.378494. Retrieved
2014-03-07.

[24] Cortex-A8 port status. RISC OS Open. Retrieved January 31, 2011. [The port includes] a modied version of
the RISC OS kernel containing support for (all) CortexA8 CPU cores.

[9] On Xerox, Apple and Progress (1996), Folklore.org.

[25] Lee, Jerey (August 2, 2011). Have I Got Old News

For You. The Icon Bar. Retrieved September 28, 2011.
[...] Willi Theiss has recently announced that hes been
working on a port of RISC OS to the PandaBoard [...]

[10] Jef Raskin. Holes in Histories.

[11] Friedman, Ted (October 1997). Apples 1984: The Introduction of the Macintosh in the Cultural History of Personal Computers. Archived from the original on October
5, 1999.
[12] Friedman, Ted (2005). Chapter 5: 1984. Electric
Dreams: Computers in American Culture. New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-2740-9.
[13] Grote, Patrick (October 29, 2006). Review of Pirates of
Silicon Valley Movie. DotJournal.com. Archived from
the original on November 7, 2006. Retrieved January 24,
2014.
[14] Chriss Acorns: Master Compact
[15] [Acorn User October 1986 - News - Page 9]
[16] About us: RISC OS Open Limited FAQ. RISC OS
Open. Retrieved June 13, 2011.
[17] Acorn announces distribution deal with Castle Technology for RISC based products. Press release (Acorn Computers Ltd). October 12, 1998. Archived from the original on May 6, 1999. Retrieved January 6, 2011. (October
12th 1998), Cambridge, UK-Acorn announced today that
it has completed negotiations with Castle Technology for
them to distribute Acorn products. |rst1= missing |last1=
in Authors list (help)
[18] Risc os 6 general faq. RISCOS Ltd. Retrieved January
31, 2011. [RISC OS 6 is] suitable for Risc PC, A7000
and Virtual Acorn products.
[19] RISC OS 5 features. Iyonix Ltd. Retrieved January
31, 2011. All IYONIX pcs ship with RISC OS 5 in ash
ROM.
[20] Lee, Jerey. Newsround. The Icon Bar. Retrieved October 17, 2011.
[21] Holwerda, Thom (October 31, 2011). Raspberry Pi To
Embrace RISC OS. OSNews. Retrieved November 1,
2011.
[22] Dewhurst, Christopher (December 2011). The London
show 2011. Archive (magazine) 23 (3). p. 3.
[23] Farrell, Nick (April 27, 2009). Snaps leak of RISC OS5
on Beagleboard. The Inquirer. Retrieved June 28, 2011.
A snap of an RISC OS 5, running on a Beagleboard device
powered by a 600MHz ARM Cortex-A8 processor with
a built-in graphics chip, has tipped up on the world wide
wibble. The port developed by Jerey Lee is a breakthrough for the shared-source project because it has ported
the OS without an army of engineers.

[26] Mellor, Phil (March 23, 2007). An arbitrary number

of possibly inuential RISC OS things. The Icon Bar.
Retrieved September 27, 2011. Admittedly it wasn't until RISC OS Select was released, almost 10 years later,
that the standard Acorn applications (Draw, Edit, and
Paint) implemented the style guides clipboard recommendations, but most products followed it with care.
[27] Round, Mark (February 26, 2004). Emulating RISC OS
under Windows. OSnews. OSNews. Retrieved May 12,
2011. Many of the UI concepts that we take for granted
were rst pioneered in RISC OS, for instance: scalable
anti-aliased fonts and an operating system extendable by
'modules, while most of the PC world was still on Windows 3.0.
[28] Ghiraddje (December 22, 2009). The RISC OS GUI.
Telcontar.net. Retrieved May 12, 2011. Only with Mac
OS X did any mainstream graphical interface provide the
smoothly rendered, fractionally spaced type that Acorn
accomplished in 1992 or earlier.
[29] Reimer, Jeremy (May 2005). A History of the GUI.
ArsTechnica. Retrieved May 25, 2011. [...] in 1987, the
UK-based company Acorn Computers introduced their
[...] GUI, called Arthur, also was the rst to feature
anti-aliased display of on-screen fonts, even in 16-color
mode!
[30] Holwerda, Thom (June 23, 2005). Screen Fonts: Shape
Accuracy or On-Screen Readability?". OSNews. Retrieved June 13, 2011. [...] it was RISC OS that had the
rst system-wide, intricate [...] font rendering in operating systems.
[31] Pountain, Dick (December 1988). Screentest: Archie
RISC OS. Personal Computer World. p. 154. Retrieved
January 14, 2011. [ArcDraw] can also add text in multiple
sizes and fonts to a drawing (including anti-aliased fonts)
[32] Acorn Computers Support Group Application Notice 253
- New features of RISC OS version 3.5
[33] how-windows-came-to-be-windows-1.
romania.com. Retrieved October 3, 2011.

sbp-

[34] history-computer.com. http://history-computer.com.

Retrieved October 3, 2011.
[35] Washington Post (August 24, 1995). Windows With
Windows 95s Debut, Microsoft Scales Heights of Hype.
Washington Post. Retrieved 11/8/2013. Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
[36] Gates, Bill (1998-06-05). Q&A: Protecting children
from information on the Internet. Archived from the
original on 2001-05-26. Retrieved 2005-06-26.

112

CHAPTER 11. HISTORY OF THE GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE

[37] Mather, John. iMania, Ryerson Review of Journalism,

(February 19, 2007) Retrieved February 19, 2007
[38] the iPad could nally spark demand for the hitherto unsuccessful tablet PC --Eaton, Nick The iPad/tablet PC
market dened?, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 2010
[39] Bright, Peter Ballmer (and Microsoft) still doesn't get the
iPad, Ars Technica, 2010
[40] The iPads victory in dening the tablet: What it means.
Infoworld.
[41] Dedual, Nicolas (March 8, 2012). Sukan, Feiner, and
Energin receive Best Poster Award at IEEE 3DUI 2012
(announcement). Columbia University. Retrieved April
3, 2013.
[42]

11.7 External links

Raj Lal User Interface evolution in last 50 years,
Digital Design and Innovation Summit, San Francisco, Sept 20, 2013
Jeremy Reimer. A History of the GUI Ars Technica. May 5, 2005.
User Interface Timeline George Mason University
Nathan Lineback. The Graphical User Interface
Gallery. Nathans Toasty Technology Page.
Oral history interview with Marvin L. Minsky,
Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.
Minsky describes articial intelligence (AI) research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT), including research in the areas of graphics,
word processing, and time-sharing.
Oral history interview with Ivan Sutherland, Charles
Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Sutherland describes his tenure as head of ARPAs Information Processing Techniques Oce (IPTO) from
1963 to 1965, including new projects in graphics and
networking.
Oral history interview with Charles A. Csuri,
Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.
Csuri recounts his art education and explains his
transition to computer graphics in the mid-1960s,
after receiving a National Science Foundation grant
for research in graphics.
GUIdebook: Graphical User Interface gallery
VisiOn history The rst GUI for the PC
mprove: Historical Overview of Graphical User Interfaces
Anecdotes about the development of the Macintosh
Hardware & GUI

Chapter 12

History of the Internet

The history of the Internet begins with the development
of electronic computers in the 1950s. Initial concepts
of packet networking originated in several computer science laboratories in the United States, Great Britain, and
France. The US Department of Defense awarded contracts as early as the 1960s for packet network systems,
including the development of the ARPANET (which
would become the rst network to use the Internet Protocol.) The rst message was sent over the ARPANET from
computer science Professor Leonard Kleinrocks laboratory at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) to
the second network node at Stanford Research Institute
(SRI).

community continues to develop and use advanced networks such as NSFs very high speed Backbone Network
Service (vBNS), Internet2, and National LambdaRail.
Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and
higher speeds over ber optic networks operating at 1Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more. The Internets takeover of
the global communication landscape was almost instant
in historical terms: it only communicated 1% of the information owing through two-way telecommunications
networks in the year 1993, already 51% by 2000, and
more than 97% of the telecommunicated information by
2007.[1] Today the Internet continues to grow, driven by
ever greater amounts of online information, commerce,
Packet switching networks such as ARPANET, Mark I at entertainment, and social networking.
NPL in the UK, CYCLADES, Merit Network, Tymnet,
and Telenet, were developed in the late 1960s and early
1970s using a variety of communications protocols. The 12.1 Precursors
ARPANET in particular led to the development of protocols for internetworking, in which multiple separate netSee also: Victorian Internet
works could be joined into a network of networks.
Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when
the National Science Foundation (NSF) funded the
Computer Science Network (CSNET). In 1982, the
Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) was introduced as the
standard networking protocol on the ARPANET. In
the early 1980s the NSF funded the establishment for
national supercomputing centers at several universities, and provided interconnectivity in 1986 with the
NSFNET project, which also created network access to
the supercomputer sites in the United States from research and education organizations. Commercial Internet
service providers (ISPs) began to emerge in the late
1980s. The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990.
Private connections to the Internet by commercial entities became widespread quickly, and the NSFNET was
decommissioned in 1995, removing the last restrictions
on the use of the Internet to carry commercial trac.

The telegraph system is the rst fully digital communication system. Thus the Internet has precursors, such as the
telegraph system, that date back to the 19th century, more
than a century before the digital Internet became widely
used in the second half of the 1990s. The concept of data
communication transmitting data between two dierent places, connected via some kind of electromagnetic
medium, such as radio or an electrical wire predates the
introduction of the rst computers. Such communication
systems were typically limited to point to point communication between two end devices. Telegraph systems and
telex machines can be considered early precursors of this
kind of communication.

Fundamental theoretical work in data transmission and

information theory was developed by Claude Shannon,
Harry Nyquist, and Ralph Hartley, during the early 20th
Since the mid-1990s, the Internet has had a revolution- century.
ary impact on culture and commerce, including the rise Early computers used the technology available at the time
of near-instant communication by electronic mail, instant to allow communication between the central processing
messaging, voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) telephone unit and remote terminals. As the technology evolved,
calls, two-way interactive video calls, and the World Wide new systems were devised to allow communication over
Web with its discussion forums, blogs, social networking, longer distances (for terminals) or with higher speed (for
and online shopping sites. The research and education interconnection of local devices) that were necessary for
113

114

CHAPTER 12. HISTORY OF THE INTERNET

the mainframe computer model. Using these technologies made it possible to exchange data (such as les) between remote computers. However, the point to point
communication model was limited, as it did not allow
for direct communication between any two arbitrary systems; a physical link was necessary. The technology was
also deemed as inherently unsafe for strategic and military use, because there were no alternative paths for the
communication in case of an enemy attack.

Although he left the IPTO in 1964, ve years before the

ARPANET went live, it was his vision of universal networking that provided the impetus that led his successors
such as Lawrence Roberts and Robert Taylor to further
the ARPANET development. Licklider later returned to
lead the IPTO in 1973 for two years.[6]

12.2 Three terminals and an ARPA

Main article: Packet switching

At the tip of the problem lay the issue of connect-

12.3 Packet switching

Main articles: RAND Corporation and ARPANET

A pioneer in the call for a global network, J. C. R.
Licklider, proposed in his January 1960 paper, "ManComputer Symbiosis": A network of such [computers],
connected to one another by wide-band communication
lines [which provided] the functions of present-day libraries together with anticipated advances in information
storage and retrieval and [other] symbiotic functions.[2]
In August 1962, Licklider and Welden Clark published
the paper On-Line Man-Computer Communication,[3]
which was one of the rst descriptions of a networked
future.
In October 1962, Licklider was hired by Jack Ruina as
director of the newly established Information Processing
Techniques Oce (IPTO) within DARPA, with a mandate to interconnect the United States Department of Defense's main computers at Cheyenne Mountain, the Pentagon, and SAC HQ. There he formed an informal group
within DARPA to further computer research. He began by writing memos describing a distributed network
to the IPTO sta, whom he called Members and Afliates of the Intergalactic Computer Network.[4] As
part of the information processing oces role, three network terminals had been installed: one for System Development Corporation in Santa Monica, one for Project
Genie at the University of California, Berkeley and one
for the Compatible Time-Sharing System project at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Lickliders
identied need for inter-networking would be made obvious by the apparent waste of resources this caused.
For each of these three terminals, I had
three dierent sets of user commands. So if I
was talking online with someone at S.D.C. and
I wanted to talk to someone I knew at Berkeley
or M.I.T. about this, I had to get up from the
S.D.C. terminal, go over and log into the other
terminal and get in touch with them....
I said, oh man, its obvious what to do: If you
have these three terminals, there ought to be
one terminal that goes anywhere you want to
go where you have interactive computing. That
idea is the ARPAnet.[5]

Len Kleinrock and the rst Interface Message Processor.[7]

ing separate physical networks to form one logical network. In the 1960s, Paul Baran of the RAND Corporation produced a study of survivable networks for the
U.S. military in the event of nuclear war.[8] Information transmitted across Barans network would be divided
into what he called message-blocks. Independently,
Donald Davies (National Physical Laboratory, UK), proposed and developed a similar network based on what he
called packet-switching, the term that would ultimately be
adopted. Leonard Kleinrock (MIT) developed a mathematical theory behind this technology. Packet-switching
provides better bandwidth utilization and response times
than the traditional circuit-switching technology used for
telephony, particularly on resource-limited interconnection links.[9]
Packet switching is a rapid store and forward networking design that divides messages up into arbitrary packets, with routing decisions made per-packet. Early networks used message switched systems that required rigid

12.4. NETWORKS THAT LED TO THE INTERNET

routing structures prone to single point of failure. This
led Tommy Krash and Paul Barans U.S. military-funded
research to focus on using message-blocks to include network redundancy.[10]

12.4 Networks that led to the Internet

12.4.1

ARPANET

115
the number of hosts had grown to 213, with a new host
being added approximately every twenty days.[13][14]
ARPANET development was centered around the
Request for Comments (RFC) process, still used today
for proposing and distributing Internet Protocols and Systems. RFC 1, entitled Host Software, was written by
Steve Crocker from the University of California, Los Angeles, and published on April 7, 1969. These early years
were documented in the 1972 lm Computer Networks:
The Heralds of Resource Sharing.
ARPANET became the technical core of what would
become the Internet, and a primary tool in developing the technologies used. The early ARPANET used
the Network Control Program (NCP, sometimes Network Control Protocol) rather than TCP/IP. On January
1, 1983, known as ag day, NCP on the ARPANET
was replaced by the more exible and powerful family
of TCP/IP protocols, marking the start of the modern
Internet.[15]

Promoted to the head of the information processing

oce at Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA), Robert Taylor intended to realize Lickliders
ideas of an interconnected networking system. Bringing
in Larry Roberts from MIT, he initiated a project to build
such a network. The rst ARPANET link was established between the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and the Stanford Research Institute at 22:30
International collaborations on ARPANET were sparse.
hours on October 29, 1969.[11]
For various political reasons, European developers were
concerned with developing the X.25 networks. NoWe set up a telephone connection between
table exceptions were the Norwegian Seismic Array
us and the guys at SRI ..., Kleinrock ... said in
(NORSAR) in 1972, followed in 1973 by Sweden with
an interview: We typed the L and we asked on
satellite links to the Tanum Earth Station and Peter
the phone,
Kirstein's research group in the UK, initially at the InstiDo you see the L?"
tute of Computer Science, London University and later
at University College London.[16]
Yes, we see the L, came the response.
We typed the O, and we asked, Do
12.4.2 NPL
you see the O.
Yes, we see the O.
In 1965, Donald Davies of the National Physical LaboraThen we typed the G, and the systory (United Kingdom) proposed a national data network
tem crashed ...
based on packet-switching. The proposal was not taken
Yet a revolution had begun ....[12]

up nationally, but by 1970 he had designed and built the

Mark I packet-switched network to meet the needs of the
multidisciplinary laboratory and prove the technology under operational conditions.[17] By 1976 12 computers and
75 terminal devices were attached and more were added
until the network was replaced in 1986.

12.4.3 Merit Network

The Merit Network[18] was formed in 1966 as the Michigan Educational Research Information Triad to explore
computer networking between three of Michigans public universities as a means to help the states educational
and economic development.[19] With initial support from
the State of Michigan and the National Science Founda35 Years of the Internet, 1969-2004. Stamp of Azerbaijan, 2004. tion (NSF), the packet-switched network was rst demonstrated in December 1971 when an interactive host to host
By December 5, 1969, a 4-node network was connected connection was made between the IBM mainframe comby adding the University of Utah and the University of puter systems at the University of Michigan in Ann ArCalifornia, Santa Barbara. Building on ideas developed bor and Wayne State University in Detroit.[20] In Octoin ALOHAnet, the ARPANET grew rapidly. By 1981, ber 1972 connections to the CDC mainframe at Michigan

116

CHAPTER 12. HISTORY OF THE INTERNET

State University in East Lansing completed the triad.

Over the next several years in addition to host to host interactive connections the network was enhanced to support terminal to host connections, host to host batch connections (remote job submission, remote printing, batch
le transfer), interactive le transfer, gateways to the
Tymnet and Telenet public data networks, X.25 host attachments, gateways to X.25 data networks, Ethernet attached hosts, and eventually TCP/IP and additional public
universities in Michigan join the network.[20][21] All of
this set the stage for Merits role in the NSFNET project
starting in the mid-1980s.

12.4.4

CYCLADES

The CYCLADES packet switching network was a French

research network designed and directed by Louis Pouzin.
First demonstrated in 1973, it was developed to explore alternatives to the initial ARPANET design and
to support network research generally. It was the rst
network to make the hosts responsible for the reliable
delivery of data, rather than the network itself, using
unreliable datagrams and associated end-to-end protocol
mechanisms.[22][23]

12.4.5

Kong, and Australia by 1981. By the 1990s it provided a

worldwide networking infrastructure.[25]
Unlike ARPANET, X.25 was commonly available for
business use. Telenet oered its Telemail electronic mail
service, which was also targeted to enterprise use rather
than the general email system of the ARPANET.
The rst public dial-in networks used asynchronous
TTY terminal protocols to reach a concentrator operated in the public network. Some networks, such as
CompuServe, used X.25 to multiplex the terminal sessions into their packet-switched backbones, while others,
such as Tymnet, used proprietary protocols. In 1979,
CompuServe became the rst service to oer electronic
mail capabilities and technical support to personal computer users. The company broke new ground again in
1980 as the rst to oer real-time chat with its CB Simulator. Other major dial-in networks were America Online (AOL) and Prodigy that also provided communications, content, and entertainment features. Many bulletin
board system (BBS) networks also provided on-line access, such as FidoNet which was popular amongst hobbyist computer users, many of them hackers and amateur
radio operators.

X.25 and public data networks

Main articles: X.25, Bulletin board system and FidoNet

Based on ARPAs research, packet switching network 12.4.6

UUCP and Usenet

Main articles: UUCP and Usenet

1974 ABC interview with Arthur C. Clarke, in which he describes

a future of ubiquitous networked personal computers.

standards were developed by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in the form of X.25 and related
standards. While using packet switching, X.25 is built on
the concept of virtual circuits emulating traditional telephone connections. In 1974, X.25 formed the basis for
the SERCnet network between British academic and research sites, which later became JANET. The initial ITU
Standard on X.25 was approved in March 1976.[24]
The British Post Oce, Western Union International
and Tymnet collaborated to create the rst international
packet switched network, referred to as the International
Packet Switched Service (IPSS), in 1978. This network
grew from Europe and the US to cover Canada, Hong

In 1979, two students at Duke University, Tom Truscott

and Jim Ellis, originated the idea of using Bourne shell
scripts to transfer news and messages on a serial line
UUCP connection with nearby University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Following public release of the
software, the mesh of UUCP hosts forwarding on the
Usenet news rapidly expanded. UUCPnet, as it would
later be named, also created gateways and links between
FidoNet and dial-up BBS hosts. UUCP networks spread
quickly due to the lower costs involved, ability to use existing leased lines, X.25 links or even ARPANET connections, and the lack of strict use policies (commercial organizations who might provide bug xes) compared
to later networks like CSNET and Bitnet. All connects
were local. By 1981 the number of UUCP hosts had
grown to 550, nearly doubling to 940 in 1984. Sublink
Network, operating since 1987 and ocially founded in
Italy in 1989, based its interconnectivity upon UUCP to
redistribute mail and news groups messages throughout
its Italian nodes (about 100 at the time) owned both by
private individuals and small companies. Sublink Network represented possibly one of the rst examples of
the internet technology becoming progress through popular diusion.[26]

12.5. MERGING THE NETWORKS AND CREATING THE INTERNET (197390)

117

12.5 Merging the networks and

creating the Internet (1973
90)
12.5.1

TCP/IP

A Stanford Research Institute's Packet Radio Van, site of the rst

three-way internetworked transmission.

gether, no matter what their characteristics were, thereby

solving Kahns initial problem. DARPA agreed to fund
development of prototype software, and after several
years of work, the rst demonstration of a gateway between the Packet Radio network in the SF Bay area
and the ARPANET was conducted by the Stanford Research Institute. On November 22, 1977 a three network
demonstration was conducted including the ARPANET,
the SRIs Packet Radio Van on the Packet Radio Network
and the Atlantic Packet Satellite network.[28][29]

Map of the TCP/IP test network in February 1982

Main article: Internet Protocol Suite

With so many dierent network methods, something was
needed to unify them. Robert E. Kahn of DARPA and
ARPANET recruited Vinton Cerf of Stanford University to work with him on the problem. By 1973, they
had worked out a fundamental reformulation, where the
dierences between network protocols were hidden by
using a common internetwork protocol, and instead of
the network being responsible for reliability, as in the
ARPANET, the hosts became responsible. Cerf credits
Hubert Zimmermann, Gerard LeLann and Louis Pouzin
(designer of the CYCLADES network) with important
work on this design.[27]

Stemming from the rst specications of TCP in 1974,

TCP/IP emerged in mid-late 1978 in nearly nal form.
By 1981, the associated standards were published as
RFCs 791, 792 and 793 and adopted for use. DARPA
sponsored or encouraged the development of TCP/IP
implementations for many operating systems and then
scheduled a migration of all hosts on all of its packet networks to TCP/IP. On January 1, 1983, known as ag day,
TCP/IP protocols became the only approved protocol on
the ARPANET, replacing the earlier NCP protocol.[30]

12.5.2 From ARPANET to NSFNET

Main articles: ARPANET and NSFNET
After the ARPANET had been up and running for several years, ARPA looked for another agency to hand o
the network to; ARPAs primary mission was funding cutting edge research and development, not running a communications utility. Eventually, in July 1975, the network had been turned over to the Defense Communications Agency, also part of the Department of Defense.
In 1983, the U.S. military portion of the ARPANET was
broken o as a separate network, the MILNET. MILNET
subsequently became the unclassied but military-only
NIPRNET, in parallel with the SECRET-level SIPRNET
and JWICS for TOP SECRET and above. NIPRNET
does have controlled security gateways to the public Internet.

The specication of the resulting protocol, RFC 675

Specication of Internet Transmission Control Program,
by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine, Network
Working Group, December 1974, contains the rst attested use of the term internet, as a shorthand for internetworking; later RFCs repeat this use, so the word started
out as an adjective rather than the noun it is today.
The networks based on the ARPANET were government
With the role of the network reduced to the bare mini- funded and therefore restricted to noncommercial uses
mum, it became possible to join almost any networks to- such as research; unrelated commercial use was strictly

118

CHAPTER 12. HISTORY OF THE INTERNET

cations infrastructure to the NASA scientic community
for the advancement of earth, space and life sciences. As
a high-speed, multiprotocol, international network, NSI
provided connectivity to over 20,000 scientists across all
seven continents.
In 1981 NSF supported the development of the Computer
Science Network (CSNET). CSNET connected with
ARPANET using TCP/IP, and ran TCP/IP over X.25,
but it also supported departments without sophisticated
network connections, using automated dial-up mail exchange.

BBN Technologies TCP/IP internet map early 1986

forbidden. This initially restricted connections to military

sites and universities. During the 1980s, the connections
expanded to more educational institutions, and even to a
growing number of companies such as Digital Equipment
Corporation and Hewlett-Packard, which were participating in research projects or providing services to those
who were.

Its experience with CSNET lead NSF to use TCP/IP

when it created NSFNET, a 56 kbit/s backbone established in 1986, to supported the NSF sponsored
supercomputing centers. The NSFNET Project also provided support for the creation of regional research and education networks in the United States and for the connection of university and college campus networks to the regional networks.[31] The use of NSFNET and the regional
networks was not limited to supercomputer users and the
56 kbit/s network quickly became overloaded. NSFNET
was upgraded to 1.5 Mbit/s in 1988 under a cooperative
agreement with the Merit Network in partnership with
IBM, MCI, and the State of Michigan. The existence of
NSFNET and the creation of Federal Internet Exchanges
(FIXes) allowed the ARPANET to be decommissioned
in 1990. NSFNET was expanded and upgraded to 45
Mbit/s in 1991, and was decommissioned in 1995 when
it was replaced by backbones operated by several commercial Internet Service Providers.

Several other branches of the U.S. government, the

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
the National Science Foundation (NSF), and the
Department of Energy (DOE) became heavily involved
in Internet research and started development of a successor to ARPANET. In the mid-1980s, all three of these
branches developed the rst Wide Area Networks based
on TCP/IP. NASA developed the NASA Science Network, NSF developed CSNET and DOE evolved the 12.5.3 Transition towards the Internet
Energy Sciences Network or ESNet.
The term internet was adopted in the rst RFC published on the TCP protocol (RFC 675:[32] Internet Transmission Control Program, December 1974) as an abbreviation of the term internetworking and the two terms
were used interchangeably. In general, an internet was
any network using TCP/IP. It was around the time when
ARPANET was interlinked with NSFNET in the late
1980s, that the term was used as the name of the network,
Internet, being the large and global TCP/IP network.[33]

As interest in networking grew and new applications

for it were developed, the Internets technologies spread
throughout the rest of the world. The network-agnostic
approach in TCP/IP meant that it was easy to use any exT3 NSFNET Backbone, c. 1992
isting network infrastructure, such as the IPSS X.25 network,
to carry Internet trac. In 1984, University ColNASA developed the TCP/IP based NASA Science Netlege
London
replaced its transatlantic satellite links with
work (NSN) in the mid-1980s, connecting space scienTCP/IP
over
IPSS.[34]
tists to data and information stored anywhere in the world.
In 1989, the DECnet-based Space Physics Analysis Net- Many sites unable to link directly to the Internet created
work (SPAN) and the TCP/IP-based NASA Science Net- simple gateways for the transfer of electronic mail, the
work (NSN) were brought together at NASA Ames Re- most important application of the time. Sites with only
search Center creating the rst multiprotocol wide area intermittent connections used UUCP or FidoNet and renetwork called the NASA Science Internet, or NSI. NSI lied on the gateways between these networks and the Inwas established to provide a totally integrated communi- ternet. Some gateway services went beyond simple mail

12.6. TCP/IP GOES GLOBAL (19892010)

119

peering, such as allowing access to File Transfer Protocol Vice-Chancellors Committee and provided a dedicated
(FTP) sites via UUCP or mail.[35]
IP based network for Australia.
Finally, routing technologies were developed for the Internet to remove the remaining centralized routing aspects. The Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) was replaced by a new protocol, the Border Gateway Protocol
(BGP). This provided a meshed topology for the Internet
and reduced the centric architecture which ARPANET
had emphasized. In 1994, Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) was introduced to support better conservation
of address space which allowed use of route aggregation
to decrease the size of routing tables.[36]

The Internet began to penetrate Asia in the late 1980s.

Japan, which had built the UUCP-based network JUNET
in 1984, connected to NSFNET in 1989. It hosted
the annual meeting of the Internet Society, INET'92, in
Kobe. Singapore developed TECHNET in 1990, and
Thailand gained a global Internet connection between
Chulalongkorn University and UUNET in 1992.[38]

12.6.2 Global digital divide

12.6 TCP/IP goes global (1989

2010)
100%

12.6.1

CERN, the European Internet, the

link to the Pacic and beyond

80%
60%
40%
20%
0%

Between 1984 and 1988 CERN began installation and operation of TCP/IP to interconnect its major internal computer systems, workstations, PCs and an accelerator conInternet users in 2012 as a percentage of a countrys
trol system. CERN continued to operate a limited selfpopulation
developed system (CERNET) internally and several incompatible (typically proprietary) network protocols ex- Source: International Telecommunications Union.[39]
ternally. There was considerable resistance in Europe towards more widespread use of TCP/IP, and the CERN Main articles: Global digital divide and Digital divide
TCP/IP intranets remained isolated from the Internet un- While developed countries with technological infrastructil 1989.
No data

In 1988, Daniel Karrenberg, from Centrum Wiskunde

& Informatica (CWI) in Amsterdam, visited Ben Segal,
CERN's TCP/IP Coordinator, looking for advice about
the transition of the European side of the UUCP Usenet
network (much of which ran over X.25 links) over to
TCP/IP. In 1987, Ben Segal had met with Len Bosack
from the then still small company Cisco about purchasing some TCP/IP routers for CERN, and was able to
give Karrenberg advice and forward him on to Cisco
for the appropriate hardware. This expanded the EuroFixed broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012
pean portion of the Internet across the existing UUCP
as a percentage of a countrys population
networks, and in 1989 CERN opened its rst external
[37]
TCP/IP connections. This coincided with the creation
Source: International Telecommunications Union.[40]
of Rseaux IP Europens (RIPE), initially a group of IP
network administrators who met regularly to carry out cotures were joining the Internet, developing countries beordination work together. Later, in 1992, RIPE was forgan to experience a digital divide separating them from
mally registered as a cooperative in Amsterdam.
the Internet. On an essentially continental basis, they
At the same time as the rise of internetworking in Europe, are building organizations for Internet resource adminad hoc networking to ARPA and in-between Australian istration and sharing operational experience, as more and
universities formed, based on various technologies such more transmission facilities go into place.
as X.25 and UUCPNet. These were limited in their connection to the global networks, due to the cost of making
individual international UUCP dial-up or X.25 connec- Africa
tions. In 1989, Australian universities joined the push towards using IP protocols to unify their networking infras- At the beginning of the 1990s, African countries relied
tructures. AARNet was formed in 1989 by the Australian upon X.25 IPSS and 2400 baud modem UUCP links
100%
20%
10%
4%
1%
0%

No data

120

CHAPTER 12. HISTORY OF THE INTERNET

125%
60%
40%
20%
4%
0%
No data

Mobile broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012

as a percentage of a countrys population

In 1991, the Peoples Republic of China saw its rst

TCP/IP college network, Tsinghua University's TUNET.
The PRC went on to make its rst global Internet connection in 1994, between the Beijing Electro-Spectrometer
Collaboration and Stanford University's Linear Accelerator Center. However, China went on to implement its own
digital divide by implementing a country-wide content lter.[45]
Latin America

As with the other regions, the Latin American and

Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC) manages the IP address space and other resources for its area.
LACNIC, headquartered in Uruguay, operates DNS root,
for international and internetwork computer communicareverse DNS, and other key services.
tions.
Source: International Telecommunications Union.[41]

In August 1995, InfoMail Uganda, Ltd., a privately held

rm in Kampala now known as InfoCom, and NSN Network Services of Avon, Colorado, sold in 1997 and now
known as Clear Channel Satellite, established Africas
rst native TCP/IP high-speed satellite Internet services.
The data connection was originally carried by a CBand RSCC Russian satellite which connected InfoMails
Kampala oces directly to NSNs MAE-West point of
presence using a private network from NSNs leased
ground station in New Jersey. InfoComs rst satellite
connection was just 64 kbit/s, serving a Sun host computer and twelve US Robotics dial-up modems.

12.6.3 Opening the network to commerce

The interest in commercial use of the Internet became a
hotly debated topic. Although commercial use was forbidden, the exact denition of commercial use could be
unclear and subjective. UUCPNet and the X.25 IPSS
had no such restrictions, which would eventually see
the ocial barring of UUCPNet use of ARPANET and
NSFNET connections. Some UUCP links still remained
connecting to these networks however, as administrators
cast a blind eye to their operation.

In 1996, a USAID funded project, the Leland Initiative,

started work on developing full Internet connectivity for
the continent. Guinea, Mozambique, Madagascar and
Rwanda gained satellite earth stations in 1997, followed
by Cte d'Ivoire and Benin in 1998.
Africa is building an Internet infrastructure. AfriNIC,
headquartered in Mauritius, manages IP address allocation for the continent. As do the other Internet regions,
there is an operational forum, the Internet Community of
Operational Networking Specialists.[42]
There are many programs to provide high-performance
transmission plant, and the western and southern coasts
have undersea optical cable. High-speed cables join
North Africa and the Horn of Africa to intercontinental
cable systems. Undersea cable development is slower for
East Africa; the original joint eort between New Partnership for Africas Development (NEPAD) and the East
Africa Submarine System (Eassy) has broken o and may
become two eorts.[43]
Asia and Oceania
The Asia Pacic Network Information Centre (APNIC),
headquartered in Australia, manages IP address allocation for the continent. APNIC sponsors an operational
forum, the Asia-Pacic Regional Internet Conference on
Operational Technologies (APRICOT).[44]

Number of Internet hosts worldwide: 19812012

Source: Internet Systems Consortium.[46]

During the late 1980s, the rst Internet service provider

(ISP) companies were formed. Companies like PSINet,
UUNET, Netcom, and Portal Software were formed to
provide service to the regional research networks and provide alternate network access, UUCP-based email and
Usenet News to the public. The rst commercial dialup
ISP in the United States was The World, which opened in
1989.[47]
In 1992, the U.S. Congress passed the Scientic and
Advanced-Technology Act, 42 U.S.C. 1862(g), which
allowed NSF to support access by the research and education communities to computer networks which were
not used exclusively for research and education purposes,

12.8. INTERNET GOVERNANCE

121

thus permitting NSFNET to interconnect with commercial networks.[48][49] This caused controversy within the
research and education community, who were concerned
commercial use of the network might lead to an Internet that was less responsive to their needs, and within the
community of commercial network providers, who felt
that government subsidies were giving an unfair advantage to some organizations.[50]

can temporarily lose contact because they move behind

the Moon or planets, or because space weather disrupts
the connection. Under such conditions, DTN retransmits
data packages instead of dropping them, as the standard
TCP/IP internet protocol does. NASA conducted the
rst eld test of what it calls the deep space internet
in November 2008.[56] Testing of DTN-based communications between the International Space Station and Earth
(now termed Disruption-Tolerant Networking) has been
By 1990, ARPANET had been overtaken and replaced
2009, and is scheduled to continue
by newer networking technologies and the project came ongoing since March
until March 2014.[57]
to a close. New network service providers including
PSINet, Alternet, CERFNet, ANS CO+RE, and many This network technology is supposed to ultimately enable
others were oering network access to commercial cus- missions that involve multiple spacecraft where reliable
tomers. NSFNET was no longer the de facto backbone inter-vessel communication might take precedence over
and exchange point for Internet. The Commercial In- vessel-to-earth downlinks. According to a February 2011
ternet eXchange (CIX), Metropolitan Area Exchanges statement by Googles Vint Cerf, the so-called Bundle
(MAEs), and later Network Access Points (NAPs) were protocols have been uploaded to NASAs EPOXI misbecoming the primary interconnections between many sion spacecraft (which is in orbit around the Sun) and
networks. The nal restrictions on carrying commercial communication with Earth has been tested at a distance
trac ended on April 30, 1995 when the National Sci- of approximately 80 light seconds.[58]
ence Foundation ended its sponsorship of the NSFNET
Backbone Service and the service ended.[51][52] NSF provided initial support for the NAPs and interim support to 12.8 Internet governance
help the regional research and education networks transition to commercial ISPs. NSF also sponsored the very
Main article: Internet governance
high speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS) which
continued to provide support for the supercomputing centers and research and education in the United States.[53] As a globally distributed network of voluntarily interconnected autonomous networks, the Internet operates without a central governing body. It has no centralized governance for either technology or policies, and each con12.7 Networking in outer space
stituent network chooses what technologies and protocols
it will deploy from the voluntary technical standards that
are developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force
Main article: Interplanetary Internet
(IETF).[59] However, throughout its entire history, the
Internet system has had an Internet Assigned Numbers
The rst live Internet link into low earth orbit was estab- Authority (IANA) for the allocation and assignment of
lished on January 22, 2010 when astronaut T. J. Creamer various technical identiers needed for the operation of
posted the rst unassisted update to his Twitter account the Internet.[60] The Internet Corporation for Assigned
from the International Space Station, marking the exten- Names and Numbers (ICANN) provides oversight and
sion of the Internet into space.[54] (Astronauts at the ISS coordination for two principal name spaces in the Interhad used email and Twitter before, but these messages net, the Internet Protocol address space and the Domain
had been relayed to the ground through a NASA data link Name System.
before being posted by a human proxy.) This personal
Web access, which NASA calls the Crew Support LAN,
uses the space stations high-speed Ku band microwave 12.8.1 NIC, InterNIC, IANA and ICANN
link. To surf the Web, astronauts can use a station laptop
computer to control a desktop computer on Earth, and Main articles: InterNIC, Internet Assigned Numbers
they can talk to their families and friends on Earth using Authority and ICANN
Voice over IP equipment.[55]
Communication with spacecraft beyond earth orbit has
traditionally been over point-to-point links through the
Deep Space Network. Each such data link must be manually scheduled and congured. In the late 1990s NASA
and Google began working on a new network protocol,
Delay-tolerant networking (DTN) which automates this
process, allows networking of spaceborne transmission
nodes, and takes the fact into account that spacecraft

The IANA function was originally performed by USC Information Sciences Institute, and it delegated portions of
this responsibility with respect to numeric network and
autonomous system identiers to the Network Information Center (NIC) at Stanford Research Institute (SRI International) in Menlo Park, California. In addition to his
role as the RFC Editor, Jon Postel worked as the manager
of IANA until his death in 1998.

122
As the early ARPANET grew, hosts were referred to by
names, and a HOSTS.TXT le would be distributed from
SRI International to each host on the network. As the network grew, this became cumbersome. A technical solution came in the form of the Domain Name System, created by Paul Mockapetris. The Defense Data Network
Network Information Center (DDN-NIC) at SRI handled all registration services, including the top-level domains (TLDs) of .mil, .gov, .edu, .org, .net, .com and .us,
root nameserver administration and Internet number assignments under a United States Department of Defense
contract.[60] In 1991, the Defense Information Systems
Agency (DISA) awarded the administration and maintenance of DDN-NIC (managed by SRI up until this point)
to Government Systems, Inc., who subcontracted it to the
small private-sector Network Solutions, Inc.[61][62]
The increasing cultural diversity of the Internet also
posed administrative challenges for centralized management of the IP addresses. In October 1992, the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) published RFC 1366,[63]
which described the growth of the Internet and its increasing globalization and set out the basis for an evolution of the IP registry process, based on a regionally distributed registry model. This document stressed the need
for a single Internet number registry to exist in each geographical region of the world (which would be of continental dimensions). Registries would be unbiased and
widely recognized by network providers and subscribers
within their region. The RIPE Network Coordination
Centre (RIPE NCC) was established as the rst RIR in
May 1992. The second RIR, the Asia Pacic Network
Information Centre (APNIC), was established in Tokyo
in 1993, as a pilot project of the Asia Pacic Networking
Group.[64]

CHAPTER 12. HISTORY OF THE INTERNET

December 1997, as an independent, not-for-prot corporation by direction of the National Science Foundation
and became the third Regional Internet Registry.[66]
In 1998, both the IANA and remaining DNS-related InterNIC functions were reorganized under the control of
ICANN, a California non-prot corporation contracted
by the United States Department of Commerce to manage a number of Internet-related tasks. As these tasks
involved technical coordination for two principal Internet name spaces (DNS names and IP addresses) created by the IETF, ICANN also signed a memorandum
of understanding with the IAB to dene the technical
work to be carried out by the Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority.[67] The management of Internet address space
remained with the regional Internet registries, which collectively were dened as a supporting organization within
the ICANN structure.[68] ICANN provides central coordination for the DNS system, including policy coordination for the split registry / registrar system, with competition among registry service providers to serve each toplevel-domain and multiple competing registrars oering
DNS services to end-users.

12.8.2 Internet Engineering Task Force

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is the largest
and most visible of several loosely related ad-hoc groups
that provide technical direction for the Internet, including the Internet Architecture Board (IAB), the Internet
Engineering Steering Group (IESG), and the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF).
The IETF is a loosely self-organized group of international volunteers who contribute to the engineering and
evolution of Internet technologies. It is the principal
body engaged in the development of new Internet standard specications. Much of the IETFs work is done in
Working Groups. It does not run the Internet, despite
what some people might mistakenly say. The IETF does
make voluntary standards that are often adopted by Internet users, but it does not control, or even patrol, the
Internet.[69][70]

Since at this point in history most of the growth on the Internet was coming from non-military sources, it was decided that the Department of Defense would no longer
fund registration services outside of the .mil TLD. In
1993 the U.S. National Science Foundation, after a competitive bidding process in 1992, created the InterNIC to
manage the allocations of addresses and management of
the address databases, and awarded the contract to three
organizations. Registration Services would be provided
by Network Solutions; Directory and Database Services The IETF started in January 1986 as a quarterly meetwould be provided by AT&T; and Information Services ing of U.S. government funded researchers. Nongovernment representatives were invited starting with the
would be provided by General Atomics.[65]
fourth IETF meeting in October 1986. The concept of
Over time, after consultation with the IANA, the IETF, Working Groups was introduced at the fth IETF meetRIPE NCC, APNIC, and the Federal Networking Coun- ing in February 1987. The seventh IETF meeting in July
cil (FNC), the decision was made to separate the man- 1987 was the rst meeting with more than 100 attendees.
agement of domain names from the management of IP In 1992, the Internet Society, a professional membership
numbers.[64] Following the examples of RIPE NCC and society, was formed and IETF began to operate under
APNIC, it was recommended that management of IP ad- it as an independent international standards body. The
dress space then administered by the InterNIC should be rst IETF meeting outside of the United States was held
under the control of those that use it, specically the in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, in July 1993. Today
ISPs, end-user organizations, corporate entities, univer- the IETF meets three times a year and attendnce is ofsities, and individuals. As a result, the American Reg- ten about 1,300 people, but has been as high as 2,000
istry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) was established as in upon occasion. Typically one in three IETF meetings are

12.9. NET NEUTRALITY

123

held in Europe or Asia. The number of non-US atten- for which it is the organizational home: the Internet Endees is roughly 50%, even at meetings held in the United gineering Task Force (IETF), the Internet Architecture
States.[69]
Board (IAB), the Internet Engineering Steering Group
The IETF is unusual in that it exists as a collection of hap- (IESG), and the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF).
penings, but is not a corporation and has no board of di- ISOC also promotes understanding and appreciation of
processes and
rectors, no members, and no dues. The closest thing there the Internet model of open, transparent
[77]
consensus-based
decision
making.
is to being an IETF member is being on the IETF or a
Working Group mailing list. IETF volunteers come from
all over the world and from many dierent parts of the
Internet community. The IETF works closely with and
under the supervision of the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG)[71] and the Internet Architecture Board
(IAB).[72] The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) and
the Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG), peer activities to the IETF and IESG under the general supervision
of the IAB, focus on longer term research issues.[69][73]
Request for Comments
Request for Comments (RFCs) are the main documentation for the work of the IAB, IESG, IETF, and IRTF.
RFC 1, Host Software, was written by Steve Crocker at
UCLA in April 1969, well before the IETF was created.
Originally they were technical memos documenting aspects of ARPANET development and were edited by Jon
Postel, the rst RFC Editor.[69][74]
RFCs cover a wide range of information from proposed
standards, draft standards, full standards, best practices,
experimental protocols, history, and other informational
topics.[75] RFCs can be written by individuals or informal groups of individuals, but many are the product of
a more formal Working Group. Drafts are submitted to
the IESG either by individuals or by the Working Group
Chair. An RFC Editor, appointed by the IAB, separate
from IANA, and working in conjunction with the IESG,
receives drafts from the IESG and edits, formats, and
publishes them. Once an RFC is published, it is never revised. If the standard it describes changes or its information becomes obsolete, the revised standard or updated
information will be re-published as a new RFC that obsoletes the original.[69][74]

12.8.3

The Internet Society

The Internet Society (ISOC) is an international, nonprot

organization founded during 1992 to assure the open development, evolution and use of the Internet for the benet of all people throughout the world. With oces
near Washington, DC, USA, and in Geneva, Switzerland,
ISOC has a membership base comprising more than 80
organizational and more than 50,000 individual members. Members also form chapters based on either common geographical location or special interests. There are
currently more than 90 chapters around the world.[76]

12.8.4 Globalization and Internet governance in the 21st century

Since the 1990s, the Internets governance and organization has been of global importance to governments,
commerce, civil society, and individuals. The organizations which held control of certain technical aspects of
the Internet were the successors of the old ARPANET
oversight and the current decision-makers in the dayto-day technical aspects of the network. While recognized as the administrators of certain aspects of the Internet, their roles and their decision making authority are
limited and subject to increasing international scrutiny
and increasing objections. These objections have led to
the ICANN removing themselves from relationships with
rst the University of Southern California in 2000,[78] and
nally in September 2009, gaining autonomy from the US
government by the ending of its longstanding agreements,
although some contractual obligations with the U.S. Department of Commerce continued.[79][80][81]
The IETF, with nancial and organizational support from
the Internet Society, continues to serve as the Internets
ad-hoc standards body and issues Request for Comments.
In November 2005, the World Summit on the Information Society, held in Tunis, called for an Internet Governance Forum (IGF) to be convened by United Nations Secretary General. The IGF opened an ongoing,
non-binding conversation among stakeholders representing governments, the private sector, civil society, and the
technical and academic communities about the future of
Internet governance. The rst IGF meeting was held in
October/November 2006 with follow up meetings annually thereafter.[82] Since WSIS, the term Internet governance has been broadened beyond narrow technical concerns to include a wider range of Internet-related policy
issues.[83][84]

12.9 Net neutrality

Main article: Net neutrality

On April 23, 2014, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) was reported to be considering a new
rule that would permit Internet service providers to ofISOC provides nancial and organizational support to fer content providers a faster track to send content, thus
and promotes the work of the standards settings bodies reversing their earlier net neutrality position.[85][86][87]

124

CHAPTER 12. HISTORY OF THE INTERNET

A possible solution to net neutrality concerns may

be municipal broadband, according to Professor Susan Crawford, a legal and technology expert at Harvard
Law School.[88] On May 15, 2014, the FCC decided to
consider two options regarding Internet services: rst,
permit fast and slow broadband lanes, thereby compromising net neutrality; and second, reclassify broadband as a telecommunication service, thereby preserving
net neutrality.[89][90] On November 10, 2014, President
Obama recommended the FCC reclassify broadband Internet service as a telecommunications service in order to
preserve net neutrality.[91][92][93] On January 16, 2015,
Republicans presented legislation, in the form of a U.
S. Congress H. R. discussion draft bill, that makes concessions to net neutrality but prohibits the FCC from
accomplishing the goal or enacting any further regulation aecting Internet service providers (ISPs).[94][95]
On January 31, 2015, AP News reported the FCC will
present the notion of applying (with some caveats)
Title II (common carrier) of the Communications Act of
1934 to the internet in a vote expected on February 26,
2015.[96][97][98][99][100] Adoption of this notion would reclassify internet service from one of information to one of
telecommunications[101] and, according to Tom Wheeler,
chairman of the FCC, ensure net neutrality.[102][103]

12.10 Use and culture

Main article: Sociology of the Internet

12.10.1

Demographics

80
77*

70

73*

71
67
63

60

59

61

54

50

51
46
42

40
36

39*

38
33

30
24

20

0
1996

11
2
0

1998

23

21
18

17

10

7
2

2000

36*

30

31

8
3

11
4

2002

12
6

14
7

2004

16

15

26
18

28*

24

31*

21

12
9

2006

2008

2010

2014

2012

* Estimate

Internet users per 100 inhabitants

Source: International Telecommunications Union.[104][105]

Email has often been called the killer application of the

Internet. It actually predates the Internet and was a crucial tool in creating it. Email started in 1965 as a way
for multiple users of a time-sharing mainframe computer
to communicate. Although the history is undocumented,
among the rst systems to have such a facility were the
System Development Corporation (SDC) Q32 and the
Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS) at MIT.[106]
The ARPANET computer network made a large contribution to the evolution of electronic mail. An experimental inter-system transferred mail on the ARPANET
shortly after its creation.[107] In 1971 Ray Tomlinson created what was to become the standard Internet electronic
mail addressing format, using the @ sign to separate mailbox names from host names.[108]
A number of protocols were developed to deliver messages among groups of time-sharing computers over alternative transmission systems, such as UUCP and IBM's
VNET email system. Email could be passed this way
between a number of networks, including ARPANET,
BITNET and NSFNET, as well as to hosts connected directly to other sites via UUCP. See the history of SMTP
protocol.
In addition, UUCP allowed the publication of text les
that could be read by many others. The News software
developed by Steve Daniel and Tom Truscott in 1979
was used to distribute news and bulletin board-like messages. This quickly grew into discussion groups, known
as newsgroups, on a wide range of topics. On ARPANET
and NSFNET similar discussion groups would form via
mailing lists, discussing both technical issues and more
culturally focused topics (such as science ction, discussed on the sovers mailing list).
During the early years of the Internet, email and similar mechanisms were also fundamental to allow people
to access resources that were not available due to the absence of online connectivity. UUCP was often used to
distribute les using the 'alt.binary' groups. Also, FTP
e-mail gateways allowed people that lived outside the US
and Europe to download les using ftp commands written
inside email messages. The le was encoded, broken in
pieces and sent by email; the receiver had to reassemble
and decode it later, and it was the only way for people living overseas to download items such as the earlier Linux
versions using the slow dial-up connections available at
the time. After the popularization of the Web and the
HTTP protocol such tools were slowly abandoned.

See also: Global Internet usage

12.10.3 From Gopher to the WWW

12.10.2

Email and Usenet

Main articles: History of the World Wide Web and

World Wide Web

Main articles: e-mail, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

and Usenet
As the Internet grew through the 1980s and early 1990s,
many people realized the increasing need to be able to

12.10. USE AND CULTURE

nd and organize les and information. Projects such
as Archie, Gopher, WAIS, and the FTP Archive list attempted to create ways to organize distributed data. In
the early 1990s, Gopher, invented by Mark P. McCahill oered a viable alternative to the World Wide Web.
However, in 1993 the World Wide Web saw many advances to indexing and ease of access through search engines, which often neglected Gopher and Gopherspace.
As popularity increased through ease of use, investment incentives also grew until in the middle of 1994
the WWWs popularity gained the upper hand. Then it
became clear that Gopher and the other projects were
doomed fall short.[109]

125
High Performance Computing and Communication Act of
1991 also known as the Gore Bill.[116] Mosaics graphical
interface soon became more popular than Gopher, which
at the time was primarily text-based, and the WWW became the preferred interface for accessing the Internet.
(Gores reference to his role in creating the Internet,
however, was ridiculed in his presidential election campaign. See the full article Al Gore and information technology).
Mosaic was eventually superseded in 1994 by Andreessens Netscape Navigator, which replaced Mosaic as
the worlds most popular browser. While it held this title for some time, eventually competition from Internet
Explorer and a variety of other browsers almost completely displaced it. Another important event held on January 11, 1994, was The Superhighway Summit at UCLA's
Royce Hall. This was the rst public conference bringing together all of the major industry, government and
academic leaders in the eld [and] also began the national dialogue about the Information Superhighway and
its implications.[117]

One of the most promising user interface paradigms during this period was hypertext. The technology had been
inspired by Vannevar Bush's "Memex"[110] and developed
through Ted Nelson's research on Project Xanadu and
Douglas Engelbart's research on NLS.[111] Many small
self-contained hypertext systems had been created before, such as Apple Computers HyperCard (1987). Gopher became the rst commonly used hypertext interface
to the Internet. While Gopher menu items were examples 24 Hours in Cyberspace, the largest one-day online
of hypertext, they were not commonly perceived in that event (February 8, 1996) up to that date, took place
way.
on the then-active website, cyber24.com.[118][119] It was
headed by photographer Rick Smolan.[120] A photographic exhibition was unveiled at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American History on January 23, 1997, featuring 70 photos from the project.[121]

12.10.4 Search engines

Main article: Search engine (computing)
Even before the World Wide Web, there were search en-

This NeXT Computer was used by Sir Tim Berners-Lee at CERN

and became the worlds rst Web server.

In 1989, while working at CERN, Tim Berners-Lee invented a network-based implementation of the hypertext
concept. By releasing his invention to public use, he
ensured the technology would become widespread.[112]
For his work in developing the World Wide Web,
Berners-Lee received the Millennium technology prize in
2004.[113] One early popular web browser, modeled after
Search engines can be considered to be the last layer of technolHyperCard, was ViolaWWW.
A turning point for the World Wide Web began with
the introduction[114] of the Mosaic web browser[115] in
1993, a graphical browser developed by a team at the
National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (NCSAUIUC), led by Marc Andreessen. Funding for Mosaic
came from the High-Performance Computing and Communications Initiative, a funding program initiated by the

ogy that turned the Internet into the extremely useful tool that it is
today.

gines that attempted to organize the Internet. The rst

of these was the Archie search engine from McGill University in 1990, followed in 1991 by WAIS and Gopher.
All three of those systems predated the invention of the
World Wide Web but all continued to index the Web and
the rest of the Internet for several years after the Web

126

CHAPTER 12. HISTORY OF THE INTERNET

appeared. There are still Gopher servers as of 2006, al- Wide Area Information Server (WAIS) in 1991, Gopher
though there are a great many more web servers.
in 1991, Archie in 1991, Veronica in 1992, Jughead in
As the Web grew, search engines and Web directories 1993, Internet Relay Chat (IRC) in 1988, and eventually
were created to track pages on the Web and allow peo- the World Wide Web (WWW) in 1991 with Web direcple to nd things. The rst full-text Web search engine tories and Web search engines.
was WebCrawler in 1994. Before WebCrawler, only Web
page titles were searched. Another early search engine,
Lycos, was created in 1993 as a university project, and
was the rst to achieve commercial success. During the
late 1990s, both Web directories and Web search engines
were popularYahoo! (founded 1994) and Altavista
(founded 1995) were the respective industry leaders. By
August 2001, the directory model had begun to give way
to search engines, tracking the rise of Google (founded
1998), which had developed new approaches to relevancy
ranking. Directory features, while still commonly available, became after-thoughts to search engines.
Database size, which had been a signicant marketing
feature through the early 2000s, was similarly displaced
by emphasis on relevancy ranking, the methods by which
search engines attempt to sort the best results rst. Relevancy ranking rst became a major issue circa 1996,
when it became apparent that it was impractical to review full lists of results. Consequently, algorithms for
relevancy ranking have continuously improved. Googles
PageRank method for ordering the results has received
the most press, but all major search engines continually
rene their ranking methodologies with a view toward improving the ordering of results. As of 2006, search engine
rankings are more important than ever, so much so that
an industry has developed ("search engine optimizers",
or SEO) to help web-developers improve their search
ranking, and an entire body of case law has developed
around matters that aect search engine rankings, such as
use of trademarks in metatags. The sale of search rankings by some search engines has also created controversy
among librarians and consumer advocates.[122]
On June 3, 2009, Microsoft launched its new search
engine, Bing.[123] The following month Microsoft and
Yahoo! announced a deal in which Bing would power
Yahoo! Search.[124]

12.10.5

File sharing

Main articles: File sharing, Peer-to-peer le sharing and

Timeline of le sharing

In 1999, Napster became the rst peer-to-peer le sharing system.[126] Napster used a central server for indexing and peer discovery, but the storage and transfer of les was decentralized. A variety of peer-to-peer
le sharing programs and services with dierent levels
of decentralization and anonymity followed, including:
Gnutella, eDonkey2000, and Freenet in 2000, FastTrack,
Kazaa, Limewire, and BitTorrent in 2001, and Poisoned
in 2003.[127]
All of these tools are general purpose and can be used
to share a wide variety of content, but sharing of music les, software, and later movies and videos are major uses.[128] And while some of this sharing is legal,
large portions are not. Lawsuits and other legal actions
caused Napster in 2001, eDonkey2000 in 2005, Kazza
in 2006, and Limewire in 2010 to shutdown or refocus
their eorts.[129][130] The Pirate Bay, founded in Sweden
in 2003, continues despite a trial and appeal in 2009 and
2010 that resulted in jail terms and large nes for several
of its founders.[131] File sharing remains contentious and
controversial with charges of theft of intellectual property on the one hand and charges of censorship on the
other.[132][133]

12.10.6 Dot-com bubble

Main article: Dot-com bubble
Suddenly the low price of reaching millions worldwide,
and the possibility of selling to or hearing from those
people at the same moment when they were reached,
promised to overturn established business dogma in advertising, mail-order sales, customer relationship management, and many more areas. The web was a new killer
appit could bring together unrelated buyers and sellers
in seamless and low-cost ways. Entrepreneurs around the
world developed new business models, and ran to their
nearest venture capitalist. While some of the new entrepreneurs had experience in business and economics,
the majority were simply people with ideas, and did not
manage the capital inux prudently. Additionally, many
dot-com business plans were predicated on the assumption that by using the Internet, they would bypass the distribution channels of existing businesses and therefore not
have to compete with them; when the established businesses with strong existing brands developed their own Internet presence, these hopes were shattered, and the newcomers were left attempting to break into markets dominated by larger, more established businesses. Many did
not have the ability to do so.

Resource or le sharing has been an important activity

on computer networks from well before the Internet was
established and was supported in a variety of ways including bulletin board systems (1978), Usenet (1980),
Kermit (1981), and many others. The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) for use on the Internet was standardized in
1985 and is still in use today.[125] A variety of tools
were developed to aid the use of FTP by helping users
discover les they might want to transfer, including the The dot-com bubble burst in March 2000, with the tech-

12.12. SEE ALSO

nology heavy NASDAQ Composite index peaking at
5,048.62 on March 10[134] (5,132.52 intraday), more than
double its value just a year before. By 2001, the bubbles
deation was running full speed. A majority of the dotcoms had ceased trading, after having burnt through their
venture capital and IPO capital, often without ever making a prot. But despite this, the Internet continues to
grow, driven by commerce, ever greater amounts of online information and knowledge and social networking.

12.10.7

Mobile phones and the Internet

See also: Mobile Web

The rst mobile phone with Internet connectivity was
the Nokia 9000 Communicator, launched in Finland in
1996. The viability of Internet services access on mobile phones was limited until prices came down from that
model and network providers started to develop systems
and services conveniently accessible on phones. NTT DoCoMo in Japan launched the rst mobile Internet service, i-mode, in 1999 and this is considered the birth
of the mobile phone Internet services. In 2001, the mobile phone email system by Research in Motion for their
BlackBerry product was launched in America. To make
ecient use of the small screen and tiny keypad and onehanded operation typical of mobile phones, a specic
document and networking model was created for mobile
devices, the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP). Most
mobile device Internet services operate using WAP. The
growth of mobile phone services was initially a primarily
Asian phenomenon with Japan, South Korea and Taiwan
all soon nding the majority of their Internet users accessing resources by phone rather than by PC. Developing countries followed, with India, South Africa, Kenya,
Philippines, and Pakistan all reporting that the majority
of their domestic users accessed the Internet from a mobile phone rather than a PC. The European and North
American use of the Internet was inuenced by a large
installed base of personal computers, and the growth of
mobile phone Internet access was more gradual, but had
reached national penetration levels of 2030% in most
Western countries.[135] The cross-over occurred in 2008,
when more Internet access devices were mobile phones
than personal computers. In many parts of the developing world, the ratio is as much as 10 mobile phone users
to one PC user.[136]

12.11 Historiography
Some concerns have been raised over the historiography
of the Internets development. The process of digitization
represents a twofold challenge both for historiography in
general and, in particular, for historical communication
research.[137] Specically that it is hard to nd documen-

127
tation of much of the Internets development, for several
reasons, including a lack of centralized documentation
for much of the early developments that led to the Internet.
The Arpanet period is somewhat well
documented because the corporation in charge
BBN left a physical record. Moving into
the NSFNET era, it became an extraordinarily
decentralized process. The record exists in
peoples basements, in closets. [...] So much
of what happened was done verbally and on
the basis of individual trust.
Doug Gale (2007)[138]

12.12 See also

Index of Internet-related articles
Outline of the Internet
History of hypertext
History of the Internet in Sweden
History of the web browser
Net neutrality
On the Internet, nobody knows you're a dog

12.13 Notes
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[137] Christoph Classen, Susanne Kinnebrock & Maria Lblich

(Eds.): Towards Web History: Sources, Methods, and
[120] 24 Hours in Cyberspace (and more)". Baychi.org. ReChallenges in the Digital Age. In Historical Social Retrieved May 28, 2009.
search 37 (4): 97188. 2012.
[121] The human face of cyberspace, painted in random im- [138] Barras, Colin (August 23, 2007). An Internet Pioneer
ages. Archive.southcoasttoday.com. Retrieved May 28,
Ponders the Next Revolution. Illuminating the nets Dark
2009.
Ages. Retrieved February 26, 2008.
[122] Stross, Randall (22 September 2009). Planet Google:
One Companys Audacious Plan to Organize Everything We
Know. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4165-4696-2.
Retrieved 9 December 2012.
[123] Microsofts New Search at Bing.com Helps People Make
Better Decisions: Decision Engine goes beyond search
to help customers deal with information overload (Press
Release)". Microsoft News Center. May 28, 2009. Retrieved May 29, 2009.
[124] Microsoft and Yahoo seal web deal, BBC Mobile News,
July 29, 2009.
[125] RFC 765: File Transfer Protocol (FTP), J. Postel and J.
Reynolds, ISI, October 1985
[126] Kenneth P. Birman (2005-03-25). Reliable Distributed
Systems: Technologies, Web Services, and Applications. Springer-Verlag New York Incorporated. ISBN
9780387215099. Retrieved 2012-01-20.

12.14 References
Abbate, Janet. Inventing the Internet, Cambridge:
MIT Press, 1999.
Bemer, Bob, A History of Source Concepts for the
Internet/Web
Campbell-Kelly, Martin;
Aspray, William.
Computer: A History of the Information Machine.
New York: BasicBooks, 1996.
Clark, D. (1988). The Design Philosophy of
the DARPA Internet Protocols.
SIGCOMM
'88 Symposium proceedings on Communications
architectures and protocols (ACM): 106114.
doi:10.1145/52324.52336.
ISBN 0897912799.
Retrieved 2011-10-16.

[127] Menta, Richard (July 20, 2001). Napster Clones Crush

Napster. Take 6 out of the Top 10 Downloads on CNet.
MP3 Newswire.

Graham, Ian S. The HTML Sourcebook: The Complete Guide to HTML. New York: John Wiley and
Sons, 1995.

[128] Movie File-Sharing Booming: Study, Solutions Research

Group, Toronto, 24 January 2006

Krol, Ed. Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet, 1987.

[129] Menta, Richard (December 9, 1999). RIAA Sues Music

Startup Napster for $20 Billion. MP3 Newswire.

Krol, Ed. Whole Internet Users Guide and Catalog.

O'Reilly & Associates, 1992.

[130] EFF: What Peer-to-Peer Developers Need to Know

about Copyright Law. W2.e.org. Retrieved 2012-0120.
[131] Kobie, Nicole (November 26, 2010). Pirate Bay trio lose
appeal against jail sentences. pcpro.co.uk (PCPRO). Retrieved November 26, 2010.
[132] Poll: Young Say File Sharing OK, Bootie CosgroveMather, CBS News, 11 February 2009
[133] Green, Stuart P. (29 March 2012). OP-ED CONTRIBUTOR; When Stealing Isn't Stealing. The New York
Times. p. 27.
[134] Nasdaq peak of 5,048.62
[135] Susmita Dasgupta; Somik V. Lall; David Wheeler (2001).
Policy Reform, Economic Growth, and the Digital Divide:
An Econometric Analysis. World Bank Publications. pp.
13. GGKEY:YLS5GEUEBAR. Retrieved 11 February
2013.
[136] Hillebrand, Friedhelm (2002). Hillebrand, Friedhelm, ed.
GSM and UMTS, The Creation of Global Mobile Communications. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-470-84322-5.

Scientic American Special Issue on Communications, Computers, and Networks, September 1991.

12.15 External links

Thomas Greene, Larry James Landweber, George
Strawn (2003). A Brief History of NSF and the
Internet. National Science Foundation. Retrieved
May 28, 2009.
Robert H Zakon. Hobbes Internet Timeline
v10.1. Retrieved July 23, 2010.
Principal Figures in the Development of the Internet and the World Wide Web. University of North
Carolina. Retrieved July 3, 2006.
Internet History Timeline. Computer History
Museum. Retrieved November 25, 2005.
Marcus Kazmierczak (September 24, 1997).
Internet History. Archived from the original on
October 31, 2005. Retrieved November 25, 2005.

132
Harri K. Salminen. History of the Internet.
Heureka Science Center, Finland. Retrieved June
11, 2008.
Histories of the Internet. Internet Society. Retrieved December 1, 2007.
Living Internet. Retrieved January 1, 2009. Internet History with input from many of the people
who helped invent the Internet
Voice of America: Overhearing the Internet ,
Robert Wright, The New Republic, September 13,
1993
How the Internet Came to Be, by Vinton Cerf,
1993
Cybertelecom :: Internet History, focusing on the
governmental, legal, and policy history of the Internet
History of the Internet, an animated documentary from 2009 explaining the inventions from timesharing to lesharing, from Arpanet to Internet
The Roads and Crossroads of Internet History, by
Gregory R. Gromov
The History of the Internet According to Itself: A
Synthesis of Online Internet Histories Available at the
Turn of the Century, Steven E. Opfer, 1999
Fool Us Once Shame on YouFool Us Twice
Shame on Us: What We Can Learn from the Privatizations of the Internet Backbone Network and the
Domain Name System, Jay P. Kesan and Rajiv C.
Shah, Washington University Law Review, Volume
79, Issue 1 (2001)
How It All Started (slides), Tim Berners-Lee,
W3C, December 2004
A Little History of the World Wide Web: from
1945 to 1995, Dan Connolly, W3C, 2000
The World Wide Web: Past, Present and Future,
Tim Berners-Lee, August 1996
The History of the Internet 1969 - 2012. AVG
Technologies. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
The History of the Internet in a Nutshell.
Cameron Chapman, Six Revisions. November 15,
2009. Retrieved October 29, 2013.
The History of the Internet. YouTube. Melih Bilgil. January 4, 2009. Retrieved October 29, 2013.
(video)

CHAPTER 12. HISTORY OF THE INTERNET

Chapter 13

History of laptops
Before laptop/notebook computers were technically feasible, similar ideas had been proposed, most notably Alan
Kay's Dynabook concept, developed at Xerox PARC in
the early 1970s. What was probably the rst portable
computer was the Xerox NoteTaker, again developed at
Xerox PARC, in 1976. However, only 10 prototypes
were built.

13.1 Osborne1

13.2 Bondwell 2
Although it wasn't released until 1985, well after the decline of CP/M as a major operating system, the Bondwell
2 is one of only a handful of CP/M laptops. It used a Z80 CPU running at 4 MHz, had 64 K RAM and, unusual
for a CP/M machine, a 3.5 oppy disk drive built in. It
had an 8025 character-based LCD mounted on a hinge
similar to modern laptops, one of the rst computers to
use this form factor.

13.3 Other CP/M laptops

The other CP/M laptops were the Epson PX-4 (or HX40) and PX-8 (Geneva), the NEC PC-8401A, and the
NEC PC-8500. These four units, however, utilized modied CP/M systems in ROM, and did not come standard
with any oppy or hard disks.

13.4 Compaq Portable

A more enduring success was the Compaq Portable, the
rst product from Compaq, introduced in 1983, by which
time the IBM Personal Computer had become the standard platform. Although scarcely more portable than
the Osborne machines, and also requiring AC power to
run, it ran MS-DOS and was the rst true legal IBM
clone (IBMs own later Portable Computer, which arrived
An opened Osborne 1 computer, ready for use. The keyboard
in
1984, was notably less IBM PC-compatible than the
sits on the inside of the lid.
Compaq.) The third model of this development, Compaq Portable II, featured high resolution graphics on its
The rst mass-produced microprocessor-based portable tube display. It was the rst portable computer ready to be
computer was the Osborne 1 in 1981, which used the used on the shop oor, and for CAD and diagram display.
CP/M operating system. Although it was large and heavy It established Compaq as a major brand on the market.
compared to todays laptops, with a tiny 5 CRT monitor,
it had a near-revolutionary impact on business, as professionals were able to take their computer and data with
them for the rst time. This and other luggables were 13.5 Epson HX-20
inspired by what was probably the rst portable computer,
the Xerox NoteTaker. The Osborne was about the size of Another signicant machine announced in 1981, ala portable sewing machine, and more importantly, could though rst sold widely in 1983, was the Epson HX-20.
not be carried on commercial aircraft.
A simple handheld computer, it featured a full-transit 68133

134

CHAPTER 13. HISTORY OF LAPTOPS

key keyboard, rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries, a 13.9 Tandy Model 100

small (12032-pixel) dot-matrix LCD display with 4 lines
of text, 20 characters per line text mode, a 24 column dot The TRS-80 Model 100 was an early portable computer
matrix printer, a Microsoft BASIC interpreter, and 16 introduced in 1983. It was one of the rst notebook-style
KB of RAM (expandable to 32 KB).
computers, featuring a keyboard and LCD display, battery powered, in a package roughly the size and shape of
notepad or large book.

13.6 GRiD Compass

It was made by Kyocera, and originally sold in Japan as

the Kyotronic 85. Although a slow seller for Kyocera, the
rights to the machine were purchased by Tandy Corporation, and the computer was sold through Radio Shack
stores in the United States and Canada as well as aliated dealers in other countries, becoming one of the companys most popular models, with over 6,000,000 units
sold worldwide. The Olivetti M-10 and the NEC PC8201 and PC-8300 were also built on the same Kyocera
platform.

However, arguably the rst true laptop was the GRiD

Compass 1101, designed by Bill Moggridge in 19791980, and released in 1982. Enclosed in a magnesium
case, it introduced the now familiar clamshell design, in
which the at display folded shut against the keyboard.
The computer could be run from batteries, and was
equipped with a 320200-pixel electroluminescent display and 384 kilobyte bubble memory. It was not IBMcompatible, and its high price (US$8,00010,000) limited it to specialized applications. However, it was used
heavily by the U.S. military, and by NASA on the Space
Shuttle during the 1980s. The GRiDs manufacturer sub- 13.10 Sharp and Gavilan
sequently earned signicant returns on its patent rights
as its innovations became commonplace. GRiD Systems Two other noteworthy early laptops were the Sharp PCCorp. was later bought by the Tandy (now RadioShack) 5000 and the Gavilan SC, announced in 1983 but rst
sold in 1984. The Gavilan was notably the rst computer
Corporation.
to be marketed as a laptop. It was also equipped with a
pioneering touchpad-like pointing device, installed on a
above the keyboard. Like the GRiD Compass, the
13.7 Dulmont
Mag- panel
Gavilan and the Sharp were housed in clamshell cases,
num/Kookaburra
but they were partly IBM-compatible, although primarily running their own system software. Both had LCD
Another contender for the rst true laptop was the displays, and could connect to optional external printers.
Dulmont Magnum, designed Barry Wilkinson and Terry The Dulmont Magnum, launched internationally in 1984,
Crews Engineering Manager at Dulmison in 1982 and was an Australian portable similar in layout to the Gavi[2]
released in Australia in 1983 It included an 8x80 dis- lan, which used the Intel 80186 processor.
play in a lid that closed against the keyboard. It was
based on the MS-DOS operating system and applications
stored in ROM (A:) and also supported removable mod- 13.11 Kyotronic 85
ules in expansion slots (B: and C:) that could be custom
programmed EPROM or standard word processing and
spreadsheet applications. However, the Magnum had no The year 1983 also saw the launch of what was probably
nonvolatile memory, but could suspend and retain mem- the biggest-selling early laptop, the Kyocera Kyotronic
ory in RAM, including a RAM Disk (D:). A separate 85. Owing much to the design of the previous Epson
expansion box provided dual 5.25 oppy or 10MB hard HX-20, and although at rst a slow seller in Japan, it
disk storage. Dulmont was eventually taken over by Time was quickly licensed by Tandy Corporation, Olivetti, and
Oce Computers, who marketed the Magnum interna- NEC, who recognised its potential and marketed it retionally in 16 and 25 line LCD versions, and also intro- spectively as the TRS-80 Model 100[3]line (or Tandy 100),
duced the brandname Kookaburra to emphasize its Aus- Olivetti M-10, and NEC PC-8201. The machines ran
on standard AA batteries. The Tandys built-in programs,
tralian origins.
including a BASIC interpreter, a text editor, and a terminal program, were supplied by Microsoft, and was written in part by Bill Gates himself. The computer was not
13.8 Ampere
a clamshell, but provided a tiltable 8 line 40-character
LCD screen above a full-travel keyboard. With its inThe Ampere,[1] a sleek clamshell design by Ryu Oosake, ternal modem, it was a highly portable communications
also made in 1983. It oered a MC68008 microproces- terminal. Due to its portability, good battery life (and
sor dedicated to running an APL interpreter residing in ease of replacement), reliability (it had no moving parts),
ROM.
and low price (as little as US$300), the model was highly

13.16. US AIR FORCE

regarded, becoming a favorite among journalists. It
weighed less than 2 kg with dimensions of 3021.54.5
centimeters (1281 in). Initial specications included 8 kilobytes of RAM (expandable to 24 KB) and a
3 MHz processor. The machine was in fact about the size
of a paper notebook, but the term had yet to come into
use and it was generally described as a portable computer.

13.12 Commodore SX-64

The Commodore SX-64, also known as the Executive 64, or VIP-64 in Europe, was a portable, briefcase or suitcase-size luggable version of the popular
Commodore 64 home computer, and was the rst fullcolor portable computer.[4]
The SX-64 featured a built-in ve-inch composite monitor and a built-in 1541 oppy drive. It weighed 20
pounds. The machine was carried by its sturdy handle,
which doubled as an adjustable stand. It was announced
in January 1983 and released a year later, at $995 USD.[5]

13.13 Kaypro 2000

Possibly the rst commercial IBM-compatible laptop was
the Kaypro 2000, introduced in 1985. With its brushed
aluminum clamshell case, it was remarkably similar in design to modern laptops. It featured a 25 line by 80 character LCD display, a detachable keyboard, and a pop-up
90 mm (3.5 inch) oppy drive.

135
be run from lead-acid batteries. They also introduced the
now-standard "resume" feature to DOS-based machines:
the computer could be paused between sessions without
having to be restarted each time.

13.16 US Air Force

The rst laptops successful on a large scale came in large
part due to a Request For Proposal (RFP) by the U.S.
Air Force in 1987. This contract would eventually lead
to the purchase of over 200,000 laptops. Competition to
supply this contract was ercely contested and the major
PC companies of the time; IBM Corporation, Toshiba,
Compaq, NEC, and Zenith Data Systems (ZDS), rushed
to develop laptops in an attempt to win this deal. ZDS,
which had earlier won a landmark deal with the IRS for
its Z-171, was awarded this contract for its SupersPort series. The SupersPort series was originally launched with
an Intel 8086 processor, dual oppy disk drives, a backlit,
blue and white STN LCD screen, and a NiCd battery
pack. Later models featured an Intel 80286 processor
and a 20 MB hard disk drive. On the strength of this
deal, ZDS became the worlds largest laptop supplier in
1987 and 1988. ZDS partnered with Tottori Sanyo in
the design and manufacturing of these laptops. This relationship is notable because it was the rst deal between a
major brand and an Asian original equipment manufacturer.

13.17 Hewlett-Packard
Portable CS

Vectra

13.14 IBM PC Convertible

In 1987, HP released a portable version of their Vectra

CS computer.[7] It had the classic laptop conguration
Also among the rst commercial IBM-compatible laptops (keyboard and monitor closes up clam-shell style in orwas the IBM PC Convertible, introduced in 1986. It had der to carry), however, it was very heavy and fairly large.
a CGA-compatible LCD display and 2 oppy drives. It It had a full-size keyboard (with separate numeric keyweighed 13 lbs.
pad) and a large amber LCD screen. While it was oered
with dual 3.5-inch oppy disk drives, the most common
conguration was a 20 MB hard drive and a single oppy
13.15 Toshiba T1100, T1000, and drive. It was one of the rst machines with a 1.44 MB
density 3.5-inch disk drive.

T1200

Toshiba launched the Toshiba T1100 in 1985, and has

subsequently described it as "the worlds rst mass-market
laptop computer".[6] It did not have a hard drive, and ran
entirely from oppy disks. The CPU was a 4.77 MHz
Intel 80C88, a variation of the popular Intel 8088, and the
display was a monochrome, text-only 640x200 LCD. It
was followed in 1987 by the T1000 and T1200. Although
limited oppy-based DOS machines, with the operating
system stored in ROM, the Toshiba models were small
and light enough to be carried in a backpack, and could

13.18 Cambridge Z88

Another notable computer was the Cambridge Z88, designed by Clive Sinclair, introduced in 1988. About the
size of an A4 sheet of paper as well, it ran on standard
batteries, and contained basic spreadsheet, word processing, and communications programs. It anticipated the
future miniaturization of the portable computer, and as
a ROM-based machine with a small display, can like

136

CHAPTER 13. HISTORY OF LAPTOPS

the TRS-80 Model 100 also be seen as a forerunner of praised for its clear active matrix display and long battery
the personal digital assistant.
life, but was a poor seller due to its bulk. In the absence of
a true Apple laptop, several compatible machines such as
the Outbound Laptop were available for Mac users; however, for copyright reasons, the user had to supply a set of
13.19 Compaq SLT/286
Mac ROMs, which usually meant having to buy a new or
used Macintosh as well.
By the end of the 1980s, laptop computers were becoming popular among business people. The COMPAQ SLT/286 debuted in October 1988, being the rst
battery-powered laptop to support an internal hard disk
drive and a VGA compatible LCD screen. It weighed 14 13.21.2 Powerbook
lbs.[8]
The Apple PowerBook series, introduced in October
1991, pioneered changes that are now de facto standards
13.20 NEC UltraLite
on laptops, such as room for a palm rest, and the inclusion
of a pointing device (a trackball). The following year,
The NEC UltraLite, released in mid-1989, was perhaps IBM released its ThinkPad 700C, featuring a similar dethe rst notebook computer, weighing just 2 kg (4.4 lbs). sign (though with a distinctive red TrackPoint pointing
In lieu of a oppy or hard drive, it contained a 2 megabyte device).
RAM drive, but this reduced its utility as well as its Later PowerBooks featured optional color displays
size. Although portable computers with clamshell LCD (PowerBook 165c, 1993), and rst true touchpad
screens already existed before it, the Ultralite was the rst (PowerBook 500 series, 1994), rst 16-bit stereo audio,
computer in a notebook form-factor. It was signicantly and rst built-in Ethernet network adapter (PowerBook
smaller than all portable computers that came before it. 500, 1994).
People can actually carry-it like a notebook and fold its
clamshell LCD like a book cover over the rest of its body.

13.21 Apple

13.22 IBM RS/6000 N40

13.21.1

In 1994, IBM released the RS/6000 N40 laptop based

on a PowerPC microprocessor running the AIX operating system, a variant of UNIX. It was manufactured by
Tadpole Technology (now Tadpole Computer), who also
manufactured laptops based on SPARC and Alpha microprocessors, the SPARCbook and ALPHAbook lines,
respectively.

Macintosh Portable

13.23 Windows 95 operating system

The Macintosh Portable, Apples rst attempt at a batterypowered computer

The rst Apple Computer machine designed to be used

on the go was the 1989 Macintosh Portable (although
an LCD screen had been an option for the transportable
Apple IIc in 1984). Unlike the Compaq LTE laptop released earlier in the year the Macintosh Portable was actually a luggable not a laptop, but the Mac Portable was

The summer of 1995 was a signicant turning point in

the history of notebook computing. In August of that
year Microsoft introduced Windows 95. It was the rst
time that Microsoft had implemented the advanced power
management specication with control in the operating
system. Prior to this point each brand used custom BIOS,
drivers and in some cases, ASICs, to optimize the battery
life of its machines. This move by Microsoft was controversial in the eyes of notebook designers because it greatly
reduced their ability to innovate; however, it did serve its
role in simplifying and stabilizing certain aspects of notebook design.

13.25. IMPROVED TECHNOLOGY

13.24 Intel Pentium processor

Windows 95 also ushered in the importance of the CDROM drive in mobile computing, and initiated the shift
to the Intel Pentium processor as the base platform for
notebooks. The Gateway Solo was the rst notebook introduced with a Pentium processor and a CD-ROM. Also
featuring a removable hard disk drive and oppy drive,
the Solo was the rst three-spindle (optical, oppy, and
hard disk drive) notebook computer, and was extremely
successful within the consumer segment of the market. In
roughly the same time period the Dell Latitude, Toshiba
Satellite, and IBM ThinkPad were reaching great success
with Pentium-based two-spindle (hard disk and oppy
disk drive) systems directed toward the corporate market.

13.25 Improved technology

A 1997 Micron laptop

Early laptop displays were so primitive that PC Magazine in 1986 published an article discussing them with
the headline Is It On Yet?". It said of the accompanying montage of nine portable computers, Pictured at the
right are two screens and seven elongated smudges. The
article stated that LCD screens still look to many observers like Etch-a-Sketch toys, or gray chalk on a dirty
blackboard, and predicted that until displays improved,
laptops will continue to be a niche rather than a mainstream direction.[9] As technology improved during the
1990s, the usefulness and popularity of laptops increased.
Correspondingly prices went down. Several developments specic to laptops were quickly implemented, improving usability and performance. Among them were:
Improved battery technology. The heavy lead-acid
batteries were replaced with lighter and more ecient technologies, rst nickel cadmium or NiCd,
then nickel metal hydride (NiMH) and then lithium
ion battery and lithium polymer.

137
Power-saving processors. While laptops in 1991
were limited to the 80286 processor because of the
energy demands of the more powerful 80386, the
introduction of the Intel 386SL processor, designed
for the specic power needs of laptops, marked the
point at which laptop needs were included in CPU
design. The 386SL integrated a 386SX core with a
memory controller and this was paired with an I/O
chip to create the SL chipset. It was more integrated than any previous solution although its cost
was higher. It was heavily adopted by the major
notebook brands of the time. Intel followed this with
the 486SL chipset which used the same architecture.
However, Intel had to abandon this design approach
as it introduced its Pentium series. Early versions of
the mobile Pentium required TAB mounting (also
used in LCD manufacturing) and this initially limited the number of companies capable of supplying
notebooks. However, Intel did eventually migrate
to more standard chip packaging. One limitation of
notebooks has always been the diculty in upgrading the processor which is a common attribute of
desktops. Intel did try to solve this problem with
the introduction of the MMC for mobile computing. The MMC was a standard module upon which
the CPU and external cache memory could sit. It
gave the notebook buyer the potential to upgrade his
CPU at a later date, eased the manufacturing process
somewhat, and was also used in some cases to skirt
U.S. import duties as the CPU could be added to the
chassis after it arrived in the U.S. Intel stuck with
MMC for a few generations but ultimately could not
maintain the appropriate speed and data integrity to
the memory subsystem through the MMC connector. A more specialized power saving CPU variant for laptops is the PowerPC 603 family.[10] Derived from IBMs 601 series for laptops (while the
604 branch was for desktops), it found itself used on
many low end Apple desktops before it was wildly
used in laptops, starting with PowerBook models
5300, 2400, 500 upgrades. Ironically, what started
out as a laptop processor was eventually used across
all platforms in its follow up PPC 750.
Improved liquid crystal displays, in particular activematrix TFT (Thin-Film Transistor) LCD technology. Early laptop screens were black and white,
blue and white, or grayscale, STN (Super Twist Nematic) passive-matrix LCDs prone to heavy shadows, ghosting and blurry movement (some portable
computer screens were sharper monochrome plasma
displays, but these drew too much current to be powered by batteries). Color STN screens were used
for some time although their viewing quality was
poor. By about 1991, two new color LCD technologies hit the mainstream market in a big way;
Dual STN and TFT. The Dual STN screens solved
many of the viewing problems of STN at a very af-

138

CHAPTER 13. HISTORY OF LAPTOPS

fordable price and the TFT screens oered excellent
an integrated video camera for video commuviewing quality although initially at a steep price.
nication
DSTN continued to oer a signicant cost advan a ngerprint sensor for implementing a restrictage over TFT until the mid-90s before the cost
tion of access to a sensitive data or the comdelta dropped to the point that DSTN was no longer
puter itself.
used in notebooks. Improvements in production
technology meant displays became larger, sharper,
had higher native resolutions, faster response time
and could display color with great accuracy, making 13.26 Netbooks
them an acceptable substitute for a traditional CRT
monitor.
Main article: Netbook
In June 2007 Asus announced the Eee PC 701 to be released in October, a small lightweight x86 Celeron-M
ULV 353 powered laptop with 4 GB SDHC disk and a 7
inch screen.[11] Despite previous attempts to launch small
lightweight computers such as ultra-portable PC, the Eee
was the rst success story largely due to its low cost, small
size, low weight and versatility. The term 'Netbook' was
later dubbed by Intel. Asus then extended the Eee line
with models with features such as a 9 inch screen and
other brands including Acer, MSI and Dell followed suit
with similar devices, often built on the edgling lowpower Intel Atom processor architecture.

13.27 Smartbooks
OLPC XO-1 laptop in Ebook-Mode.

Main article: Smartbook

In 2009, Qualcomm introduced a new term smartbook,

Improved storage technology. Early laptops and which stands for a hybrid device between smartphone and
[12]
portables had only oppy disk drives. As thin, high- laptop.
capacity hard disk drives with higher reliability and
shock resistance and lower power consumption became available, users could store their work on lap- 13.28 See also
top computers and take it with them. The 3.5
HDD was created initially as a response to the needs
Timeline of portable computers
of notebook designers that needed smaller, lower
power consumption products. With continuing pressure to shrink the notebook size even further, the
2.5 HDD was introduced. One Laptop Per Child 13.29 References
(OLPC) and other new laptops use Flash RAM (non
volatile, non mechanical memory device) instead of [1] Bob Armstrong, http://cosy.com/language/cosyhard/
cosyhard.htm
the mechanical hard disk.
Improved connectivity. Internal modems and standard serial, parallel, and PS/2 ports on IBM PCcompatible laptops made it easier to work away from
home; the addition of network adapters and, from
1997, USB, as well as, from 1999, Wi-Fi, made
laptops as easy to use with peripherals as a desktop computer. Many newer laptops are also available with built-in 3G Broadband wireless modems.
Other peripherals may include:

[2] OLD-COMPUTERS.COM : The Museum

[3] See TRS-80 Model 100 / 102 at old-computers.com
[4] Commodore SX-64 Portable
[5] Commodore SX-64 portable computer
[6] Toshiba-Asia.com, May 2005
[7] . HP Computer Museum http://www.hpmuseum.net/
display_item.php?hw=219. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
Missing or empty |title= (help)

13.30. FURTHER READING

[8] Lewis, Peter H. (October 23, 1988). THE EXECUTIVE

COMPUTER; Compaq Finally Makes a Laptop. The
New York Times.
[9] Somerson, Paul (July 1986). Is It On Yet?". PC. pp.
122123. Retrieved 9 January 2015.
[10] http://www-03.ibm.com/systems/p/hardware/
whitepapers/power/ppc_603.html
[11] http://www.engadget.com/2007/06/05/
asus-new-eee-pc-701-joins-the-laptop-lite-fray-with-a-bang/
[12] Hachman, Mark (June 1, 2009). Qualcomm Shows O
Snapdragon Smartbooks. PC Magazine.

13.30 Further reading

Wilson, James E. (2006). Vintage Laptop Computers: First Decade: 1980-89. Outskirts Press. p. 132.
ISBN 978-1-59800-489-2.

139

Chapter 14

History of the World Wide Web

The World Wide Web ("WWW" or simply the "Web")
is a global information medium which users can read and
write via computers connected to the Internet. The term
is often mistakenly used as a synonym for the Internet
itself, but the Web is a service that operates over the Internet, just as e-mail also does. The history of the Internet dates back signicantly further than that of the World
Wide Web.

14.1 Precursors
The hypertext portion of the Web in particular has an
intricate intellectual history; notable inuences and preThe NeXTcube used by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN became the
cursors include Vannevar Bush's Memex,[3] IBMs Genrst Web server.
[4]
eralized Markup Language, and Ted Nelson's Project
Xanadu.[3]
Paul Otlet's Mundaneum project has also been named as tocols were installed on some key non-Unix machines at
an early 20th century precursor of the Web.[5]
the institution, turning it into the largest Internet site in
The concept of a global information system connecting Europe within a few years. As a result, CERNs infras[6]
homes is pregured in "A Logic Named Joe", a 1946 tructure was ready for Berners-Lee to create the Web.
short story by Murray Leinster, in which computer terminals, called logics, are present in every home. Although
the computer system in the story is centralized, the story
anticipates a ubiquitous information environment similar
to the Web.

14.2 19801991: Invention of the

Web

Berners-Lee wrote a proposal in March 1989 for a large

hypertext database with typed links.[7] Although the proposal attracted little interest, Berners-Lee was encouraged by his boss, Mike Sendall, to begin implementing
his system on a newly acquired NeXT workstation.[8] He
considered several names, including Information Mesh,[7]
The Information Mine or Mine of Information, but settled
on World Wide Web.[9]
Berners-Lee found an enthusiastic collaborator in Robert
Cailliau, who rewrote the proposal (published on November 12, 1990) and sought resources within CERN.
Berners-Lee and Cailliau pitched their ideas to the European Conference on Hypertext Technology in September
1990, but found no vendors who could appreciate their
vision of marrying hypertext with the Internet.[10]

In 1980, Tim Berners-Lee, an independent contractor at the European Organization for Nuclear Research
(CERN), Switzerland, built ENQUIRE, as a personal
database of people and software models, but also as a way
to play with hypertext; each new page of information in
By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the tools
ENQUIRE had to be linked to an existing page.[3]
necessary for a working Web: the HyperText TransIn 1984 Berners-Lee returned to CERN, and considered fer Protocol (HTTP) 0.9,[11] the HyperText Markup
its problems of information management: physicists from Language (HTML), the rst Web browser (named
around the world needed to share data, yet they lacked WorldWideWeb, which was also a Web editor), the rst
common machines and any shared presentation software. HTTP server software (later known as CERN httpd), the
Shortly after Berners-Lees return to CERN, TCP/IP pro- rst web server (http://info.cern.ch), and the rst Web
140

14.3. 19921995: GROWTH OF THE WEB

141
An early CERN-related contribution to the Web was
the parody band Les Horribles Cernettes, whose promotional image is believed to be among the Webs rst ve
pictures.[21]

14.3 19921995:
Web

Growth of the

In keeping with its birth at CERN, early adopters of the

World Wide Web were primarily university-based scientic departments or physics laboratories such as Fermilab
and SLAC. By January 1993 there were fty Web servers
Robert Cailliau, Jean-Franois Abramatic and Tim Berners-Lee across the world; by October 1993 there were over ve
at the 10th anniversary of the WWW Consortium.
hundred.[14]
pages that described the project itself. The browser could
access Usenet newsgroups and FTP les as well. However, it could run only on the NeXT; Nicola Pellow therefore created a simple text browser that could run on almost any computer called the Line Mode Browser.[12]
To encourage use within CERN, Bernd Pollermann put
the CERN telephone directory on the web previously
users had to log onto the mainframe in order to look up
phone numbers.[12]
While inventing the Web, Berners-Lee spent most of his
working hours in Building 31 at CERN (461357N
60242E / 46.2325N 6.0450E), but also at his two
homes, one in France, one in Switzerland.[13] In January 1991 the rst Web servers outside CERN itself were
switched on.[14]

Early websites intermingled links for both the HTTP web

protocol and the then-popular Gopher protocol, which
provided access to content through hypertext menus presented as a le system rather than through HTML les.
Early Web users would navigate either by bookmarking popular directory pages, such as Berners-Lees rst
site at http://info.cern.ch/, or by consulting updated lists
such as the NCSA Whats New page. Some sites were
also indexed by WAIS, enabling users to submit full-text
searches similar to the capability later provided by search
engines.
By the end of 1994, the total number of websites was still
minute compared to present gures, but quite a number
of notable websites were already active, many of which
are the precursors or inspiring examples of todays most
popular services.

The rst web page may be lost, but Paul Jones of UNCChapel Hill in North Carolina revealed in May 2013 that 14.3.1
he has a copy of a page sent to him in 1991 by BernersLee which is the oldest known web page. Jones stored the
plain-text page, with hyperlinks, on a oppy disk and on
his NeXT computer.[15] CERN put the oldest known web
page back online in 2014, complete with hyperlinks that
helped users get started and helped them navigate what
was then a very small web.[16][17]

Early browsers

On August 6, 1991,[18] Berners-Lee posted a short summary of the World Wide Web project on the alt.hypertext
newsgroup, inviting collaborators.[19] This date also
marked the debut of the Web as a publicly available service on the Internet, although new users could only access
it after August 23.
Paul Kunz from the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center
visited CERN in September 1991, and was captivated by
the Web. He brought the NeXT software back to SLAC,
where librarian Louise Addis adapted it for the VM/CMS
operating system on the IBM mainframe as a way to display SLACs catalog of online documents;[12] this was the
rst web server outside of Europe and the rst in North
America.[20] The www-talk mailing list was started in the
same month.[14]

The advent of the Mosaic browser in 1993 was a turning point

in utility of the World Wide Web.

Initially, a web browser was available only for the

NeXT operating system. This shortcoming was discussed in January 1992,[14] and alleviated in April 1992
by the release of Erwise, an application developed at
the Helsinki University of Technology, and in May by

142

CHAPTER 14. HISTORY OF THE WORLD WIDE WEB

ViolaWWW, created by Pei-Yuan Wei, which included

advanced features such as embedded graphics, scripting,
and animation.[12] ViolaWWW was originally an application for HyperCard. Both programs ran on the X Window
System for Unix.[12]

Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and the

European Commission. It comprised various companies
that were willing to create standards and recommendations to improve the quality of the Web. Berners-Lee
made the Web available freely, with no patent and no royStudents at the University of Kansas adapted an exist- alties due. The W3C decided that its standards must be
ing text-only hypertext browser, Lynx, to access the web. based on royalty-free technology, so they can be easily
Lynx was available on Unix and DOS, and some web de- adopted by anyone.
signers, unimpressed with glossy graphical websites, held
that a website not accessible through Lynx wasnt worth
14.4 19961998: Commercializavisiting.
The rst Microsoft Windows browser was Cello, writtion of the Web
ten by Thomas R. Bruce for the Legal Information Institute at Cornell Law School to provide legal information, Main article: Web marketing
since access to Windows was more widespread amongst
lawyers than access to Unix. Cello was released in June
By 1996 it became obvious to most publicly traded com1993.[12]
panies that a public Web presence was no longer opThe Web was rst popularized by Mosaic,[22] a graph- tional. Though at rst people saw mainly the possibiliical browser launched in 1993 by Marc Andreessen's ties of free publishing and instant worldwide information,
team at the National Center for Supercomputing Appli- increasing familiarity with two-way communication over
cations (NCSA) at the University of Illinois at Urbana- the Web led to the possibility of direct Web-based comChampaign (UIUC).[23] The origins of Mosaic date to merce (e-commerce) and instantaneous group communi1992. In November 1992, the NCSA at the Univer- cations worldwide. More dotcoms, displaying products
sity of Illinois (UIUC) established a website. In Decem- on hypertext webpages, were added into the Web.
ber 1992, Andreessen and Eric Bina, students attending
UIUC and working at the NCSA, began work on Mosaic with funding from the High-Performance Computing and Communications Initiative, a US-federal research 14.5 19992001: Dot-com boom
and development program.[24] Andreessen and Bina reand bust
leased a Unix version of the browser in February 1993;
Mac and Windows versions followed in August 1993.[14]
Low interest rates in 199899 facilitated an increase in
The browser gained popularity due to its strong support of
start-up companies. Although a number of these new enintegrated multimedia, and the authors rapid response to
trepreneurs had realistic plans and administrative ability,
user bug reports and recommendations for new features.
most of them lacked these characteristics but were able
After graduation from UIUC, Andreessen and James H. to sell their ideas to investors because of the novelty of
Clark, former CEO of Silicon Graphics, met and formed the dot-com concept.
Mosaic Communications Corporation to develop the MoHistorically, the dot-com boom can be seen as similar to
saic browser commercially. The company changed its
a number of other technology-inspired booms of the past
name to Netscape in April 1994, and the browser was
including railroads in the 1840s, automobiles in the early
developed further as Netscape Navigator.
20th century, radio in the 1920s, television in the 1940s,
transistor electronics in the 1950s, computer time-sharing
in the 1960s, and home computers and biotechnology in
14.3.2 Web governance
the early 1980s.
In 2001 the bubble burst, and many dot-com startups
went out of business after burning through their venture
capital and failing to become protable. Many others,
however, did survive and thrive in the early 21st century.
Many companies which began as online retailers blossomed and became highly protable. More conventional
retailers found online merchandising to be a protable
additional source of revenue. While some online entertainment and news outlets failed when their seed capital
ran out, others persisted and eventually became economIn September 1994, Berners-Lee founded the World ically self-sucient. Traditional media outlets (newspaWide Web Consortium (W3C) at the Massachusetts In- per publishers, broadcasters and cablecasters in particstitute of Technology with support from the Defense ular) also found the Web to be a useful and protable
In May 1994, the rst International WWW Conference, organized by Robert Cailliau,[25][10] was held at
CERN;[26] the conference has been held every year since.
In April 1993, CERN had agreed that anyone could use
the Web protocol and code royalty-free; this was in part
a reaction to the perturbation caused by the University of
Minnesota's announcement that it would begin charging
license fees for its implementation of the Gopher protocol.

14.7. SEE ALSO

additional channel for content distribution, and an additional means to generate advertising revenue. The sites
that survived and eventually prospered after the bubble
burst had two things in common; a sound business plan,
and a niche in the marketplace that was, if not unique,
particularly well-dened and well-served.

143
typical Web 2.0 feel. They have articles with embedded video, user-submitted comments below the article,
and RSS boxes to the side, listing some of the latest articles from other sites.

Continued extension of the Web has focused on connecting devices to the Internet, coined Intelligent Device
Management. As Internet connectivity becomes ubiquitous, manufacturers have started to leverage the ex14.6 2002present: The Web be- panded computing power of their devices to enhance their
usability and capability. Through Internet connectivity,
comes ubiquitous
manufacturers are now able to interact with the devices
they have sold and shipped to their customers, and cusIn the aftermath of the dot-com bubble, telecommuni- tomers are able to interact with the manufacturer (and
cations companies had a great deal of overcapacity as other providers) to access new content.
many Internet business clients went bust. That, plus on[27]
going investment in local cell infrastructure kept connec- Web 2.0 has found a place in the English lexicon.
tivity charges low, and helping to make high-speed Internet connectivity more aordable. During this time, a
handful of companies found success developing business 14.6.2 The semantic web
models that helped make the World Wide Web a more
[28]
compelling experience. These include airline booking Popularized by Berners-Lees book Weaving the Web
sites, Google's search engine and its protable approach and a Scientic American article by Berners-Lee, James
[29]
to keyword-based advertising, as well as eBay's auction Hendler, and Ora Lassila, the term Semantic Web describes an evolution of the existing Web in which the netsite and Amazon.com's online department store.
work of hyperlinked human-readable web pages is exThis new era also begot social networking websites, such tended by machine-readable metadata about documents
as MySpace and Facebook, which gained acceptance and how they are related to each other, enabling autorapidly and became a central part of youth culture.
mated agents to access the Web more intelligently and
perform tasks on behalf of users. This has yet to happen.
In 2006, Berners-Lee and colleagues stated that the idea
14.6.1 Web 2.0
remains largely unrealized.[30]
Beginning in 2002, new ideas for sharing and exchanging content ad hoc, such as Weblogs and RSS, rapidly
gained acceptance on the Web. This new model for information exchange, primarily featuring user-generated and
user-edited websites, was dubbed Web 2.0. The Web 2.0
boom saw many new service-oriented startups catering to
a newly democratized Web.
As the Web became easier to query, it attained a greater
ease of use overall and gained a sense of organization
which ushered in a period of rapid popularization. New
sites such as Wikipedia and its sister projects are based on
the concept of user edited content. In 2005, three former
PayPal employees created a video viewing website called
YouTube, which became popular quickly and introduced
a new concept of user-submitted content in major events,
as in the CNN-YouTube Presidential Debates.
The popularity of YouTube, Facebook, etc., combined
with the increasing availability and aordability of highspeed connections has made video content far more common on all kinds of websites. Many video-content hosting
and creation sites provide an easy means for their videos
to be embedded on third party websites without payment
or permission.
This combination of more user-created or edited content,
and easy means of sharing content, such as via RSS widgets and video embedding, has led to many sites with a

14.7 See also

Hypermedia
Linked Data
Computer Lib / Dream Machines
History of hypertext
History of the web browser
History of web syndication technology

14.8 References
[1] Quittner, Joshua (March 29, 1999). Network designer.
Time.
[2] Tim Berners-Lee. Frequently asked questions. World
Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 22 July 2010.
[3] Berners-Lee, Tim. Frequently asked questions - Start of
the web: Inuences. World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 22 July 2010.

144

[4] Berners-Lee, Tim. Frequently asked questions - Why the

//, #, etc?". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 22
July 2010.
[5] Wright, Alex (2014-07-10). Cataloging the World: Paul
Otlet and the Birth of the Information Age. Oxford ; New
York: OUP USA. pp. 815. ISBN 9780199931415.
[6] Segal, Ben (1995). A Short History of Internet Protocols
at CERN. W3C.org.
[7] Berners-Lee, Tim (March 1989). Information Management: A Proposal. World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
[8] Gromov, Gregory (2011). The Next Crossroad of Web
History. Net Valley.
[9] Berners-Lee, Tim (2000-11-07). Weaving the Web:
The Original Design and Ultimate Destiny of the World
Wide Web. San Francisco: Harper. p. 23. ISBN
9780062515872.
[10] Tim Berners-Lee. Frequently asked questions - Robert
Cailliaus role. World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved
22 July 2010.
[11] Berners-Lee, Tim. The Original HTTP as dened in
1991. W3C.org.
[12] Berners-Lee, Tim (ca 1993/1994). A Brief History of
the Web. World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 17
August 2010. Check date values in: |date= (help)
[13] Galbraith, David (July 8, 2010). Tim Berners-Lee: Conrming the exact location of the invention of the web.
DavidGalbraith.org.
[14] Raggett, Dave; Jenny Lam; Ian Alexander (1996-04).
HTML 3: Electronic Publishing on the World Wide Web.
Harlow, England ; Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley. p.
21. ISBN 9780201876932. Check date values in: |date=
(help)
[15] Murawski, John (24 May 2013). Hunt for worlds oldest
WWW page leads to UNC Chapel Hill. News & Observer.

CHAPTER 14. HISTORY OF THE WORLD WIDE WEB

[22] Stewart, William. Mosaic: The First Global Web

Browser. The Living Internet.
[23] NCSA Mosaic September 10, 1993 Demo
[24] Gore, Al (February 14, 1996). The Technology Challenge: How Can America Spark Private Innovation?".
[25] Robert Cailliau (November 2, 1995). A Short History of
the Web: Text of a speech delivered at the launching of
the European branch of the W3 Consortium. Net Valley.
Retrieved 21 July 2010.
[26] IW3C2 - Past and Future Conferences. International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee. 2010-05-02. Retrieved 16 May 2010.
[27] "'Millionth English Word' declared. BBC News. June 19,
2009.
[28] Berners-Lee, Tim (2000-11-07). Weaving the Web: The
Original Design and Ultimate Destiny of the World Wide
Web. San Francisco: Harper. pp. 177198. ISBN
9780062515872.
[29] Berners-Lee, Tim; James Hendler; Ora Lassila (May 1,
2001). The Semantic Web. Scientic American. Retrieved March 13, 2008.
[30] Shadbolt, Nigel; Wendy Hall; Tim Berners-Lee (2006).
The Semantic Web Revisited. IEEE Intelligent Systems.
Retrieved April 13, 2007.

14.9 External links

First World Web site
Bemer, Bob, A History of Source Concepts for the
Internet/Web
The World Wide Web History Project
Important Events in the History of the World Wide
Web

[16] Shubber, Khadim (April 13, 2013). First ever web page
put back online by CERN. Wired.

Principal Figures in the Development of the Internet and the World Wide Web. University of North
Carolina. Retrieved July 3, 2006.

[17] Brodkin, John (April 30, 2013). First website ever goes
back online on the open Webs 20th birthday. Ars Technica.

How It All Started (slides), Tim Berners-Lee,

W3C, December 2004

[18] Ward, Mark (3 August 2006). How the web went world
wide. BBC News. Retrieved 24 January 2011.

A Little History of the World Wide Web: from

1945 to 1995, Dan Connolly, W3C, 2000

[19] Berners-Lee, Tim. Qualiers on Hypertext links....

alt.hypertext. Retrieved 11 July 2012.

The World Wide Web: Past, Present and Future,

Tim Berners-Lee, August 1996

[20] Berners-Lee, Tim (2000-11-07). Weaving the Web:

The Original Design and Ultimate Destiny of the World
Wide Web. San Francisco: Harper. p. 46. ISBN
9780062515872.
[21] Heather McCabe (1999-02-09). Grrl Geeks Rock Out.
Wired magazine.

Internet History, Computer History Museum

25 Years of the Internet

Chapter 15

Timeline of computing hardware 2400

BC1949
This article presents a detailed timeline of events in the
history of computing hardware: from prehistory until 1949. For narratives explaining the overall developments, see the navigation box History of computing.

[2] Rudman, Peter Strom (2007). How Mathematics Happened: The First 50,000 Years. Prometheus Books. p.
64. ISBN 978-1-59102-477-4.

15.1 Prehistory1640

[4] Morse code. ActewAGL.

[3] The History of the Binomial Coecients in India,

California State University, East Bay.

[5] Simon Singh. The Code Book. p. 14-20

15.2 1641-1850

[6] Fowler, Charles B. (October 1967). The Museum of Music: A History of Mechanical Instruments. Music Educators Journal (Music Educators Journal, Vol. 54, No. 2) 54
(2): 4549. doi:10.2307/3391092. JSTOR 3391092.

15.3 18511930

[7] Koetsier, Teun (2001). On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators. Mechanism and Machine Theory (Elsevier) 36 (5):
589603. doi:10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2.

15.4 19311940
15.5 19411949

[8] Islam, Knowledge, and Science. University of Southern

California. Retrieved 2008-01-22.

15.6 Computing timeline

[9] Hill, Donald (1985).

Al-Brn's mechanical
calendar.
Annals of Science 42 (2): 139163.
doi:10.1080/00033798500200141. ISSN 0003-3790.

Timeline of computing

[10] Tuncer Oren (2001). Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents. Turk
J Elec Engin 9 (1): 6370 [64].

19501979
19801989

[11] Hassan, Ahmad Y.. Transfer of Islamic Technology to

the West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering.
Retrieved 2008-01-22.

19901999
2000-2009
2010-present

[12] Lorch, R. P. (1976). The Astronomical Instruments

of Jabir ibn Aah and the Torquetum. Centaurus
20 (1):
1134.
Bibcode:1976Cent...20...11L.
doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1976.tb00214.x.

15.7 Notes
[1] Ralf Vogelsang et al.
(2010) New excavations
of Middle Stone Age deposits at Apollo 11
Rockshelter,
Namibia:
stratigraphy,
archaeology, chronology and past environments.
Journal
of African Archaeology 8(2):
185218 "https:
//www.academia.edu/4106767/New_Excavations_
at_Apollo_11_Namibia_Ralf_Vogelsang_et_al._".

[13] A 13th Century Programmable Robot, University of

Sheeld
[14] Ancient Discoveries, Episode 11: Ancient Robots.
History Channel. Retrieved 2008-09-06.
[15] Howard R. Turner (1997), Science in Medieval Islam: An
Illustrated Introduction, p. 184, University of Texas Press,
ISBN 0-292-78149-0

145

146

CHAPTER 15. TIMELINE OF COMPUTING HARDWARE 2400 BC1949

[16] Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering in the

Medieval Near East, Scientic American, May 1991, pp.
64-9 (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering)
[17] Bedini, Silvio A.; Maddison, Francis R. (1966). Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de'
Dondi. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 56 (5): 169.
[18] Astrolabe gearing. Museum of the History of Science,
Oxford. 2005. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
[19] History of the Astrolabe. Museum of the History of
Science, Oxford.
[20] Kennedy, E. S. (November 1947).
Al-Ksh's
Plate of Conjunctions"".
Isis 38 (1/2): 5659.
doi:10.1086/348036. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 225450.
[21] Kennedy, Edward S. (1950). A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashis Tabaq al-Manateq I. Motion
of the Sun and Moon in Longitude. Isis 41 (2): 180183.
doi:10.1086/349146.
[22] Kennedy, Edward S. (1952). A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashis Tabaq al-Maneteq II: Longitudes, Distances, and Equations of the Planets. Isis 43
(1): 4250. doi:10.1086/349363.
[23] Kennedy, Edward S. (1951). An Islamic Computer for
Planetary Latitudes. Journal of the American Oriental
Society (Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol.
71, No. 1) 71 (1): 1321. doi:10.2307/595221. JSTOR
595221.
[24] http://dotpoint.com/xnumber/pic_leonardo_calc.htm
[25] Jean Marguin, p.47 (1994)
[26] Jean Marguin, p.48 (1994)
[27] Ren Taton, p. 81 (1969)
[28] Jean Marguin, p. 48 (1994) Citing Ren Taton (1963)
[29] Jean Marguin, p.46 (1994)
[30] Jean Marguin, p.64-65 (1994)

[37] Felt, Dorr E. (1916). Mechanical arithmetic, or The history of the counting machine. Chicago: Washington Institute. p. 4.
[38] Columbia University Computing History - Herman Hollerith
[39] U.S. Census Bureau: Tabulation and Processing
[40] Hollerith Integrating Tabulator
[41] G.C. Chase: History of Mechanical Computing Machinery, Vol. 2, Number 3, July 1980, page 221, IEEE Annals
of the History of Computing
[42] Thomas A. Russo: Antique Oce Machines: 600 Years of
Calculating Devices, 2001, p.114, Schier Publishing Ltd,
ISBN 0-7643-1346-0
[43] http://www.columbia.edu/cu/computinghistory/
tabulator.html
[44] The IBM 601 Multiplying Punch
[45] Interconnected Punched Card Equipment
[46] Turing, A.M. (1936). On Computable Numbers, with an
Application to the Entscheidungsproblem. Proceedings
of the London Mathematical Society. 2 (1937) 42: 230
65. doi:10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230. (and Turing, A.M.
(1938). On Computable Numbers, with an Application
to the Entscheidungsproblem: A correction. Proceedings
of the London Mathematical Society. 2 (1937) 43: 5446.
doi:10.1112/plms/s2-43.6.544.)
[47] Rojas, R. (1998). How to make Zuses Z3 a universal
computer. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 20
(3): 5154. doi:10.1109/85.707574.
[48] Rojas, Ral. How to Make Zuses Z3 a Universal Computer.
[49] Hill, Peter C. J. (2005-09-16). RALPH BENJAMIN:
An Interview Conducted by Peter C. J. Hill (Interview).
Interview #465. IEEE History Center, The Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Retrieved
2013-07-18.
[50] Copping, Jasper (2013-07-11). Briton: 'I invented the
computer mouse 20 years before the Americans". The
Telegraph. Retrieved 2013-07-18.

[31] David Smith, p.173-181 (1929)

[32] Copy of Polenis machine (it) Museo Nazionale Della
Scienza E Della Tecnologia Leonardo Da Vinci. Retrieved 2010-10-04
[33] (fr) Rapport du jury central sur les produits de l'agriculture
et de l'industrie exposs en 1849, Tome II, page 542 - 548,
Imprimerie Nationale, 1850 Gallica
[34] (fr) Le calcul simpli Maurice d'Ocagne, page 269, Bibliothque numrique du CNAM
[35] James Essinger, Jacquards Web, page 77 & 102-106, Oxford University Press, 2004
[36] the rst clone maker was made by Burkhardt from Germany in 1878

15.8 References
Marguin, Jean (1994). Histoire des instruments et
machines calculer, trois sicles de mcanique pensante 1642-1942 (in French). Hermann. ISBN 9782-7056-6166-3.
Ginsburg, Jekuthiel (2003). Scripta Mathematica
(Septembre 1932-Juin 1933). Kessinger Publishing,
LLC. ISBN 978-0-7661-3835-3.
Gladstone-Millar, Lynne (2003). John Napier: Logarithm John. National Museums Of Scotland. ISBN
978-1-901663-70-9.

15.9. EXTERNAL LINKS

Taton, Ren (1969). Histoire du calcul. Que sais-je
? n 198. Presses universitaires de France.
Swedin, Eric G.; Ferro, David L. (2005). Computers: The Life Story of a Technology. Greenwood.
ISBN 978-0-313-33149-7.
Taton, Ren (1963). Le calcul mcanique (in
French). Paris: Presses universitaires de France.
Smith, David Eugene (1929). A Source Book in
Mathematics. New York and London: McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc.

15.9 External links

A Brief History of Computing, by Stephen White.
An excellent computer history site; the present article is a modied version of his timeline, used with
permission.
The Evolution of the Modern Computer (1934 to
1950): An Open Source Graphical History, article
from Virtual Travelog
Timeline: exponential speedup since rst automatic
calculator in 1623 by Jrgen Schmidhuber, from
The New AI: General & Sound & Relevant for
Physics, In B. Goertzel and C. Pennachin, eds.: Articial General Intelligence, p. 175-198, 2006.
Computing History Timeline, a photographic gallery
on computing history

147

Chapter 16

Timeline of computing 195079

This article presents a detailed timeline of events in the
history of computing from 1950 to 1979. For narratives explaining the overall developments, see the History
of computing.

16.1 1950s
16.2 1960s
16.3 1970s
16.4 See also
Information revolution

16.5 References
[1] Stefan Betschon: Der Zauber des Anfangs - Schweizer
Computerpioniere. In: Ingenieure bauen die Schweiz.
Franz Betschon et al. (editors), pp. 376-399, Verlag Neue
Zuercher Zeitung, Zurich 2013, ISBN 978-3-03823-7914
[2] Auf den Spuren der deutschen Computermaus [In the
footsteps of the German computer mouse] (in German).
Heise Verlag. 2009-04-28. Retrieved 2013-01-07.
[3] Telefunkens 'Rollkugel'". oldmouse.com.
[4] SIG-100 video terminal and mouse.
[5] see 6502 microprocessor history
[6] Steven Weyhrich (28 December 2001). Apple II History
Chapter 5, The Disk II. Retrieved 27 November 2008.

16.6 External links

A Brief History of Computing, by Stephen White.
An excellent computer history site; the present article is a modied version of his timeline, used with
permission.

148

Chapter 17

Timeline of computing 198089

This article presents a detailed timeline of events in the
history of computing from 1980 to 1989. For narratives explaining the overall developments, see the History
of computing.

17.12 External links

17.1 1980
17.2 1981
17.3 1982
17.4 1983
17.5 1984
17.6 1985
17.7 1986
17.8 1987
17.9 1988
17.10 1989
17.11 References
[1] The Quintessential Computer? Epsons QX-10 hits the
high-end market. by Jim Hansen. Microcomputing
magazine 1983 April
[2] http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Comdex_
1986.png

149

A Brief History of Computing, by Stephen White.

An excellent computer history site; the present article is a modied version of his timeline, used with
permission.

Chapter 18

Timeline of computing 199099

This article presents a detailed timeline of events in the
history of computing from 1990 to 1999. For narratives explaining the overall developments, see the History
of computing.

[4] http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Audio+Highway+
Announces+the+Listen+UP+Player+--+A+New+
Device+that...-a018696161

18.12 External links

18.1 1990

A Brief History of Computing, by Stephen White.

An excellent computer history site; the present article is a modied version of his timeline, used with
permission.

18.2 1991
18.3 1992
18.4 1993
18.5 1994
18.6 1995
18.7 1996
18.8 1997
18.9 1998
18.10 1999
18.11 References
[1] p. 54, Intel Turns 35: Now What?", David L. Margulius,
InfoWorld, July 21, 2003, ISSN 0199-6649.
[2] p. 21, "Architecture of the Pentium microprocessor", D.
Alpert and D. Avnon, IEEE Micro, 13, #3 (June 1993), pp.
1121, doi:10.1109/40.216745.
[3] p. 90, Inside Intel, Business Week, #3268, June 1, 1992.

150

Chapter 19

Timeline of computing 200009

This article presents a detailed timeline of events in the
history of computing from 2000 to 2009. For narratives explaining the overall developments, see the History
of computing.

[3] http://www.technewsworld.com/story/51228.html
[4] http://www.news.com/Chip+breaks+speed+record+in+
deep+freeze/2100-1006_3-6085568.html
[5] http://www.news.com/2100-1006_3-6119618.html
[6] http://laptoping.com/asus-eee-701-pc.html

19.1 2000

[7] http://android-developers.blogspot.com/2008/09/
announcing-android-10-sdk-release-1.html

19.2 2001
19.3 2002

19.13 External links

A Brief History of Computing, by Stephen White.
An excellent computer history site; the present article is a modied version of his timeline, used with
permission.

19.4 2003
19.5 2004
19.6 2005
19.7 2006
19.8 2007
19.9 2008
19.10 2009
19.11 See also
Informational revolution

19.12 References
[1] http://www.nvidia.com/object/IO_12687.html
[2] http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/jun/06intel.html

151

Chapter 20

Timeline of computing 201019

This article presents a detailed timeline of events in the
history of computing from 2010 to 2019. For narratives explaining the overall developments, see the History
of computing.

20.1 2010

[9] Shimpi, Anand Lal (2012-09-11). Intels Next Unit of

Computing: 4"x4, Core i3, Systems Targeted at $399.
AnandTech. Retrieved 26 January 2014.
[10] Parrish, Kevin (2012-10-04). TDK Finally Crams 2TB
on One 3.5-inch HDD Platter. Toms Hardware. Retrieved 26 January 2014.
[11] Windows 8s delivery date: October 26. ZDNet. 18 July
2012. Retrieved 4 October 2014.

20.2 2011

[12] Nintendo Wii U release date is November 18th in US

starting at $299.99, November 30th in Europe. Polygon.
Retrieved 4 October 2014.

20.3 2012

[13] PlayStation 4 Release Date Conrmed for November

15th in North America, November 29th in Europe.
Archive.is. Retrieved 4 October 2014.

20.4 2013

[14] Xbox One to Launch on November 22, 2013 in 13 Markets - Xbox Lives Major Nelson. Xbox Lives Major Nelson. Retrieved 4 October 2014.

20.5 2014

[15] PlayStation 4 Release Date Conrmed for November

15th in North America, November 29th in Europe.
Archive.is. Retrieved 4 October 2014.

20.6 References
[1] Ocial: iPad Launching Here April 3, Pre-Orders
March 12. Gizmodo. Retrieved 4 October 2014.
[2] iPhone 4 Release Date: New iPhone Release Set For
Summer 2010. The Hungton Post. 7 June 2010. Retrieved 4 October 2014.
[3] Apple - Press Info - Apple Presents iPhone 4. Apple.com. Retrieved 4 October 2014.
[4] Shimpi, Anand Lal (2011-05-04). Intel Announces rst
22nm 3D Tri-Gate Transistors, Shipping in 2H 2011.
AnandTech. Retrieved 23 January 2014.
[5] Ocial Google Blog: A new kind of computer: Chromebook. Ocial Google Blog. Retrieved 4 October 2014.
[6] Shimpi, Anand Lal (2011-09-07). Seagate Ships Worlds
First 4TB External HDD. AnandTech. Retrieved 26 January 2014.

[16] Seagates 8TB drive is biggest ever, stores more than 300
Blu-ray discs. TechRadar. 26 August 2014. Retrieved 4
October 2014.
[17] Seagate ships rst 8TB hard drive. Techreport.com.
Retrieved 4 October 2014.
[18] Seagate Ships Worlds First 8TB Hard Drives. Seagate.com. Retrieved 4 October 2014.
[19] Chromium Blog: 64 bits of awesome: 64-bit Windows
Support, now in Stable!". Chromium Blog. Retrieved 4
October 2014.
[20] IntelPR. Intel Unleashes its First 8-Core Desktop Processor. Intel Newsroom. Retrieved 4 October 2014.
[21] Happy Haswell-E And X99 Chipset Day, Internet! How
About A System Giveaway?". Toms Hardware. Retrieved 4 October 2014.

[7] BBC News - The Raspberry Pi computer goes on general

sale. BBC News. Retrieved 4 October 2014.
[8] Raspberry Pi $35 miniature computer now on sale, $25
model going into production 'immediately'". The Verge.
29 February 2012. Retrieved 4 October 2014.

152

Chapter 21

Timeline of computing
Timeline of computing presents events in the history of
computing organized by year and grouped into six topic
areas: predictions and concepts, rst use and inventions,
hardware systems and processors, operating systems, programming languages, and new application areas. More
detailed timelines are listed toward the end of the article.

21.1 Graphical timeline

21.2 See also
History of compiler construction
History of computing hardware up to third generation (1960s)
History of computing hardware (1960spresent)
third generation and later
History of the graphical user interface
History of the Internet

21.3 Resources
Stephen White, A Brief History of Computing, an excellent computer history site; the above is a modied
version of his timeline, used with permission.
The Computer History in time and space, Graphing
Project, an attempt to build a graphical image of
computer history, in particular operating systems.
The Computer Revolution/Timeline at Wikibooks

21.4 External links

Visual History of Computing
Computing History Timeline

153

Chapter 22

Microsoft
Microsoft Corporation (/makrsft/ or /-sft/[4] ) is 22.1 History
an American multinational corporation headquartered in
Redmond, Washington, that develops, manufactures, li- Main articles: History of Microsoft and History of
censes, supports and sells computer software, consumer Microsoft Windows
electronics and personal computers and services. Its best
known software products are the Microsoft Windows line
of operating systems, Microsoft Oce oce suite, and
Internet Explorer web browser. Its agship hardware 22.1.1 197283: Founding and company
products are the Xbox game consoles and the Microsoft
beginnings
Surface tablet lineup. It is the worlds largest software
maker measured by revenues.[5] It is also one of the
worlds most valuable companies.[6]
Microsoft was founded by Bill Gates and Paul Allen on
April 4, 1975, to develop and sell BASIC interpreters
for Altair 8800. It rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The companys
1986 initial public oering, and subsequent rise in its
share price, created three billionaires and an estimated
12,000 millionaires from Microsoft employees. Since the
1990s, it has increasingly diversied from the operating
system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions. In May 2011, Microsoft acquired Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion in its largest acquisition to date.[7]
As of 2013, Microsoft is market dominant in both the
IBM PC-compatible operating system and oce software
suite markets (the latter with Microsoft Oce). The
company also produces a wide range of other software
for desktops and servers, and is active in areas including
Internet search (with Bing), the video game industry (with
the Xbox, Xbox 360 and Xbox One consoles), the digital services market (through MSN), and mobile phones
(via the Windows Phone OS). In June 2012, Microsoft
entered the personal computer production market for the
rst time, with the launch of the Microsoft Surface, a line
of tablet computers.
With the acquisition of Nokias devices and services division to form Microsoft Mobile Oy, the company reentered the smartphone hardware market, after its previous attempt, Microsoft Kin, which resulted from their
acquisition of Danger Inc.[8]

Paul Allen (l.) and Bill Gates (r.) on October 19, 1981, in a sea
of PCs after signing a pivotal contract. IBM called Microsoft in
July 1980 inquiring about programming languages for its upcoming PC line;[9]:228 after failed negotiations with another company,
IBM gave Microsoft a contract to develop the OS for the new line
of PCs.[10]

Paul Allen and Bill Gates, childhood friends with a passion in computer programming, were seeking to make a
successful business utilizing their shared skills. In 1972
they founded their rst company named Traf-O-Data,
which oered a rudimentary computer that tracked and
analyzed automobile trac data. Allen went on to pursue
a degree in computer science at the University of Washington, later dropping out of school to work at Honeywell. Gates began studies at Harvard.[11] The January
1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems's (MITS) Altair 8800
microcomputer. Allen suggested that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device; after a call from
Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration. Since they didn't actually have

154

22.1. HISTORY
one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while
Gates developed the interpreter. Although they developed the interpreter on a simulator and not the actual device, the interpreter worked awlessly when they demonstrated the interpreter to MITS in Albuquerque, New
Mexico in March 1975; MITS agreed to distribute it,
marketing it as Altair BASIC.[9]:108, 112114 They ocially
established Microsoft on April 4, 1975, with Gates as
the CEO.[12] Allen came up with the original name of
Micro-Soft, the combination of the words microprocessor and software, as recounted in a 1995 Fortune magazine article.[13][14] In August 1977 the company formed
an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in
its rst international oce, "ASCII Microsoft".[15] The
company moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington
in January 1979.[12]
Microsoft entered the OS business in 1980 with its own
version of Unix, called Xenix.[16] However, it was MSDOS that solidied the companys dominance. After negotiations with Digital Research failed, IBM awarded a
contract to Microsoft in November 1980 to provide a
version of the CP/M OS, which was set to be used in
the upcoming IBM Personal Computer (IBM PC).[17] For
this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86DOS from Seattle Computer Products, branding it as MSDOS, which IBM rebranded to PC DOS. Following the
release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS. Since IBM copyrighted
the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to reverse engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC
compatibles, but no such restriction applied to the operating systems. Due to various factors, such as MS-DOSs
available software selection, Microsoft eventually became the leading PC operating systems vendor.[10][18]:210
The company expanded into new markets with the release
of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as a publishing division named Microsoft Press.[9]:232 Paul Allen resigned
from Microsoft in February after developing Hodgkins
disease.[9]:231

22.1.2

155
using ideas from OS/2; it shipped on July 21, 1993, with a
new modular kernel and the Win32 application programming interface (API), making porting from 16-bit (MSDOS-based) Windows easier. Once Microsoft informed
IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated.[22]
In 1990, Microsoft introduced its oce suite, Microsoft
Oce. The software bundled separate oce productivity
applications, such as Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel.[9]:301 On May 22 Microsoft launched Windows 3.0
with a streamlined user interface graphics and improved
protected mode capability for the Intel 386 processor.[23]
Both Oce and Windows became dominant in their respective areas.[24][25] Novell, a Word competitor from
19841986, led a lawsuit years later claiming that Microsoft left part of its APIs undocumented in order to gain
a competitive advantage.[26]
On July 27, 1994, the U.S. Department of Justice, Antitrust Division led a Competitive Impact Statement that
said, in part: Beginning in 1988, and continuing until
July 15, 1994, Microsoft induced many OEMs to execute anti-competitive per processor licenses. Under a
per processor license, an OEM pays Microsoft a royalty
for each computer it sells containing a particular microprocessor, whether the OEM sells the computer with a
Microsoft operating system or a non-Microsoft operating system. In eect, the royalty payment to Microsoft
when no Microsoft product is being used acts as a penalty,
or tax, on the OEMs use of a competing PC operating
system. Since 1988, Microsofts use of per processor licenses has increased.[27]

22.1.3 19952005: Internet and the 32-bit

era

198494: Windows and Oce

While jointly developing a new OS with IBM in

1984, OS/2, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows,
a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20,
1985.[9]:242243, 246 Microsoft moved its headquarters to
Redmond on February 26, 1986, and on March 13 the
company went public;[19] the ensuing rise in the stock
would make an estimated four billionaires and 12,000
millionaires from Microsoft employees.[20] Due to the
partnership with IBM, in 1990 the Federal Trade Commission set its eye on Microsoft for possible collusion; it
marked the beginning of over a decade of legal clashes
with the U.S. Government.[21] Microsoft released its
version of OS/2 to original equipment manufacturers
(OEMs) on April 2, 1987;[9]:243244 meanwhile, the company was at work on a 32-bit OS, Microsoft Windows NT,

Bill Gates giving his deposition in 1998 for the United States
v. Microsoft trial. Once the U.S. Department of Justice 1993
took over from the Federal Trade Commission, a protracted legal wrangling between Microsoft and the department ensued, resulting in various settlements and possible blocked mergers. Microsoft would point to companies such as AOL-Time Warner in
its defense.[21]

Following Bill Gatess internal Internet Tidal Wave

156
memo on May 26, 1995, Microsoft began to redene
its oerings and expand its product line into computer
networking and the World Wide Web.[28] The company
released Windows 95 on August 24, 1995, featuring preemptive multitasking, a completely new user interface
with a novel start button, and 32-bit compatibility; similar to NT, it provided the Win32 API.[29][30]:20 Windows
95 came bundled with the online service MSN (which
was originally planned to be a competitor to the Internet), and for OEMs Internet Explorer, a web browser.
Internet Explorer was not bundled with the retail Windows 95 boxes because the boxes were printed before the
team nished the web browser, and instead was included
in the Windows 95 Plus! pack.[31] Branching out into new
markets in 1996, Microsoft and NBC Universal created a
new 24/7 cable news station, MSNBC.[32] Microsoft created Windows CE 1.0, a new OS designed for devices
with low memory and other constraints, such as personal
digital assistants.[33] In October 1997, the Justice Department led a motion in the Federal District Court, stating
that Microsoft violated an agreement signed in 1994 and
asked the court to stop the bundling of Internet Explorer
with Windows.[9]:323324
Bill Gates handed over the CEO position on January
13, 2000, to Steve Ballmer, an old college friend of
Gates and employee of the company since 1980, creating a new position for himself as Chief Software Architect.[9]:111, 228[12] Various companies including Microsoft
formed the Trusted Computing Platform Alliance in October 1999 to, among other things, increase security and
protect intellectual property through identifying changes
in hardware and software. Critics decry the alliance as a
way to enforce indiscriminate restrictions over how consumers use software, and over how computers behave, a
form of digital rights management; for example the scenario where a computer is not only secured for its owner,
but also secured against its owner as well.[34][35] On April
3, 2000, a judgment was handed down in the case of
United States v. Microsoft,[36] calling the company an
abusive monopoly";[37] it settled with the U.S. Department of Justice in 2004.[19] On October 25, 2001, Microsoft released Windows XP, unifying the mainstream
and NT lines under the NT codebase.[38] The company released the Xbox later that year, entering the game console
market dominated by Sony and Nintendo.[39] In March
2004 the European Union brought antitrust legal action
against the company, citing it abused its dominance with
the Windows OS, resulting in a judgment of 497 million
($613 million) and to produce new versions of Windows
XP without Windows Media Player, Windows XP Home
Edition N and Windows XP Professional N.[40][41]

CHAPTER 22. MICROSOFT

CEO Steve Ballmer at the MIX event in 2008. In an interview

about his management style in 2005, he mentioned that his rst
priority was to get the people he delegates to in order. Ballmer
also emphasized the need to continue pursuing new technologies
even if initial attempts fail, citing the original attempts with Windows as an example.[42]

designed user interface dubbed Aero.[43][44] Microsoft

Oce 2007, released at the same time, featured a
"Ribbon" user interface which was a signicant departure from its predecessors. Relatively strong sales of both
titles helped to produce a record prot in 2007.[45] The
European Union imposed another ne of 899 million
($1.4 billion) for Microsofts lack of compliance with the
March 2004 judgment on February 27, 2008, saying that
the company charged rivals unreasonable prices for key
information about its workgroup and backoce servers.
Microsoft stated that it was in compliance and that these
nes are about the past issues that have been resolved.[46]
2007 also saw the creation of a multi-core unit at Microsoft, as they followed in the steps of server companies
such as Sun and IBM.[47]
Bill Gates retired from his role as Chief Software Architect on June 27, 2008, while retaining other positions related to the company in addition to being an advisor for the company on key projects.[48] Azure Services Platform, the companys entry into the cloud computing market for Windows, launched on October 27,
2008.[49] On February 12, 2009, Microsoft announced its
intent to open a chain of Microsoft-branded retail stores,
and on October 22, 2009, the rst retail Microsoft Store
opened in Scottsdale, Arizona; the same day the rst store
opened, Windows 7 was ocially released to the public. Windows 7s focus was on rening Vista with ease of
use features and performance enhancements, rather than
a large reworking of Windows.[50][51][52]

As the smartphone industry boomed beginning in 2007,

Microsoft struggled to keep up with its rivals Apple and
Google in providing a modern smartphone operating sys22.1.4 200610: Windows Vista, mobile, tem. As a result, in 2010, Microsoft revamped their
and Windows 7
aging agship mobile operating system, Windows Mobile, replacing it with the new Windows Phone OS; along
Released in January 2007, the next version of Windows, with a new strategy in the smartphone industry that has
Windows Vista, focused on features, security, and a re- Microsoft working more closely with smartphone man-

22.1. HISTORY
ufacturers, such as Nokia, and to provide a consistent
user experience across all smartphones using Microsofts
Windows Phone OS. It used a new user interface design
language, codenamed Metro, which prominently used
simple shapes, typography and iconography, and the concept of minimalism.

157
previewed Windows 8, an operating system designed to
power both personal computers and tablet computers, in
Taipei in June 2011.[56] A developer preview was released on September 13, and was replaced by a consumer
preview on February 29, 2012.[57] On May 31, 2012, the
preview version was released.

Microsoft is a founding member of the Open Networking Foundation started on March 23, 2011. Other founding companies include Google, HP Networking, Yahoo,
Verizon, Deutsche Telekom and 17 other companies. The
nonprot organization is focused on providing support for
a new cloud computing initiative called Software-Dened
Networking.[53] The initiative is meant to speed innovation through simple software changes in telecommunications networks, wireless networks, data centers and other
networking areas.[54]

22.1.5

On June 18, 2012, Microsoft unveiled the Surface,

the rst computer in the companys history to have its
hardware made by Microsoft.[58][59] On June 25, Microsoft paid US$1.2 billion to buy the social network
Yammer.[60] On July 31, 2012, Microsoft launched the
Outlook.com webmail service to compete with Gmail.[61]
On September 4, 2012, Microsoft released Windows
Server 2012.[62] On October 1, Microsoft announced its
intention to launch a news operation, part of a new-look
MSN, at the time of the Windows 8 launch that was
later in the month.[63] On October 26, 2012, Microsoft
launched Windows 8 and the Microsoft Surface.[59][64]
2011present: Rebranding, Win- Three days later, Windows Phone 8 was launched.[65]
dows 8, Surface and Nokia devices To cope with the potential for an increase in demand
for products and services, Microsoft opened a number of holiday stores across the U.S. to complement
the increasing number of bricks-and-mortar Microsoft
Stores that opened in 2012.[66]

General design principle behind the Start screen in Windows 8.1,

Windows Phone and Xbox One

On March 29, 2013, Microsoft launched a Patent

Tracker.[67] The Kinect, the motion sensing input devices
by Microsoft, which was rst introduced in November
2010 was upgraded for the 2013 release of the eighthgeneration Xbox One. Its capabilities were revealed in
May 2013. The new Kinect uses an ultra-wide 1080p
camera, it can function in the dark due to an infrared sensor, it employs higher-end processing power and new software, it can distinguish between ne movements (such
as a thumb movements), and the device can determine a
users heart rate by looking at his/her face.[68] Microsoft
led a patent application in 2011 that suggests that the
corporation may use the Kinect camera system to monitor the behavior of television viewers as part of a plan
to make the viewing experience more active. On July
19, 2013, Microsoft stocks suered its biggest one-day
percentage sell-o since the year 2000 after its fourthquarter report raised concerns among the investors on the
poor showings of both Windows 8 and the Surface tablet;
with more than 11 percentage points declining Microsoft
suered a loss of more than US$32 billion.[69] For the
2010 scal year, Microsoft had ve product divisions:
Windows Division, Server and Tools, Online Services Division, Microsoft Business Division, and Entertainment
and Devices Division.

<gallery
widths=200
mode="traditional
style=text-align:center;
margin:auto;">
File:Xbox
Microsoft Surface tablet
One Console Set.jpg|Xbox One console File:
Following the release of Windows Phone, Microsoft Xbox-360-Kinect-Standalone.png|Xbox 360 Kinect
underwent a gradual rebranding of its product range sensor </gallery>
throughout 2011 and 2012the corporations logos, On September 3, 2013, Microsoft agreed to buy Nokia's
products, services, and websites adopted the principles mobile unit for $7 billion.[70] Also in 2013, Amy Hood
and concepts of the Metro design language.[55] Microsoft

158

CHAPTER 22. MICROSOFT

22.2 Businesses
22.2.1 Windows Division, Server and
Tools, Online Services Division

John W. Thompson has been appointed the chairman of Microsoft, taking over from Bill Gates.

became the CFO of Microsoft.[71]

The Alliance for Aordable Internet (A4AI) was
launched in October 2013 and Microsoft is part of the
coalition of public and private organizations that also includes Facebook, Intel and Google. Led by Tim BernersLee, the A4AI seeks to make Internet access more aordable so that access is broadened in the developing world,
where only 31% of people are online. Google will help to
decrease internet access prices so that they fall below the
UN Broadband Commissions worldwide target of 5% of
monthly income.[72]

The companys Client division produces the agship Windows OS line such as Windows 8; it also produces the
Windows Live family of products and services. Server
and Tools produces the server versions of Windows, such
as Windows Server 2008 R2 as well as a set of development tools called Microsoft Visual Studio, Microsoft
Silverlight, a web application framework, and System
Center Conguration Manager, a collection of tools providing remote-control abilities, patch management, software distribution and a hardware/software inventory.
Other server products include: Microsoft SQL Server,
a relational database management system, Microsoft Exchange Server, for certain business-oriented e-mail and
scheduling features, Small Business Server, for messaging and other small business-oriented features; and
Microsoft BizTalk Server, for business process management.
Microsoft provides IT consulting (Microsoft Consulting Services) and produces a set of certication programs handled by the Server and Tools division designed to recognize individuals who have a minimal set
of prociencies in a specic role; this includes developers (Microsoft Certied Solution Developer), system/network analysts (Microsoft Certied Systems Engineer), trainers ("Microsoft Certied Trainers") and administrators ("Microsoft Certied Systems Administrator" and Microsoft Certied Database Administrator).
Microsoft Press, which publishes books, is also managed
by the division. The Online Services Business division
handles the online service MSN and the search engine
Bing. As of December 2009, the company also possesses
an 18% ownership of the cable news channel MSNBC
without any editorial control; however, the division develops the channels website, msnbc.com, in a joint venture
with the channels co-owner, NBC Universal.[77]

In line with the maturing PC business, in July 2013 Microsoft announced that it would reorganize the business
into 4 new business divisions by function: Operating System, Apps, Cloud and Devices. All previous divisions
will be diluted into new divisions without any workforce
cut.[73]
22.2.2 Business Division
On February 4, 2014, Steve Ballmer stepped down as
CEO of Microsoft and was succeeded by Satya Nadella, The Microsoft Business Division produces Microsoft Ofwho previously led Microsofts Cloud and Enterprise ce including Microsoft Oce 2010, the companys
division.[74] On the same day, John W. Thompson took line of oce software. The software product includes
on the role of chairman, with Bill Gates stepping down Word (a word processor), Access (a relational database
from the position to become more active within the com- program), Excel (a spreadsheet program), Outlook
(Groupware, frequently used with Exchange Server),
pany as Technology Advisor.[75]
PowerPoint (presentation software), Publisher (desktop
On April 25, 2014, Microsoft acquired Nokia Devices publishing software) and Sharepoint. A number of other
and Services and formed a new subsidiary, Microsoft Mo- products were added later with the release of Oce
bile Oy.
2003 including Visio, Project, MapPoint, InfoPath and
On September 15, 2014, Microsoft acquired the video OneNote. The division also develops enterprise regame development company Mojang for $2.5 billion, best source planning (ERP) software for companies under the
known for its wildly popular agship game Minecraft.[76] Microsoft Dynamics brand. These include: Microsoft

22.3. CULTURE

159

22.3 Culture
Technical reference for developers and articles for various Microsoft magazines such as Microsoft Systems Journal (MSJ) are available through the Microsoft Developer
Network (MSDN). MSDN also oers subscriptions for
companies and individuals, and the more expensive subscriptions usually oer access to pre-release beta versions of Microsoft software.[80][81] In April 2004 Microsoft launched a community site for developers and
users, titled Channel 9, that provides a wiki and an
Internet forum.[82] Another community site that provides
daily videocasts and other services, On10.net, launched
on March 3, 2006.[83] Free technical support is tradiThe Commons, located on the campus of the companys head- tionally provided through online Usenet newsgroups, and
quarters in Redmond
CompuServe in the past, monitored by Microsoft employees; there can be several newsgroups for a single
product. Helpful people can be elected by peers or Microsoft employees for Microsoft Most Valuable ProfesDynamics AX, Microsoft Dynamics NAV, Microsoft Dy- sional (MVP) status, which entitles them to a sort of spenamics GP, and Microsoft Dynamics SL. They are tar- cial social status and possibilities for awards and other
geted at varying company types and countries, and lim- benets.[84]
ited to organizations with under 7,500 employees.[78]
Also included under the Dynamics brand is the customer Noted for its internal lexicon, the expression eating our
relationship management software Microsoft Dynamics own dog food is used to describe the policy of using prerelease and beta versions of products inside Microsoft in
CRM, part of the Azure Services Platform.
an eort to test them in real-world situations.[85] This is
usually shortened to just dog food and is used as noun,
verb, and adjective. Another bit of jargon, FYIFV or
FYIV (Fuck You, I'm [Fully] Vested), is used by an
employee to indicate they are nancially independent and
[86]
22.2.3 Entertainment and Devices Divi- can avoid work anytime they wish. The company is
also known for its hiring process, mimicked in other orsion
ganizations and dubbed the "Microsoft interview", which
is notorious for o-the-wall questions such as Why is a
manhole cover round?".[87]
See also: Microsoft Mobile Oy
Microsoft is an outspoken opponent of the cap on H1B
visas, which allow companies in the U.S. to employ certain foreign workers. Bill Gates claims the cap on H1B
visas makes it dicult to hire employees for the company, stating I'd certainly get rid of the H1B cap in
2005.[88] Critics of H1B visas argue that relaxing the limits would result in increased unemployment for U.S. citizens due to H1B workers working for lower salaries.[89]
The Human Rights Campaign Corporate Equality Index,
a report of how progressive the organization deems company policies towards LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual and
transsexual) employees, rated Microsoft as 87% from
2002 to 2004 and as 100% from 2005 to 2010 after they
allowed gender expression.[90]

The Entertainment and Devices Division produces the

Windows CE OS for embedded systems and Windows
Phone for smartphones.[79] Microsoft initially entered the
mobile market through Windows CE for handheld devices, eventually developing into the Windows Mobile OS
and now, Windows Phone. Windows CE is designed for
devices where the OS may not directly be visible to the
end user, in particular, appliances and cars. The division also produces computer games, via its in-house game
publisher Microsoft Studios, that run on Windows PCs
and other systems including titles such as Age of Empires, Halo and the Microsoft Flight Simulator series, and
houses the Macintosh Business Unit which produces Mac
OS software including Microsoft Oce 2011 for Mac.
Microsofts Entertainment and Devices Division designs,
markets, and manufactures consumer electronics including the Xbox 360 game console, the handheld Zune media 22.4 Criticism
player, and the television-based Internet appliance MSN
TV. Microsoft also markets personal computer hardware Main article: Criticism of Microsoft
including mice, keyboards, and various game controllers Criticism of Microsoft has followed the companys exissuch as joysticks and gamepads.
tence because of various aspects of its products and busi-

160

CHAPTER 22. MICROSOFT

Helmut Panke and John W. Stanton.[98] Board members
are elected every year at the annual shareholders meeting
using a majority vote system. There are ve committees
within the board which oversee more specic matters.
These committees include the Audit Committee, which
handles accounting issues with the company including
auditing and reporting; the Compensation Committee,
which approves compensation for the CEO and other employees of the company; the Finance Committee, which
handles nancial matters such as proposing mergers and
acquisitions; the Governance and Nominating Committee, which handles various corporate matters including
nomination of the board; and the Antitrust Compliance
Committee, which attempts to prevent company practices
from violating antitrust laws.[99]

BadVista and Defective by Design groups protest against

Windows Vista

ness practices. Ease of use, stability, and security of the

companys software are common targets for critics. More
recently, Trojan horses and other exploits have plagued
numerous users due to faults in the security of Microsoft
Windows and other programs. Microsoft is also accused
of locking vendors into their products, and not following
and complying with existing standards in its software.[91]
Total cost of ownership comparisons of Linux as well as
OS X to Windows are a continuous point of debate.
The company has been in numerous lawsuits by several
governments and other companies for unlawful monopolistic practices. In 2004, the European Union found Microsoft guilty in a highly publicized anti-trust case. Additionally, Microsofts EULA for some of its programs is
often criticized as being too restrictive as well as being
against open source software.
Microsoft has been criticized (along with Yahoo, AOL,
Google and others) for its involvement in censorship in
the Peoples Republic of China.[92] Microsoft has also
come under criticism for outsourcing jobs to China and
India.[93][94][95] There were reports of poor working conditions at a factory in southern China that makes some of
Microsofts products.[96]

22.5 Corporate aairs

The company is run by a board of directors made up
of mostly company outsiders, as is customary for publicly traded companies. Members of the board of directors as of September 2014 are: John W. Thompson, Dina Dublon, Bill Gates, Maria Klawe, David Marquardt, Mason Mort,[97] Satya Nadella, Charles Noski,

Five year history graph of NASDAQ: MSFT stock on July 17,

2013[100]

When Microsoft went public and launched its initial public oering (IPO) in 1986, the opening stock price was
$21; after the trading day, the price closed at $27.75.
As of July 2010, with the companys nine stock splits,
any IPO shares would be multiplied by 288; if one was
to buy the IPO today given the splits and other factors,
it would cost about 9 cents.[9]:235236[101][102] The stock
price peaked in 1999 at around $119 ($60.928 adjusting
for splits).[103] The company began to oer a dividend
on January 16, 2003, starting at eight cents per share for
the scal year followed by a dividend of sixteen cents per
share the subsequent year, switching from yearly to quarterly dividends in 2005 with eight cents a share per quarter
and a special one-time payout of three dollars per share
for the second quarter of the scal year.[103][104] Though
the company had subsequent increases in dividend payouts, the price of Microsofts stock remained steady for
years.[104][105]
One of Microsofts business tactics, described by an executive as "embrace, extend and extinguish, initially embraces a competing standard or product, then extends it
to produce their own version which is then incompatible
with the standard, which in time extinguishes competition
that does not or cannot use Microsofts new version.[106]
Various companies and governments sue Microsoft over
this set of tactics, resulting in billions of dollars in rulings
against the company.[107][36][41] Microsoft claims that the
original strategy is not anti-competitive, but rather an exercise of its discretion to implement features it believes

22.5. CORPORATE AFFAIRS

customers want.[108]

22.5.1

Financial

Standard and Poors and Moodys have both given a AAA

rating to Microsoft, whose assets were valued at $41 billion as compared to only $8.5 billion in unsecured debt.
Consequently, in February 2011 Microsoft released a
corporate bond amounting to $2.25 billion with relatively
low borrowing rates compared to government bonds.[109]

161
on toxic chemicals, recycling and climate change.[119] Microsofts timeline for phasing out BFRs and phthalates in
all products is 2012 but its commitment to phasing out
PVC is not clear. As yet (January 2011) it has no products that are completely free from PVC and BFRs.[120]
Microsofts main U.S. campus received a silver certication from the Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design (LEED) program in 2008, and it installed over
2,000 solar panels on top of its buildings in its Silicon
Valley campus, generating approximately 15 percent of
the total energy needed by the facilities in April 2005.[121]

For the rst time in 20 years Apple Inc. surpassed Microsoft in Q1 2011 quarterly prots and revenues due
to a slowdown in PC sales and continuing huge losses in
Microsofts Online Services Division (which contains its
search engine Bing). Microsoft prots were $5.2 billion,
while Apple Inc. prots were $6 billion, on revenues of
$14.5 billion and $24.7 billion respectively.[110]

Microsoft makes use of alternative forms of transit. It

created one of the worlds largest private bus systems, the
Connector, to transport people from outside the company; for on-campus transportation, the Shuttle Connect uses a large eet of hybrid cars to save fuel. The
company also subsidises regional public transport as an
incentive.[121][122] In February 2010 however, Microsoft
Microsofts Online Services Division has been continu- took a stance against adding additional public transport
ously loss-making since 2006 and in Q1 2011 it lost $726 and high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes to a bridge conmillion. This follows a loss of $2.5 billion for the year necting Redmond to Seattle; the company did not want to
delay the construction any further.[123]
2010.[111]
On July 20, 2012, Microsoft posted its rst quarterly Microsoft was ranked number 1 in the list of the Worlds
loss ever, despite earning record revenues for the quar- Best Multinational Workplaces by the Great Place to
ter and scal year, with a net loss of $492 million Work Institute in 2011.[124]
due to a writedown related to the advertising company
aQuantive, which had been acquired for $6.2 billion back
in 2007.[112]

22.5.3 Marketing

As of January 2014, Microsofts market capitalization

stood at $314B,[113] making it the 8th largest company
In 2004, Microsoft commissioned research rms to do inin the world by market capitalization.[114]
dependent studies comparing the total cost of ownership
On November 14, 2014, Microsoft overtook Exxon Mo- (TCO) of Windows Server 2003 to Linux; the rms conbil to become the 2nd most valuable company by mar- cluded that companies found Windows easier to adminisket capitalization, behind only Apple Inc. Its total mar- trate than Linux, thus those using Windows would adminket value was over $410B - with the stock price hitting istrate faster resulting in lower costs for their company
$50.04 a share, the highest since early 2000.[115]
(i.e. lower TCO).[125] This spurred a wave of related studies; a study by the Yankee Group concluded that upgrading from one version of Windows Server to another costs
22.5.2 Environment
a fraction of the switching costs from Windows Server to
Linux, although companies surveyed noted the increased
In 2011, Greenpeace released a report rating the top ten security and reliability of Linux servers and concern
big brands in cloud computing on their sources of elec- about being locked into using Microsoft products.[126]
tricity for their data centers. At the time, data centers con- Another study, released by the Open Source Developsumed up to 2% of all global electricity and this amount ment Labs, claimed that the Microsoft studies were simwas projected to increase. Phil Radford of Greenpeace ply outdated and one-sided and their survey concluded
said we are concerned that this new explosion in electric- that the TCO of Linux was lower due to Linux adminity use could lock us into old, polluting energy sources istrators managing more servers on average and other
instead of the clean energy available today,[116] and reasons.[127]
called on Amazon, Microsoft and other leaders of the As part of the Get the Facts campaign, Microsoft
information-technology industry must embrace clean en- highlighted the .NET trading platform that it had deergy to power their cloud-based data centers.[117] In veloped in partnership with Accenture for the London
2013, Microsoft agreed to buy power generated by a Stock Exchange, claiming that it provided "ve nines"
Texas wind project to power one of its data centers.[118] reliability. After suering extended downtime and
Microsoft is ranked on the 17th place in Greenpeace's unreliability[128][129] the LSE announced in 2009 that it
Guide to Greener Electronics (16th Edition) that ranks was planning to drop its Microsoft solution and switch to
18 electronics manufacturers according to their policies a Linux based one in 2010.[130][131]

162

CHAPTER 22. MICROSOFT

In 2012, Microsoft hired a political pollster named Mark

Penn, whom the New York Times called famous for bulldozing his political opponents [132] as Executive VicePresident, Advertising and Strategy. Penn created a series
of negative ads targeting one of Microsofts chief competitors, Google. The ads, called "Scroogled", attempt to
make the case that Google is screwing consumers with
search results rigged to favor Googles paid advertisers,
that Gmail violates the privacy of its users to place ad
results related to the content of their emails and shopping results which favor Google products. Tech publications like Tech Crunch have been highly critical of the ad
campaign,[133] while Google employees have embraced
it.[134]

22.5.4

Lay o

quests about specic accounts or identiers.

If the government has a broader voluntary
national security program to gather customer
data, we don't participate in it.[141]
During the rst six months in 2013, Microsoft had received requests that aected between 15,000 and 15,999
accounts.[142] In December 2013, the company made
statement to further emphasis the fact that they take their
customers privacy and data protection very seriously,
even saying that government snooping potentially now
constitutes an advanced persistent threat, alongside sophisticated malware and cyber attacks.[143] The statement also marked the beginning of three-part program to
enhance Microsofts encryption and transparency eorts.
In July 1, 2014, as part of this program they opened the
rst (of many) Microsoft Transparency Center, that provides participating governments with the ability to review source code for our key products, assure themselves
of their software integrity, and conrm there are no back
doors.[144]

In July 2014, Microsoft announced plans to lay o 18,000

employees. Microsoft employed 127,104 people as of
June 5, 2014, making this about a 14 percent reduction
of its workforce as the biggest Microsoft lay o ever. It
will include 12,500 professional and factory personnel. Microsoft has also argued that the United States Congress
Previously, Microsoft has laid o 5,800 jobs in 2009 in should enact strong privacy regulations to protect conline with US nancial crisis.[135][136]
sumer data.[145]

In September 2014, Microsoft laid o 2,100 people, including 747 people in the Seattle-Redmond area, where
the company is headquartered. The rings came as a sec- 22.5.6 Logo
ond wave of the layos that were previously announced.
This brings the total number to over 15,000 out of the Microsoft adopted the so-called "Pac-Man Logo, designed by Scott Baker, in 1987. Baker stated The new
18,000 expected cuts.[137]
logo, in Helvetica italic typeface, has a slash between the
In October 2014, Microsoft revealed that it was almost o and s to emphasize the soft part of the name and condone with the elimination of 18,000 employees which is vey motion and speed.[146] Dave Norris ran an internal
its largest ever layo sweep.
joke campaign to save the old logo, which was green, in
all uppercase, and featured a fanciful letter O, nicknamed
the blibbet, but it was discarded.[147] Microsofts logo with
22.5.5 Cooperation with the United States
the "Your potential. Our passion." tagline below the main
Government
corporate name, is based on a slogan Microsoft used in
2008. In 2002, the company started using the logo in the
Microsoft provides information about reported bugs in United States and eventually started a TV campaign with
their software to intelligence agencies of the United States the slogan, changed from the previous tagline of "Where
government, prior to the public release of the x. A Mi- do you want to go today?".[148][149][150] During the pricrosoft spokesperson has stated that the corporation runs vate MGX (Microsoft Global Exchange) conference in
several programs that facilitate the sharing of such infor- 2010, Microsoft unveiled the companys next tagline, Be
mation with the U.S. government.[138]
Whats Next..[151]
Following media reports about PRISM, NSAs massive On August 23, 2012, Microsoft unveiled a new corpoelectronic surveillance program, in May 2013, several rate logo at the opening of its 23rd Microsoft store in
technology companies were identied as participants, in- Boston indicating the companys shift of focus from the
cluding Microsoft.[139] According to leaks of said pro- classic style to the tile-centric modern interface which it
gram, Microsoft joined the PRISM program in 2007.[140] uses/will use on the Windows Phone platform, Xbox 360,
However, in June 2013, an ocial statement from Mi- Windows 8 and the upcoming Oce Suites.[152] The new
crosoft atly denied their participation in the program:
logo also includes four squares with the colors of the thenWe provide customer data only when we
receive a legally binding order or subpoena to
do so, and never on a voluntary basis. In addition we only ever comply with orders for re-

current Windows logo which have been used to represent

Microsofts four major products: Windows (blue), Oce
(red), Xbox (green), and Bing (yellow).[153] However this
logo is not completely newit was featured in Windows
95 commercials from the mid-1990s.[154][155]

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down from full-time Microsoft role, page 2. ZDNet. Re- [122] Fostering Alternative Ways to Commute at Microsoft.
Microsoft. Archived from the original on May 1, 2008.
trieved August 18, 2008.
[106] Rodger, Will (November 8, 1998). Intel exec: MS [123] Seattle hires consultant to look at 520 bridge plan. King5
wanted to 'extend, embrace and extinguish' competition.
Television News. February 23, 2010. Retrieved July 3,
ZDNet. Retrieved August 18, 2008.
2010.
[107] Microsoft Corp. Licenses Burst.com Patents & Settles
Suit (Press release). Burst.com Inc. March 11, 2005.
Retrieved August 18, 2008.
* Orlowski, Andrew (March 5, 2004). Eolas web patent
nullied. The Register. Situation Publishing Ltd. Retrieved May 18, 2006.
* Dennis, Tony (December 24, 2002). Sendo & Microsoft it all ends in tears. TheInquirer.net. Archived
from the original on May 29, 2008. Retrieved May 18,
2006.
* Nystedt, Dan (December 7, 2005). Update: Microsoft
ned $32M by South Korea. IDG News Service. Retrieved August 18, 2008.

[124] Tu, Janet I. (October 28, 2011). Microsoft Pri0 | Microsoft named best multinational workplace. Seattle
Times Newspaper. Retrieved November 3, 2011.
[125] Bishop, Todd (January 27, 2004). Studies on Linux help
their patron: Microsoft. Seattle Post-Intelligencer (Hearst
Seattle Media, LLC). Retrieved July 16, 2010.
[126] Foley, Mary Jo (March 24, 2004). Yankee Independently
Pits Windows TCO vs. Linux TCO. eWeek. Retrieved
July 14, 2010.

[127] Jaques, Robert (February 13, 2006). Linux fans hit back
at Microsoft TCO claims. vnunet.com. Retrieved August
[108] U.S. v. Microsoft: We're Defending Our Right to Inno18, 2008.
vate. The Wall Street Journal. May 20, 1998. Archived
from the original on November 17, 2007. Retrieved [128] Rowena Mason (September 10, 2008). Seven-hour LSE
blackout caused by double glitch. London: The TeleMarch 31, 2006.
graph.
[109] Microsoft sells $2.25 billion of debt at low rates.
Reuters. February 4, 2011.
[129] London Stock Exchange trading hit by technical glitch.
BBC News. November 26, 2009.
[110] Charles Arthur (April 28, 2011). Microsoft falls behind
Apple for rst time in 20 years | Technology. London: [130] David M. Williams (October 8, 2009). London Stock
The Guardian. Retrieved May 11, 2011.
Exchange gets the facts and dumps Windows for Linux.
ITWire.
[111] MG Siegler Apr 29, 2011 (April 29, 2011). When Will
Microsofts Internet Bloodbath End?". Techcrunch.com.
[131] London Stock Exchange Rejects .NET For Open
Retrieved May 11, 2011.
Source. Slashdot. October 6, 2009.
[112] White, Martha. Microsoft reports rst quarterly loss
[132] Wingeld, Nick (December 14, 2012). Microsoft Battles
ever. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
Google by Hiring Political Brawler Mark Penn. The New
York Times.
[113] Microsoft Overview. Marketwatch. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
[133] Scroogled: Why So Negative, Microsoft?". TechCrunch.
[114] Global Top 100 Companies. PWC. Retrieved 2 Febru2013-02-10. Retrieved 2014-04-18.
ary 2014.
[134] Kashmir Hill (November 21, 2013). Googlers Love Mi[115] Microsoft Surpasses Exxon as 2nd Most Valuable Co..
crosofts 'Scroogled' Gear. Mug and Shirts Sell Out..
AssociatedPress. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
Forbes.
[116] Dirty Data Report Card. Greenpeace. Retrieved Au[135] Microsoft to cut up to 18,000 jobs over next year. July
gust 22, 2013.
17, 2014.
[117] Amazon, Microsoft: Lets keep 'the cloud' clean, Phil
[136] Microsoft Layos Greater Than Expected: Up to 18,000
Radford
Jobs Being Cut. Gamespot. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
[118] Microsoft looks to boost eco credentials with wind[137] By Alex Wilhelm, TechCrunch. Lays O 2,100 More
powered data centre, Suzanne Goldenberg
Employees. September 18, 2014. September 18, 2014.
[119] Guide to Greener Electronics Greenpeace International
(16th Edition)". Greenpeace International. Retrieved [138] U.S. Agencies Said to Swap Data With Thousands of
April 3, 2012.
Firms. Bloomberg.

22.8. EXTERNAL LINKS

[139] Ryan W. Neal (July 11, 2013). Snowden Reveals

Microsoft PRISM Cooperation: Helped NSA Decrypt
Emails, Chats, Skype Conversations. International Business Times.
[140] Greenwald, Glenn; MacAskill, Ewen (June 7, 2013).
NSA Prism program taps in to user data of Apple,
Google and others. The Guardian. Guardian News and
Media Limited. Retrieved April 26, 2014.
[141] Johnson, Kevin; Martin, Scott; O'Donnell, Jayne; Winter,
Michael (June 15, 2013). Reports: NSA Siphons Data
from 9 Major Net Firms. USA Today. Retrieved June 6,
2013.
[142] Microsoft, Facebook, Google and Yahoo release US
surveillance requests. The Guardian. February 3, 2014.
[143] Smith, Brad (December 4, 2013). Protecting customer
data from government snooping. The Ocial Microsoft
Blog. Retrieved 1 January 2015.
[144] Thomlinson, Matt (July 1, 2014). Advancing our encryption and transparency eorts. Microsoft on the Issues.
Retrieved 1 January 2015.
[145] Heiner, David. Request for Comment: Big Data and
Consumer Privacy in the Internet Economy. National
Telecommunications and Information Administration. Microsoft. Retrieved 12 August 2014.
[146] Computer Reseller News Magazine. March 1987.
[147] Osterman, Larry (July 14, 2005). Remember the blibbet. Larry Ostermans WebLog. Microsoft. Retrieved
August 18, 2008.
[148] The Rise and Rise of the Redmond Empire. Wired. December 1998. Retrieved August 18, 2008.
[149] Schmelzer, Randi (January 9, 2006). McCann Thinks
Local for Global Microsoft. Adweek. Retrieved August
18, 2008.
[150] Reimer, Jeremy (January 23, 2006). Microsoft set to
launch new marketing campaign. Ars Technica (Cond
Nast Digital). Retrieved August 18, 2008.
[151] Topolsky, Joshua (July 22, 2010). New Microsoft brand
logos, company tagline revealed at MGX event? (update:
no new logos, tagline is a go)". Engadget. AOL. Retrieved
August 2, 2012.
[152] Meisner, Jerey (August 23, 2012). Microsoft Unveils
a New Look. The Ocial Microsoft Blog. Retrieved
August 23, 2012.
[153] Eric, Steven H. (August 23, 2012). NEW MICROSOFT
LOGO REVEALED. Flapship.com. Retrieved August
23, 2012.
[154] Microsofts new logo has ties to the past.
[155] Microsofts logo is not new, its from 1995.
[156] Microsoft Unveils a New Look. Microsoft. August
2012. Retrieved August 23, 2012.

167

22.8 External links

Ocial website
Ocial blog

Business data for Microsoft Corporation:

Hoovers
Reuters
SEC lings

Microsoft companies grouped at OpenCorporates

Coordinates: 473823N 122742W / 47.63972N
122.12833W

Chapter 23

IBM
This article is about the technology company sometimes
referred to as Big Blue. For other uses of these terms,
see IBM (disambiguation) and Big Blue (disambiguation).

Fortran programming language, SABRE airline reservation system, DRAM, copper wiring in semiconductors,
the silicon-on-insulator (SOI) semiconductor manufacturing process, and Watson articial intelligence.

IBM has constantly evolved since its inception, acquiring properties such as Kenexa (2012) and SPSS (2009)
and organizations such as PwC's consulting business
(2002), spinning o companies like printer manufacturer Lexmark (1991), and selling o product lines like
its personal computer and server businesses to Lenovo
(2005, 2014). In 2014 IBM announced that it would ofoad IBM Micro Electronics semiconductor manufacThe company was founded in 1911 as the Computing- turing to Global Foundries. This transition is in progress
Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR) through a merger as of early 2015.
of the Tabulating Machine Company, the International
Time Recording Company, and the Computing Scale
Company.[4][5] CTR was changed to International Busi- 23.1 History
ness Machines in 1924, using a name which had originated with CTRs Canadian subsidiary. The acronym
IBM followed. Securities analysts nicknamed the com- Main article: History of IBM
pany Big Blue for its size and common use of the color
in products, packaging, and logo.[6]
In the 1880s, three technologies emerged that would form
In 2012, Fortune ranked IBM the No. 2 largest U.S. rm the core of what would become International Business
E. Pitrat patented the computin terms of number of employees (435,000 worldwide),[7] Machines (IBM). Julius
[16]
Alexander
Dey invented the dial
[8] ing scale in 1885;
the No. 4 largest in terms of market capitalization,
[17]
recorder
(1888);
and
Herman
Hollerith patented the
[9]
the No. 9 most protable, and the No. 19 largest
[18]
Electric
Tabulating
Machine
and
Willard Bundy in[10]
rm in terms of revenue.
Globally, the company was
vented
a
time
clock
to
record
a
workers
arrival and deranked the No. 31 largest in terms of revenue by Forbes
[19]
parture
time
on
a
paper
tape
in
1889.
[11][12]
for 2011.
Other rankings for 2011/2012 include
The International Business Machines Corporation
(IBM) is an American multinational technology and
consulting corporation, with headquarters in Armonk,
New York, United States. IBM manufactures and
markets computer hardware and software, and oers
infrastructure, hosting and consulting services in areas
ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology.[3]

No. 1 company for leaders (Fortune), No. 1 green company in the U.S. (Newsweek), No. 2 best global brand
(Interbrand), No. 2 most respected company (Barrons),
No. 5 most admired company (Fortune), and No. 18
most innovative company (Fast Company).[13]
IBM has 12 research laboratories worldwide, bundled
into IBM Research. As of 2013 the company held the
record for most patents generated by a business for 22
consecutive years.[14] Its employees have garnered ve
Nobel Prizes, six Turing Awards, ten National Medals
of Technology, and ve National Medals of Science.[15]
Notable company inventions include the automated teller
machine (ATM), the oppy disk, the hard disk drive,
the magnetic stripe card, the relational database, the
Universal Product Code (UPC), the nancial swap, the

On June 16, 1911, these technologies and their respective companies were merged by Charles Ranlett Flint
to form the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company
(C-T-R).[20] The New York City-based company had
1,300 employees and oces and plants in Endicott and
Binghamton, New York; Dayton, Ohio; Detroit, Michigan; Washington, D.C.; and Toronto, Ontario. It manufactured and sold machinery ranging from commercial
scales and industrial time recorders to meat and cheese
slicers, along with tabulators and punched cards.
Flint recruited Thomas J. Watson, Sr., formerly of the
National Cash Register Company, to help lead the company in 1914.[20] Watson implemented generous sales
incentives, a focus on customer service, an insistence
on well-groomed, dark-suited salesmen and an evangel-

168

23.1. HISTORY
ical fervor for instilling company pride and loyalty in every worker.[21] His favorite slogan, THINK, became
a mantra for C-T-Rs employees, and within 11 months
of joining C-T-R, Watson became its president.[21] The
company focused on providing large-scale, custom-built
tabulating solutions for businesses, leaving the market for
small oce products to others. During Watsons rst four
years, revenues more than doubled to $9 million and the
companys operations expanded to Europe, South America, Asia, and Australia.[21] On February 14, 1924, C-T-R
was renamed the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM),[13] citing the need to align its name with the
growth and extension of [its] activities.[22]

23.1.1

19301979

169
In 1961, Thomas J. Watson, Jr., was elected chairman
of the board and Albert L. Williams became company
president. The same year IBM developed the SABRE
(Semi-Automatic Business-Related Environment) reservation system for American Airlines and introduced the
highly successful Selectric typewriter.
In 1963, IBM employees and computers helped NASA
track the orbital ight of the Mercury astronauts. A year
later it moved its corporate headquarters from New York
City to Armonk, New York. The latter half of the 1960s
saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, participating in the 1965 Gemini ights, 1966 Saturn ights,
and 1969 lunar mission.
On April 7, 1964 IBM announced the rst computer system family, the revolutionary IBM System/360. Sold
between 1964 and 1978, it spanned the complete range
of commercial and scientic applications from large to
small, allowing companies for the rst time to upgrade to
models with greater computing capability without having
to rewrite their application.
In 1974, IBM engineer George J. Laurer developed the
Universal Product Code.[27] On October 11, 1973, IBM
introduced the IBM 3666, a laser-scanning point-of-sale
barcode reader which would become the backbone of retail checkouts. On June 26, 1974, at Marshs supermarket in Troy, Ohio, a pack of Wrigleys Juicy Fruit chewing
gum was the rst-ever product scanned. It is now on display at the Smithsonian Institutions National Museum of
American History in Washington, D.C.

NACA researchers using an IBM type 704 electronic data processing machine in 1957

In the late 1970s, IBM underwent a wave of internal convulsions between a management faction wanting to concentrate on its bread-and-butter mainframe business and
one desiring to expand into the emerging personal computer industry.

In 1937, IBMs tabulating equipment enabled organizations to process unprecedented amounts of data, its clients
including the U.S. Government, during its rst eort to
23.1.2
maintain the employment records for 26 million people
pursuant to the Social Security Act,[23] and the Third Reich,[24] largely through the German subsidiary Dehomag.
During the Second World War the company produced
small arms for the American war eort (M1 Carbine, and
Browning Automatic Rie). IBM provided translation
services for the Nuremberg Trials. In 1947, IBM opened
its rst oce in Bahrain,[25] as well as an oce in Saudi
Arabia to service the needs of the Arabian-American Oil
Company that would grow to become Saudi Business Machines (SBM).[26]
In 1952, Thomas Watson, Sr., stepped down after almost
40 years at the company helm; his son, Thomas Watson, Jr., was named president. In 1956, the company
demonstrated the rst practical example of articial intelligence when Arthur L. Samuel of IBMs Poughkeepsie, New York, laboratory programmed an IBM 704 not
merely to play checkers but learn from its own experience. In 1957, the FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslation) scientic programming language was developed.

1980Present

IBMs Blue Gene supercomputers were awarded the National

Medal of Technology and Innovation by U.S. President Barack
Obama on September 18, 2009.

Financial swaps were rst introduced to the public in

1981 when IBM and the World Bank entered into a swap

170

CHAPTER 23. IBM

agreement.[28] The IBM PC, originally designated IBM

5150, was introduced in 1981, and it soon became the industry standard. In 1991, IBM sold printer manufacturer
Lexmark. In 1993, IBM posted a US$8 billion loss, at the
time was the biggest in American corporate history.[29]

with Apple Inc. in mobile enterprise.[37][38]

In 2002, IBM acquired PwC consulting. In 2003, it initiated a project to redene company values. Using its Jam
technology, it hosted a three-day Internet-based online
discussion of key business issues with 50,000 employeess. Results were data mined by sophisticated text analysis software (eClassier) for common themes. Three
emerged, expressed as: Dedication to every clients success, Innovation that mattersfor our company and for
the world, and Trust and personal responsibility in all
relationships.[30] Another three-day Jam was conducted
in 2004, with 52,000 employees discussing ways to implement company values in practice.[31]

In September 2014, it was announced that IBM would

sell its x86 server division to Lenovo for a fee of $2.1
billion.[40] That same year, Reuters referred to IBM as
largely a computer services supplier.[41]

On August 11, 2014, IBM announced it has acquired

the business operations of Lighthouse Security Group,
LLC, a premier cloud security services provider. Financial terms were not disclosed.[39]

In November 2014, IBM and Twitter announced a global

landmark partnership they claim will change how institutions and businesses understand their customers, markets and trends. With Twitters data on people and
IBMs cloud-based analytics and customer engagement
platforms they plan to help enterprises make better, more
informed decisions. The partnership will give enterprises
and institutions a way to make sense of Twitters mountain of data using IBMs Watson supercomputer.[42]

23.2 Rank
In 2012, Fortune ranked IBM the No. 2 largest U.S.
rm in terms of number of employees,[7] the No. 4
largest in terms of market capitalization,[8] the No. 9
most protable,[9] and the No. 19 largest rm in terms
of revenue.[10] Globally, the company was ranked the No.
31 largest rm in terms of revenue by Forbes for 2011.[11]
Other rankings for 2011/2012 include the following:[13]
IBM showing their various innovations at CeBIT 2010 in
Hanover, Germany

In 2005, the company sold its personal computer business to Lenovo, and in the same year, agreed to acquire
Micromuse.[32] A year later, IBM launched Secure Blue,
a low-cost hardware design for data encryption that can
be built into a microprocessor.[33] In 2009, it acquired
software company SPSS Inc. Later in 2009, IBMs Blue
Gene supercomputing program was awarded the National
Medal of Technology and Innovation by U.S. President
Barack Obama. In 2011, IBM gained worldwide attention for its articial intelligence program Watson, which
was exhibited on Jeopardy! where it won against game
show champions Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter. As of
2012, IBM had been the top annual recipient of U.S.
patents for 20 consecutive years.[34]

No. 1 company for leaders (Fortune)

No. 1 green company in the U.S. (Newsweek)[43]
No. 2 best global brand (Interbrand)
No. 2 most respected company (Barrons)[44]
No. 5 most admired company (Fortune)
No. 18 most innovative company (Fast Company)
For 2012, IBMs brand was valued by Interbrand at $75.5
billion.[45]

For 2012, Vault ranked IBM Global Technology Services

No. 1 in tech consulting for cyber security, operations
and implementation, and public sector; and No. 2 in
IBMs closing value of $214 billion on September 29, outsourcing.[46]
2011 surpassed Microsoft's $213.2 billion valuation. It
was the rst time since 1996 that IBMs closing price exceeded its software rivals. On August 16, 2012, IBM 23.3 Corporate aairs
announced it entered an agreement to buy Texas Memory Systems.[35] Later that month, IBM announced it has IBM is headquartered in Armonk, New York.[47] The
agreed to buy Kenexa.
283,000-square-foot (26,300 m2 ) glass and stone buildIn June 2013, IBM acquired SoftLayer Technologies, a ing sits on a 25-acre (10 ha) parcel amid a 432 acre forweb hosting service, in a deal of around $2 billion;[36] mer apple orchard the company purchased in the midand in July 2014, the company announced a partnership 1950s.[48]

23.5. WORK ENVIRONMENT

The companys 14 member Board of Directors is responsible for overall corporate management. As of Cathie
Black's resignation in November 2010 its membership
(by aliation and year of joining) included: Alain J.
P. Belda '08 (Alcoa), William R. Brody '07 (Salk Institute / Johns Hopkins University), Kenneth Chenault
'98 (American Express), Michael L. Eskew '05 (UPS),
Shirley Ann Jackson '05 (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute), Andrew N. Liveris '10 (Dow Chemical), W. James
McNerney, Jr. '09 (Boeing), James W. Owens '06
(Caterpillar), Samuel J. Palmisano '00 (IBM), Joan Spero
'04 (Doris Duke Charitable Foundation), Sidney Taurel
'01 (Eli Lilly), and Lorenzo Zambrano '03 (Cemex).[49]
On January 21, 2014 IBM announced that company executives would forgo bonuses for scal year 2013. The
move came as the rm reported a 5% drop in sales and
1% decline in net prot over 2012. It also committed
to a $1.2bn plus expansion of its data center and cloudstorage business, including the development of 15 new
data centers.[50] After ten successive quarters of at or
sliding sales under Chief Executive Virginia Rometty
IBM is being forced to look at new approaches. Said
Rometty, Weve got to reinvent ourselves like weve done
in prior generations.[51]

23.4 Facilities
The company has twelve research labs worldwide, bundled under IBM Research and headquartered at the
Thomas J. Watson Research Center in New York. Others include the Almaden lab in California, Austin lab in
Texas, Australia lab in Melbourne, Brazil lab in So Paulo
and Rio de Janeiro, China lab in Beijing and Shanghai,
Ireland lab in Dublin, Haifa lab, in Israel, India lab in
Delhi and Bangalore, Tokyo lab, Zurich lab and Africa
lab in Nairobi.
Other major campus installations include towers in
Montreal, Paris, and Atlanta; software labs in RaleighDurham, Rome, Cracow and Toronto; Johannesburg,
Seattle; and facilities in Hakozaki and Yamato. The
company also operates the IBM Scientic Center,
Hursley House, the Canada Head Oce Building, IBM
Rochester, and the Somers Oce Complex. The companys contributions to architecture and design, which
include works by Eero Saarinen, Ludwig Mies van der
Rohe, and I.M. Pei, have been recognized. Van der
Rohes 330 North Wabash building in Chicago, the original center of the companys research division post-World
War II, was recognized with the 1990 Honor Award from
the National Building Museum.[52]

171
IBM Rochester (Minnesota), nicknamed the Big
Blue Zoo
IBM Avenida de Amrica Building in Madrid, Spain
Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown
Heights, New York, designed by Eero Saarinen
Somers (New York) Oce Complex, designed by
I.M. Pei
IBM Japan Makuhari Technical Center, designed by
Yoshio Taniguchi
IBM Haifa Research Lab, Israel

23.5 Work environment

IBMs employee management practices can be traced
back to its roots. In 1914, CEO Thomas J. Watson boosted company spirit by creating employee sports
teams, hosting family outings, and furnishing a company
band. In 1924 the Quarter Century Club, which recognizes employees with 25 years of service, was organized
and the rst issue of Business Machines, IBMs internal
publication, was published. In 1925, the rst meeting of
the Hundred Percent Club, composed of IBM salesmen
who meet their quotas, convened in Atlantic City, New
Jersey.
IBM was among the rst corporations to provide group
life insurance (1934), survivor benets (1935) and paid
vacations (1937). In 1932 IBM created an Education Department to oversee training for employees, which oversaw the completion of the IBM Schoolhouse at Endicott
in 1933. In 1935, the employee magazine Think was
created. Also that year, IBM held its rst training class
for female systems service professionals. In 1942, IBM
launched a program to train and employ disabled people in Topeka, Kansas. The next year classes begin in
New York City, and soon the company was asked to join
the Presidents Committee for Employment of the Handicapped. In 1946, the company hired its rst black salesman, 18 years before the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In
1947, IBM announced a Total and Permanent Disability
Income Plan for employees. A vested rights pension was
added to the IBM retirement plan.

In 1952, Thomas J. Watson, Jr., published the companys

rst written equal opportunity policy letter, one year before the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Brown vs. Board
of Education and 11 years before the Civil Rights Act of
1964. In 1961, IBMs nondiscrimination policy was expanded to include sex, national origin, and age. The following year, IBM hosted its rst Invention Award Dinner
honoring 34 outstanding IBM inventors; and in 1963, the
IBM Building in West Boca Raton, Florida The company named the rst eight IBM Fellows in a new FelBoca Corporate Center and Campus was originally lowship Program that recognizes senior IBM scientists,
one of IBMs research labs where the PC was cre- engineers and other professionals for outstanding techniated.
cal achievements.

172

CHAPTER 23. IBM

A dark (or gray) suit, white shirt, and a sincere tie[62]
was the public uniform for IBM employees for most of
the 20th century. During IBMs management transformation in the 1990s, CEO Louis V. Gerstner, Jr. relaxed
these codes, normalizing the dress and behavior of IBM
employees to resemble their counterparts in other large
technology companies. Since then IBMs dress code is
business casual although employees often wear business
suits during client meetings.[63]
On June 16, 2011, as part of its centenary celebrations[64]
the company announced IBM100, a year-long grants
program to fund employee participation in volunteer
projects.

23.6 Research and inventions

An IBM delivery tricycle in Johannesburg, South Africa in 1965

On September 21, 1953, Thomas Watson, Jr., the companys president at the time, sent out a controversial letter to all IBM employees stating that IBM needed to
hire the best people, regardless of their race, ethnic origin, or gender. He also publicized the policy so that in
his negotiations to build new manufacturing plants with
the governors of two states in the U.S. South, he could
be clear that IBM would not build "separate-but-equal"
workplaces.[53] In 1984, IBM added sexual orientation to
its nondiscrimination policy. The company stated that
this would give IBM a competitive advantage because
IBM would then be able to hire talented people its com- An anechoic chamber inside IBMs Yamato research facility
petitors would turn down.[54]
IBM was the only technology company ranked in Working
Mother magazines Top 10 for 2004, and one of two technology companies in 2005.[55][56] On October 10, 2005,
IBM became the rst major company in the world to
commit formally to not use genetic information in employment decisions. The announcement was made shortly
after IBM began working with the National Geographic
Society on its Genographic Project.
IBM provides same-sex partners of its employees
with health benets and provides an anti-discrimination
clause. The Human Rights Campaign has consistently
rated IBM 100% on its index of gay-friendliness since
2003 (in 2002, the year it began compiling its report
on major companies, IBM scored 86%).[57] In 2007 and
again in 2010, IBM UK was ranked rst in Stonewalls
annual Workplace Equality Index for UK employers.[58]
The company has traditionally resisted labor union
organizing,[59] although unions represent some IBM
workers outside the United States.[60] In 2009, the Unite
union stated that several hundred employees joined following the announcement in the UK of pension cuts
that left many employees facing a shortfall in projected
pensions.[61]

In 1945, The Watson Scientic Computing Laboratory

was founded at Columbia University in New York, New
York. The renovated fraternity house on Manhattans
West Side was used as IBMs rst laboratory devoted to
pure science. It was the forerunner of IBM Research, the
largest industrial research organization in the world, with
twelve labs on six continents.[65]
In 1966, IBM researcher Robert H. Dennard invented
Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) cells, onetransistor memory cells that store each single bit of information as an electrical charge in an electronic circuit.
The technology permits major increases in memory density and is widely adopted throughout the industry where
it remains in widespread use today.
IBM has been a leading proponent of the Open Source
Initiative, and began supporting Linux in 1998.[66] The
company invests billions of dollars in services and software based on Linux through the IBM Linux Technology Center, which includes over 300 Linux kernel developers.[67] IBM has also released code under
dierent open source licenses, such as the platformindependent software framework Eclipse (worth approximately US$40 million at the time of the donation),[68]

23.7. SELECTED CURRENT PROJECTS

the three-sentence International Components for Unicode
(ICU) license, and the Java-based relational database
management system (RDBMS) Apache Derby. IBMs
open source involvement has not been trouble-free, however (see SCO v. IBM).
In 2013, Booz and Company placed IBM sixteenth
among the 20 most innovative companies in the world.
The company spends 6% of its revenue ($6.3 billion) in
research and development.[69]
Famous inventions by IBM include the following:
Automated teller machine (ATM)
Floppy disk
Hard disk drive
Electronic keypunch
Magnetic stripe card
Virtual machine
Scanning tunneling microscope
Reduced instruction set computing
Relational database
Universal Product Code (UPC)
Financial swap
SABRE airline reservation system

173
IBM History Flow Visualization Application A
tool for visualizing dynamic, evolving documents
and the interactions of multiple collaborating authors.
IBM Linux on POWER Performance Simulator A
tool that provides users of Linux on Power a set of
performance models for IBMs POWER processors.
Database File Archive And Restoration Management An application for archiving and restoring
hard disk drive les using le references stored in a
database.
Policy Management for Autonomic Computing A
policy-based autonomic management infrastructure
that simplies the automation of IT and business
processes.
FairUCE A spam lter that veries sender identity
instead of ltering content.
Unstructured Information Management Architecture (UIMA) SDK A Java SDK that supports the
implementation, composition, and deployment of
applications working with unstructured data.
Accessibility Browser A web-browser specically
designed to assist people with visual impairments, to
be released as open source software. Also known as
the A-Browser, the technology will aim to eliminate the need for a mouse, relying instead completely on voice-controls, buttons and predened
shortcut keys.

Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM)

Watson articial intelligence

23.7 Selected current projects

DeveloperWorks is a website run by IBM for software
developers and IT professionals. It contains how-to articles and tutorials, as well as software downloads and code
samples, discussion forums, podcasts, blogs, wikis, and
other resources for developers and technical professionals. Subjects range from open, industry-standard technologies like Java, Linux, SOA and web services, web
development, Ajax, PHP, and XML to IBMs products
(WebSphere, Rational, Lotus, Tivoli and Information
Management). In 2007, developerWorks was inducted
into the Jolt Hall of Fame.[70]

Watson, an IBM articial intelligence computer, is capable of

learning as it operates.

Virtually all console gaming systems of the previous generation used microprocessors developed by IBM. The
Xbox 360 contains a PowerPC tri-core processor, which
alphaWorks is IBMs source for emerging software tech- was designed and produced by IBM in less than 24
nologies. These technologies include:
months.[71] Sonys PlayStation 3 features the Cell BE
microprocessor designed jointly by IBM, Toshiba, and
Flexible Internet Evaluation Report Architecture Sony. IBM also provided the microprocessor that serves
A highly exible architecture for the design, display, as the heart of Nintendo's new Wii U system, which debuted in 2012.[72] The new Power Architecture-based
and reporting of Internet surveys.

174
microprocessor includes IBMs latest technology in an
energy-saving silicon package.[73] Nintendo's seventhgeneration console, Wii, features an IBM chip codenamed Broadway. The older Nintendo GameCube utilizes the Gekko processor, also designed by IBM.
In May 2002, IBM and Buttery.net, Inc. announced the
Buttery Grid, a commercial grid for the online video
gaming market.[74] In March 2006, IBM announced separate agreements with Hoplon Infotainment, Online Game
Services Incorporated (OGSI), and RenderRocket to provide on-demand content management and blade server
computing resources.[75]
IBM announced it will launch its new software, called
Open Client Oering which is to run on Linux,
Microsoft Windows and Apples Mac OS X. The company states that its new product allows businesses to offer employees a choice of using the same software on
Windows and its alternatives. This means that Open
Client Oering is to cut costs of managing whether to
use Linux or Apple relative to Windows. There will be
no necessity for companies to pay Microsoft for its licenses for operating systems since the operating systems
will no longer rely on software which is Windows-based.
One alternative to Microsofts oce document formats
is the Open Document Format software, whose development IBM supports. It is going to be used for several tasks
like: word processing, presentations, along with collaboration with Lotus Notes, instant messaging and blog tools
as well as an Internet Explorer competitor the Mozilla
Firefox web browser. IBM plans to install Open Client on
5% of its desktop PCs. The Linux oering has been made
available as the IBM Client for Smart Work product on
the Ubuntu and Red Hat Enterprise Linux platforms.[76]

CHAPTER 23. IBM

ware that can be built into microprocessors. A year
later, IBM unveiled Project Big Green, a re-direction
of $1 billion per year across its businesses to increase
energy eciency. On November 2008, IBMs CEO,
Sam Palmisano, during a speech at the Council on Foreign Relations, outlined a new agenda for building a
Smarter Planet.[79] On March 1, 2011, IBM announced
the Smarter Computing framework to support Smarter
Planet.[80] On Aug 18, 2011, as part of its eort in cognitive computing, IBM has produced chips that imitate
neurons and synapses. These microprocessors do not use
von Neumann architecture, and they consume less memory and power.[81]
IBM also holds the SmartCamp program globally. The
program searches for fresh start-up companies that IBM
can partner with to solve world problems. IBM holds 17
SmartCamp events around the world.[82] Since July 2011,
IBM has partnered with Pennies, the electronic charity
box, and produced a software solution for IBM retail customers that provides an easy way to donate money when
paying in-store by credit or debit card. Customers donate
just a few pence (1p-99p) a time and every donation goes
to UK charities.
In January 2014, IBM announced plans to invest more
than $1.2bn (735m) into its data centers and cloud storage business. It plans to build 15 new centers around the
world, bringing the total number up to 40 during 2014.[83]

In July 2014, the company revealed it was investing $3

billion over the following ve years to create computer
functionality to resemble how the human brain thinks. A
spokesman said that basic computer architecture had not
altered since the 1940s. IBM says its goal is to design
a neural chip that mimics the human brain, with 10 bilThe UC2 (Unied Communications and Collaboration) lion neurons and 100 trillion synapses, but that uses just
Client Platform is an IBM and Cisco Systems joint 1 kilowatt of power.[84]
project based on Eclipse and OSGi. It will oer the numerous Eclipse application developers a unied platform
for an easier work environment. The software based on
23.8 Environmental record
UC2 platform will provide major enterprises with easyto-use communication solutions, such as the Lotus based
Sametime. In the future the Sametime users will benet IBM was recognized as one of the Top 20 Best Workfrom such additional functions as click-to-call and voice places for Commuters by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 2005. The award was to
mailing.[77]
recognize Fortune 500 companies which provided emRedbooks are publicly available online books about best
ployees with excellent commuter benets to help reduce
practices with IBM products. They describe the prodtrac and air pollution.[85]
ucts features, eld experience and dos and don'ts, while
leaving aside marketing buzz. Available formats are Red- The birthplace of IBM, Endicott, suered pollution for
decades, however. IBM used liquid cleaning agents
books, Redpapers and Redpieces.
in circuit board assembly operation for more than two
Extreme Blue is a company initiative that uses expedecades, and six spills and leaks were recorded, includrienced IBM engineers, talented interns, and business
ing one leak in 1979 of 4,100 gallons from an undermanagers to develop high-value technology. The project
ground tank. These left behind volatile organic comis designed to analyze emerging business needs and the
pounds in the towns soil and aquifer. Traces of volatile
technologies that can solve them. These projects mostly
organic compounds have been identied in Endicotts
involve rapid-prototyping of high-prole software and
drinking water, but the levels are within regulatory limits.
hardware projects.[78]
Also, from 1980, IBM has pumped out 78,000 gallons
In 2006, IBM launched Secure Blue, encryption hard- of chemicals, including trichloroethane, freon, benzene

23.10. SEE ALSO

and perchloroethene to the air and allegedly caused several cancer cases among the townspeople. IBM Endicott has been identied by the Department of Environmental Conservation as the major source of pollution,
though traces of contaminants from a local dry cleaner
and other polluters were also found. Remediation and
testing are ongoing,[86] however according to city ocials, tests show that the water is safe to drink.[87]

175
240 dots per inch. In 1990 company scientists used a
scanning tunneling microscope to arrange 35 individual
xenon atoms to spell out the company acronym. It was
the rst structure assembled one atom at a time.[92]

Tokyo Ohka Kogyo Co., Ltd. (TOK) and IBM are collaborating to establish new, low-cost methods for bringing
the next generation of solar energy products, called CIGS
(Copper-Indium-Gallium-Selenide) solar cell modules,
to market. Use of thin lm technology, such as CIGS, has
great promise in reducing the overall cost of solar cells
and further enabling their widespread adoption.[88][89]
IBM is exploring four main areas of photovoltaic research: using current technologies to develop cheaper and
more ecient silicon solar cells, developing new solutionprocessed thin lm photovoltaic devices, concentrator
photovoltaics, and future generation photovoltaic architectures based upon nanostructures such as semiconductor quantum dots and nanowires.[90]

23.9 Company logo and nickname

IBM spelled out using 35 xenon atoms

Big Blue is a nickname for IBM derived in the 1960s

from the companys blue logo and color scheme, originally adopted in 1947. True Blue referred to a loyal
IBM customer, and business writers later picked up the
term.[93][94] IBM once had a de facto dress code that
saw many IBM employees wear white shirts with blue
suits.[93][95]

23.10 See also

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
List of computer system manufacturers
Top 100 US Federal Contractors
List of semiconductor fabrication plants

23.11 References
[1] IBM Corporation Financials Statements. United States
Securities and Exchange Commission.
[2] 2013 IBM Annual Report (PDF). IBM.com.
The company used the globe logo until 1947, when it began
using an acronym-based logo.

[3] Nanotechnology & Nanoscience.

[4] IBM Archives: Frequently Asked Questions (PDF).

IBMs current 8-bar logo was designed in 1972 by

graphic designer Paul Rand.[91] It was a general replacement for a 13-bar logo that rst appeared in public on
the 1966 release of the TSS/360. Logos designed in
the 1970s tended to reect the inability of period photocopiers to render large areas well, hence discrete horizontal bars.

[5] Madrigal, Alexis (16 June 2011). IBMs First 100

Years. The Atlantic. Retrieved 26 June 2013.

Early dot matrix printers also had diculty rendering either large solids or narrow bars in resolutions as low as

[8] Fortune 500: IBM employees. Fortune. 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2012.

[6] Simmons, William W. (1988). Inside IBM: The Watson

Years, A Personal Memoir. Dorrance & Co. p. 137.
[7] Fortune 500: IBM employees. Fortune. 2012. Retrieved 7 May 2012.

176

[9] Fortune 20 most protable companies: IBM. Fortune.

2012. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
[10] Fortune 500: IBM. Fortune. 2012. Retrieved 7 May
2012.
[11] The Worlds Biggest Public Companies. Forbes. Retrieved June 7, 2011.
[12] IBM. Forbes. Retrieved June 7, 2011.
[13] IBM rankings. Ranking the Brands. Retrieved 17 December 2010.
[14] IBM Tops Patent List for 22nd Year as It Looks for
Growth. Bloomberg. 2015-01-12.
[15] Awards & Achievements. IBM. Retrieved 2012-05-23.
[16] Aswad, Ed; Meredith, Suzanne (2005). Images of America: IBM in Endicott. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 0-73853700-4.
[17] Dey dial recorder, early 20th century. UK Science Museum. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
[18] Hollerith 1890 Census Tabulator. Columbia University.
Retrieved 30 December 2010.
[19] Employee Punch Clocks. Florida Time Clock. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
[20] Lee, Kenneth (1998). Trouncing the Dow: A value-based
method for making huge prots. McGraw-Hill. p. 123.
ISBN 0-07-136834-5. Retrieved 1 January 2011.
[21] Mathews, Ryan; Watts Wacker (2008). Whats your
story?: Storytelling to move markets, audiences, people,
and brands. Pearson Education. p. 138. ISBN 0-13227742-5. Retrieved 1 January 2011.

CHAPTER 23. IBM

[32] IBM to Acquire Micromuse Inc.. IBM.

[33] IBM Extends Enhanced Data Security to Consumer
Electronics Products. April 10, 2006.
[34] IBM Breaks U.S. Patent Record, Scientic Computing
(Advantage Business Media), January 12, 2012, scienticcomputing.com, retrieved January 15, 2012
[35] IBM Plans to Acquire Texas Memory Systems. R & D
Magazine. August 19, 2012. Retrieved August 27, 2012.
[36] Jennifer Saba (5 June 2013). IBM to buy website hosting
service SoftLayer. Reuters.
[37] Apple + IBM. IBM. Retrieved 18 July 2014.
[38] Etherington, Darrell (15 July 2014). Apple Teams Up
With IBM For Huge, Expansive Enterprise Push. Tech
Crunch. Retrieved 18 July 2014.
[39] IBM Acquires Cloud Security Services Provider Lighthouse Security Group. insurancenewsnet. 12 August
2014. Retrieved 11 August 2014.
[40] Lenovo says $2.1 billion IBM x86 server deal to close
on Wednesday (Press release). Reuters. 29 September
2014.
[41] UPDATE 1-Lufthansa close to deal with IBM for IT infrastructure unit. Reuters. October 22, 2014.
[42] Landmark IBM Twitter partnership to help businesses
make decisions. Market Business News. November 2,
2014.
[43] IBM #1 in Green Rankingss for 2012.
beast.com.

thedaily-

[22] 1920s. IBM. Retrieved 30 December 2010.

[44] Santoli, Michael (23 June 2012). The Worlds Most Respected Companies. Barrons. Retrieved 23 June 2012.

[23] DeWitt, Larry (April 2000). Early Automation Challenges for SSA. Retrieved March 2011.

[45] Best Global Brands Ranking for 2012. Interbrand. Retrieved 6 June 2013.

[24] IBM Statement on Nazi-era Book and Lawsuit. IBM

Press room. February 14, 2001.
[25] IBM Middle East - Bahrain. Ibm.com. Retrieved 201306-14.
[26] Corporate Timeline. SBM. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
[27] The history of the UPC bar code and how the bar code
symbol and system became a world standard.. Cummingsdesign. Retrieved 17 May 2011.
[28] Ross; Westereld; Jordan (2010). Fundamentals of Corporate Finance (9th, alternate ed.). McGraw Hill. p. 746.
[29] Lefever, Guy; Pesanello, Michele; Fraser, Heather; Taurman, Lee (2011). Life science: Fade or ourish ?"
(PDF). p. 2: IBM Institute for Business Value. Retrieved
6 July 2013.
[30] Speeches. IBM. 2004-04-27.
[31] Leading Change When Business Is Good: The HBR
Interview--Samuel J. Palmisano. Harvard Business Review (Harvard University Press). December 2004.

[46] Tech Consulting Firm Rankings 2012: Best Firms in

Each Practice Area. Vault. Retrieved 29 December
2011.
[47] Contact Us. IBM. Retrieved October 20, 2009.
[48] http://partners.nytimes.com/library/cyber/week/
091797ibm.html IBMs New Headquarters Reects
A Change in Corporate Style
[49] Board of Directors.
2010.

IBM. Retrieved 17 December

[50] IBM top executives to forgo bonuses as prots fall. BBC

News. January 21, 2014.
[51] http://www.dividendstocksresearch.com/
how-to-find-a-good-dividend-stock-in-uncertain-times
[52] Benjamin Forgey (1990-03-24). In the IBM Honoring
the Corporations Buildings. Washington Post.
[53] IBMs EO Policy letter is IBMs foundation for diversity.
IBM.

23.11. REFERENCES

[54] IBM Valuing Diversity: Heritage - 1980s. IBM.

[55] 100 best companies for working mothers 2004. Working Mother Media, Inc. Archived from the original on
2004-10-17.
[56] 100 best companies 2005. Working Mother Media, Inc.
Retrieved 2006-06-26.
[57] International Business Machines Corp. (IBM) prole.
HRC Corporate Equality Index Score.
[58] IBM Valuing Diversity - Awards and Recognition. IBM.
Retrieved 2009-05-27.
[59] Logan, John (December 2006). The Union Avoidance
Industry in the United States (PDF). British Journal of
Industrial Relations: 651675.
[60] IBM Global Unions Links. EndicottAlliance.org.
[61] IBM workers up in arms at pension cuts. v3.co.uk.
[62] Smith, Paul Russell (1999). Strategic Marketing Communications: New Ways to Build and Integrate Communications. Kogan Page. p. 24. ISBN 0-7494-2918-6.
[63] IBM Attire. IBM Archives. IBM Corp. Retrieved 31
May 2012.
[64] IBM celebrates 100th anniversary. London: Telegraph.
16 June 2011.

177

[76] IBM Client for Smart Work. 01.ibm.com. Retrieved

2010-05-23.
[77] IBM and Cisco Unveil Platform for Developing Unied
Communications and Collaboration Solutions. Orlando,
Florida: IBM. 2007-03-07.
[78] Extreme Blue web page. 01.ibm.com. 2007-09-07. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
[79] Building a smarter planet. Asmarterplanet.com. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
[80] Launch of IBM Smarter Computing.
March 2011.

Retrieved 1

[81] lholm, Mads (August 18, 2011). Major breakthrough

in cognitive computing. Semi Accurate. Retrieved August 24, 2011.
[82] Barak, Sylvie (February 3, 2012). IBM SmartCamp startups attempt to solve world problems. EE Times. Retrieved February 6, 2012.
[83] IBM commits .2bn to cloud data centre expansion. BBC
News. 17 January 2014.
[84] New research initiative sees IBM commit $3 bn. San
Francisco News.Net. Retrieved 10 July 2014.
[85] Environmental Protection. IBM. 3 May 2008.

[65] http://www.research.ibm.com/labs/
[66] IBM launches biggest Linux lineup ever. IBM. 199903-02. Archived from the original on 1999-11-10.
[67] Farrah Hamid (2006-05-24). IBM invests in Brazil
Linux Tech Center. LWN.net.
[68] Interview: The Eclipse code donation. IBM. 2001-1101.
[69] Le top 20 des entreprises les plus innovantes du monde.
Challenges. 22 October 2013.
[70] developerWorks blogs : Michael O'Connell : dW wins
Jolt Hall of Fame award; Booch, Ambler, dW authors also
honored. IBM. 2007-03-27. Retrieved 2007-04-23.
[71] IBM delivers Power-based chip for Microsoft Xbox 360
worldwide launch. IBM. 2005-10-25.
[72] Sta Writer, mybroadband (Jun 8, 2011). IBM microprocessors drive the new Nintendo WiiU console. mybroadband.co.za. Retrieved June 17, 2011.
[73] Leung, Isaac; Electronics News (June 8, 2011). IBMS
45NM SOI MICROPROCESSORS AT CORE OF NINTENDO WII U. electronicsnews.com.au. Retrieved
June 17, 2011.
[74] Buttery and IBM introduce rst video game industry
computing grid. IBM. 2002-05-09.
[75] IBM joins forces with game companies around the world
to accelerate innovation. IBM. 2006-03-21.

[86] Village of Endicott Environmental Investigations. Retrieved 28 January 2015.

[87] Chittum, Samme (15 March 2004). In an I.B.M. Village,
Pollution Fears Taint Relations With Neighbors. New
York Times Online. Retrieved 1 May 2008.
[88] IBM and Tokyo Ohka Kogyo Turn Up Watts on Solar
Energy Production (PDF). tok.co.jp.
[89] Energy, the environment and IBM.. IBM. 2008-04-01.
Retrieved 2009-05-27.
[90] IBM Press room - 2008-05-15 IBM Research Unveils
Breakthrough In Solar Farm Technology - United States.
IBM. 2008-05-15. Retrieved 2009-05-27.
[91] IBM Archives. IBM.
[92] IBM Archives: IBM atoms. IBM.
[93] edited by Evan Selinger. (2006). Postphenomenology: A
Critical Companion to Ihde. State University of New York
Press. p. 228. ISBN 0-7914-6787-2.
[94] Conway Lloyd Morgan and Chris Foges. (2004). Logos,
Letterheads & Business Cards: Design for Prot. Rotovision. p. 15. ISBN 2-88046-750-0.
[95] E. Garrison Walters. (2001). The Essential Guide to Computing: The Story of Information Technology. Publisher:
Prentice Hall PTR. p. 55. ISBN 0-13-019469-7.

178

CHAPTER 23. IBM

23.12 Further reading

For additional books about IBM:
biographies, memoirs, technology, and more, see History of
IBM#Further reading.
John Harwood (2011). The Interface: IBM and the
Transformation of Corporate Design, 1945-1976.
ISBN 978-0-8166-7039-0.
Edwin Black (2008). IBM and the Holocaust: The
Strategic Alliance Between Nazi Germany and Americas Most Powerful Corporation. ISBN 0-91415310-2.
Ulrich Steinhilper (2006). Don't Talk Do It! From
Flying To Word Processing. ISBN 1-872836-75-5.
Samme Chittum (2004-03-15). In an I.B.M. Village, Pollution Fears Taint Relations With Neighbors. New York Times.
Louis V. Gerstner, Jr. (2002). Who Says Elephants
can't Dance?. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-7154488.
Doug Garr (1999). IBM Redux: Lou Gerstner & The
Business Turnaround of the Decade. Harper Business.
Robert Slater (1999). Saving Big Blue: IBMs Lou
Gerstner. McGraw Hill.
Emerson W. Pugh (1996). Building IBM: Shaping
an Industry. MIT Press.
Robert Heller (1994).
Brown.

The Fate of IBM. Little

Paul Carroll (1993). Big Blues: The Unmaking of

IBM. Crown Publishers.
Roy A Bauer et al. (1992). The Silverlake Project:
Transformation at IBM (AS/400). Oxford University
Press.
Thomas Watson, Jr. (1990). Father, Son & Co: My
Life at IBM and Beyond. ISBN 0-553-29023-1.
David Mercer (1988). The Global IBM: Leadership
in Multinational Management. Dodd, Mead. p. 374.
David Mercer (1987). IBM: How the Worlds Most
Successful Corporation is Managed. Kogan Page.
Richard Thomas DeLamarter (1986). Big Blue:
IBMs Use and Abuse of Power. ISBN 0-396-085156.
Buck Rodgers (1986). The IBM Way. Harper &
Row.

Robert Sobel (1986). IBM vs. Japan: The Struggle

for the Future. ISBN 0-8128-3071-7.
Robert Sobel (1981). IBM: Colossus in Transition.
ISBN 0-8129-1000-1.
Robert Sobel (1981). Thomas Watson, Sr.: IBM and
the Computer Revolution (biography of Thomas J.
Watson). ISBN 1-893122-82-4.
William Rodgers (1969). THINK: A Biography of
the Watsons and IBM. ISBN 0-8128-1226-3.

23.13 External links

Ocial website
IBM Systems Magazine

Business data for IBM Corp.:

Hoovers
Reuters
SEC lings

IBM companies grouped at OpenCorporates

Chapter 24

Apple Inc.
This article is about the technology company. For other materials.
companies named Apple, see Apple (disambiguation).
Apple Inc. quarterly results surpassed Wall Street expecNot to be confused with Apple Corps.
tations with record sales of big-screen iPhones in the holiday shopping season and a 70 percent rise in China sales,
Coordinates: 371955N 1220152W / 37.33182N obtaining the largest prot in corporate history to date.
122.03118W
The company sold 74.5 million iPhones in its scal rst
Apple Inc. is an American multinational corporation quarter ended December 27, while many analysts had exheadquartered in Cupertino, California, that designs, de- pected fewer than 70 million. Revenue rose to $74.6 bilvelops, and sells consumer electronics, computer soft- lion from $57.6 billion a year earlier. Prot of $18 bilware, online services, and personal computers. Its best- lion was the biggest ever reported by a public company,
known hardware products are the Mac line of computers, worldwide, according to S&P analyst Howard Silverblatt.
buy IBM
the iPod media player, the iPhone smartphone, and the Apples cash pile is now $178 billion, enough to
[8]
or
the
equivalent
to
$556
for
every
American.
iPad tablet computer. Its online services include iCloud,
iTunes Store, and App Store. Apples consumer software
includes the OS X and iOS operating systems, the iTunes
media browser, the Safari web browser, and the iLife and
iWork creativity and productivity suites.

24.1 History

Apple was founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Main article: History of Apple Inc.
Ronald Wayne on April 1, 1976, to develop and sell
personal computers. It was incorporated as Apple Computer, Inc. on January 3, 1977, and was renamed as Apple Inc. on January 9, 2007, to reect its shifted focus 24.1.1 197680: Founding and incorporation
towards consumer electronics.
Apple is the worlds second-largest information technology company by revenue after Samsung Electronics,
and the worlds third-largest mobile phone maker. On
November 25, 2014, in addition to being the largest publicly traded corporation in the world by market capitalization, Apple became the rst U.S. company to be valued at
over $700B.[4] As of 2014, Apple employs 72,800 permanent full-time employees, maintains 437 retail stores
in fteen countries,[5] and operates the online Apple Store
and iTunes Store, the latter of which is the worlds largest
music retailer.
Apples worldwide annual revenue in 2014 totaled
US$182 billion (FY end October 2014[6] ). Apple enjoys
a high level of brand loyalty and, according to the 2014
edition of the Interbrand Best Global Brands report, is the
worlds most valuable brand with a valuation of $118.9
billion.[7] By the end of 2014, the corporation continued to manage signicant criticism regarding the labor
practices of its contractors, as well as for its environmental and business practices, including the origins of source

The Apple I, Apples rst product, was sold as an assembled circuit board and lacked basic features such as a keyboard, monitor, and case. The owner of this unit added a keyboard and a
wooden case.

Apple was established on April 1, 1976, by Steve

179

180

CHAPTER 24. APPLE INC.

Jobs, Steve Wozniak and Ronald Wayne[9][10] to sell

the Apple I personal computer kit. The Apple I kits
were computers single handedly designed and hand-built
by Wozniak[11][12] and rst shown to the public at the
Homebrew Computer Club.[13] The Apple I was sold as a
motherboard (with CPU, RAM, and basic textual-video
chips), which is less than what is now considered a complete personal computer.[14] The Apple I went on sale in
July 1976 and was market-priced at $666.66 ($2,763 in
2015 dollars, adjusted for ination).[15][16][17][18][19][20]
Apple was incorporated January 3, 1977,[21] without
Wayne, who sold his share of the company back to
Jobs and Wozniak for $800.[10] Multimillionaire Mike
Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of $250,000 during the incorporation of Apple.[22][23] Apples 1984 television ad, set in a dystopian future modeled
after the George Orwell novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, set the tone
During the rst ve years of operations, revenues doubled
for the introduction of the Macintosh.
every four months, an average growth rate of 700%.
The Apple II, also invented by Wozniak, was introduced
on April 16, 1977, at the rst West Coast Computer
Faire. It diered from its major rivals, the TRS-80 and
Commodore PET, because of its character cell-based
color graphics and open architecture. While early Apple II models used ordinary cassette tapes as storage devices, they were superseded by the introduction of a 5
1/4 inch oppy disk drive and interface called the Disk
II.[24] The Apple II was chosen to be the desktop platform
for the rst "killer app" of the business world: VisiCalc,
a spreadsheet program.[25] VisiCalc created a business
market for the Apple II and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II: compatibility with the
oce.[25] Before VisiCalc, Apple had been a distant third
place competitor to Commodore and Tandy.[26][27]

project, the Macintosh. A race broke out between the

Lisa team and the Macintosh team over which product
would ship rst. Lisa won the race in 1983 and became
the rst personal computer sold to the public with a GUI,
but was a commercial failure due to its high price tag and
limited software titles.[33]

By the end of the 1970s, Apple had a sta of computer

designers and a production line. The company introduced
the Apple III in May 1980 in an attempt to compete with
IBM and Microsoft in the business and corporate computing market.[28] Jobs and several Apple employees, including Jef Raskin, visited Xerox PARC in December 1979
to see the Xerox Alto. Xerox granted Apple engineers
three days of access to the PARC facilities in return for
the option to buy 100,000 shares (800,000 split-adjusted
shares) of Apple at the pre-IPO price of $10 a share.[29]
Jobs was immediately convinced that all future computers
would use a graphical user interface (GUI), and development of a GUI began for the Apple Lisa.[30]
On December 12, 1980, Apple went public at $22 per The rst Macintosh, released in 1984
share,[31] generating more capital than any IPO since Ford
Motor Company in 1956 and instantly creating more milIn 1984, Apple launched the Macintosh. It was the rst
lionaires (about 300) than any company in history.[32]
personal computer to be sold without a programming language at all.[34] Its debut was announced by the now famous $1.5 million television commercial 1984. It was
24.1.2 198189: Success with Macintosh
directed by Ridley Scott and rst aired during the third
quarter of Super Bowl XVIII on January 22, 1984.[35]
See also: Timeline of Macintosh models
event for
Apple began working on the Apple Lisa in 1978. In The commercial[36]is now hailed as a watershed
[37][38]
and
a
masterpiece.
Apples
success
1982, Jobs was pushed from the Lisa team due to inghting. Jobs took over Jef Raskins low-cost-computer The Macintosh initially sold well, but follow-up sales

24.1. HISTORY
were not strong[39] due to its high price and limited range
of software titles. The machines fortunes changed with
the introduction of the LaserWriter, the rst PostScript
laser printer to be sold at a reasonable price, and
PageMaker, an early desktop publishing package. It has
been suggested that the combination of these three products was responsible for the creation of the desktop publishing market.[40] The Macintosh was particularly powerful in the desktop publishing market due to its advanced
graphics capabilities, which had necessarily been built in
to create the intuitive Macintosh GUI.
In 1985 a power struggle developed between Jobs and
CEO John Sculley, who had been hired two years
earlier.[41] The Apple board of directors instructed Sculley to contain Jobs and limit his ability to launch expensive forays into untested products. Rather than submit to
Sculleys direction, Jobs attempted to oust him from his
leadership role at Apple. Sculley found out that Jobs had
been attempting to organize a coup and called a board
meeting at which Apples board of directors sided with
Sculley and removed Jobs from his managerial duties.[39]
Jobs resigned from Apple and founded NeXT Inc. the
same year.[42]

181

24.1.3 199099: Decline, restructuring,

acquisitions
See also: Timeline of Apple II family
Apple believed the Apple II series was too expensive to produce and took away sales from the low-end
Macintosh.[43] In 1990, Apple released the Macintosh
LC, which featured a single expansion slot for the Apple
IIe Card to help migrate Apple II users to the Macintosh platform.[43] Apple stopped selling the Apple IIe in
1993. Following the success of the Macintosh LC, Apple introduced the Centris line, a low-end Quadra, and
the ill-fated Performa line. Consumers ended up confused because they did not understand the dierence between models.[44] Apple experimented with a number
of other unsuccessful consumer targeted products during the 90s, including digital cameras, portable CD audio players, speakers, video consoles, and TV appliances.
Enormous resources were also invested in the problemplagued Newton division based on John Sculleys unrealistic market forecasts. Ultimately, none of these products
helped and Apples market share and stock prices continued to slide.
Microsoft continued to gain market share with Windows
by focusing on delivering software to cheap commodity
personal computers while Apple was delivering a richly
engineered but expensive experience.[45] Apple relied on
high prot margins and never developed a clear response.
Instead, they sued Microsoft for using a graphical user interface similar to the Apple Lisa in Apple Computer, Inc.
v. Microsoft Corporation.[46] The lawsuit dragged on for
years before it was nally dismissed. At the same time, a
series of major product ops and missed deadlines sullied
Apples reputation and Sculley was replaced as CEO by
Michael Spindler.[47]

The Macintosh Portable was Apples rst portable Macintosh

computer, released in 1989.

The Macintosh Portable was introduced in 1989 and was

designed to be just as powerful as a desktop Macintosh,
but weighed 7.5 kilograms (17 lb) with a 12-hour battery
life. After the Macintosh Portable, Apple introduced the
PowerBook in 1991. The same year, Apple introduced
System 7, a major upgrade to the operating system which
added color to the interface and introduced new networking capabilities. It remained the architectural basis for
Mac OS until 2001. The success of the PowerBook and
other products brought increasing revenue.[41] For some
time, Apple was doing incredibly well, introducing fresh
new products and generating increasing prots in the process. The magazine MacAddict named the period between 1989 and 1991 as the rst golden age of the Macintosh.

The Newton was Apples rst foray into the PDA markets, as well
as one of the rst in the industry. Despite being a nancial op
at the time of its release, it helped pave the way for the Palm Pilot
and Apples own iPhone and iPad in the future.

182
By the early 1990s, Apple was developing alternative
platforms to the Macintosh, such as the A/UX. Apple had
also begun to experiment with providing a Mac-only online portal which they called eWorld, which was developed in collaboration with America Online and designed
as a Mac-friendly alternative to other online services such
as CompuServe. The Macintosh platform itself was becoming outdated because it was not built for multitasking and because several important software routines were
programmed directly into the hardware. In addition, Apple was facing competition from OS/2 and UNIX vendors
such as Sun Microsystems. The Macintosh would need to
be replaced by a new platform or reworked to run on more
powerful hardware.[48]
In 1994, Apple allied with IBM and Motorola in the
AIM alliance with the goal of creating a new computing platform (the PowerPC Reference Platform), which
would use IBM and Motorola hardware coupled with Apple software. The AIM alliance hoped that PRePs performance and Apples software would leave the PC far behind and thus counter Microsoft. The same year, Apple
introduced the Power Macintosh, the rst of many Apple
computers to use Motorolas PowerPC processor.[49]

CHAPTER 24. APPLE INC.

sion to solely focus upon web development software. The
product, still unnished at the time of the sale, was renamed "Final Cut Pro" when it was launched on the retail market in April 1999.[59][60] The development of Key
Grip also led to Apples release of the consumer videoediting product iMovie in October 1999.[61] Next, Apple successfully acquired the German company Astarte,
which had developed DVD authoring technology, as well
as Astartes corresponding products and engineering team
in April 2000. Astartes digital tool DVDirector was
subsequently transformed into the professional-oriented
DVD Studio Pro software product. Apple then employed
the same technology to create iDVD for the consumer
market.[61] In 2002, Apple purchased Nothing Real for
their advanced digital compositing application Shake,[62]
as well as Emagic for the music productivity application
Logic. The purchase of Emagic made Apple the rst
computer manufacturer to own a music software company. The acquisition was followed by the development
of Apples consumer-level GarageBand application.[63]
The release of iPhoto in the same year completed the
iLife suite.[64]

In 1996, Michael Spindler was replaced by Gil Amelio as 24.1.4 200006: Return to protability
CEO. Gil Amelio made many changes at Apple, including extensive layos.[50] After numerous failed attempts Main article: Apples transition to Intel processors
to improve Mac OS, rst with the Taligent project and Mac OS X, based on NeXTs OPENSTEP and BSD
later with Copland and Gershwin, Amelio chose to purchase NeXT and its NeXTSTEP operating system and
bring Steve Jobs back to Apple as an advisor.[51] On July
9, 1997, Amelio was ousted by the board of directors
after overseeing a three-year record-low stock price and
crippling nancial losses. Jobs acted as the interim CEO
and began restructuring the companys product line; it
was during this period that Jobs identied Jonathan Ive's
design talent, and the pair worked collaboratively to rebuild Apples status.[52]
At the 1997 Macworld Expo, Jobs announced that Apple
would join Microsoft to release new versions of Microsoft
Oce for the Macintosh, and that Microsoft had made a
$150 million investment in non-voting Apple stock.[53]
On November 10, 1997, Apple introduced the Apple
Online Store, which was tied to a new build-to-order
manufacturing strategy.[54][55] On August 15, 1998, Apple introduced a new all-in-one computer reminiscent of
the Macintosh 128K: the iMac. The iMac design team
was led by Ive, who would later design the iPod and the
iPhone.[56][57] The iMac featured modern technology and
a unique design, and sold almost 800,000 units in its rst
ve months.[58]

Apple retail stores allow potential customers to use oor models

without making a purchase.
(Apple Store, North Michigan Avenue, Chicago, Illinois in 2005)

Unix, was released on March 24, 2001 after several years

of development. Aimed at consumers and professionals
alike, Mac OS X aimed to combine the stability, reliability and security of Unix with the ease of use aorded by
an overhauled user interface. To aid users in migrating
from Mac OS 9, the new operating system allowed the
use of OS 9 applications within Mac OS X as the Classic
environment. This meant that users were able to continue
running their old applications.[65]

During this period, Apple completed numerous acquisitions to create a portfolio of digital production software
for both professionals and consumers. In 1998, Apple
purchased Macromedia's Key Grip software project, signaling an expansion into the digital video editing market. The sale was an outcome of Macromedias deci- On May 19, 2001, Apple opened the rst ocial Apple
Retail Stores in Virginia and California.[66] On October

24.1. HISTORY
23 of the same year, Apple debuted the iPod portable
digital audio player. The product, which was rst sold
on November 10, 2001, was phenomenally successful
with over 100 million units sold within six years.[67][68] In
2003, Apples iTunes Store was introduced. The service
oered online music downloads for $0.99 a song and integration with the iPod. The iTunes store quickly became
the market leader in online music services, with over 5
billion downloads by June 19, 2008.[69]

The MacBook Pro, Apples rst laptop with an Intel microprocessor, announced in January 2006.

At the Worldwide Developers Conference keynote address on June 6, 2005, Jobs announced that Apple would
begin producing Intel-based Mac computers in 2006.[70]
On January 10, 2006, the new MacBook Pro and iMac
became the rst Apple computers to use Intels Core Duo
CPU. By August 7, 2006, Apple made the transition to
Intel chips for the entire Mac product lineover one
year sooner than announced.[70] The Power Mac, iBook
and PowerBook brands were retired during the transition; the Mac Pro, MacBook, and MacBook Pro became
their respective successors.[71][72] On April 29, 2009, The
Wall Street Journal reported that Apple was building its
own team of engineers to design microchips.[73] Apple
also introduced Boot Camp in 2006 to help users install
Windows XP or Windows Vista on their Intel Macs alongside Mac OS X.[74]

183
titanium-made PowerBook and was followed by the
iBook's white polycarbonate structure and the at-panel
iMac.[77][78]

24.1.5 200710: Success with mobile devices

During his keynote speech at the Macworld Expo on
January 9, 2007, Jobs announced that Apple Computer,
Inc. would from that point on be known as Apple Inc., because the company had shifted its emphasis from computers to mobile electronic devices. This
event also saw the announcement of the iPhone and
the Apple TV.[79][80][81][82] The following day, Apple
shares hit $97.80, an all-time high at that point. In
May, Apples share price passed the $100 mark.[83] Apple
would achieve widespread success with its iPhone, iPod
Touch and iPad products, which introduced innovations
in mobile phones, portable music players and personal
computers respectively.[84] Furthermore, by early 2007,
800,000 Final Cut Pro users were registered.[85]
In an article posted on Apples website on February 6,
2007, Jobs wrote that Apple would be willing to sell music on the iTunes Store without digital rights management
(DRM), thereby allowing tracks to be played on thirdparty players, if record labels would agree to drop the
technology.[86] On April 2, 2007, Apple and EMI jointly
announced the removal of DRM technology from EMIs
catalog in the iTunes Store, eective in May 2007.[87]
Other record labels eventually followed suit and Apple
published a press release in January 2009 to announce
the corresponding changes to the iTunes Store.[88]
In July 2008, Apple launched the App Store to sell thirdparty applications for the iPhone and iPod Touch.[89]
Within a month, the store sold 60 million applications and
registered an average daily revenue of $1 million, with
Jobs speculating in August 2008 that the App Store could
become a billion-dollar business for Apple.[90] By October 2008, Apple was the third-largest mobile handset supplier in the world due to the popularity of the iPhone.[91]
On December 16, 2008, Apple announced that 2009
would be the last year the corporation would attend the
Macworld Expo, after more than 20 years of attendance, and that senior vice president of Worldwide Product Marketing Philip Schiller would deliver the 2009
keynote address in lieu of the expected Jobs. The ocial press release explained that Apple was scaling back
on trade shows in general, including Macworld Tokyo
and the Apple Expo in Paris, France, primarily because
the enormous successes of the Apple Retail Stores and
website had rendered trade shows a minor promotional
channel.[92][93]

Apples success during this period was evident in its stock

price. Between early 2003 and 2006, the price of Apples stock increased more than tenfold, from around $6
per share (split-adjusted) to over $80. In January 2006,
Apples market cap surpassed that of Dell.[75] Nine years
prior, Dells CEO Michael Dell said that if he ran Apple he would shut it down and give the money back to
the shareholders.[76] Although Apples market share in
computers had grown, it remained far behind competitors using Microsoft Windows, accounting for about 8%
of desktops and laptops in the US.
On January 14, 2009, an internal memo from Jobs anSince 2001, Apples design team has progressively aban- nounced that he would be taking a six-month medical
doned the use of translucent colored plastics rst used leave of absence from Apple until the end of June 2009
in the iMac G3. This design change began with the and would spend the time focusing on his health. In the

184
email, Jobs stated that the curiosity over my personal
health continues to be a distraction not only for me and
my family, but everyone else at Apple as well, and explained that the break would allow the company to focus
on delivering extraordinary products.[94] Despite Jobss
absence, Apple recorded its best non-holiday quarter (Q1
FY 2009) during the recession with a revenue of $8.16
billion and a prot of $1.21 billion.[95][96]
After years of speculation and multiple rumored leaks,
Apple announced a large screen, tablet-like media device
known as the iPad on January 27, 2010. The iPad ran
the same touch based operating system that the iPhone
used, and many iPhone apps were compatible with the
iPad. This gave the iPad a large app catalog on launch
despite very little development time before the release.
Later that year on April 3, 2010, the iPad was launched
in the US. It sold more than 300,000 units on its rst day,
and 500,000 by the end of the rst week.[97] In May of
the same year, Apples market cap exceeded that of competitor Microsoft for the rst time since 1989.[98]

CHAPTER 24. APPLE INC.

establishment and dominance of Silicon Valley.[105]
On January 17, 2011, Jobs announced in an internal Apple memo that he would take another medical leave of absence, for an indenite period, to allow him to focus on
his health. Chief operating ocer Tim Cook assumed
Jobss day-to-day operations at Apple, although Jobs
would still remain involved in major strategic decisions
for the company.[106] Apple became the most valuable
consumer-facing brand in the world.[107] In June 2011,
Jobs surprisingly took the stage and unveiled iCloud, an
online storage and syncing service for music, photos, les
and software which replaced MobileMe, Apples previous attempt at content syncing.[108]

This would be the last product launch Jobs would attend before his death. It has been argued that Apple has
achieved such eciency in its supply chain that the company operates as a monopsony (one buyer, many sellers)
and can dictate terms to its suppliers.[109][110][111] In July
2011, due to the American debt-ceiling crisis, Apples nancial reserves were briey larger than those of the U.S.
Apple also released the iPhone 4, which introduced video Government.[112]
calling, multitasking, and a new uninsulated stainless steel
On August 24, 2011, Jobs resigned his position as CEO
design that acted as the phones antenna. Later that year of Apple.[113] He was replaced by Tim Cook and Jobs beApple again refreshed its iPod line of MP3 players by incame Apples chairman. Prior to this, Apple did not have
troducing a multi-touch iPod Nano, an iPod Touch with a chairman and instead had two co-lead directors, Andrea
FaceTime, and an iPod Shue that brought back the butJung and Arthur D. Levinson, who continued with those
tons of earlier generations.[99][100][101] Additionally, on titles until Levinson became Chairman of the Board in
October 20, Apple updated their MacBook Air laptop,
November.[114] On October 5, 2011, Apple announced
iLife suite of applications, and unveiled Mac OS X Lion, that Jobs had died, marking the end of an era for Apthe last version with the name Mac OS X.[102]
ple Inc.[115][116] The rst major announcement by Apple
In October 2010, Apple shares hit an all-time high, following Jobs passing occurred on January 19, 2012,
eclipsing $300.[103]
when Apples Phil Schiller introduced iBooks Textbooks
for iOS and iBook Author for Mac OS X in New York
City.[117] Jobs had stated in his biography that he wanted
24.1.6 201112: Steve Jobss death
to reinvent the textbook industry and education.

Apple store in Yonkers, New York

On January 6, 2011, the company opened their Mac App

Store, a digital software distribution platform similar to
the existing iOS App Store.[104] Alongside peer entities
such as Atari and Cisco Systems, Apple was featured in
the documentary Something Ventured which premiered in
2011 and explored the three-decade era that led to the

From 2011-2012, Apple released the iPhone 4S and

iPhone 5, which featured improved cameras, an
"intelligent software assistant" named Siri, and cloudsourced data with iCloud;[118][119][120] the third and
fourth generation iPads, which featured Retina displays;[121][122][123] and the iPad Mini, which featured
a 7.9-inch screen in contrast to the iPads 9.7-inch
screen.[124] These launches were successful, with the
iPhone 5 (released September 21, 2012) becoming Apples biggest iPhone launch with over 2 million preorders[125] and sales of 3 million iPads in three days
following the launch of the iPad Mini and fourth generation iPad (released November 3, 2012).[126] Apple
also released a third-generation 13-inch MacBook Pro
with a Retina display and new iMac and Mac Mini
computers.[123][124][127]
On October 29, 2011, Apple purchased C3 Technologies, a mapping company, for $240 million, becoming
the third mapping company Apple has purchased.[128]
On January 10, 2012, Apple paid $500 million to acquire Anobit, an Israeli hardware company that devel-

24.1. HISTORY

185

oped and supplied a proprietary memory signal processing technology that improved the performance of the
ash-memory used in iPhones and iPads.[129][130] On July
24, 2012, during a conference call with investors, Tim
Cook said that he loved India, but that Apple was going to expect larger opportunities outside of India. Cook
cited the reason as the 30% sourcing requirement from
India.[131][132][133][134]

of Yves Saint Laurent as a vice president reporting directly to Tim Cook.[145] A mid-October 2013 announcement revealed that Burberry executive Angela Ahrendts
will commence as a senior vice president at Apple in
mid-2014. Ahrendts oversaw Burberrys digital strategy
for almost eight years and, during her tenure, sales increased to about US$3.2 billion and shares gained more
than threefold.[146]

On August 20, 2012, Apples rising stock rose the companys value to a world-record $624 billion. This beat
the non-ination-adjusted record for market capitalization set by Microsoft in 1999.[135] On August 24, 2012,
a US jury ruled that Samsung should pay Apple $1.05
billion (665m) in damages in an intellectual property
lawsuit.[136] Samsung appealed the damages award, which
the Court reduced by $450 million.[137] The Court further granted Samsungs request for a new trial.[137] On
November 10, 2012, Apple conrmed a global settlement that would dismiss all lawsuits between Apple and
HTC up to that date, in favor of a ten-year license agreement for current and future patents between the two
companies.[138] It is predicted that Apple will make $280
million a year from this deal with HTC.[139]

At the Worldwide Developers Conference on June 10,

2013, Apple announced the seventh iOS operating system alongside OS X Mavericks, the tenth version of Mac
OS X, and a new Internet radio service called iTunes Radio.[147][148][149] iTunes Radio, iOS 7 and OS X Mavericks were released fall 2013.[147][148][150] On December
6, 2013, Apple Inc. launched iBeacon across its 254 U.S.
retail stores. Using Bluetooth wireless technology, iBeacon senses the users exact location within the Apple store
and sends the user messages about products, events and
other information, tailored to the users location.[151]

24.1.7

2013present: Acquisitions and expansion

See also: List of mergers and acquisitions by Apple

A previously condential email written by Jobs a year before his death, was presented During the proceedings of
the Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co., Ltd. lawsuits and became publicly available in early April 2014.
With a subject line that reads Top 100 A, the email
was sent only to the companys 100 most senior employees and outlines Jobss vision of Apple Inc.'s future under 10 subheadings. Notably, Jobs declares a Holy War
with Google for 2011 and schedules a new campus for
2015.[140]
In March 2013, Apple led a patent for an augmented
reality (AR) system that can identify objects in a live
video stream and present information corresponding to
these objects through a computer-generated information
layer overlaid on top of the real-world image.[141] Later
in 2013, Apple acquired Embark Inc., a small Silicon
Valley-based mapping company that builds free transit
apps to help smartphone users navigate public transportation in U.S. cities,[142] and PrimeSense, an Israeli 3D
sensing company based in Tel Aviv.[143] In December
2013, Apple Inc. purchased social analytics rm Topsy.
Topsy is one of a small number of rms with real-time access to the messages that appear on Twitter and can do
real-time analysis of the trends and discussions happening on Twitter.[144] The company also made several high
prole hiring decisions in 2013. On July 2, 2013, Apple recruited Paul Deneve, Belgian President and CEO

Alongside Google vice-president Vint Cerf and AT&T

CEO Randall Stephenson, Cook attended a closed-door
summit held by President Obama on August 8, 2013,
in regard to government surveillance and the Internet in
the wake of the Edward Snowden NSA incident.[152][153]
On February 4, 2014, Cook met with Abdullah Gl, the
President of Turkey, in Ankara to discuss the companys
involvement in the Fatih project.[154] Cook also conrmed
that Turkey's rst Apple Retail Store would be opened in
Istanbul in April 2014.[155]
An anonymous Apple employee revealed to the
Bloomberg media publication that the opening of a
Tokyo, Japan store is planned for 2014. The construction of the store will be completed in February 2014, but
as of August 29, 2013 Apples Tokyo-based spokesman
has not made any comments to the media. A Japanese
analyst has stated, For Apple, the Japanese market is appealing in terms of quantity and price. There is room to
expand tablet sales and a possibility the Japanese market
expands if Apples mobile carrier partners increase.[156]
On October 1, 2013, Apple India executives unveiled a
plan to expand further into the Indian market, following
Cooks acknowledgment of the country in July 2013
when sales results showed that iPhone sales in India grew
400% during the second quarter of 2013.[157]
Apple Inc. reported that the company sold 51 million
iPhones in the Q1 of 2014 (an all-time quarterly record),
compared to 47.8 million in the year-ago quarter. Apple also sold 26 million iPads during the quarter, also an
all-time quarterly record, compared to 22.9 million in the
year-ago quarter. The Company sold 4.8 million Macs,
compared to 4.1 million in the year-ago quarter.[158] On
May 28, 2014, Apple conrmed its intent to acquire Dr.
Dre and Jimmy Iovine's audio company Beats Electronicsproducer of the Beats by Dr. Dre line of headphones and speaker products, and operator of the music
streaming service Beats Musicfor $3 billion, and to sell

186

CHAPTER 24. APPLE INC.

their products through Apples retail outlets and resellers.

Iovine felt that Beats had always belonged with Apple,
as the company modeled itself after Apples unmatched
ability to marry culture and technology.[159][160][161] In
August 2014 an Apple representative conrmed to the
media that Anand Lal Shimpi, editor and publisher of the
AnandTech website, had been recruited by Apple without
elaborating on Lal Shimpis role.[162]

MacBook Pro: Professional notebook, introduced in

2006.

Apple announced the Apple Watch on September 9,

2014.[163] It features a digital crown that enables ecient scroll, zoom and navigation functionality in a very
small form factor. The device is a communication portal to a nearby iPhone for messaging, telephone calls, and
engaging Siri, Apples personal assistant. The watch incorporates a Retina display for ultra-high clarity, force
touch technology to sense the dierence between a tap
and a press, medical sensors to monitor the health of the
wearer, a Taptic Engine to discreetly get the wearers attention, and supports Apple Pay. The product will arrive
in the spring of 2015 in three models - standard, sport,
and an elegant 18-karat gold special edition.

Mac Pro: Workstation desktop computer, introduced in 2006.

Mac Mini: Consumer sub-desktop computer and

server, introduced in 2005.
iMac: Consumer all-in one desktop computer, introduced in 1998.

Apple sells a variety of computer accessories for Macs,

including Thunderbolt Display, Magic Mouse, Magic
Trackpad, Wireless Keyboard, Battery Charger, the AirPort wireless networking products, and Time Capsule.

24.2.2 iPad
Main article: iPad

On January 27, 2010, Apple introduced their muchanticipated media tablet, the iPad, which runs a modi24.2 Products
ed version of iOS. It oers multi-touch interaction with
multimedia formats including newspapers, ebooks, phoSee also: Timeline of Apple products and List of tos, videos, music, word processing documents, video
products discontinued by Apple Inc.
games, and most existing iPhone apps.[164] It also includes
a mobile version of Safari for web browsing, as well
as access to the App Store, iTunes Library, iBookstore,
Contacts, and Notes. Content is downloadable via Wi24.2.1 Mac
Fi and optional 3G service or synced through the users
computer.[165] AT&T was initially the sole U.S. provider
of 3G wireless access for the iPad.[166]
On March 2, 2011, Apple introduced the iPad 2, which
had a faster processor and a camera on the front and back.
It also added support for optional 3G service provided
by Verizon in addition to AT&T.[167] The availability of
the iPad 2 was initially limited as a result of a devastating earthquake and tsunami in Japan in March 2011.[168]
The third-generation iPad was released on March 7, 2012
and marketed as "the new iPad". It added LTE service
from AT&T or Verizon, an upgraded A5X processor, and
Retina display. The dimensions and form factor remained
relatively unchanged, with the new iPad being a fraction
thicker and heavier than the previous version and featuring minor positioning changes.[169]
MacBook Air

On October 23, 2012, Apples fourth-generation iPad

came out, marketed as the "iPad with Retina display".
Main article: Macintosh
It added the upgraded A6X processor and replaced the
See also: Timeline of Macintosh models, List of Macin- traditional 30-pin dock connector with the all-digital
tosh models grouped by CPU type and List of Macintosh Lightning connector.[170] The iPad Mini was also intromodels by case type
duced. It featured a reduced 7.9-inch display and much
of the same internal specications as the iPad 2.[171] On
October 22, 2013, Apple introduced the iPad Air and the
MacBook Air: Consumer ultra-thin, ultra-portable iPad mini with Retina Display, both featuring a new 64
notebook, introduced in 2008.
bit Apple-A7 processor.[172] The iPad Air 2 was unveiled

24.2. PRODUCTS
on October 16, 2014. It added better graphics and central processing and a camera burst mode as well as minor updates. The iPad Mini 3 was unveiled at the same
time.[172]

187
megapixel iSight). The latter camera supports HD
video recording at 1080p.[176]

Since its launch, iPad users have downloaded three billion 24.2.4
apps. The total number of App Store downloads is over
25 billion.[173][174]

24.2.3

iPhone

iPod

Main article: iPod

On October 23, 2001, Apple introduced the iPod digital

iPod line as of 2014. From left to right: iPod Shue, iPod Nano,
iPod Touch.

music player. Several updated models have since been introduced, and the iPod brand is now the market leader in
portable music players by a signicant margin. More than
350 million units have shipped as of September 2012.[175]
Apple has partnered with Nike to oer the Nike+iPod
Sports Kit, enabling runners to synchronize and monitor
their runs with iTunes and the Nike+ website.
Apple currently sells three variants of the iPod:
iPod Shue: Ultra-portable digital audio player,
currently available in a 2 GB model, introduced in
2005.
iPod Nano: Portable media player, currently available in a 16 GB model, introduced in 2005. Earlier
models featured the traditional iPod click wheel, but
the current generation features a multi-touch interface and includes an FM radio and a pedometer.
iPod Touch: Portable media player that runs iOS
and was released on September 12, 2012 and is
currently available in 16, 32 and 64 GB models.
The current generation features the Apple A5 pro- The rst-generation iPhone, 3G, 4, 5, 5C and 5S to scale.
cessor, a Retina display, Siri and dual cameras
on the front (1.2 megapixel sensor) and back (5 Main article: iPhone

188

At the Macworld Conference & Expo in January 2007,

Steve Jobs introduced the long-anticipated[177] iPhone,
a convergence of an Internet-enabled smartphone and
iPod.[178] The rst-generation iPhone was released on
June 29, 2007 for $499 (4 GB) and $599 (8 GB) with an
AT&T contract.[179] On February 5, 2008, it was updated
to have 16 GB of memory, in addition to the 8 GB and 4
GB models.[180] It combined a 2.5G quad band GSM and
EDGE cellular phone with features found in handheld devices, running scaled-down versions of Apples Mac OS
X (dubbed iPhone OS, later renamed iOS), with various
Mac OS X applications such as Safari and Mail. It also
includes web-based and Dashboard apps such as Google
Maps and Weather. The iPhone features a 3.5-inch (89
mm) touchscreen display, Bluetooth, and Wi-Fi (both b
and g).[178]
A second version, the iPhone 3G, was released on July 11,
2008 with a reduced price of $199 for the 8 GB version
and $299 for the 16 GB version.[181] This version added
support for 3G networking and assisted-GPS navigation.
The at silver back and large antenna square of the original model were eliminated in favor of a glossy, curved
black or white back. Software capabilities were improved
with the release of the App Store, which provided iPhonecompatible applications to download. On April 24, 2009,
the App Store [182] surpassed one billion downloads.[183]
On June 8, 2009, Apple announced the iPhone 3GS. It
provided an incremental update to the device, including
faster internal components, support for faster 3G speeds,
video recording capability, and voice control.

CHAPTER 24. APPLE INC.

launch.[192] Upon the launch of the iPhone 5S and iPhone
5C, Apple set a new record for rst-weekend smartphone
sales by selling over nine million devices in the rst three
days of its launch.[193] The release of the iPhone 5S and
5C was the rst time that Apple simultaneously launched
two models.[194]
A patent led in July 2013 revealed the development of
a new iPhone battery system that uses location data in
combination with data on the users habits to moderate
the handsets power settings accordingly. Apple is working towards a power management system that will provide
features such as the ability of the iPhone to estimate the
length of time a user will be away from a power source to
modify energy usage and a detection function that adjusts
the charging rate to best suit the type of power source that
is being used.[195]
In a March 2014 interview, Apple designer Jonathan Ive
used the iPhone as an example of Apples ethos of creating high-quality, life-changing products. He explained
that the phones are comparatively expensive due to the
intensive eort that is used to make them:
We dont take so long and make the way
we make for scal reasons ... Quite the reverse. The body is made from a single piece
of machined aluminium ... The whole thing
is polished rst to a mirror nish and then
is very nely textured, except for the Apple
logo. The chamfers [smoothed-o edges] are
cut with diamond-tipped cutters. The cutters
dont usually last very long, so we had to gure
out a way of mass-manufacturing long-lasting
ones. The camera cover is sapphire crystal.
Look at the details around the sim-card slot.
Its extraordinary![52]

At the Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) on

June 7, 2010, Apple announced the redesigned iPhone
4.[184] It featured a 960x640 display, the Apple A4 processor, a gyroscope for enhanced gaming, a 5MP camera
with LED ash, front-facing VGA camera and FaceTime
video calling. Shortly after its release, reception issues
were discovered by consumers, due to the stainless steel 24.2.5 Apple TV
band around the edge of the device, which also serves as
the phones cellular signal and Wi-Fi antenna. The issue Main article: Apple TV
was corrected by a Bumper Case distributed by Apple At the 2007 Macworld conference, Jobs demonstrated
for free to all owners for a few months. In June 2011, Apple overtook Nokia to become the worlds biggest smartphone maker by volume.[185] On October 4, 2011, Apple
unveiled the iPhone 4S, which was rst released on October 14, 2011.[186] It features the Apple A5 processor and
Siri voice assistant technology, the latter of which Apple
had acquired in 2010.[187] It also features an updated 8MP
camera with new optics. Apple sold 4 million iPhone 4S
phones in the rst three days of availability.[188]
On September 12, 2012, Apple introduced the iPhone
5.[189] It added a 4-inch display, 4G LTE connectivity,
and the upgraded Apple A6 chip, among several other
improvements.[190] Two million iPhones were sold in the
rst twenty-four hours of pre-ordering[191] and over ve
million handsets were sold in the rst three days of its

The current generation Apple TV.

24.3. CORPORATE IDENTITY

the Apple TV (previously known as the iTV),[196] a settop video device intended to bridge the sale of content
from iTunes with high-denition televisions. The device
links up to a users TV and syncs, either via Wi-Fi or a
wired network, with one computers iTunes library and
streams content from an additional four. The Apple TV
originally incorporated a 40 GB hard drive for storage,
included outputs for HDMI and component video, and
played video at a maximum resolution of 720p.[197] On
May 31, 2007, a 160 GB drive was released alongside the
existing 40 GB model.[198] A software update released on
January 15, 2008 allowed media to be purchased directly
from the Apple TV.[199]
In September 2009, Apple discontinued the original 40
GB Apple TV and now continues to produce and sell the
160 GB Apple TV. On September 1, 2010, Apple released a completely redesigned Apple TV. The new device is 1/4 the size, runs quieter, and replaces the need
for a hard drive with media streaming from any iTunes
library on the network along with 8 GB of ash memory to cache media downloaded. Like the iPad and the
iPhone, Apple TV runs on an A4 processor. The memory included in the device is half of that in the iPhone 4
at 256 MB; the same as the iPad, iPhone 3GS, third and
fourth-generation iPod Touch.[200]

189
the software Apple develops is bundled with its computers. An example of this is the consumer-oriented iLife software package that bundles iMovie, iPhoto and
GarageBand. For presentation, page layout and word
processing, iWork is available, which includes Keynote,
Pages, and Numbers. iTunes, QuickTime media player,
and Software Update are available as free downloads for
both OS X and Windows.
Apple also oers a range of professional software titles.
Their range of server software includes the operating system OS X Server; Apple Remote Desktop, a remote systems management application; and Xsan, a Storage Area
Network le system. For the professional creative market, there is Aperture for professional RAW-format photo
processing; Final Cut Pro, a video production suite; Logic
Pro, a comprehensive music toolkit; and Motion, an advanced eects composition program.

Apple also oers online services with iCloud, which provides cloud storage and syncing for a wide range of data,
including email, contacts, calendars, photos and documents. It also oers iOS device backup, and is able to
integrate directly with third-party apps for even greater
functionality. iCloud is the fourth generation of online services provided by Apple, and was preceded by
MobileMe, .Mac and iTools, all which met varying deIt has HDMI out as the only video out source. Features grees of success.
include access to the iTunes Store to rent movies and
TV shows (purchasing has been discontinued), streaming
from internet video sources, including YouTube and Netix, and media streaming from an iTunes library. Apple
also reduced the price of the device to $99. A third gen- 24.3 Corporate identity
eration of the device was introduced at an Apple event on
March 7, 2012, with new features such as higher resolu24.3.1 Logo
tion (1080p) and a new user interface.

24.2.6

Apple Watch

Main article: Apple Watch

See also: Typography of Apple Inc.

Apple logo redirects here. For the programming
language, see Apple Logo.

The Apple Watch smartwatch was launched by Cook

on September 9, 2014, and is scheduled to be released
in early 2015. The wearable device consists of tnesstracking capabilities that are similar to Fitbit, and must
be used in combination with an iPhone to work (only the
iPhone 5, or later models, are compatible with the Apple
Watch).[201][202][203]
First Apple logo (April 1, 1976, Prototype)

24.2.7

Software

See also: List of Macintosh software

Apple develops its own operating system to run on Macs,
OS X, the latest version being OS X Yosemite (version
10.10). Apple also independently develops computer First ocial Apple logo used from May 17, 1976 to
software titles for its OS X operating system. Much of August 26, 1999.

190

CHAPTER 24. APPLE INC.

iThink, therefore iMac was used in 1998 to promote
the iMac,[216] and Say hello to iPhone has been used
in iPhone advertisements.[217] Hello was also used to
introduce the original Macintosh, Newton, iMac (hello
(again)"), and iPod.[218]

Current Apple logo since August 27, 1999.[204]

According to Steve Jobs, the companys name was inspired by his visit to an apple farm while on a fruitarian
diet. Jobs thought the name Apple was fun, spirited
and not intimidating.[205]

From the introduction of the Macintosh in 1984 with the

1984 Super Bowl commercial to the more modern 'Get a
Mac' adverts, Apple has been recognized in for its eorts
towards eective advertising and marketing for its products. However, claims made by later campaigns were criticized, particularly the 2005 Power Mac ads.[219][220][221]
Apples product commercials gained a lot of attention as a
result of their eye-popping graphics and catchy tunes.[222]
Musicians who beneted from an improved prole as a
result of their songs being included on Apple commercials include Canadian singer Feist with the song "1234"
and Yael Nam with the song "New Soul".[222]

Apples rst logo, designed by Ron Wayne, depicts Sir

Isaac Newton sitting under an apple tree. It was almost
immediately replaced by Rob Jano's rainbow Apple,
the now-familiar rainbow-colored silhouette of an apple
with a bite taken out of it. Jano presented Jobs with
several dierent monochromatic themes for the bitten 24.3.3 Brand loyalty
logo, and Jobs immediately took a liking to it. However,
Jobs insisted that the logo be colorized to humanize the See also: Criticism of Apple Inc. Comparison with a
company.[206][207] The logo was designed with a bite so cult/religion
that it would not be confused with a cherry.[208] The col- The scenes I witnessed at the opening of the new Apored stripes were conceived to make the logo more accessible, and to represent the fact the Apple II could generate graphics in color.[208] This logo is often erroneously
referred to as a tribute to Alan Turing, with the bite mark
a reference to his method of suicide.[209][210] Both Jano
and Apple deny any homage to Turing in the design of
the logo.[208][211]
On August 27, 1999[204] (the year following the introduction of the iMac G3), Apple ocially dropped the
rainbow scheme and began to use monochromatic logos
nearly identical in shape to the previous rainbow incarnation. An Aqua-themed version of the monochrome logo
was used from 1999 to 2003, and a glass-themed version
was used from 2007 to 2013.
Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak were Beatles fans,[212][213]
but Apple Inc. had name and logo trademark issues with
Apple Corps Ltd., a multimedia company started by the
Beatles in 1967. This resulted in a series of lawsuits and
tension between the two companies. These issues ended
with settling of their most recent lawsuit in 2007.

Apple acionados wait in line around the Apple Store on Fifth

Avenue in New York City in anticipation of a new product.

ple store in Londons Covent Garden were more like an

evangelical prayer meeting than a chance to buy a phone
or a laptop.
Alex Riley, writing for the BBC[223]

24.3.2

Advertising

Main articles: Apple Inc. advertising and List of Apple

Inc. slogans
Apples rst slogan, "Byte into an Apple, was coined
in the late 1970s.[214] From 1997 to 2002, the slogan
"Think Dierent" was used in advertising campaigns,
and is still closely associated with Apple.[215] Apple also
has slogans for specic product lines for example,

Apples high level of brand loyalty is considered unusual

for any product. Apple evangelists were actively engaged by the company at one time, but this was after the
phenomenon had already been rmly established. Apple evangelist Guy Kawasaki has called the brand fanaticism something that was stumbled upon,[224] while Ive
explained in 2014 that People have an incredibly personal relationship with Apples products.[52] Apple Store
openings can draw crowds of thousands, with some waiting in line as much as a day before the opening or ying

24.4. CORPORATE AFFAIRS

in from other countries for the event.[225] The opening
of the New York City Fifth Avenue Cube store had a
line half a mile long; a few Mac fans used the setting to
propose marriage.[226] The line for the Ginza opening in
Tokyo was estimated to include thousands of people and
exceeded eight city blocks.[227]
Fortune magazine named Apple the most admired company in the United States in 2008, and in the world from
2008 to 2012.[228][229][230][231][232] On September 30,
2013, Apple surpassed Coca-Cola to become the worlds
most valuable brand in the Omnicom Group's Best
Global Brands report.[233] Boston Consulting Group has
ranked Apple as the worlds most innovative brand every
year since 2005.[234]

191
Apple Inc.'s world corporate headquarters are located
in the middle of Silicon Valley, at 16 Innite Loop,
Cupertino, California. This Apple campus has six buildings that total 850,000 square feet (79,000 m2 ) and was
built in 1993 by Sobrato Development Cos.[245]
In 2006, Apple announced its intention to build a second campus in Cupertino about 1 mile (1.6 km) east of
the current campus and next to Interstate 280.[246] The
new campus building will be designed by Norman Foster.[247] The Cupertino City Council approved the proposed spaceship design campus on October 15, 2013,
after a 2011 presentation by Jobs detailing the architectural design of the new building and its environs. The
new campus is planned to house up to 13,000 employees
in one central, four-storied, circular building surrounded
by extensive landscape. It will feature a caf with room
for 3,000 sitting people and parking underground as well
as in a parking structure. The 2.8 million square foot facility will also include Jobss original designs for a tness
center and a corporate auditorium.[248]

John Sculley told The Guardian newspaper in 1997:

People talk about technology, but Apple was a marketing company. It was the marketing company of the
decade.[235] Research in 2002 by NetRatings indicate
that the average Apple consumer was usually more afuent and better educated than other PC company consumers. The research indicated that this correlation could Apples headquarters for Europe, the Middle East and
stem from the fact that on average Apple Inc. products Africa (EMEA) are located in Cork in the south of
were more expensive than other PC products.[236][237]
Ireland.[123][249][250][251][252][253][254] The facility, which
opened in 1980, was Apples rst location outside of the
In response to a query about the devotion of loyal Apple
United States.[255] Apple Sales International, which deals
consumers, Jonathon Ive responded:
with all of Apples international sales outside of the USA,
is located at Apples campus in Cork[256] along with ApWhat people are responding to is much
ple Distribution International, which similarly deals with
bigger than the object. They are respondApples international distribution network.[257] On April
ing to something rarea group of people who
20, 2012, Apple added 500 new jobs at its European
do more than simply make something work,
headquarters, increasing the total workforce from around
they make the very best products they possibly
2,800 to 3,300 employees.[248][249][258] The company will
can. Its a demonstration against thoughtlessbuild a new oce block on its Hollyhill Campus to acness and carelessness.[52]
commodate the additional sta.[259]

24.3.4

Home page

24.4 Corporate aairs

The Apple website home page has been used to commemorate, or pay tribute to, milestones and events outside of See also: List of mergers and acquisitions by Apple,
Apples product oerings:
Braeburn Capital and FileMaker Inc.
2014: Robin Williams[238]
2013: Nelson Mandela[239]
2011: Steve Jobs

24.4.1 Corporate culture

[240]

2010: Jerome B. York (board member)[241]

2005: Rosa Parks[242]
2003: Gregory Hines[243]
2001: George Harrison[244]

24.3.5

Headquarters

Main article: Apple Campus

Apple was one of several highly successful companies

founded in the 1970s that bucked the traditional notions
of corporate culture. Jobs often walked around the oce
barefoot even after Apple became a Fortune 500 company. By the time of the 1984 television commercial,
Apples informal culture had become a key trait that differentiated it from its competitors.[260] According to a
2011 report in Fortune, this has resulted in a corporate
culture more akin to a startup rather than a multinational
corporation.[261]
As the company has grown and been led by a series of
dierently opinionated chief executives, it has arguably

192
lost some of its original character. Nonetheless, it has
maintained a reputation for fostering individuality and
excellence that reliably attracts talented workers, particularly after Jobs returned to the company. Numerous
Apple employees have stated that projects without Jobss
involvement often take longer than projects with it.[262]
To recognize the best of its employees, Apple created
the Apple Fellows program which awards individuals who
make extraordinary technical or leadership contributions
to personal computing while at the company. The Apple
Fellowship has so far been awarded to individuals including Bill Atkinson,[263] Steve Capps,[264] Rod Holt,[263]
Alan Kay,[265][266] Guy Kawasaki,[265][267] Al Alcorn,[268]
Don Norman,[265] Rich Page,[263] and Steve Wozniak.[263]

CHAPTER 24. APPLE INC.

and testing period. The advisors earn between US$9 and
$12 per hour and receive intensive management to ensure
a high quality of customer support.[276]

24.4.3 Manufacturing

The companys manufacturing, procurement and logistics enable it to execute massive product launches without
having to maintain large, prot-sapping inventories. In
2011, Apples prot margins were 40 percent, compared
with between 10 and 20 percent for most other hardware
companies. Cooks catchphrase to describe his focus on
the companys operational arm is: Nobody wants to buy
[111][277]
At Apple, employees are specialists who are not exposed sour milk.
to functions outside their area of expertise. Jobs saw this During the Macs early history Apple generally refused to
as a means of having best-in-class employees in every adopt prevailing industry standards for hardware, instead
role. For instance, Ron JohnsonSenior Vice President creating their own.[278] This trend was largely reversed in
of Retail Operations until November 1, 2011was re- the late 1990s, beginning with Apples adoption of the
sponsible for site selection, in-store service, and store lay- PCI bus in the 7500/8500/9500 Power Macs. Apple has
out, yet had no control of the inventory in his stores (this since adopted USB, AGP, HyperTransport, Wi-Fi, and
was done by Cook, who had a background in supply-chain other industry standards in its computers. FireWire is an
management).[269][269] Apple is also known for strictly Apple-originated standard that was widely adopted across
enforcing accountability. Each project has a directly the industry after it was standardized as IEEE 1394.[279]
responsible individual, or DRI in Apple jargon.[261]
As an example, when iOS senior vice president Scott
Forstall refused to sign Apples ocial apology for nu- Labor practices
merous errors in the redesigned Maps app, he was forced
to resign.[270] Unlike other major U.S. companies Apple Further information: Criticism of Apple Inc. Labor
provides a relatively simple compensation policy for exec- practices
utives that does not include perks enjoyed by other CEOs
like country club fees or private use of company aircraft. The company advertised its products as being made in
The company typically grants stock options to executives America until the late 1990s; however, as a result of
every other year.[271]
outsourcing initiatives in the 2000s, almost all of its manufacturing is now handled abroad. According to a report by the New York Times, Apple insiders believe the
24.4.2 Customer service
vast scale of overseas factories as well as the exibility,
In 1999 Apple retained Eight Inc. as a strategic retail diligence and industrial skills of foreign workers have
so outpaced their American counterparts that Made in
design partner and began creating the Apple retail stores.
is no longer a viable option for most Apple
Tim Kobe of Eight Inc. prepared an Apple Retail white the U.S.A.
products.[280]
paper for Jobs, outlining the ability of separate Apple retail stores to directly drive the Apple brand experience In 2006, the Mail on Sunday reported on the working conKobe used their recently completed work with The North ditions of the Chinese factories where contract manufacFace and Nike as a basis for the white paper. The rst turers Foxconn and Inventec produced the iPod.[281] The
two Apple Stores opened on May 19, 2001 in Tysons article stated that one complex of factories that assemCorner, Virginia, and Glendale, California. More than bled the iPod and other items had over 200,000 work7,700 people visited Apples rst two stores in the open- ers living and working within it. Employees regularly
ing weekend, spending a total of US$599,000.[272] As worked more than 60 hours per week and made around
of June 2014, Apple maintains 425 retail stores in four- $100 per month. A little over half of the workers earnteen countries.[273][274] In addition to Apple products, the ings was required to pay for rent and food from the
stores sell third-party products like software titles, digital company.[282][283][284]
cameras, camcorders and handheld organizers.[275]
Apple immediately launched an investigation after the
A media article published in July 2013 provided details
about Apples At-Home Apple Advisors customer support program that serves as the corporations call center.
The advisors are employed within the U.S. and work remotely after undergoing a four-week training program

2006 media report, and worked with their manufacturers to ensure acceptable working conditions.[285] In 2007,
Apple started yearly audits of all its suppliers regarding
workers rights, slowly raising standards and pruning suppliers that did not comply. Yearly progress reports have

24.4. CORPORATE AFFAIRS

193

been published since 2008.[286] In 2011, Apple admit- are aware of no other company doing as much as Apple
ted that its suppliers child labor practices in China had to ensure fair and safe working conditions.[293]
worsened.[287]
In December 2014, the Institute for Global Labour and
The Foxconn suicides occurred between January and Human Rights published a report which documented inNovember 2010, when 18[288] Foxconn (Chinese:
) humane conditions for the 15,000 workers at a Zhen Ding
employees attempted suicide, resulting in 14 deaths Technology factory in Shenzhen, China, which serves as
the company was the worlds largest contract electron- a major supplier of circuit boards for Apples iPhone and
ics manufacturer, for clients including Apple, at the iPad. According to the report, workers are pressured
time.[288][289][290] The suicides drew media attention, and into 65 hour work weeks which leaves them so exhausted
employment practices at Foxconn were investigated by that they often sleep during lunch breaks. They are
Apple.[291] Apple issued a public statement about the sui- also made to reside in primitive, dark and lthy dorms
cides, and company spokesperson Steven Dowling said:
where they sleep on plywood, with six to ten workers
in each crowded room. Omnipresent security personnel
also routinely harass and beat the workers.[301][302]
[Apple is] saddened and upset by the recent
suicides at Foxconn ... A team from Apple is
independently evaluating the steps they are takNo cold calling agreements in the United States In
ing to address these tragic events and we will
2013 class action against several Silicon Valley compacontinue our ongoing inspections of the facilinies, including Apple, was led for alleged no cold call
ties where our products are made.[292]
agreements which restrained the recruitment of high-tech
employees.[303]
The statement was released after the results from the
companys probe into its suppliers labor practices were
published in early 2010. Foxconn was not specically Environmental practices
named in the report, but Apple identied a series of serious labor violations of labor laws, including Apples Energy Following a Greenpeace protest, Apple reown rules, and some child labor existed in a number of leased a statement on April 17, 2012 committing to
factories.[292] Apple committed to the implementation of ending its use of coal and shifting to 100% clean
energy.[304][305] By 2013 Apple was using 100% renewchanges following the suicides.[293]
able energy to power their data centers. Overall, 75% of
Also in 2010, workers in China planned to sue iPhone
the companys power came from renewable sources.[306]
contractors over poisoning by a cleaner used to clean
LCD screens. One worker claimed that he and his In 2010, Climate Counts, a nonprot organization dedicoworkers had not been informed of possible occupa- cated to directing consumers toward the greenest comtional illnesses.[294] After a high suicide rate in a Fox- panies, gave Apple a score of 52 points out of a
conn facility in China making iPads and iPhones, albeit possible 100, which puts Apple in their top category
a lower rate than that of China as a whole,[295] workers Striding.[307] This was an increase from May 2008,
were forced to sign a legally binding document guaran- when Climate Counts only gave Apple 11 points out of
teeing that they would not kill themselves.[296] Workers 100, which placed the company last among electronin factories producing Apple products have also been ex- ics companies, at which time Climate Counts also laposed to n-hexane, a neurotoxin that is a cheaper alterna- beled Apple with a stuck icon, adding that Apple at
the time was a choice to avoid for the climate conscious
tive than alcohol for cleaning the products.[297][298][299]
consumer.[308]
In 2013, China Labor Watch said it found violations
of the law and of Apples working condition pledges
at facilities operated by Pegatron. These violations Toxins Following
further
campaigns
by
included discrimination against ethnic minorities and Greenpeace,[309] in 2008 Apple became the rst
women, withholding of employee pay, excessive work laptop manufacturer to eliminate the inclusion of
hours, poor living conditions, health and safety problems PVC and BFRs in its devices.[310][311] In June 2007,
and pollution.[300]
Apple began replacing the cold cathode uorescent
A 2014 BBC investigation found excessive hours and
other problems persisted, despite Apples promise to reform factory practice after the 2010 Foxconn suicides.
The Pegatron factory was once again the subject of review, as reporters gained access to the working conditions inside through recruitment as employees. While
the BBC maintained that the experiences of its reporters
showed that labor violations were continuing since 2010,
Apple publicly disagreed with the BBC and stated: We

lamp (CCFL) backlit LCD displays in its computers

with mercury-free LED backlit LCD displays and
arsenic-free glass, starting with the upgraded MacBook
Pro.[312][313][314][315] Apple oers information about
emissions, materials, and electrical usage concerning
each product.[316] In June 2009, Apples iPhone 3GS was
free of PVC, arsenic, BFRs and had an ecient power
adapter.[312][317] All Apple computers now have mercury
free LED backlit displays, arsenic-free glass and lack

194

CHAPTER 24. APPLE INC.

PVC cables. All Apple computers also have Electronic Tax practices
Product Environmental Assessment Tool (EPEAT) Gold
status.[312]
Further information: Criticism of Apple Inc. Tax
In October 2011, Chinese authorities ordered an Ap- practices
ple supplier to close part of its plant in Suzhou after
residents living nearby raised signicant environmental
Apple has created subsidiaries in low-tax places such as
concerns.[318]
the Republic of Ireland, the Netherlands, Luxembourg
In November 2011, Apple featured in Greenpeaces and the British Virgin Islands to cut the taxes it pays
Guide to Greener Electronics, which ranks electronics around the world. According to the New York Times, in
manufacturers on sustainability, climate and energy pol- the 1980s Apple was among the rst tech companies to
icy, and how green their products are. The company designate overseas salespeople in high-tax countries in a
ranked fourth of fteen electronics companies (moving manner that allowed the company to sell on behalf of lowup ve places from the previous year) with a score of tax subsidiaries on other continents, sidestepping income
4.6/10 down from 4.9.[319] Greenpeace praises Apples taxes. In the late 1980s Apple was a pioneer of an acsustainability, noting that the company exceeded its 70% counting technique known as the "Double Irish With a
global recycling goal in 2010. It continues to score well Dutch Sandwich, which reduces taxes by routing prots
on the products rating with all Apple products now be- through Irish subsidiaries and the Netherlands and then to
ing free of PVC vinyl plastic and brominated ame re- the Caribbean.[331]
tardants. However, the guide criticizes Apple on the Energy criteria for not seeking external verication of its British Conservative Party Member of Parliament
Elphicke published research on October 30,
greenhouse gas emissions data and for not setting out any Charlie
[332]
[319]
2012,
which showed that some multinational comtargets to reduce emissions.
In January 2012, Apple
panies,
including
Apple Inc., were making billions of
requested that their cable maker, Volex, begin producing
[320]
pounds
of
prot
in
the UK, but were paying an eective
halogen-free USB and power cables.
tax rate to the UK Treasury of only 3 percent, well below
standard corporation tax. He followed this research by
calling on the Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne to force these multinationals, which also included
24.4.4 Finance
Google and The Coca-Cola Company, to state the eective rate of tax they pay on their UK revenues. Elphicke
Apple is the worlds second-largest information technol- also said that government contracts should be withheld
ogy company by revenue after Samsung Electronics, and from multinationals who do not pay their fair share of
[333]
In June 2014 the European Commissioner
the worlds third-largest mobile phone maker.[321] It is UK tax.
for
Competition
launched an investigation of Apples tax
also the largest publicly traded corporation in the world
practices
in
Ireland,
as part of a wider probe of multiby market capitalization, with an estimated market capi[322]
national
companies
tax
arrangements in various Eurotalization of $446 billion by January 2014.
As of June
[334]
pean
countries.
2014, Apple maintains 425 retail stores in fourteen countries as well as the online Apple Store and iTunes Store, As part of the Luxembourg Leaks, Apple has been
the latter of which is the worlds largest music retailer.[323] revealed to use the Luxembourg tax haven for tax
As of September 29, 2012, it employs 72,800 permanent avoidance.[335]
full-time employees and 3,300 temporary full-time employees worldwide.
In its scal year ending in September 2011, Apple Inc.
reported a total of $108 billion in annual revenuesa signicant increase from its 2010 revenues of $65 billion
and nearly $82 billion in cash reserves.[324] On March 19,
2012, Apple announced plans for a $2.65-per-share dividend beginning in fourth quarter of 2012, per approval
by their board of directors.[325] On September 2012, Apple reached a record share price of more than $705 and
closed at above 700.[326] With 936,596,000 outstanding
shares (as of June 30, 2012),[327]
The companys worldwide annual revenue in 2013 totaled
$170 billion.[328] In May 2013, Apple entered the top ten
of the Fortune 500 list of companies for the rst time,
rising 11 places above its 2012 ranking to take the sixth
position.[329]

24.4.5 Litigation
Main article: Apple Inc. litigation
Apple has been a participant in various legal proceedings and claims since it began operation.[336] In particular, Apple is known for and promotes itself as actively
and aggressively enforcing its intellectual property interests. Some litigation examples include Apple v. Samsung,
Apple v. Microsoft, Motorola Mobility v. Apple Inc., and
Apple Corps v. Apple Computer.

24.6. REFERENCES

24.4.6

195

Charitable causes

[13] Wozniak, Stephen. Homebrew and How the Apple Came

to Be, Digital Deli. Retrieved March 2, 2007.

As of 2014, Apple is listed as a partner of the Product

[14] Kahney, Leander. Rebuilding an Apple From the Past,
RED campaign. The campaigns mission is to prevent the
Wired, November 19, 2002.
transmission of HIV from mother to child by 2015.[337]
In November 2012, Apple donated $2.5 million to the [15] Consumer Price Index (estimate) 18002014. Federal
Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved February 27,
American Red Cross to aid relief eorts after Hurricane
[338]
2014.
Sandy.
[16] BBC News: History of Technology. November 15,
2007. Retrieved January 19, 2008.

24.5 See also

[17] Apple I. Computer History Museum. Archived from

the original on March 26, 2007. Retrieved January 19,
2008.

List of Apple Inc. slogans

Apple Campus

[18] Game Makers (TV Show): Apple II. Originally aired January 6, 2005.

Apple media events

[19] Picture of original ad featuring US666.66 price.

Apple Inc. litigation

[20] Wozniak, Steven. "iWoz", p. 180. W. W. Norton, 2006.

ISBN 978-0-393-06143-7

iReview
Pixar

[21] Apple Investor Relations FAQ, Apple inc.

March 2, 2007.

Retrieved

[22] Apple Chronology. Fortune (CNN). January 6, 1998.

Retrieved September 11, 2008.

24.6 References
Retrieved

[23] Apple Inc. MSN Encarta. Archived from the original

on October 31, 2009. Retrieved March 2, 2007.

[2] Apple FY14 Results (XBRL). United States Securities

and Exchange Commission. October 20, 2014.

[24] Steven Weyhrich (April 21, 2002). Apple II History

Chapter 4. Retrieved August 18, 2008.

[3] Apple - Diversity - Inclusion inspires innovation.. Apple.com. August 12, 2014. Retrieved August 12, 2014.

[25] Hormby, Thomas. VisiCalc and the rise of the Apple II,
Low End Mac, September 22, 2006. Retrieved March 2,
2007.

[1] Press Info Apple Leadership.

February 22, 2012.

Apple.

[4] Apple Inc market cap tops US$700B, double what it

was when Tim Cook took over as CEO. Financial Post.
November 25, 2014. Retrieved November 25, 2014.
[5] Number of Apple stores worldwide 2005-2014. Statista.
Retrieved December 6, 2014.
[6] Annual Financials for Apple Inc.. Market Watch. Retrieved November 13, 2014.
[7] Elliott, Stuart. Technology Titans Lead Ranking of Most
Valuable Brands. The New York Times. The New York
Times Company. Retrieved October 10, 2014.

[26] Bagnall, Brian (2005). On the Edge: The Spectacular Rise

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Rob Price (1987). So Far: The First Ten Years of a

Vision. Apple Computer. ISBN 978-1-55693-9747.
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More Oce Space, More Sales.

204

CHAPTER 24. APPLE INC.

24.7 Further reading

Gil Amelio, William L. Simon (1999), On the Firing
Line: My 500 Days at Apple ISBN 978-0-88730919-9
Jim Carlton, Apple: The Inside Story of Intrigue,
Egomania and Business Blunders ISBN 978-088730-965-6
Alan Deutschman (2000), The Second Coming of
Steve Jobs, Broadway, ISBN 978-0-7679-0432-2
Andy Hertzfeld (2004), Revolution in the Valley,
O'Reilly Books ISBN 978-0-596-00719-5
Paul Kunkel, AppleDesign: The Work of the Apple
Industrial Design Group ISBN 978-1-888001-25-9
Steven Levy (1994), Insanely Great: The Life and
Times of Macintosh, the Computer That Changed Everything ISBN 978-0-14-029177-3
Owen Linzmayer (2004), Apple Condential 2.0, No
Starch Press ISBN 978-1-59327-010-0
Michael S. Malone (1999), Innite Loop ISBN 9780-385-48684-2
Frank Rose (1990), West of Eden: The End of Innocence at Apple Computer, Penguin Books ISBN
978-0-14-009372-8
John Sculley, John A. Byrne (1987) Odyssey: Pepsi
to Apple, HarperCollins, ISBN 978-0-06-015780-7
Steve Wozniak, Gina Smith (2006), iWoz: From
Computer Geek to Cult Icon: How I Invented the Personal Computer, Co-Founded Apple, and Had Fun
Doing It, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0393-06143-7
Jerey S. Young (1988). Steve Jobs, The Journey is
the Reward, Lynx Books, ISBN 978-1-55802-378-9
Jerey S. Young, William L. Simon (2005), iCon
Steve Jobs: The Greatest Second Act in the History
of Business, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-47172083-6

24.8 External links

Ocial website

Business data for Apple Inc.:

Hoovers
Reuters
SEC lings

Apple Inc. companies grouped at OpenCorporates

The template Electronics industry in the United States is
being considered for deletion.

Chapter 25

Operating system
An operating system (OS) is software that manages allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and
computer hardware and software resources and provides other resources.
common services for computer programs. The operating
system is an essential component of the system software
in a computer system. Application programs usually re- 25.1.2 Multi-user
quire an operating system to function.
A multi-user operating system allows multiple users to access a computer system at the same time. Time-sharing
systems and Internet servers can be classied as multiuser systems as they enable multiple-user access to a computer through the sharing of time. Single-user operating
For hardware functions such as input and output
systems have only one user but may allow multiple proand memory allocation, the operating system acts as
grams to run at the same time.
an intermediary between programs and the computer
hardware,[1][2] although the application code is usually executed directly by the hardware and will frequently make
a system call to an OS function or be interrupted by it. 25.1.3 Multi-tasking vs. single-tasking
Operating systems can be found on almost any device
that contains a computerfrom cellular phones and video A multi-tasking operating system allows more than one
program to be running at the same time, from the point
game consoles to supercomputers and web servers.
of view of human time scales. A single-tasking system
Examples of popular modern operating systems include has only one running program. Multi-tasking can be of
Android, BSD, iOS, Linux, OS X, QNX, Microsoft Win- two types: pre-emptive and co-operative. In pre-emptive
dows,[3] Windows Phone, and IBM z/OS. All these exam- multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time
ples, except Windows, Windows Phone and z/OS, share and dedicates one slot to each of the programs. Unixroots in UNIX.
like operating systems such as Solaris and Linux support
pre-emptive multitasking, as does AmigaOS. Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process
to give time to the other processes in a dened manner.
25.1 Types of operating systems
16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative
multi-tasking. 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and
25.1.1 Real-time
Win9x, used pre-emptive multi-tasking. Mac OS prior to
OS X used to support cooperative multitasking.
A real-time operating system is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time applications. Real-time operating systems often use specialized
25.1.4 Distributed
scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve a deterministic nature of behavior. The main objective of realtime operating systems is their quick and predictable re- Further information: Distributed system
sponse to events. They have an event-driven or timesharing design and often aspects of both. An event-driven A distributed operating system manages a group of indesystem switches between tasks based on their priorities pendent computers and makes them appear to be a sinor external events while time-sharing operating systems gle computer. The development of networked computers
switch tasks based on clock interrupts. Time-sharing op- that could be linked and communicate with each other
erating systems schedule tasks for ecient use of the sys- gave rise to distributed computing. Distributed computem and may also include accounting software for cost tations are carried out on more than one machine. When
Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for ecient use of the system and may also include accounting
software for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and other resources.

205

206

CHAPTER 25. OPERATING SYSTEM

computers in a group work in cooperation, they make a

distributed system.

25.1.5

Templated

In an OS, distributed and cloud computing context,

templating refers to creating a single virtual machine image as a guest operating system, then saving it as a tool
for multiple running virtual machines (Gagne, 2012, p.
716). The technique is used both in virtualization and
cloud computing management, and is common in large
server warehouses. [4]

25.1.6

Embedded

Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in

embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy.
They are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely ecient
by design. Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples
of embedded operating systems.
OS/360 was used on most IBM mainframe computers beginning
in 1966, including computers utilized by the Apollo program.

25.2 History
Main article: History of operating systems
See also: Resident monitor
Early computers were built to perform a series of single
tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features
were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor
functions that could automatically run dierent programs
in succession to speed up processing. Operating systems
did not exist in their modern and more complex forms until the early 1960s.[5] Hardware features were added, that
enabled use of runtime libraries, interrupts, and parallel
processing. When personal computers became popular in
the 1980s, operating systems were made for them similar
in concept to those used on larger computers.

scheduled time with program and data on punched paper cards and/or punched tape. The program would be
loaded into the machine, and the machine would be set to
work until the program completed or crashed. Programs
could generally be debugged via a front panel using toggle
switches and panel lights. It is said that Alan Turing was a
master of this on the early Manchester Mark 1 machine,
and he was already deriving the primitive conception of
an operating system from the principles of the Universal
Turing machine.[5]

Later machines came with libraries of programs, which

would be linked to a users program to assist in operations such as input and output and generating computer
code from human-readable symbolic code. This was the
genesis of the modern-day operating system. However,
machines still ran a single job at a time. At Cambridge
In the 1940s, the earliest electronic digital systems had University in England the job queue was at one time a
no operating systems. Electronic systems of this time washing line from which tapes were hung with dierent
were programmed on rows of mechanical switches or by colored clothes-pegs to indicate job-priority.
jumper wires on plug boards. These were special-purpose
systems that, for example, generated ballistics tables for
the military or controlled the printing of payroll checks 25.2.1 Mainframes
from data on punched paper cards. After programmable
general purpose computers were invented, machine lan- Main article: Mainframe computer
guages (consisting of strings of the binary digits 0 and 1 See also: History of IBM mainframe operating systems
on punched paper tape) were introduced that sped up the
programming process (Stern, 1981).
Through the 1950s, many major features were pioneered
In the early 1950s, a computer could execute only one in the eld of operating systems, including batch proprogram at a time. Each user had sole use of the com- cessing, input/output interrupt, buering, multitasking,
puter for a limited period of time and would arrive at a spooling, runtime libraries, link-loading, and programs

25.2. HISTORY
for sorting records in les. These features were included
or not included in application software at the option of application programmers, rather than in a separate operating system used by all applications. In 1959, the SHARE
Operating System was released as an integrated utility for
the IBM 704, and later in the 709 and 7090 mainframes,
although it was quickly supplanted by IBSYS/IBJOB on
the 709, 7090 and 7094.

207
During development of the AS400, IBM made an approach to Burroughs to licence MCP to run on the AS400
hardware. This proposal was declined by Burroughs
management to protect its existing hardware production.
MCP is still in use today in the Unisys ClearPath/MCP
line of computers.
UNIVAC, the rst commercial computer manufacturer,
produced a series of EXEC operating systems. Like
all early main-frame systems, this batch-oriented system
managed magnetic drums, disks, card readers and line
printers. In the 1970s, UNIVAC produced the Real-Time
Basic (RTB) system to support large-scale time sharing,
also patterned after the Dartmouth BC system.

During the 1960s, IBMs OS/360 introduced the concept

of a single OS spanning an entire product line, which
was crucial for the success of the System/360 machines.
IBM's current mainframe operating systems are distant
descendants of this original system and applications written for OS/360 can still be run on modern machines.
General Electric and MIT developed General Electric
OS/360 also pioneered the concept that the operating sys- Comprehensive Operating Supervisor (GECOS), which
tem keeps track of all of the system resources that are introduced the concept of ringed security privilege levels.
used, including program and data space allocation in main After acquisition by Honeywell it was renamed General
memory and le space in secondary storage, and le lock- Comprehensive Operating System (GCOS).
ing during update. When the process is terminated for Digital Equipment Corporation developed many operany reason, all of these resources are re-claimed by the ating systems for its various computer lines, including
operating system.
TOPS-10 and TOPS-20 time sharing systems for the 36The alternative CP-67 system for the S/360-67 started
a whole line of IBM operating systems focused on the
concept of virtual machines. Other operating systems
used on IBM S/360 series mainframes included systems developed by IBM: COS/360 (Compatibility Operating System), DOS/360 (Disk Operating System),
TSS/360 (Time Sharing System), TOS/360 (Tape Operating System), BOS/360 (Basic Operating System),
and ACP (Airline Control Program), as well as a few
non-IBM systems: MTS (Michigan Terminal System),
MUSIC (Multi-User System for Interactive Computing),
and ORVYL (Stanford Timesharing System).

bit PDP-10 class systems. Before the widespread use

of UNIX, TOPS-10 was a particularly popular system in
universities, and in the early ARPANET community.

Control Data Corporation developed the SCOPE operating system in the 1960s, for batch processing. In cooperation with the University of Minnesota, the Kronos
and later the NOS operating systems were developed during the 1970s, which supported simultaneous batch and
timesharing use. Like many commercial timesharing systems, its interface was an extension of the Dartmouth
BASIC operating systems, one of the pioneering eorts
in timesharing and programming languages. In the late
1970s, Control Data and the University of Illinois developed the PLATO operating system, which used plasma
panel displays and long-distance time sharing networks.
Plato was remarkably innovative for its time, featuring
real-time chat, and multi-user graphical games.

The enormous investment in software for these systems

made since the 1960s caused most of the original computer manufacturers to continue to develop compatible
operating systems along with the hardware. Notable supported mainframe operating systems include:

In 1961, Burroughs Corporation introduced the B5000

with the MCP, (Master Control Program) operating system. The B5000 was a stack machine designed to exclusively support high-level languages with no machine
language or assembler, and indeed the MCP was the
rst OS to be written exclusively in a high-level language
ESPOL, a dialect of ALGOL. MCP also introduced
many other ground-breaking innovations, such as being
the rst commercial implementation of virtual memory.

UNIVAC EXEC 8 UNIVAC 1108, 1967, to OS

2200 Unisys Clearpath Dorado, present.

From the late 1960s through the late 1970s, several hardware capabilities evolved that allowed similar or ported
software to run on more than one system. Early systems
had utilized microprogramming to implement features
on their systems in order to permit dierent underlying
computer architectures to appear to be the same as others in a series. In fact, most 360s after the 360/40 (except the 360/165 and 360/168) were microprogrammed
implementations.

Burroughs MCP B5000, 1961 to Unisys

Clearpath/MCP, present.
IBM OS/360 IBM System/360, 1966 to IBM
z/OS, present.
IBM CP-67 IBM System/360, 1967 to IBM
z/VM, present.

25.2.2 Microcomputers
The rst microcomputers did not have the capacity or
need for the elaborate operating systems that had been
developed for mainframes and minis; minimalistic operating systems were developed, often loaded from ROM

208

PC DOS was an early personal computer OS that featured a command line interface.

CHAPTER 25. OPERATING SYSTEM

mer Richard Stallman with the goal of creating a complete free software replacement to the proprietary UNIX
operating system. While the project was highly successful
in duplicating the functionality of various parts of UNIX,
development of the GNU Hurd kernel proved to be unproductive. In 1991, Finnish computer science student
Linus Torvalds, with cooperation from volunteers collaborating over the Internet, released the rst version of the
Linux kernel. It was soon merged with the GNU user
space components and system software to form a complete operating system. Since then, the combination of
the two major components has usually been referred to
as simply Linux by the software industry, a naming
convention that Stallman and the Free Software Foundation remain opposed to, preferring the name GNU/Linux.
The Berkeley Software Distribution, known as BSD, is
the UNIX derivative distributed by the University of California, Berkeley, starting in the 1970s. Freely distributed
and ported to many minicomputers, it eventually also
gained a following for use on PCs, mainly as FreeBSD,
NetBSD and OpenBSD.

25.3 Examples of operating systems

Mac OS by Apple Computer became the rst widespread OS to
feature a graphical user interface. Many of its features such as
windows and icons would later become commonplace in GUIs.

and known as monitors. One notable early disk operating

system was CP/M, which was supported on many early
microcomputers and was closely imitated by Microsoft's
MS-DOS, which became widely popular as the operating
system chosen for the IBM PC (IBMs version of it was
called IBM DOS or PC DOS). In the '80s, Apple Computer Inc. (now Apple Inc.) abandoned its popular Apple
II series of microcomputers to introduce the Apple Macintosh computer with an innovative Graphical User Interface (GUI) to the Mac OS.
The introduction of the Intel 80386 CPU chip with 32bit architecture and paging capabilities, provided personal computers with the ability to run multitasking operating systems like those of earlier minicomputers and
mainframes. Microsoft responded to this progress by hiring Dave Cutler, who had developed the VMS operating system for Digital Equipment Corporation. He would
lead the development of the Windows NT operating system, which continues to serve as the basis for Microsofts
operating systems line. Steve Jobs, a co-founder of Apple
Inc., started NeXT Computer Inc., which developed the
NEXTSTEP operating system. NEXTSTEP would later
be acquired by Apple Inc. and used, along with code from
FreeBSD as the core of Mac OS X.

25.3.1 Unix and Unix-like operating systems

Evolution of Unix systems
Main article: Unix
Unix was originally written in assembly language.[6] Ken
Thompson wrote B, mainly based on BCPL, based on his
experience in the MULTICS project. B was replaced by
C, and Unix, rewritten in C, developed into a large, complex family of inter-related operating systems which have
been inuential in every modern operating system (see
History).
The Unix-like family is a diverse group of operating systems, with several major sub-categories including System
V, BSD, and Linux. The name "UNIX" is a trademark of
The Open Group which licenses it for use with any operating system that has been shown to conform to their definitions. UNIX-like is commonly used to refer to the
large set of operating systems which resemble the original UNIX.
Unix-like systems run on a wide variety of computer architectures. They are used heavily for servers in business,
as well as workstations in academic and engineering environments. Free UNIX variants, such as Linux and BSD,
are popular in these areas.

Four operating systems are certied by The Open Group

The GNU Project was started by activist and program- (holder of the Unix trademark) as Unix. HPs HP-UX

25.3. EXAMPLES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

and IBMs AIX are both descendants of the original System V Unix and are designed to run only on their respective vendors hardware. In contrast, Sun Microsystemss
Solaris Operating System can run on multiple types of
hardware, including x86 and Sparc servers, and PCs. Apples OS X, a replacement for Apples earlier (non-Unix)
Mac OS, is a hybrid kernel-based BSD variant derived
from NeXTSTEP, Mach, and FreeBSD.
Unix interoperability was sought by establishing the
POSIX standard. The POSIX standard can be applied to
any operating system, although it was originally created
for various Unix variants.

209
version of Unix instead of the ocial one distributed by
AT&T.
Steve Jobs, upon leaving Apple Inc. in 1985, formed
NeXT Inc., a company that manufactured high-end computers running on a variation of BSD called NeXTSTEP.
One of these computers was used by Tim Berners-Lee as
the rst webserver to create the World Wide Web.
Developers like Keith Bostic encouraged the project to
replace any non-free code that originated with Bell Labs.
Once this was done, however, AT&T sued. Eventually,
after two years of legal disputes, the BSD project came
out ahead and spawned a number of free derivatives, such
as FreeBSD and NetBSD.

BSD and its descendants

Main article: Berkeley Software Distribution
A subgroup of the Unix family is the Berkeley Software

OS X Main article: OS X
OS X (formerly Mac OS X) is a line of open core

The standard user interface of OS X

The rst server for the World Wide Web ran on NeXTSTEP,
based on BSD

Distribution family, which includes FreeBSD, NetBSD,

and OpenBSD. These operating systems are most commonly found on webservers, although they can also function as a personal computer OS. The Internet owes much
of its existence to BSD, as many of the protocols now
commonly used by computers to connect, send and receive data over a network were widely implemented and
rened in BSD. The World Wide Web was also rst
demonstrated on a number of computers running an OS
based on BSD called NextStep.
BSD has its roots in Unix. In 1974, University of California, Berkeley installed its rst Unix system. Over time,
students and sta in the computer science department
there began adding new programs to make things easier,
such as text editors. When Berkeley received new VAX
computers in 1978 with Unix installed, the schools undergraduates modied Unix even more in order to take
advantage of the computers hardware possibilities. The
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency of the US
Department of Defense took interest, and decided to fund
the project. Many schools, corporations, and government
organizations took notice and started to use Berkeleys

graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and

sold by Apple Inc., the latest of which is pre-loaded on
all currently shipping Macintosh computers. OS X is the
successor to the original Mac OS, which had been Apples
primary operating system since 1984. Unlike its predecessor, OS X is a UNIX operating system built on technology that had been developed at NeXT through the second half of the 1980s and up until Apple purchased the
company in early 1997. The operating system was rst
released in 1999 as Mac OS X Server 1.0, with a desktoporiented version (Mac OS X v10.0 Cheetah) following
in March 2001. Since then, six more distinct client and
"server" editions of OS X have been released, until the
two were merged in OS X 10.7 Lion. Releases of OS
X v10.0 through v10.8 are named after big cats. Starting with v10.9, Mavericks, OS X versions are named
after inspirational places in California.[7] OS X 10.10
Yosemite, the most recent version, was announced and
released on June 2, 2014 at the WWDC 2014.
Prior to its merging with OS X, the server edition OS
X Server was architecturally identical to its desktop
counterpart and usually ran on Apples line of Macintosh server hardware. OS X Server included work group
management and administration software tools that provide simplied access to key network services, including
a mail transfer agent, a Samba server, an LDAP server, a

210

CHAPTER 25. OPERATING SYSTEM

domain name server, and others. With Mac OS X v10.7

Lion, all server aspects of Mac OS X Server have been integrated into the client version and the product re-branded
as OS X (dropping Mac from the name). The server
tools are now oered as an application.[8]

Linux and GNU

Main articles: GNU, Linux and Linux kernel
The GNU project is a mass collaboration of program-

Ubuntu, desktop GNU/Linux distribution

mers who seek to create a completely free and open operating system that was similar to Unix but with completely
original code. It was started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, and is responsible for many of the parts of most
Linux variants. Thousands of pieces of software for virtually every operating system are licensed under the GNU
General Public License. Meanwhile, the Linux kernel began as a side project of Linus Torvalds, a university student from Finland. In 1991, Torvalds began work on it,
and posted information about his project on a newsgroup
for computer students and programmers. He received a
wave of support and volunteers who ended up creating
a full-edged kernel. Programmers from GNU took notice, and members of both projects worked to integrate
the nished GNU parts with the Linux kernel in order to
create a full-edged operating system.
GNU/Linux (or Linux or GNU+Linux) is a Unix-like
operating system that was developed without any actual
Unix code, unlike BSD and its variants. GNU/Linux can
be used on a wide range of devices from supercomputers
to wristwatches. The Linux kernel is released under an
open source license, so anyone can read and modify its
code. It has been modied to run on a large variety of
electronics. Although estimates suggest that GNU/Linux
is used on 1.82% of all personal computers,[9][10] it has
been widely adopted for use in servers[11] and embedded
systems[12] (such as cell phones). GNU/Linux has superseded Unix in most places, and is used on the 10 most
powerful supercomputers in the world.[13] The Linux kernel is used in some popular distributions, such as Red Hat,
Debian, Ubuntu, Linux Mint and Google's Android.

Android, a popular mobile operating system using the Linux kernel

Google Chromium OS
Chromium OS

Main article:

Google

Chromium is an operating system based on the Linux kernel and designed by Google. Since Chromium OS targets
computer users who spend most of their time on the Internet, it is mainly a web browser with limited ability to run
local applications, though it has a built-in le manager and
media player. Instead, it relies on Internet applications (or
Web apps) used in the web browser to accomplish tasks
such as word processing.[14] Chromium OS diers from
Chrome OS in that Chromium is open-source and used
primarily by developers whereas Chrome OS is the operating system shipped out in Chromebooks.[15]

25.3.2 Microsoft Windows

Main article: Microsoft Windows
Microsoft Windows is a family of proprietary operating systems designed by Microsoft Corporation and primarily targeted to Intel architecture based computers,
with an estimated 88.9 percent total usage share on Web

25.4. COMPONENTS

211

connected computers.[10][16][17][18] The newest version is as simple as a mouse or keyboard or as complex as an

Windows 8.1 for workstations and Windows Server 2012 Internet component.
R2 for servers. Windows 7 recently overtook Windows
XP as most used OS.[19][20][21]
Microsoft Windows originated in 1985 as an operating
environment running on top of MS-DOS, which was the 25.4.1
standard operating system shipped on most Intel architecture personal computers at the time. In 1995, Windows
95 was released which only used MS-DOS as a bootstrap. For backwards compatibility, Win9x could run
real-mode MS-DOS[22][23] and 16 bits Windows 3.x[24]
drivers. Windows ME, released in 2000, was the last version in the Win9x family. Later versions have all been
based on the Windows NT kernel. Current client versions of Windows run on IA-32, x86-64 and 32-bit ARM
microprocessors.[25] In addition Itanium is still supported
in older server version Windows Server 2008 R2. In the
past, Windows NT supported additional architectures.

Kernel

Applications

Kernel

Server editions of Windows are widely used. In recent

Memory Devices
CPU
years, Microsoft has expended signicant capital in an
eort to promote the use of Windows as a server operating system. However, Windows usage on servers
is not as widespread as on personal computers, as Win- A kernel connects the application software to the hardware of a
dows competes against Linux and BSD for server market computer.
share.[26][27] The rst PC that used windows operating system was the IBM Personal System/2.
Main article: Kernel (computing)

25.3.3

Other

With the aid of the rmware and device drivers, the kernel provides the most basic level of control over all of the
computers hardware devices. It manages memory access
for programs in the RAM, it determines which programs
get access to which hardware resources, it sets up or resets the CPUs operating states for optimal operation at all
times, and it organizes the data for long-term non-volatile
storage with le systems on such media as disks, tapes,
ash memory, etc.

There have been many operating systems that were significant in their day but are no longer so, such as AmigaOS;
OS/2 from IBM and Microsoft; Mac OS, the non-Unix
precursor to Apples Mac OS X; BeOS; XTS-300; RISC
OS; MorphOS; Haiku; BareMetal and FreeMint. Some
are still used in niche markets and continue to be developed as minority platforms for enthusiast communities and specialist applications. OpenVMS formerly
from DEC, is still under active development by HewlettPackard. Yet other operating systems are used almost
exclusively in academia, for operating systems education Program execution
or to do research on operating system concepts. A typical example of a system that fullls both roles is MINIX, Main article: Process (computing)
while for example Singularity is used purely for research.
Other operating systems have failed to win signicant
market share, but have introduced innovations that have
inuenced mainstream operating systems, not least Bell
Labs Plan 9.

25.4 Components
The components of an operating system all exist in order
to make the dierent parts of a computer work together.
All user software needs to go through the operating system in order to use any of the hardware, whether it be

The operating system provides an interface between an

application program and the computer hardware, so that
an application program can interact with the hardware
only by obeying rules and procedures programmed into
the operating system. The operating system is also a set
of services which simplify development and execution of
application programs. Executing an application program
involves the creation of a process by the operating system
kernel which assigns memory space and other resources,
establishes a priority for the process in multi-tasking systems, loads program binary code into memory, and initiates execution of the application program which then
interacts with the user and with hardware devices.

212

CHAPTER 25. OPERATING SYSTEM

Interrupts

Ring 3

Main article: Interrupt

Ring 2

Least privileged

Ring 1
Ring 0
Interrupts are central to operating systems, as they provide an ecient way for the operating system to interKernel
act with and react to its environment. The alternative
having the operating system watch the various sources
Most privileged
of input for events (polling) that require action can
Device drivers
be found in older systems with very small stacks (50 or
Device drivers
60 bytes) but are unusual in modern systems with large
Applications
stacks. Interrupt-based programming is directly supported by most modern CPUs. Interrupts provide a computer with a way of automatically saving local register Privilege rings for the x86 available in protected mode. Operating
contexts, and running specic code in response to events. systems determine which processes run in each mode.
Even very basic computers support hardware interrupts,
and allow the programmer to specify code which may be
munication with devices like graphics cards. Protected
run when that event takes place.
mode, in contrast, is used for almost everything else. ApWhen an interrupt is received, the computers hardware plications operate within protected mode, and can only
automatically suspends whatever program is currently use hardware by communicating with the kernel, which
running, saves its status, and runs computer code previ- controls everything in supervisor mode. CPUs might
ously associated with the interrupt; this is analogous to have other modes similar to protected mode as well, such
placing a bookmark in a book in response to a phone call. as the virtual modes in order to emulate older processor
In modern operating systems, interrupts are handled by types, such as 16-bit processors on a 32-bit one, or 32-bit
the operating systems kernel. Interrupts may come from processors on a 64-bit one.
either the computers hardware or from the running proWhen a computer rst starts up, it is automatically rungram.
ning in supervisor mode. The rst few programs to run
When a hardware device triggers an interrupt, the oper- on the computer, being the BIOS or EFI, bootloader, and
ating systems kernel decides how to deal with this event, the operating system have unlimited access to hardware
generally by running some processing code. The amount and this is required because, by denition, initializing
of code being run depends on the priority of the interrupt a protected environment can only be done outside of one.
(for example: a person usually responds to a smoke de- However, when the operating system passes control to antector alarm before answering the phone). The processing other program, it can place the CPU into protected mode.
of hardware interrupts is a task that is usually delegated
to software called device driver, which may be either part In protected mode, programs may have access to a more
of the operating systems kernel, part of another program, limited set of the CPUs instructions. A user program
or both. Device drivers may then relay information to a may leave protected mode only by triggering an interrupt,
causing control to be passed back to the kernel. In this
running program by various means.
way the operating system can maintain exclusive control
A program may also trigger an interrupt to the operat- over things like access to hardware and memory.
ing system. If a program wishes to access hardware for
example, it may interrupt the operating systems kernel, The term protected mode resource generally refers to
which causes control to be passed back to the kernel. The one or more CPU registers, which contain information
kernel will then process the request. If a program wishes that the running program isn't allowed to alter. Attempts
additional resources (or wishes to shed resources) such to alter these resources generally causes a switch to suas memory, it will trigger an interrupt to get the kernels pervisor mode, where the operating system can deal with
the illegal operation the program was attempting (for exattention.
ample, by killing the program).

Modes
Main articles: Protected mode and Supervisor mode
Modern CPUs support multiple modes of operation.
CPUs with this capability use at least two modes:
protected mode and supervisor mode. The supervisor
mode is used by the operating systems kernel for low level
tasks that need unrestricted access to hardware, such as
controlling how memory is written and erased, and com-

Memory management
Main article: Memory management
Among other things, a multiprogramming operating system kernel must be responsible for managing all system
memory which is currently in use by programs. This ensures that a program does not interfere with memory al-

25.4. COMPONENTS
ready in use by another program. Since programs time
share, each program must have independent access to
memory.

213

Virtual memory
(per process)

Physical
memory

Cooperative memory management, used by many early

operating systems, assumes that all programs make voluntary use of the kernel's memory manager, and do not
exceed their allocated memory. This system of memory
management is almost never seen any more, since programs often contain bugs which can cause them to exceed
their allocated memory. If a program fails, it may cause
memory used by one or more other programs to be affected or overwritten. Malicious programs or viruses may
purposefully alter another programs memory, or may affect the operation of the operating system itself. With
cooperative memory management, it takes only one misbehaved program to crash the system.

Another
process's
memory

Memory protection enables the kernel to limit a process

access to the computers memory. Various methods of
memory protection exist, including memory segmentation and paging. All methods require some level of hardware support (such as the 80286 MMU), which doesn't
exist in all computers.

RAM

In both segmentation and paging, certain protected mode

registers specify to the CPU what memory address it
should allow a running program to access. Attempts to
access other addresses will trigger an interrupt which will
cause the CPU to re-enter supervisor mode, placing the
kernel in charge. This is called a segmentation violation or Seg-V for short, and since it is both dicult to
assign a meaningful result to such an operation, and because it is usually a sign of a misbehaving program, the
kernel will generally resort to terminating the oending
program, and will report the error.
Windows versions 3.1 through ME had some level of
memory protection, but programs could easily circumvent the need to use it. A general protection fault would
be produced, indicating a segmentation violation had occurred; however, the system would often crash anyway.

Virtual memory

Disk
Many operating systems can trick programs into using memory
scattered around the hard disk and RAM as if it is one continuous
chunk of memory, called virtual memory.

When the kernel detects a page fault it will generally adjust the virtual memory range of the program which triggered it, granting it access to the memory requested. This
gives the kernel discretionary power over where a particular applications memory is stored, or even whether or
not it has actually been allocated yet.
In modern operating systems, memory which is accessed
less frequently can be temporarily stored on disk or other
media to make that space available for use by other programs. This is called swapping, as an area of memory can
be used by multiple programs, and what that memory area
contains can be swapped or exchanged on demand.

Main article: Virtual memory

Further information: Page fault
The use of virtual memory addressing (such as paging Virtual memory provides the programmer or the user
or segmentation) means that the kernel can choose what with the perception that there is a much larger amount of
memory each program may use at any given time, allow- RAM in the computer than is really there.[28]
ing the operating system to use the same memory locations for multiple tasks.
If a program tries to access memory that isn't in its current
range of accessible memory, but nonetheless has been allocated to it, the kernel will be interrupted in the same
way as it would if the program were to exceed its allocated memory. (See section on memory management.)
Under UNIX this kind of interrupt is referred to as a page
fault.

Multitasking
Main articles: Computer multitasking and Process
management (computing)
Further information: Context switch, Preemptive multitasking and Cooperative multitasking

214

CHAPTER 25. OPERATING SYSTEM

Multitasking refers to the running of multiple independent computer programs on the same computer; giving
the appearance that it is performing the tasks at the same
time. Since most computers can do at most one or two
things at one time, this is generally done via time-sharing,
which means that each program uses a share of the computers time to execute.
An operating system kernel contains a piece of software
called a scheduler which determines how much time each
program will spend executing, and in which order execution control should be passed to programs. Control is
passed to a process by the kernel, which allows the program access to the CPU and memory. Later, control is
returned to the kernel through some mechanism, so that Filesystems allow users and programs to organize and sort les
another program may be allowed to use the CPU. This on a computer, often through the use of directories (or folders)
so-called passing of control between the kernel and applications is called a context switch.
low for faster access, higher reliability, and to make better
An early model which governed the allocation of time use out of the drives available space. The specic way in
to programs was called cooperative multitasking. In this which les are stored on a disk is called a le system, and
model, when control is passed to a program by the ker- enables les to have names and attributes. It also allows
nel, it may execute for as long as it wants before explicitly them to be stored in a hierarchy of directories or folders
returning control to the kernel. This means that a mali- arranged in a directory tree.
cious or malfunctioning program may not only prevent
Early operating systems generally supported a single type
any other programs from using the CPU, but it can hang
of disk drive and only one kind of le system. Early le
the entire system if it enters an innite loop.
systems were limited in their capacity, speed, and in the
Modern operating systems extend the concepts of appli- kinds of le names and directory structures they could
cation preemption to device drivers and kernel code, so use. These limitations often reected limitations in the
that the operating system has preemptive control over in- operating systems they were designed for, making it very
ternal run-times as well.
dicult for an operating system to support more than one
The philosophy governing preemptive multitasking is that le system.
of ensuring that all programs are given regular time on
the CPU. This implies that all programs must be limited
in how much time they are allowed to spend on the CPU
without being interrupted. To accomplish this, modern
operating system kernels make use of a timed interrupt.
A protected mode timer is set by the kernel which triggers a return to supervisor mode after the specied time
has elapsed. (See above sections on Interrupts and Dual
Mode Operation.)
On many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking is perfectly adequate, as home computers generally run a small number of well tested programs. The
AmigaOS is an exception, having pre-emptive multitasking from its very rst version. Windows NT was the rst
version of Microsoft Windows which enforced preemptive multitasking, but it didn't reach the home user market until Windows XP (since Windows NT was targeted
at professionals).

Disk access and le systems

While many simpler operating systems support a limited

range of options for accessing storage systems, operating systems like UNIX and Linux support a technology
known as a virtual le system or VFS. An operating system such as UNIX supports a wide array of storage devices, regardless of their design or le systems, allowing
them to be accessed through a common application programming interface (API). This makes it unnecessary for
programs to have any knowledge about the device they
are accessing. A VFS allows the operating system to provide programs with access to an unlimited number of devices with an innite variety of le systems installed on
them, through the use of specic device drivers and le
system drivers.
A connected storage device, such as a hard drive, is accessed through a device driver. The device driver understands the specic language of the drive and is able to
translate that language into a standard language used by
the operating system to access all disk drives. On UNIX,
this is the language of block devices.

When the kernel has an appropriate device driver in place,

it can then access the contents of the disk drive in raw forMain article: Virtual le system
mat, which may contain one or more le systems. A le
Access to data stored on disks is a central feature of all system driver is used to translate the commands used to
operating systems. Computers store data on disks using access each specic le system into a standard set of comles, which are structured in specic ways in order to al- mands that the operating system can use to talk to all le

25.4. COMPONENTS
systems. Programs can then deal with these le systems
on the basis of lenames, and directories/folders, contained within a hierarchical structure. They can create,
delete, open, and close les, as well as gather various information about them, including access permissions, size,
free space, and creation and modication dates.
Various dierences between le systems make supporting all le systems dicult. Allowed characters in le
names, case sensitivity, and the presence of various kinds
of le attributes makes the implementation of a single
interface for every le system a daunting task. Operating systems tend to recommend using (and so support
natively) le systems specically designed for them; for
example, NTFS in Windows and ext3 and ReiserFS in
Linux. However, in practice, third party drives are usually available to give support for the most widely used
le systems in most general-purpose operating systems
(for example, NTFS is available in Linux through NTFS3g, and ext2/3 and ReiserFS are available in Windows
through third-party software).
Support for le systems is highly varied among modern
operating systems, although there are several common
le systems which almost all operating systems include
support and drivers for. Operating systems vary on le
system support and on the disk formats they may be installed on. Under Windows, each le system is usually
limited in application to certain media; for example, CDs
must use ISO 9660 or UDF, and as of Windows Vista,
NTFS is the only le system which the operating system
can be installed on. It is possible to install Linux onto
many types of le systems. Unlike other operating systems, Linux and UNIX allow any le system to be used
regardless of the media it is stored in, whether it is a hard
drive, a disc (CD, DVD...), a USB ash drive, or even
contained within a le located on another le system.

Device drivers
Main article: Device driver
A device driver is a specic type of computer software
developed to allow interaction with hardware devices.
Typically this constitutes an interface for communicating with the device, through the specic computer bus
or communications subsystem that the hardware is connected to, providing commands to and/or receiving data
from the device, and on the other end, the requisite interfaces to the operating system and software applications.
It is a specialized hardware-dependent computer program
which is also operating system specic that enables another program, typically an operating system or applications software package or computer program running under the operating system kernel, to interact transparently
with a hardware device, and usually provides the requisite interrupt handling necessary for any necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs.

215
The key design goal of device drivers is abstraction. Every model of hardware (even within the same class of
device) is dierent. Newer models also are released by
manufacturers that provide more reliable or better performance and these newer models are often controlled differently. Computers and their operating systems cannot
be expected to know how to control every device, both
now and in the future. To solve this problem, operating systems essentially dictate how every type of device
should be controlled. The function of the device driver is
then to translate these operating system mandated function calls into device specic calls. In theory a new device, which is controlled in a new manner, should function correctly if a suitable driver is available. This new
driver will ensure that the device appears to operate as
usual from the operating systems point of view.
Under versions of Windows before Vista and versions of
Linux before 2.6, all driver execution was co-operative,
meaning that if a driver entered an innite loop it would
freeze the system. More recent revisions of these operating systems incorporate kernel preemption, where the
kernel interrupts the driver to give it tasks, and then separates itself from the process until it receives a response
from the device driver, or gives it more tasks to do.

25.4.2 Networking
Main article: Computer network
Currently most operating systems support a variety of networking protocols, hardware, and applications for using
them. This means that computers running dissimilar operating systems can participate in a common network for
sharing resources such as computing, les, printers, and
scanners using either wired or wireless connections. Networks can essentially allow a computers operating system
to access the resources of a remote computer to support
the same functions as it could if those resources were connected directly to the local computer. This includes everything from simple communication, to using networked
le systems or even sharing another computers graphics
or sound hardware. Some network services allow the resources of a computer to be accessed transparently, such
as SSH which allows networked users direct access to a
computers command line interface.
Client/server networking allows a program on a computer, called a client, to connect via a network to another
computer, called a server. Servers oer (or host) various
services to other network computers and users. These
services are usually provided through ports or numbered
access points beyond the servers network address. Each
port number is usually associated with a maximum of one
running program, which is responsible for handling requests to that port. A daemon, being a user program, can
in turn access the local hardware resources of that computer by passing requests to the operating system kernel.

216

CHAPTER 25. OPERATING SYSTEM

Many operating systems support one or more vendorspecic or open networking protocols as well, for example, SNA on IBM systems, DECnet on systems from
Digital Equipment Corporation, and Microsoft-specic
protocols (SMB) on Windows. Specic protocols for specic tasks may also be supported such as NFS for le
access. Protocols like ESound, or esd can be easily extended over the network to provide sound from local applications, on a remote systems sound hardware.

25.4.3

Security

Main article: Computer security

A computer being secure depends on a number of technologies working properly. A modern operating system
provides access to a number of resources, which are available to software running on the system, and to external
devices like networks via the kernel.
The operating system must be capable of distinguishing between requests which should be allowed to be processed, and others which should not be processed. While
some systems may simply distinguish between privileged and non-privileged, systems commonly have a
form of requester identity, such as a user name. To establish identity there may be a process of authentication.
Often a username must be quoted, and each username
may have a password. Other methods of authentication,
such as magnetic cards or biometric data, might be used
instead. In some cases, especially connections from the
network, resources may be accessed with no authentication at all (such as reading les over a network share).
Also covered by the concept of requester identity is authorization; the particular services and resources accessible by the requester once logged into a system are tied to
either the requesters user account or to the variously congured groups of users to which the requester belongs.
In addition to the allow/disallow model of security, a system with a high level of security will also oer auditing
options. These would allow tracking of requests for access to resources (such as, who has been reading this
le?"). Internal security, or security from an already running program is only possible if all possibly harmful requests must be carried out through interrupts to the operating system kernel. If programs can directly access
hardware and resources, they cannot be secured.
External security involves a request from outside the computer, such as a login at a connected console or some
kind of network connection. External requests are often passed through device drivers to the operating systems kernel, where they can be passed onto applications,
or carried out directly. Security of operating systems
has long been a concern because of highly sensitive data
held on computers, both of a commercial and military nature. The United States Government Department of Defense (DoD) created the Trusted Computer System Evalu-

ation Criteria (TCSEC) which is a standard that sets basic requirements for assessing the eectiveness of security. This became of vital importance to operating system
makers, because the TCSEC was used to evaluate, classify and select trusted operating systems being considered
for the processing, storage and retrieval of sensitive or
classied information.
Network services include oerings such as le sharing,
print services, email, web sites, and le transfer protocols (FTP), most of which can have compromised security. At the front line of security are hardware devices
known as rewalls or intrusion detection/prevention systems. At the operating system level, there are a number
of software rewalls available, as well as intrusion detection/prevention systems. Most modern operating systems
include a software rewall, which is enabled by default. A
software rewall can be congured to allow or deny network trac to or from a service or application running
on the operating system. Therefore, one can install and
be running an insecure service, such as Telnet or FTP,
and not have to be threatened by a security breach because the rewall would deny all trac trying to connect
to the service on that port.
An alternative strategy, and the only sandbox strategy
available in systems that do not meet the Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements, is where the operating
system is not running user programs as native code, but
instead either emulates a processor or provides a host for
a p-code based system such as Java.
Internal security is especially relevant for multi-user systems; it allows each user of the system to have private les
that the other users cannot tamper with or read. Internal
security is also vital if auditing is to be of any use, since
a program can potentially bypass the operating system,
inclusive of bypassing auditing.

25.4.4 User interface

Main article: Operating system user interface
Every computer that is to be operated by an individual
requires a user interface. The user interface is usually referred to as a shell and is essential if human interaction
is to be supported. The user interface views the directory
structure and requests services from the operating system
that will acquire data from input hardware devices, such
as a keyboard, mouse or credit card reader, and requests
operating system services to display prompts, status messages and such on output hardware devices, such as a
video monitor or printer. The two most common forms of
a user interface have historically been the command-line
interface, where computer commands are typed out lineby-line, and the graphical user interface, where a visual
environment (most commonly a WIMP) is present.

25.5. REAL-TIME OPERATING SYSTEMS

217
and Windows Server 2003 exist mostly in kernel space.
Windows 9x had very little distinction between the interface and the kernel.
Many computer operating systems allow the user to install
or create any user interface they desire. The X Window
System in conjunction with GNOME or KDE Plasma
Desktop is a commonly found setup on most Unix and
Unix-like (BSD, Linux, Solaris) systems. A number of
Windows shell replacements have been released for Microsoft Windows, which oer alternatives to the included
Windows shell, but the shell itself cannot be separated
from Windows.

A screenshot of the Bourne Again Shell command line. Each

command is typed out after the 'prompt', and then its output appears below, working its way down the screen. The current command prompt is at the bottom.

Graphical user interfaces

Numerous Unix-based GUIs have existed over time, most

derived from X11. Competition among the various vendors of Unix (HP, IBM, Sun) led to much fragmentation,
though an eort to standardize in the 1990s to COSE
and CDE failed for various reasons, and were eventually eclipsed by the widespread adoption of GNOME and
K Desktop Environment. Prior to free software-based
toolkits and desktop environments, Motif was the prevalent toolkit/desktop combination (and was the basis upon
which CDE was developed).
Graphical user interfaces evolve over time. For example, Windows has modied its user interface almost every
time a new major version of Windows is released, and the
Mac OS GUI changed dramatically with the introduction
of Mac OS X in 1999.[29]

25.5 Real-time operating systems

Main article: Real-time operating system
A screenshot of the KDE Plasma Desktop graphical user interface. Programs take the form of images on the screen, and the
les, folders (directories), and applications take the form of icons
and symbols. A mouse is used to navigate the computer.

A real-time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system intended for applications with xed deadlines (realtime computing). Such applications include some small
embedded systems, automobile engine controllers, indusMost of the modern computer systems support graphical trial robots, spacecraft, industrial control, and some largeuser interfaces (GUI), and often include them. In some scale computing systems.
computer systems, such as the original implementation of
An early example of a large-scale real-time operating sysMac OS, the GUI is integrated into the kernel.
tem was Transaction Processing Facility developed by
While technically a graphical user interface is not an op- American Airlines and IBM for the Sabre Airline Resererating system service, incorporating support for one into vations System.
the operating system kernel can allow the GUI to be more
responsive by reducing the number of context switches re- Embedded systems that have xed deadlines use a realquired for the GUI to perform its output functions. Other time operating system such as VxWorks, PikeOS, eCos,
operating systems are modular, separating the graphics QNX, MontaVista Linux and RTLinux. Windows CE is
subsystem from the kernel and the Operating System. In a real-time operating system that shares similar APIs to
the 1980s UNIX, VMS and many others had operating desktop Windows but shares none of desktop Windows
systems that were built this way. Linux and Mac OS X are codebase. Symbian OS also has an RTOS kernel (EKA2)
also built this way. Modern releases of Microsoft Win- starting with version 8.0b.
dows such as Windows Vista implement a graphics sub- Some embedded systems use operating systems such as
system that is mostly in user-space; however the graphics Palm OS, BSD, and Linux, although such operating sysdrawing routines of versions between Windows NT 4.0 tems do not support real-time computing.

218

25.6 Operating system development as a hobby

See also: Hobbyist operating system development
Operating system development is one of the most complicated activities in which a computing hobbyist may engage. A hobby operating system may be classied as one
whose code has not been directly derived from an existing
operating system, and has few users and active developers. [30]
In some cases, hobby development is in support of a
"homebrew" computing device, for example, a simple
single-board computer powered by a 6502 microprocessor. Or, development may be for an architecture already
in widespread use. Operating system development may
come from entirely new concepts, or may commence by
modeling an existing operating system. In either case, the
hobbyist is his/her own developer, or may interact with a
small and sometimes unstructured group of individuals
who have like interests.
Examples of a hobby operating system include ReactOS
and Syllable.

25.7 Diversity of operating systems

and portability

CHAPTER 25. OPERATING SYSTEM

Source: Gartner

25.9 See also

25.10 References
[1] Stallings (2005). Operating Systems, Internals and Design
Principles. Pearson: Prentice Hall. p. 6.
[2] Dhotre, I.A. (2009). Operating Systems. Technical Publications. p. 1.
[3] Operating System Market Share. Net Applications.
[4] Silberschatz Galvin Gagne (2012). Operating Systems
Concepts. New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-1118063330.
[5] Hansen, Per Brinch, ed. (2001). Classic Operating Systems. Springer. pp. 47. ISBN 0-387-95113-X.
[6] Ritchie, Dennis. Unix Manual, rst edition. Lucent
Technologies. Retrieved 22 November 2012.
[7] Apple introduces mac OS X Mavericks at WWDC.
YouTube. TechandPlayTV. June 10, 2013. Retrieved
November 17, 2013.
[8] OS X Mountain Lion Move your Mac even further
ahead. Apple. Retrieved 2012-08-07.
[9] Usage share of operating systems
[10] Top 5 Operating Systems from January to April 2011.
StatCounter. October 2009. Retrieved November 5,
2009.

Application software is generally written for use on a specic operating system, and sometimes even for specic
hardware. When porting the application to run on another [11] IDC report into Server market share. Idc.com. ReOS, the functionality required by that application may be
trieved 2012-08-07.
implemented dierently by that OS (the names of functions, meaning of arguments, etc.) requiring the applica- [12] Linux still top embedded OS. Archived from the original on 2012-05-29.
tion to be adapted, changed, or otherwise maintained.
Unix was the rst operating system not written in assem- [13] Jermoluk, Tom (2012-08-03). TOP500 List November 2010 (1100) | TOP500 Supercomputing Sites.
bly language, making it very portable to systems dierent
Top500.org. Retrieved 2012-08-07.
from its native PDP-11.[31]
This cost in supporting operating systems diversity can be [14] Chromium OS. Chromium.org.
avoided by instead writing applications against software
platforms like Java or Qt. These abstractions have already [15] Chromium OS FAQ. The Chromium Projects. Retrieved 28 February 2014.
borne the cost of adaptation to specic operating systems
and their system libraries.
[16] Global Web Stats. Net Market Share, Net Applications.
Another approach is for operating system vendors to
adopt standards. For example, POSIX and OS abstraction layers provide commonalities that reduce porting
costs.

May 2011. Retrieved 2011-05-07.

[17] Global Web Stats. W3Counter, Awio Web Services.
September 2009. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
[18] Operating System Market Share. Net Applications. October 2009. Retrieved November 5, 2009.

25.8 Market share

[19] w3schools.com OS Platform Statistics. Retrieved October 30, 2011.

Main article: Usage share of operating systems

[20] Stats Count Global Stats Top Five Operating Systems.

Retrieved October 30, 2011.

25.12. EXTERNAL LINKS

[21] Global statistics at w3counter.com. Retrieved 23 January 2012.

[22] Troubleshooting MS-DOS Compatibility Mode on Hard
Disks. Support.microsoft.com. Retrieved 2012-08-07.
[23] Using NDIS 2 PCMCIA Network Card Drivers in Windows 95. Support.microsoft.com. Retrieved 2012-0807.
[24] INFO: Windows 95 Multimedia Wave Device Drivers
Must be 16 bit. Support.microsoft.com. Retrieved 201208-07.
[25] Arthur, Charles. Windows 8 will run on ARM chips but third-party apps will need rewrite. The Guardian.
[26] Operating System Share by Groups for Sites in All Locations January 2009.
[27] Behind the IDC data: Windows still No. 1 in server operating systems. ZDNet. 2010-02-26.
[28] Stallings, William (2008). Computer Organization & Architecture. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Private
Limited. p. 267. ISBN 978-81-203-2962-1.
[29] Poisson, Ken. Chronology of Personal Computer Software. Retrieved on 2008-05-07. Last checked on 200903-30.
[30] My OS is less hobby than yours. Osnews. December 21,
2009. Retrieved December 21, 2009.
[31] The History of Unix. BYTE. August 1983. p. 188. Retrieved 31 January 2015.
[32] Lance Whitney (January 7, 2014). Android device shipments to top 1 billion this year -- Gartner.

25.11 Further reading

Auslander, Marc A.; Larkin, David C.; Scherr, Allan L. (1981). The evolution of the MVS Operating
System. IBM J. Research & Development.
Deitel, Harvey M.; Deitel, Paul; Chones, David.
Operating Systems. Pearson/Prentice Hall. ISBN
978-0-13-092641-8.
Bic, Lubomur F.; Shaw, Alan C. (2003). Operating
Systems. Pearson: Prentice Hall.
Silberschatz, Avi; Galvin, Peter; Gagne, Greg
(2008). Operating Systems Concepts. John Wiley &
Sons. ISBN 0-470-12872-0.
O'Brien, J.A., & Marakas, G.M.(2011). Management Information Systems. 10e. McGraw-Hill Irwin
Leva, Alberto; Maggio, Martina; Papadopoulos,
Alessandro Vittorio; Terraneo, Federico (2013).
Control-based Operating System Design. IET. ISBN
978-1-84919-609-3.

219

25.12 External links

Operating Systems at DMOZ
Multics History and the history of operating systems

Chapter 26

Unix
Unix (all-caps UNIX for the trademark) is a family of
multitasking, multiuser computer operating systems that
derive from the original AT&T Unix, developed in the
1970s at the Bell Labs research center by Ken Thompson,
Dennis Ritchie, and others.[3]
Initially intended for use inside the Bell System, AT&T
licensed Unix to outside parties from the late 1970s, leading to a variety of both academic and commercial variants
of Unix from vendors such as the University of California,
Berkeley (BSD), Microsoft (Xenix), IBM (AIX) and Sun
Microsystems (Solaris). AT&T nally sold its rights in
Unix to Novell in the early 1990s, which then sold its Unix
business to the Santa Cruz Operation (SCO) in 1995,[4]
but the UNIX trademark passed to the industry standards
consortium The Open Group, which allows the use of the
mark for certied operating systems compliant with the
Single UNIX Specication. Among these is Apple's OS
X,[5] which is the Unix version with the largest installed
base as of 2014.
From the power users or programmers perspective, Unix
systems are characterized by a modular design that is
sometimes called the "Unix philosophy, meaning the OS
provides a set of simple tools that each perform a limited, well-dened function,[6] with a unied lesystem as
the main means of communication[3] and a shell scripting and command language to combine the tools to perform complex workows. Aside from the modular design, Unix also distinguishes itself from its predecessors
as the rst portable operating system: virtually the entire
OS is written in the C programming language[7] which allowed it to outgrow the 16-bit PDP-11 minicomputer for
which it was originally developed.

Version 7 Unix, the Research Unix ancestor of all modern Unix

systems

cation software. The system grew larger as the operating

system started spreading in the academic circle, as users
added their own tools to the system and shared them with
colleagues.[9]

Unix was designed to be portable, multi-tasking and

multi-user in a time-sharing conguration. Unix systems
are characterized by various concepts: the use of plain
text for storing data; a hierarchical le system; treating
devices and certain types of inter-process communication
(IPC) as les; and the use of a large number of software
tools, small programs that can be strung together through
a command line interpreter using pipes, as opposed to
using a single monolithic program that includes all of
the same functionality. These concepts are collectively
known as the "Unix philosophy. Brian Kernighan and
Rob Pike summarize this in The Unix Programming Environment as the idea that the power of a system comes
Many clones of Unix have arisen over the years, of which
more from the relationships among programs than from
Linux is the most popular, having overtaken the popularthe programs themselves.[10]
ity of true Unix on server platforms since its inception
By the early 1980s users began seeing Unix as a potenin the early 1990s.
tial universal operating system, suitable for computers of
all sizes.[11] Unix operating systems are widely used in
servers, workstations, and mobile devices.[12] The Unix
26.1 Overview
environment and the clientserver program model were
essential elements in the development of the Internet and
Originally, Unix was meant to be a programmers work- the reshaping of computing as centered in networks rather
bench to be used for developing software to be run on than in individual computers.
multiple platforms[8] more than to be used to run appli- Both Unix and the C programming language were devel220

26.3. STANDARDS
oped by AT&T and distributed to government and academic institutions, which led to both being ported to a
wider variety of machine families than any other operating system.
Under Unix, the operating system consists of many utilities along with the master control program, the kernel.
The kernel provides services to start and stop programs,
handles the le system and other common low level
tasks that most programs share, and schedules access to
avoid conicts when programs try to access the same resource or device simultaneously. To mediate such access,
the kernel has special rights, reected in the division between user-space and kernel-space.
The microkernel concept was introduced in an eort to
reverse the trend towards larger kernels and return to a
system in which most tasks were completed by smaller
utilities. In an era when a standard computer consisted
of a hard disk for storage and a data terminal for input
and output (I/O), the Unix le model worked quite well,
as most I/O was linear. However, modern systems include networking and other new devices. As graphical
user interfaces developed, the le model proved inadequate to the task of handling asynchronous events such as
those generated by a mouse. In the 1980s, non-blocking
I/O and the set of inter-process communication mechanisms were augmented with Unix domain sockets, shared
memory, message queues, and semaphores. In microkernel implementations, functions such as network protocols could be moved out of the kernel, while conventional (monolithic) Unix implementations have network
protocol stacks as part of the kernel.

26.2 History

221
Labs, and General Electric were developing an experimental time sharing operating system called Multics
for the GE-645 mainframe.[13] Multics introduced many
innovations, but had many problems. Frustrated by the
size and complexity of Multics but not the aims, Bell Labs
slowly pulled out of the project. Their last researchers
to leave Multics, Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, M. D.
McIlroy, and J. F. Ossanna,[14] decided to redo the work
on a much smaller scale.
In 1970, Peter Neumann coined the project name UNICS
(UNiplexed Information and Computing Service) as a
pun on Multics (Multiplexed Information and Computer
Services): the new operating system was an emasculated
Multics.[15]
In 1972, Unix was rewritten in the C programming language.[16] The migration from assembly to the higherlevel language C, resulted in much more portable
software,[17] requiring only a relatively small amount of
machine-dependent code to be replaced when porting
Unix to other computing platforms. Bell Labs produced
several versions of Unix that are collectively referred to
as Research Unix. In 1975, the rst source license for
UNIX was sold to faculty at the University of Illinois Department of Computer Science. UIUC Graduate Student
Greg Chesson (who had worked on the UNIX kernel at
Bell Labs) was instrumental in negotiating the terms of
this license.
During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the inuence
of Unix in academic circles led to large-scale adoption
of Unix (BSD and System V) by commercial startups,
some of the most notable of which are Sequent, HP-UX,
Solaris, AIX, and Xenix. In the late 1980s, System V
Release 4 (SVR4) was developed by AT&T Unix System
Laboratories and Sun Microsystems. SVR4 was subsequently adopted by many commercial Unix vendors.

Main article: History of Unix

In the 1990s, Unix-like systems grew in popularity as
The history of Unix dates back to the mid-1960s when Linux and BSD distributions were developed through
collaboration by a worldwide network of programmers.
Later, Apple also released Darwin, which became the
core of the OS X operating system.[18]

26.3 Standards
Beginning in the late 1980s, an open operating system
standardization eort now known as POSIX provided a
common baseline for all operating systems; IEEE based
POSIX around the common structure of the major competing variants of the Unix system, publishing the rst
POSIX standard in 1988. In the early 1990s, a separate but very similar eort was started by an industry
consortium, the Common Open Software Environment
Ken Thompson (sitting) and Dennis Ritchie working together at (COSE) initiative, which eventually became the Single
UNIX Specication administered by The Open Group.
a PDP-11
Starting in 1998, the Open Group and IEEE started the
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, AT&T Bell Austin Group, to provide a common denition of POSIX

222

CHAPTER 26. UNIX

eral sub-components:
conf conguration and machine-dependent
parts, including boot code
dev device drivers for control of hardware
(and some pseudo-hardware)
sys operating system kernel, handling
memory management, process scheduling,
system calls, etc.
h header les, dening key structures within
the system and important system-specic invariables

The Common Desktop Environment (CDE), part of the COSE initiative

and the Single UNIX Specication.

In 1999, in an eort towards compatibility, several Unix
system vendors agreed on SVR4s Executable and Linkable Format (ELF) as the standard for binary and object
code les. The common format allows substantial binary
compatibility among Unix systems operating on the same
CPU architecture.
The Filesystem Hierarchy Standard was created to provide a reference directory layout for Unix-like operating
systems, and has mainly been used in Linux.

26.4 Components
See also: List of Unix programs
The Unix system is composed of several components
that are normally packaged together. By includingin
addition to the kernel of an operating systemthe development environment, libraries, documents, and the
portable, modiable source-code for all of these components, Unix was a self-contained software system. This
was one of the key reasons it emerged as an important
teaching and learning tool and has had such a broad inuence.
The inclusion of these components did not make the system large the original V7 UNIX distribution, consisting of copies of all of the compiled binaries plus all of
the source code and documentation occupied less than 10
MB, and arrived on a single 9-track magnetic tape. The
printed documentation, typeset from the on-line sources,
was contained in two volumes.
The names and lesystem locations of the Unix components have changed substantially across the history of the
system. Nonetheless, the V7 implementation is considered by many to have the canonical early structure:
Kernel source code in /usr/sys, composed of sev-

Development environment early versions of Unix

contained a development environment sucient to
recreate the entire system from source code:
cc C language compiler (rst appeared in V3
Unix)
as machine-language assembler for the machine
ld linker, for combining object les
lib object-code libraries (installed in /lib or
/usr/lib). libc, the system library with C runtime support, was the primary library, but
there have always been additional libraries for
such things as mathematical functions (libm)
or database access. V7 Unix introduced the
rst version of the modern Standard I/O library stdio as part of the system library. Later
implementations increased the number of libraries signicantly.
make build manager (introduced in
PWB/UNIX), for eectively automating the
build process
include header les for software development, dening standard interfaces and system
invariants
Other languages V7 Unix contained
a Fortran-77 compiler, a programmable
arbitrary-precision calculator (bc, dc), and
the awk scripting language, and later versions
and implementations contain many other
language compilers and toolsets. Early BSD
releases included Pascal tools, and many
modern Unix systems also include the GNU
Compiler Collection as well as or instead of a
proprietary compiler system.
Other tools including an object-code archive
manager (ar), symbol-table lister (nm),
compiler-development tools (e.g. lex & yacc),
and debugging tools.
Commands Unix makes little distinction between
commands (user-level programs) for system operation and maintenance (e.g. cron), commands of general utility (e.g. grep), and more general-purpose ap-

26.5. IMPACT

223

plications such as the text formatting and typesetting

package. Nonetheless, some major categories are:
sh the shell programmable command line
interpreter, the primary user interface on Unix
before window systems appeared, and even afterward (within a command window).
Utilities the core tool kit of the Unix command set, including cp, ls, grep, nd and many
others. Subcategories include:
System utilities administrative tools such
as mkfs, fsck, and many others.
User utilities environment management Photo from USENIX 1984, including Dennis Ritchie (center)
tools such as passwd, kill, and others.
Document formatting Unix systems were
used from the outset for document preparation
and typesetting systems, and included many
related programs such as nro, tro, tbl, eqn,
refer, and pic. Some modern Unix systems also
include packages such as TeX and Ghostscript.
Graphics the plot subsystem provided facilities for producing simple vector plots in
a device-independent format, with devicespecic interpreters to display such les. Modern Unix systems also generally include X11
as a standard windowing system and GUI, and
many support OpenGL.
Communications early Unix systems con- Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie being awarded the National
tained no inter-system communication, but Medal of Technology from Bill Clinton
did include the inter-user communication programs mail and write. V7 introduced the early
Being easy to adapt and move to dierent machines.
inter-system communication system UUCP,
and systems beginning with BSD release 4.1c
It was written in a high level language rather than
included TCP/IP utilities.
assembly language (which had been thought necessary for
Documentation Unix was the rst operating sys- systems implementation on early computers). Although
tem to include all of its documentation online in this followed the lead of Multics and Burroughs, it was
machine-readable form. The documentation in- Unix that popularized the idea.
cluded:
Unix had a drastically simplied le model compared to
man manual pages for each command, li- many contemporary operating systems: treating all kinds
brary component, system call, header le, etc. of les as simple byte arrays. The le system hierarchy
contained machine services and devices (such as printers,
doc longer documents detailing major subterminals, or disk drives), providing a uniform interface,
systems, such as the C language and tro
but at the expense of occasionally requiring additional
mechanisms such as ioctl and mode ags to access features of the hardware that did not t the simple stream
26.5 Impact
of bytes model. The Plan 9 operating system pushed this
model even further and eliminated the need for additional
mechanisms.
See also: Unix-like
The Unix system had signicant impact on other operat- Unix also popularized the hierarchical le system with
ing systems. It won its success by:
arbitrarily nested subdirectories, originally introduced by
Multics. Other common operating systems of the era had
ways to divide a storage device into multiple directories
Providing the software at a nominal fee for educa- or sections, but they had a xed number of levels, often
only one level. Several major proprietary operating systional use.
tems eventually added recursive subdirectory capabilities
Running on inexpensive hardware.
also patterned after Multics. DECs RSX-11Ms group,
Direct interaction.

224
user hierarchy evolved into VMS directories, CP/M's
volumes evolved into MS-DOS 2.0+ subdirectories, and
HPs MPE group.account hierarchy and IBMs SSP and
OS/400 library systems were folded into broader POSIX
le systems.

CHAPTER 26. UNIX

forms.
The Unix policy of extensive on-line documentation and
(for many years) ready access to all system source code
raised programmer expectations, and contributed to the
1983 launch of the free software movement.

Making the command interpreter an ordinary user-level

program, with additional commands provided as separate programs, was another Multics innovation popular- 26.5.1 Free Unix and Unix-like operating
ized by Unix. The Unix shell used the same language
systems
for interactive commands as for scripting (shell scripts
there was no separate job control language like IBMs See also: UNIX and UNIX-like operating systems
JCL). Since the shell and OS commands were just an- In 1983, Richard Stallman announced the GNU project,
other program, the user could choose (or even write)
his own shell. New commands could be added without
changing the shell itself. Unixs innovative commandline syntax for creating modular chains of producerconsumer processes (pipelines) made a powerful programming paradigm (coroutines) widely available. Many
later command-line interpreters have been inspired by the
Unix shell.
A fundamental simplifying assumption of Unix was its
focus on newline-delimited text for nearly all le formats.
There were no binary editors in the original version
of Unix the entire system was congured using textual shell command scripts. The common denominator Debian GNU/Linux, a popular Unix-like operating system
in the I/O system was the byte unlike record-based
le systems. The focus on text for representing nearly
everything made Unix pipes especially useful, and encouraged the development of simple, general tools that
could be easily combined to perform more complicated
ad hoc tasks. The focus on text and bytes made the system
far more scalable and portable than other systems. Over
time, text-based applications have also proven popular in
application areas, such as printing languages (PostScript,
ODF), and at the application layer of the Internet protocols, e.g., FTP, SMTP, HTTP, SOAP, and SIP.
Unix popularized a syntax for regular expressions that
found widespread use. The Unix programming interface
became the basis for a widely implemented operating sys- FreeBSD, a popular Unix-like operating system
tem interface standard (POSIX, see above).
an ambitious eort to create a free software Unix-like
The C programming language soon spread beyond Unix,
system; free in the sense that everyone who received
and is now ubiquitous in systems and applications proa copy would be free to use, study, modify, and redisgramming.
tribute it. The GNU projects own kernel development
Early Unix developers were important in bringing the project, GNU Hurd, had not produced a working kernel,
concepts of modularity and reusability into software engi- but in 1991 Linus Torvalds released the Linux kernel as
neering practice, spawning a software tools movement. free software under the GNU General Public License. In
Over time, the leading developers of Unix (and programs addition to their use in the Linux operating system, many
that ran on it) established a set of cultural norms for de- GNU packages such as the GNU Compiler Collection
veloping software, norms which became as important and (and the rest of the GNU toolchain), the GNU C library
inuential as the technology of Unix itself; this has been and the GNU core utilities have gone on to play central
termed the Unix philosophy.
roles in other free Unix systems as well.
The TCP/IP networking protocol was quickly implemented on widely used versions of Unix on relatively inexpensive computers, which contributed to the Internet
explosion of worldwide real-time connectivity, and which
formed the basis for implementations on many other plat-

Linux distributions, consisting of the Linux kernel and

large collections of compatible software have become
popular both with individual users and in business. Popular distributions include Red Hat Enterprise Linux,
Fedora, SUSE Linux Enterprise, openSUSE, Debian

26.6. BRANDING

225

GNU/Linux, Ubuntu, Linux Mint, Mandriva Linux, cost just $150. It was noted that Bell was open to sugSlackware Linux, MEPIS, and Gentoo.
gestions for an ARPANET-wide license.
A free derivative of BSD Unix, 386BSD, was released Specic features found benecial were:
in 1992 and led to the NetBSD and FreeBSD projects.
With the 1994 settlement of a lawsuit brought against the
Local processing facilities.
University of California and Berkeley Software Design
Compilers.
Inc. (USL v. BSDi) by UNIX Systems Laboratories, it
was claried that Berkeley had the right to distribute BSD
Editor.
Unix for free, if it so desired. Since then, BSD Unix has
been developed in several dierent product branches, in Document preparation system.
cluding OpenBSD and DragonFly BSD.
Ecient le system and access control.
Linux and BSD are increasingly lling the market needs
traditionally served by proprietary Unix operating systems, as well as expanding into new markets such as the
consumer desktop and mobile and embedded devices.
Because of the modular design of the Unix model, sharing components is relatively common; consequently, most
or all Unix and Unix-like systems include at least some
BSD code, and some systems also include GNU utilities
in their distributions.
In a 1999 interview, Dennis Ritchie voiced his opinion
that Linux and BSD operating systems are a continuation
of the basis of the Unix design, and are derivatives of
Unix:[19]
I think the Linux phenomenon is quite delightful, because it draws so strongly on the basis that Unix provided. Linux seems to be the
among the healthiest of the direct Unix derivatives, though there are also the various BSD
systems as well as the more ocial oerings
from the workstation and mainframe manufacturers.

Mountable and de-mountable volumes.

Unied treatment of peripherals as special les.
The network control program (NCP) was integrated
within the Unix le system.
Network connections treated as special les which
can be accessed through standard Unix I/O calls.
The system closes all les on program exit.
desirable to minimize the amount of code added to
the basic Unix kernel.

26.6 Branding
See also: List of Unix systems
In October 1993, Novell, the company that owned the

In the same interview, he states that he views both Unix

and Linux as the continuation of ideas that were started
by Ken and me and many others, many years ago.[19]
OpenSolaris was the open-source counterpart to Solaris
developed by Sun Microsystems, which included a
CDDL-licensed kernel and a primarily GNU userland.
However, Oracle discontinued the project upon their acquisition of Sun, which prompted a group of former Sun
employees and members of the OpenSolaris community
to fork OpenSolaris into the illumos kernel. As of 2014,
illumos remains the only active open-source System V
derivative.

26.5.2

ARPANET

Promotional license plate by Digital Equipment Corporation

rights to the Unix System V source at the time, transferred the trademarks of Unix to the X/Open Company
(now The Open Group),[20] and in 1995 sold the related
business operations to Santa Cruz Operation (SCO).[21]
Whether Novell also sold the copyrights to the actual software was the subject of a 2006 federal lawsuit, SCO v.
Novell, which Novell won. The case was appealed, but
on 30 Aug 2011, the United States Court of Appeals for
the Tenth Circuit armed the trial decisions, closing the
case.[22] Unix vendor SCO Group Inc. accused Novell of
slander of title.

In May 1975, RFC 681 described the development of

Network Unix by the Center for Advanced Computation
at the University of Illinois. The system was said to
present several interesting capabilities as an ARPANET
mini-host. At the time Unix required a license from
Bell Laboratories that at $20,000(US) was very expen- The present owner of the trademark UNIX is The Open
sive for non-university users, while an educational license Group, an industry standards consortium. Only systems

226

CHAPTER 26. UNIX

ing Unix as a Latin noun of the third declension, is also
popular. The pseudo-Anglo-Saxon plural form Unixen
is not common, although occasionally seen. Trademark
names can be registered by dierent entities in dierent
countries and trademark laws in some countries allow the
same trademark name to be controlled by two dierent
entities if each entity uses the trademark in easily distinguishable categories. The result is that Unix has been
used as a brand name for various products including book
shelves, ink pens, bottled glue, diapers, hair driers and
food containers.[28]

26.7 See also

HP9000 workstation running HP-UX, a certied Unix operating
system

Comparison of operating systems

Comparison of open source and closed source

fully compliant with and certied to the Single UNIX

Specication qualify as UNIX (others are called Unix
system-like or "Unix-like").

List of operating systems

By decree of The Open Group, the term UNIX refers

more to a class of operating systems than to a specic implementation of an operating system; those operating systems which meet The Open Groups Single UNIX Specication should be able to bear the UNIX 98 or UNIX
03 trademarks today, after the operating systems vendor pays a substantial certication fee and annual trademark royalties[23] to The Open Group. Systems licensed
to use the UNIX trademark include AIX, HP-UX, IRIX,
Solaris, Tru64 (formerly Digital UNIX), A/UX, OS
X,[24][25] and a part of z/OS.

List of Unix utilities

Sometimes a representation like Un*x, *NIX, or *N?X

is used to indicate all operating systems similar to Unix.
This comes from the use of the asterisk (*) and the question mark characters as wildcard indicators in many utilities. This notation is also used to describe other Unix-like
systems, e.g., Linux, BSD, etc., that have not met the requirements for UNIX branding from the Open Group.

26.8 References

The Open Group requests that UNIX is always used as

an adjective followed by a generic term such as system to
help avoid the creation of a genericized trademark.
Unix was the original formatting, but the usage of UNIX
remains widespread because it was once typeset in small
caps (Unix). according to Dennis Ritchie, when presenting the original Unix paper to the third Operating Systems Symposium of the American Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), we had a new typesetter and
tro had just been invented and we were intoxicated by
being able to produce small caps.[26] Many of the operating systems predecessors and contemporaries used alluppercase lettering, so many people wrote the name in
upper case due to force of habit. It is not an acronym.[27]
Several plural forms of Unix are used casually to refer
to multiple brands of Unix and Unix-like systems. Most
common is the conventional Unixes, but Unices, treat-

List of Unix systems

Market share of operating systems

Operating systems timeline
Plan 9 from Bell Labs
Unix time
Year 2038 problem

[1] McIlroy, M. D. (1987). A Research Unix reader: annotated excerpts from the Programmers Manual, 19711986
(Technical report). CSTR. Bell Labs. 139.
[2] Ritchie, D. M.; Thompson, K. (1974). The UNIX TimeSharing System. CACM 17 (7): 365375.
[3] Ritchie, D.M.; Thompson, K. (July 1978).
The
UNIX Time-Sharing System. Bell System Tech. J.
(USA: American Tel.
& Tel.)
57 (6): 1905
1929. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1978.tb02136.x. Retrieved December 9, 2012.
[4] http://www.novell.com/news/press/archive/1995/12/
pr95274.html
[5] Apple Inc. - UNIX 03 Register of Certied Products, The
Open Group
[6] Raymond, Eric (2003-09-19). The Art of Unix Programming. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-13-142901-9. Retrieved
2009-02-09.
[7] Ritchie, Dennis M. (January 1993). The Development
of the C Language. Retrieved 1 January 2008.
[8] The Elements of Operating-System Style.

26.9. FURTHER READING

227

[9] Powers, Shelley; Peek, Jerry; O'Reilly, Tim; Loukides,

Mike (2002). Unix Power Tools. ISBN 0-596-00330-7.
[10] Kernighan, Brian W. Pike, Rob. The UNIX Programming
Environment. 1984. viii
[11] Fiedler, Ryan (October 1983). The Unix Tutorial / Part
3: Unix in the Microcomputer Marketplace. BYTE. p.
132. Retrieved 30 January 2015.
[12] 8:30 AM (29 September 2010).
asymco. Retrieved 2010-11-09.

Unixs Revenge.

26.9 Further reading

General
Ritchie, D.M.; Thompson, K., The UNIX TimeSharing System (The Bell System Technical Journal,
JulyAugust 1978, Vol. 57, No. 6, Part 2), archived
from the original on November 3, 2010
UNIX History. www.levenez.com. Retrieved 17
March 2005.

[13] Stuart, Brian L. (2009). Principles of operating systems:

design & applications. Boston, Massachusetts: Thompson
Learning. p. 23. ISBN 1-4188-3769-5.

AIX, FreeBSD, HP-UX, Linux, Solaris, Tru64.

UNIXguide.net. Retrieved 17 March 2005.

[14] Ritchie, Dennis M. The Evolution of the Unix Timesharing System. Retrieved 2009-11-29.

Linux Weekly News, February 21, 2002. lwn.net.

Retrieved 7 April 2006.

[15] Salus, Peter H. (1994). A Quarter Century of UNIX. Addison Wesley. p. 9. ISBN 0-201-54777-5.

Lions, John: Lions Commentary on the Sixth

Edition UNIX Operating System. with Source
Code, Peer-to-Peer Communications, 1996; ISBN
1-57398-013-7

[16] Stallings, William. Operating Systems: Internals and

Design Principles 5th ed, page 91. Pearson Education,
Inc. 2005.
[17] The History of Unix. BYTE. August 1983. p. 188. Retrieved 31 January 2015.
[18] Loading. Developer.apple.com. Retrieved 2012-08-22.
[19] Benet, Manuel (1999). Interview With Dennis M.
Ritchie. LinuxFocus.org.
[20] Chuck Karish View prole More options. The name
UNIX is now the property of X/Open comp.std.unix |
Google Groups. Groups.google.com. Retrieved 201011-09.
[21] HP, Novell and SCO To Deliver High-Volume UNIX OS
With Advanced Network And Enterprise Services. Novell.com. 20 September 1995. Retrieved 2010-11-09.

Books
Salus, Peter H.: A Quarter Century of UNIX, Addison Wesley, 1 June 1994; ISBN 0-201-54777-5
Television
Computer Chronicles (1985). "UNIX".
Computer Chronicles (1989). "Unix".

26.10 External links

[22] Jones, Pamela. SCO Files Docketing Statement and We

Find Out What Its Appeal Will Be About. Groklaw.
Groklaw.net. Retrieved 12 April 2011.

The UNIX System, at The Open Group.

[23] The Open Group. The Open Brand Fee Schedule. Retrieved 26 December 2011. The right to use the UNIX
Trademark requires the Licensee to pay to The Open
Group an additional annual fee, calculated in accordance
with the fee table set out below.

The Creation of the UNIX Operating System

[24] The Open Group. Mac OS X v10.5 Leopard on Intelbased Macintosh computers certication. Retrieved
2007-06-12.

The Unix 1st Edition Manuals.

[25] The Open Group. Mac OS X v10.6 Snow Leopard certication.

[26] Unix. Catb.org. Retrieved 2010-11-09.
[27] Troy, Douglas (1990). UNIX Systems. Computing Fundamentals. Benjamin/Cumming Publishing Company. p.
4. ISBN 0-201-19827-4.
[28] Autres Unix, autres moeurs (OtherUnix)". Cm.belllabs.com. 1 April 2000. Retrieved 2010-11-09.

The Evolution of the Unix Time-sharing System

The Unix Tree: les from historic releases

Unix at DMOZ

1982 lm about Unix featuring Dennis Ritchie, Ken

Thompson, Brian Kernighan, Alfred Aho, and more
A History of UNIX before Berkeley: UNIX Evolution: 1975-1984

Chapter 27

Intel
This article is about the company. For information Intel has also begun research into electrical transmisgathering term, see Intelligence assessment.
sion and generation.[9][10] Intel has recently introduced
a 3-D transistor that improves performance and energy
[11]
Intel has begun mass-producing this 3-D
Coordinates:
372316.54N 1215748.74W / eciency.
transistor,
named
the Tri-Gate transistor, with their 22
37.3879278N 121.9635389W
nm process, which is currently used in their 3rd genIntel Corporation is an American multinational corpo- eration core processors initially released on April 29,
ration headquartered in Santa Clara, California. Intel is 2012.[12] In 2011, SpectraWatt Inc., a solar cell spino
one of the worlds largest and highest valued semiconduc- of Intel, led for bankruptcy under Chapter 11.[13] In
tor chip makers, based on revenue.[4] It is the inventor of June 2013, Intel unveiled its fourth generation of Intel
the x86 series of microprocessors, the processors found Core processors (Haswell) in an event named Computex
in most personal computers.
in Taipei.[14]
Intel Corporation, founded on July 18, 1968, is a
portmanteau of Integrated Electronics (the fact that intel is the term for intelligence information also made
the name appropriate).[5] Intel also makes motherboard
chipsets, network interface controllers and integrated circuits, ash memory, graphic chips, embedded processors
and other devices related to communications and computing. Founded by semiconductor pioneers Robert Noyce
and Gordon Moore and widely associated with the executive leadership and vision of Andrew Grove, Intel combines advanced chip design capability with a leading-edge
manufacturing capability. Though Intel was originally
known primarily to engineers and technologists, its Intel Inside advertising campaign of the 1990s made it a
household name, along with its Pentium processors.

The Open Source Technology Center at Intel hosts

PowerTOP and LatencyTOP, and supports other opensource projects such as Wayland, Intel Array Building Blocks, Threading Building Blocks (TBB), and
Xen.[15][16]

27.1 Corporate history

27.1.1 Origins
Intel was originally founded in Mountain View, California in 1968 by Gordon E. Moore (of "Moores Law"
fame), a chemist, and Robert Noyce, a physicist and coinventor of the integrated circuit. Arthur Rock (investor
and venture capitalist) helped them nd investors, while
Max Palevsky was on the board from an early stage.[17]
Moore and Noyce had left Fairchild Semiconductor to
found Intel. Rock was not an employee, but he was an
investor and was chairman of the board.[18][19] The total initial investment in Intel was $2.5 million convertible
debentures and $10,000 from Rock. Just 2 years later,
Intel completed their initial public oering (IPO), raising
$6.8 million ($23.50 per share).[18] Intels third employee
was Andy Grove,[20] a chemical engineer, who later ran
the company through much of the 1980s and the highgrowth 1990s.

Intel was an early developer of SRAM and DRAM memory chips, and this represented the majority of its business
until 1981. Although Intel created the worlds rst commercial microprocessor chip in 1971, it was not until the
success of the personal computer (PC) that this became
its primary business. During the 1990s, Intel invested
heavily in new microprocessor designs fostering the rapid
growth of the computer industry. During this period Intel became the dominant supplier of microprocessors for
PCs, and was known for aggressive and sometimes illegal tactics in defense of its market position, particularly
against Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), as well as a
struggle with Microsoft for control over the direction of
In deciding on a name, Moore and Noyce quickly rejected
the PC industry.[6][7]
Moore Noyce,[21] homophone for more noise an
The 2013 rankings of the worlds 100 most valuable
ill-suited name for an electronics company, since noise
brands published by Millward Brown Optimor showed
in electronics is usually very undesirable and typically
[8]
the companys brand value at number 61.
associated with bad interference. Instead they used the
228

27.1. CORPORATE HISTORY

229
and produced a wider range of products, still dominated
by various memory devices.

Andy Grove, Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore (1978)

Federico Faggin, the designer of Intel 4004.

While Intel created the rst commercially available microprocessor (Intel 4004) in 1971[18] and one of the
rst microcomputers in 1972,[27][29] by the early 1980s
The old Intel logo used from July 18, 1968, until December 2005 its business was dominated by dynamic random-access
memory chips. However, increased competition from
Japanese semiconductor manufacturers had, by 1983,
name NM Electronics before renaming their company
dramatically reduced the protability of this market. The
Integrated Electronics or Intel for short.[22] Since Ingrowing success of the IBM personal computer, based
tel was already trademarked by the hotel chain Intelco,
on an Intel microprocessor, was among factors that conthey had to buy the rights for the name.[18][23]
vinced Gordon Moore (CEO since 1975) to shift the companys focus to microprocessors, and to change fundamental aspects of that business model. Moores decision
27.1.2 Early history
to sole-source Intels 386 chip played into the companys
At its founding, Intel was distinguished by its ability to continuing success.
make semiconductors. Its rst product, in 1969, was the By the end of the 1980s, buoyed by its fortuitous position
3101 Schottky TTL bipolar 64-bit static random-access as microprocessor supplier to IBM and IBMs competimemory (SRAM), which was nearly twice as fast as ear- tors within the rapidly growing personal computer marlier Schottky diode implementations by Fairchild and the ket, Intel embarked on a 10-year period of unprecedented
Electrotechnical Laboratory in Tsukuba, Japan.[24][25] In growth as the primary (and most protable) hardware
the same year Intel also produced the 3301 Schottky supplier to the PC industry, part of the winning 'Winbipolar 1024-bit read-only memory (ROM)[26] and the tel' combination. Moore handed over to Andy Grove in
rst commercial metaloxidesemiconductor eld-eect 1987. By launching its Intel Inside marketing campaign
transistor (MOSFET) silicon gate SRAM chip, the 256- in 1991, Intel was able to associate brand loyalty with conbit 1101.[18][27][28] Intels business grew during the 1970s sumer selection, so that by the end of the 1990s, its line
as it expanded and improved its manufacturing processes of Pentium processors had become a household name.

230

27.1.3

CHAPTER 27. INTEL

Slowing demand and challenges to 27.1.6 Acquisitions

dominance

After 2000, growth in demand for high-end microprocessors slowed. Competitors, notably AMD (Intels largest
competitor in its primary x86 architecture market), garnered signicant market share, initially in low-end and
mid-range processors but ultimately across the product
range, and Intels dominant position in its core market was
greatly reduced.[30] In the early 2000s then-CEO Craig
Barrett attempted to diversify the companys business beyond semiconductors, but few of these activities were ultimately successful.

On August 19, 2010, Intel announced that it planned to

purchase McAfee, a manufacturer of computer security
technology. The purchase price was $7.68 billion, and the
companies said that if the deal were approved, new products would be released early in 2011.[39] On January 26,
2011, the European Union approved the acquisition, after
Intel agreed to provide rival security rms with all necessary information that would allow their products to use
Intels chips and personal computers.[40] After the acquisition, Intel had about 90,000 employees, including about
12,000 software engineers.[41]

Intel had also for a number of years been embroiled in

litigation. US law did not initially recognize intellectual
property rights related to microprocessor topology (circuit layouts), until the Semiconductor Chip Protection
Act of 1984, a law sought by Intel and the Semiconductor
Industry Association (SIA).[31] During the late 1980s and
1990s (after this law was passed) Intel also sued companies that tried to develop competitor chips to the 80386
CPU.[32] The lawsuits were noted to signicantly burden the competition with legal bills, even if Intel lost the
suits.[32] Antitrust allegations had been simmering since
the early 1990s and had been the cause of one lawsuit
against Intel in 1991. In 2004 and 2005, AMD brought
further claims against Intel related to unfair competition.

On August 30, 2010, Intel and Inneon Technologies

announced that Intel would acquire Inneons Wireless
Solutions business.[42] Intel planned to use Inneons
technology in laptops, smart phones, netbooks, tablets
and embedded computers in consumer products, eventually integrating its wireless modem into Intels silicon
chips.[43]

In 2005, CEO Paul Otellini reorganized the company to

refocus its core processor and chipset business on platforms (enterprise, digital home, digital health, and mobility). In 2013, Intel partnered with Medopad, an enterprise mobile health solution provider to support the deployment of Medopad across the 60+ BMI Healthcare
hospitals.[33]

On October 1, 2011, Intel reached a deal to acquire

Telmap, an Israeli-based navigation software company.
The purchase price was not disclosed, but Israeli media
reported values around $300 million to $350 million.[46]

In March 2011, Intel bought most of the assets of Cairobased SySDSoft.[44]

In July 2011, Intel announced that it had agreed to acquire
Fulcrum Microsystems Inc., a company specializing in
network switches.[45] The company was previously included on the EE Times list of 60 Emerging Startups.[45]

In July 2012, Intel Corporation agreed to buy 10 percent

shares of ASML Holding NV for $2.1 billion and another
$1 billon for 5 percent shares that need shareholder approval to fund relevant research and development eorts,
as part of a EUR3.3 billion ($4.1 billion) deal to acceler27.1.4 Regaining of momentum
ate the development of 450-millimeter wafer technology
and extreme ultra-violet lithography by as much as two
In 2007, Intel unveiled its Core microarchitecture to years.[47]
widespread critical acclaim;[34] the product range was
perceived as an exceptional leap in processor perfor- In July 2013, Intel conrmed the acquisition of Omek
mance that at a stroke regained much of its leadership of Interactive, an Israeli company that makes technology for
the eld.[35][36] In 2008, Intel had another tick, when it gesture-based interfaces, without disclosing the monetary
introduced the Penryn microarchitecture, which was 45 value of the deal. An ocial statement from Intel read:
nm. Later that year, Intel released a processor with the The acquisition of Omek Interactive will help increase
Nehalem architecture. Nehalem had positive reviews.[37] Intels capabilities in the delivery of more immersive perceptual computing experiences. One report estimated
the value of the acquisition between US$30 million and
$50 million.[48]
27.1.5 Sale of XScale processor business
On June 27, 2006, the sale of Intels XScale assets was announced. Intel agreed to sell the XScale processor business to Marvell Technology Group for an estimated $600
million and the assumption of unspecied liabilities. The
move was intended to permit Intel to focus its resources
on its core x86 and server businesses, and the acquisition
completed on November 9, 2006.[38]

The acquisition of a Spanish natural language recognition startup named Indisys was announced on September 13, 2013. The terms of the deal were not disclosed
but an email from an Intel representative stated: Intel
has acquired Indisys, a privately held company based in
Seville, Spain. The majority of Indisys employees joined
Intel. We signed the agreement to acquire the company
on May 31 and the deal has been completed. Indysis ex-

27.3. PRODUCT AND MARKET HISTORY

plains that its articial intelligence (AI) technology is a
human image, which converses uently and with common
sense in multiple languages and also works in dierent
platforms.[49]
In December 2014, Intel bought PasswordBox.[50]

231
the Intel Custom Foundry division: Achronix, Tabula,
Netronome, Microsemi, and Alteramost are FPGA
makers, but Netronome designs network processors.
Only Achronix began shipping chips made by Intel using the 22-nm Tri-Gate process.[71][72] Several other customers also exist but were not announced at the time.[73]

In January 2015, Intel purchased a 30% stake in Vuzix,

The Alliance for Aordable Internet (A4AI) was
a smart glasses manufacturer. The deal was worth $24.8
launched in October 2013 and Intel is part of the coalimillion.[51]
tion of public and private organisations that also inIn February 2015, Intel announced its agreement to pur- cludes Facebook, Google, and Microsoft. Led by Sir
chase German network chipmaker Lantiq, to aid in its Tim Berners-Lee, the A4AI seeks to make Internet acexpansion of its range of chips in devices with Internet cess more aordable so that access is broadened in the
connection capability.[52]
developing world, where only 31% of people are online.
Google will help to decrease internet access prices so that
they fall below the UN Broadband Commissions worldwide target of 5% of monthly income.[74]
27.2 Acquisition table

27.2.1

Expansions

27.3 Product and market history

In 2008, Intel spun o key assets of a solar startup business eort to form an independent company, SpectraWatt
Inc. However, as of 2011, SpectraWatt has led for 27.3.1
bankruptcy.[13]
In February 2011, Intel announced plans to build a new
microprocessor manufacturing facility in Chandler, Arizona, which is expected to be completed in 2013, at a cost
of $5 billion.[65] It will accommodate 4,000 employees.
The company produces three-quarters of their products
in the United States, although three-quarters of their revenue comes from overseas.[66]
In April 2011, Intel began a pilot project with ZTE Corporation to produce smartphones using the Intel Atom
processor for Chinas domestic market. This project is
intended to challenge the domination of ARM processors
in mobile phones.[67]

Intels rst products were shift register memory and

random-access memory integrated circuits, and Intel
grew to be a leader in the ercely competitive DRAM,
SRAM, and ROM markets throughout the 1970s. Concurrently, Intel engineers Marcian Ho, Federico Faggin,
Stanley Mazor and Masatoshi Shima invented Intels rst
microprocessor. Originally developed for the Japanese
company Busicom to replace a number of ASICs in a calculator already produced by Busicom, the Intel 4004 was
introduced to the mass market on November 15, 1971,
though the microprocessor did not become the core of
Intels business until the mid-1980s. (Note: Intel is usually given credit with Texas Instruments for the almostsimultaneous invention of the microprocessor)

In December 2011, Intel announced that it reorganized

several of its business units to form a new mobile and
communications group.[68] This group will be responsible
for the companys smartphone, tablet and wireless eorts,
27.3.2
and will be headed by Hermann Eul and Mike Bell.

27.2.2

Opening up the foundries

Finding itself with excess fab capacity after the failure of

the Ultrabook to gain market traction and with PC sales
declining, in 2013 Intel reached a foundry agreement to
produce chips for Altera using 14-nm process. General
Manager of Intels custom foundry division Sunit Rikhi
indicated that Intel would pursue further such deals in the
future.[69] This was after poor sales of Windows 8 hardware caused a major retrenchment for most of the major semiconductor manufacturers, except for Qualcomm,
which continued to see healthy purchases from its largest
customer, Apple.[70]

SRAMS and the microprocessor

From DRAM to microprocessors

In 1983, at the dawn of the personal computer era, Intels prots came under increased pressure from Japanese
memory-chip manufacturers, and then-president Andy
Grove focused the company on microprocessors. Grove
described this transition in the book Only the Paranoid
Survive. A key element of his plan was the notion, then
considered radical, of becoming the single source for successors to the popular 8086 microprocessor.

Until then, the manufacture of complex integrated circuits was not reliable enough for customers to depend on
a single supplier, but Grove began producing processors
in three geographically distinct factories, and ceased licensing the chip designs to competitors such as Zilog and
AMD. When the PC industry boomed in the late 1980s
As of July 2013, ve companies will use Intels fabs via and 1990s, Intel was one of the primary beneciaries.

232

27.3.3

CHAPTER 27. INTEL

Intel, x86 processors, and the IBM tion, interrupting supplies to customers. To mitigate this
risk, these customers typically insisted that multiple manPC

ufacturers produce chips they could use to ensure a consistent supply. The 8080 and 8086-series microprocessors were produced by several companies, notably AMD.
Grove made the decision not to license the 386 design
to other manufacturers, instead producing it in three geographically distinct factories: Santa Clara, California;
Hillsboro, Oregon; and Chandler, a suburb of Phoenix,
Arizona. He convinced customers that this would ensure consistent delivery. As the success of Compaqs
Deskpro 386 established the 386 as the dominant CPU
choice, Intel achieved a position of near-exclusive dominance as its supplier. Prots from this funded rapid
development of both higher-performance chip designs
and higher-performance manufacturing capabilities, propelling Intel to a position of unquestioned leadership by
the early 1990s.

The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes

a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of
EPROM, and I/O in the same chip.

Despite the ultimate importance of the microprocessor,

the 4004 and its successors the 8008 and the 8080 were
never major revenue contributors at Intel. As the next
processor, the 8086 (and its variant the 8088) was completed in 1978, Intel embarked on a major marketing
and sales campaign for that chip nicknamed Operation
Crush, and intended to win as many customers for the
processor as possible. One design win was the newly created IBM PC division, though the importance of this was
not fully realized at the time.
IBM introduced its personal computer in 1981, and it
was rapidly successful. In 1982, Intel created the 80286
microprocessor, which, two years later, was used in the
IBM PC/AT. Compaq, the rst IBM PC clone manufacturer, produced a desktop system based on the faster
80286 processor in 1985 and in 1986 quickly followed
with the rst 80386-based system, beating IBM and establishing a competitive market for PC-compatible systems and setting up Intel as a key component supplier.

486, Pentium, and Itanium

Intel introduced the 486 microprocessor in 1989, and in
1990 formally established a second design team, designing the processors code-named P5 and P6 in parallel and committing to a major new processor every two
years, versus the four or more years such designs had previously taken. Engineers Vinod Dham and Rajeev Chandrasekhar (Member of Parliament, India) were key gures on the core team that invented the 486 chip and
later, Intels signature Pentium chip. The P5 was earlier known as Operation Bicycle, referring to the cycles of the processor. The P5 was introduced in 1993
as the Intel Pentium, substituting a registered trademark
name for the former part number (numbers, such as 486,
are hard to register as a trademark). The P6 followed in
1995 as the Pentium Pro and improved into the Pentium
II in 1997. New architectures were developed alternately
in Santa Clara, California and Hillsboro, Oregon.

The Santa Clara design team embarked in 1993 on a successor to the x86 architecture, codenamed P7. The rst
attempt was dropped a year later, but quickly revived in
a cooperative program with Hewlett-Packard engineers,
though Intel soon took over primary design responsibility.
The resulting implementation of the IA-64 64-bit architecture was the Itanium, nally introduced in June 2001.
The Itaniums performance running legacy x86 code did
not meet expectations, and it failed to compete eectively
386 microprocessor
with x86-64, which was AMDs 64-bit extensions to the
During this period Andrew Grove dramatically redirected original x86 architecture (Intel uses the name Intel 64,
the company, closing much of its DRAM business and previously EM64T). As of 2012, Intel continues to dedirecting resources to the microprocessor business. Of velop and deploy the Itanium; known planning continues
perhaps greater importance was his decision to single- into 2014.
source the 386 microprocessor. Prior to this, micropro- The Hillsboro team designed the Willamette processors
cessor manufacturing was in its infancy, and manufac- (initially code-named P68), which were marketed as the
turing problems frequently reduced or stopped produc- Pentium 4.
In 1975, the company had started a project to develop
a highly advanced 32-bit microprocessor, nally released
in 1981 as the Intel iAPX 432. The project was too ambitious and the processor was never able to meet its performance objectives, and it failed in the marketplace. Intel
extended the x86 architecture to 32 bits instead.[75][76]

27.3. PRODUCT AND MARKET HISTORY

Pentium aw
Main article: Pentium FDIV bug
In June 1994, Intel engineers discovered a aw in the
oating-point math subsection of the P5 Pentium microprocessor. Under certain data-dependent conditions, the
low-order bits of the result of a oating-point division
would be incorrect. The error could compound in subsequent calculations. Intel corrected the error in a future
chip revision, but failed to disclose it.

233
During the 1990s, Intels Architecture Lab (IAL) was responsible for many of the hardware innovations of the
personal computer, including the PCI Bus, the PCI Express (PCIe) bus, the Universal Serial Bus (USB). IALs
software eorts met with a more mixed fate; its video
and graphics software was important in the development
of software digital video, but later its eorts were largely
overshadowed by competition from Microsoft. The competition between Intel and Microsoft was revealed in testimony by IAL Vice-President Steven McGeady at the
Microsoft antitrust trial.

In October 1994, Dr. Thomas Nicely, Professor of Mathematics at Lynchburg College, independently discovered 27.3.4
the bug. He contacted Intel, but received no response.
On October 30, he posted a message on the Internet.[77]
Word of the bug spread quickly and reached the industry press. The bug was easy to replicate; a user could
enter specic numbers into the calculator on the operating system. Consequently, many users did not accept Intels statements that the error was minor and not even an
erratum. During Thanksgiving, in 1994, The New York
Times ran a piece by journalist John Marko spotlighting the error. Intel changed its position and oered to
replace every chip, quickly putting in place a large enduser support organization. This resulted in a $500 million
charge against Intels 1994 revenue.
Ironically, the Pentium aw incident, Intels response
to it, and the surrounding media coverage propelled Intel from being a technology supplier generally unknown
to most computer users to a household name. Dovetailing with an uptick in the "Intel Inside" campaign, the
episode is considered to have been a positive event for
Intel, changing some of its business practices to be more
end-user focused and generating substantial public awareness, while avoiding a lasting negative impression.[78]

Solid-state drives (SSD)

An Intel X25-M SSD

On September 8, 2008, Intel began shipping its rst

mainstream solid-state drives, the X18-M and X25M with 80GB and 160GB storage capacities.[81] Reviews measured high performance with these MLC-based
drives.[82][83][84][85] Intel released their SLC-based Enterprise X25-E Extreme SSDs on October 15 that same year
in capacities of 32GB and 64GB.[86]

In July 2009, Intel refreshed their X25-M and X18-M

lines by moving from a 50-nanometer to a 34-nanometer
Intel Inside and other 1990s programs
process. These new drives, dubbed by the press as the
[87][88]
(or generation 2), reduced
During this period, Intel undertook two major support- X25-M and X18-M G2
prices by up to 60 percent while oering lower latency
ing programs. The rst is widely known: the 1991 "Intel
[89]
Inside" marketing and branding campaign. The idea and improved performance.
of ingredient branding was new at the time with only On February 1, 2010, Intel and Micron announced that
Nutrasweet and a few others making attempts to do so.[79] they were gearing up for production of NAND ash
This campaign established Intel, which had been a com- memory using a new 25-nanometer process.[90] In March
ponent supplier little-known outside the PC industry, as of that same year, Intel entered the budget SSD sega household name.
ment with their X25-V drives with an initial capacity of
[91]
The SSD 310, Intels rst mSATA drive was
The second program is little-known: Intels Systems 40GB.
released
on
December 2010, providing X25-M G2 perGroup began, in the early 1990s, manufacturing PC
formance
in
a much smaller package.[92][93]
"motherboards", the main board component of a personal
computer, and the one into which the processor (CPU)
and memory (RAM) chips are plugged.[80] Shortly after,
Intel began manufacturing fully congured white box
systems for the dozens of PC clone companies that rapidly
sprang up. At its peak in the mid-1990s, Intel manufactured over 15% of all PCs, making it the third-largest supplier at the time.

March 2011 saw the introduction of two new SSD lines

from Intel. The rst, the SSD 510, used a SATA 6 Gigabit per second interface to reach speeds of up to 500
MegaBytes per second.[94] The drive, which uses a controller from Marvell Technology Group,[95] was released
using 34 nm NAND Flash and came in capacities of
120GB and 250GB. The second product announcement,

234

CHAPTER 27. INTEL

the SSD 320, is the successor to Intels earlier X25-M.

It uses the new 25 nm process that Intel and Micron announced in 2010, and was released in capacities of 40
GB, 80 GB, 120 GB, 160 GB, 300 GB and 600 GB.[96]
Sequential read performance maxes out at 270 MB/s due
to the older SATA 3 Gbit/s interface, and sequential write
performance varies greatly based on the size of the drive
with sequential write performance of the 40 GB model
peaking at 45 MB/s and the 600 GB at 220 MB/s.[97]

an era of unprecedented dominance of the PC hardware

by Intel.

Intels dominance in the x86 microprocessor market led

to numerous charges of antitrust violations over the years,
including FTC investigations in both the late 1980s and
in 1999, and civil actions such as the 1997 suit by
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and a patent suit
by Intergraph. Intels market dominance (at one time it
controlled over 85% of the market for 32-bit x86 miMicron and Intel announced that they were producing croprocessors) combined with Intels own hardball legal
their rst 20 nm MLC NAND ash on April 14, 2011.[98] tactics (such as its infamous 338 patent suit versus PC
[139]
made it an attractive target for litigaIn February 2012, Intel launched the SSD 520 series solid manufacturers)
tion,
but
few
of
the
lawsuits ever amounted to anything.
state drives using the SandForce SF-2200 controller with
sequential read and write speeds of 550 and 520 MB/s A case of industrial espionage arose in 1995 that inrespectively with random read and write IOPS as high as volved both Intel and AMD. Bill Gaede, an Argentine
80,000. These drives will replace the 510 series.[99] In- formerly employed both at AMD and at Intels Arizona
tel has released the budget 330 series solid state drive in plant, was arrested for attempting in 1993 to sell the i486
60, 120, and 180GB capacities using 25 nm ash mem- and P5 Pentium designs to AMD and to certain foreign
ory and a SandForce controller that have replaced the 320 powers.[140] Gaede videotaped data from his computer
series.[100][101]
screen at Intel and mailed it to AMD, which immediately alerted Intel and authorities, resulting in Gaedes arrest. Gaede was convicted and sentenced to 33 months in
prison in June 1996.[141][142]
27.3.5 Supercomputers
The Intel Scientic Computers division was founded in
1984 by Justin Rattner, in order to design and produce parallel computers based on Intel microprocessors connected in hypercube topologies.[136] In 1992 the
name was changed to the Intel Supercomputing Systems Division, and development of the iWarp architecture was also subsumed.[137] The division designed several supercomputer systems, including the Intel iPSC/1,
iPSC/2, iPSC/860, Paragon and ASCI Red. In November 2014, Intel revealed that it is going to use light
beams to speed up supercomputers.[138] The renowned
chip maker has also disclosed that all its Supercomputer
forms will use optical technology for data transfer from
2015.

27.3.6

27.3.7 Partnership with Apple

For more details on this topic, see Apples transition to
Intel processors.

On June 6, 2005, Steve Jobs, then CEO of Apple, announced that Apple would be transitioning from its long
favored PowerPC architecture to the Intel x86 architecture, because the future PowerPC road map was unable
to satisfy Apples needs. The rst Macintosh computers
containing Intel CPUs were announced on January 10,
2006, and Apple had its entire line of consumer Macs
running on Intel processors by early August 2006. The
Apple Xserve server was updated to Intel Xeon procesCompetition, antitrust and espi- sors from November 2006, and was oered in a conguonage
ration similar to Apples Mac Pro.[143]

See also: AMD v. Intel

Two factors combined to end this dominance: the slowing
of PC demand growth beginning in 2000 and the rise of
the low cost PC. By the end of the 1990s, microprocessor
performance had outstripped software demand for that
CPU power. Aside from high-end server systems and
software, whose demand dropped with the end of the
"dot-com bubble", consumer systems ran eectively on
increasingly low-cost systems after 2000. Intels strategy
of producing ever-more-powerful processors and obsoleting their predecessors stumbled, leaving an opportunity
for rapid gains by competitors, notably AMD. This in turn
lowered the protability of the processor line and ended

27.3.8 Core 2 Duo advertisement controversy

In 2007, the company released a print advertisement for
its Core 2 Duo processor featuring six African American runners appearing to bow down to a Caucasian male
inside of an oce setting (due to the posture taken by
runners on starting blocks). According to Nancy Bhagat,
Vice President of Intel Corporate Marketing, the general
public found the ad to be insensitive and insulting.[144]
The campaign was quickly pulled and several Intel executives made public apologies on the corporate website.[145]

27.3. PRODUCT AND MARKET HISTORY

27.3.9

Classmate PC

Intels Classmate PC is the companys rst low-cost

netbook computer.[146] One of the models, designed
by TEAMS Design in their Shanghai oce, won
many design awards, such as the Appliance Design EID
Award,[147] the 2008 Spark Award,[148] and the iF 2008
China Award.[149]

235

27.3.14 IT Manager 3: Unseen Forces

IT Manager III: Unseen Forces is a web-based IT simulation game from Intel. In it you manage a companys IT
department. The goal is to apply technology and skill to
enable the company to grow from a small business into a
global enterprise.

27.3.15 Car Security System

27.3.10

Mobile processor

In June 2011, Intel introduced the rst Pentium mobile

processor based on the Sandy Bridge core. The B940,
clocked at 2 GHz, is faster than existing or upcoming mobile Celerons, although it is almost identical to dual-core
Celeron CPUs in all other aspects.[150] According to IHS
iSupplis report on September 28, 2011, Sandy Bridge
chips have helped Intel increase its market share in global
processor market to 81.8%, while AMDs market share
dropped to 10.4%.[151]

In 2011, Intel announced that it is working on a car security system that connects to smartphones via an application. The application works by streaming video to a cloud
service if your car is broken into.[160]

27.3.16 High-Bandwidth Digital Content

Protection

Intel also developed High-Bandwidth Digital Content

Intel planned to introduce Medeld a processor for Protection (HDCP) to prevent access of digital audio and
tablets and smartphones to the market in 2012, as an video content as it travels across connections.
eort to compete with ARM.[152] As a 32-nanometer processor, Medeld is designed to be energy-ecient, which
is one of the core features in ARMs chips.[153]
27.3.17 Move from Wintel desktop to open
At the Intel Developers Forum (IDF) 2011 in San Franmobile platforms
cisco, Intels partnership with Google was announced. By
January 2012, Googles Android 2.3 will use Intels Atom In 2013, Intels Kirk Skaugen said that Intels exclusive
microprocessor.[154][155][156]
focus on Microsoft platforms was a thing of the past and
that they would now support all tier-one operating systems such as Linux, Android, iOS, and Chrome.[161]

27.3.11

Server chips

27.3.12

22 nm processors

In 2014, Intel cut thousands of employees in response

to evolving market trends,[162] and oered to subsidize
In July 2011, Intel announced that its server chips, the manufacturers for the extra costs involved in using Intel
Xeon series, will use new sensors that can improve data chips in their tablets.[163]
center cooling eciency.[157]

27.3.18 Wearable fashion

On January 6, 2014, Intel announced that it was teamIn 2011, Intel announced the Ivy Bridge processor fam- ing with the Council of Fashion Designers of America,
ily at the Intel Developer Forum.[158] Ivy Bridge supports Barneys New York and Opening Ceremony around the
both DDR3 memory and DDR3L chips.
wearable tech eld.[164]

27.3.13

Personal Oce Energy Monitor

(POEM)

As part of its eorts in the Positive Energy Buildings

Consortium, Intel has been developing an application,
called Personal Oce Energy Monitor (POEM), to help
oce buildings to be more energy-ecient. With this application, employees can get the power consumption info
for their oce machines, so that they can gure out a better way to save energy in their working environment.[159]

Intel has developed a reference design for wearable smart

earbuds that provide biometric and tness information.
The Intel smart earbuds provide full stereo audio, and
monitor heart rate, while the applications on the users
phone keep track of run distance and calories burned.
Intels smart earbuds use technology developed in collaboration with Valencell Inc.*, and the Companys PerformTek Precision Biometrics. The sensor technology helps to continuously measure real-time biometric
data with a high degree of accuracy and consistency,
and uses this data to give people meaningful tness
assessments.[165]

236

CHAPTER 27. INTEL

27.4 Corporate aairs

On May 2, 2013, Executive Vice President and COO

Brian Krzanich was elected as Intels sixth CEO,[170] a
In September 2006, Intel had nearly 100,000 employ- selection that became eective on May 16, 2013 at the
ees and 200 facilities world wide. Its 2005 revenues companys annual meeting. Reportedly, the board conwere $38.8 billion and its Fortune 500 ranking was 49th. cluded that an insider could proceed with the role and
Its stock symbol is INTC, listed on the NASDAQ. As exert an impact more quickly, without the need to learn
of February 2009, the biggest customers of Intel are Intels processes, and Krzanich was selected on such a
basis.[171] Intels software head Rene James was selected
Hewlett-Packard and Dell.[166]
as president of the company, a role that is second to the
CEO position.[172]

27.4.1

Leadership and corporate structure As of May 2013, Intels board of directors consists of
Andy Bryant, John Donahoe, Frank Yeary, Ambassador
Charlene Barshefsky, Susan Decker, Reed Hundt, Paul
Otellini, James Plummer, David Pottruck, and David
Yoe. The board was described by former Financial
Times journalist Tom Foremski as an exemplary example of corporate governance of the highest order and received a rating of ten from GovernanceMetrics International, a form of recognition that has only been awarded
to twenty-one other corporate boards worldwide.[173]

27.4.2 Employment

Paul Otellini, Craig Barrett and Sean Maloney (2006)

Robert Noyce was Intels CEO at its founding in 1968,

followed by co-founder Gordon Moore in 1975. Andy
Grove became the companys president in 1979 and
added the CEO title in 1987 when Moore became chairman. In 1998, Grove succeeded Moore as Chairman, and
Craig Barrett, already company president, took over. On
May 18, 2005, Barrett handed the reins of the company
over to Paul Otellini, who previously was the company
president and COO and who was responsible for Intels
design win in the original IBM PC. The board of directors elected Otellini as President and CEO, and Barrett replaced Grove as Chairman of the Board. Grove
stepped down as chairman, but is retained as a special
adviser. In May 2009, Barrett stepped down as chairman of the Board and was succeeded by Jane Shaw. In
May 2012, Intel vice chairman Andy Bryant, who had
previously held the posts of CFO (1994) and Chief Administrative Ocer (2007) at Intel, succeeded Shaw as
executive chairman.[167]

Intel microprocessor facility in Costa Rica was responsible in

2006 for 20% of Costa Rican exports and 4.9% of the countrys
GDP.[174]

The rm promotes very heavily from within, most notably

in its executive suite. The company has resisted the trend
toward outsider CEOs. Paul Otellini was a 30-year veteran of the company when he assumed the role of CEO.
All of his top lieutenants have risen through the ranks after many years with the rm. In many cases, Intels top
In November 2012, president and CEO Paul Otellini an- executives have spent their entire working careers with
nounced that he would step down in May 2013 at the Intel.
age of 62, three years before the companys mandatory
retirement age. During a six-month transition period, Intel has a mandatory retirement policy for its CEOs
Intels board of directors commenced a search process when they reach age 65. Andy Grove retired at 62, while
for the next CEO, in which it considered both internal both Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore retired at 58.
managers and external candidates such as Sanjay Jha and Grove retired as Chairman and as a member of the board
Patrick Gelsinger.[168] Financial results revealed that, un- of directors in 2005 at age 68.
der Otellini, Intels revenue increased by 55.8 percent Intels Headquarters are based in Santa Clara, California
(US$34.2 to 53.3 billion), while its net income increased and has operations around the world. Its largest workforce concentration anywhere is in Washington County,
by 46.7% (US$7.5 billion to 11 billion).[169]

27.4. CORPORATE AFFAIRS

Oregon (in the Portland metropolitan area's "Silicon Forest"), with about 17,000 employees at several facilities
and major expansion under way.[175] Outside the United
States, the company has facilities in China, Costa Rica,
Malaysia, Israel, Ireland, India, Russia and Vietnam, 63
countries and regions internationally. In the U.S. Intel employs signicant numbers of people in California, Colorado, Massachusetts, Arizona, New Mexico,
Oregon, Texas, Washington, and Utah. In Oregon, Intel is
the states largest private employer.[175][176] The company
is the largest industrial employer in New Mexico while in
Arizona the company has over 10,000 employees.

237

27.4.3 Economic Impacts

In 2011, ECONorthwest conducted an economic impact
analysis of Intels economic contribution to the state of
Oregon. The report found that in 2009 the total economic impacts attributed to Intels operations, capital
spending, contributions and taxes amounted to almost
$14.6 billion in activity, including $4.3 billion in personal
income and 59,990 jobs.[192] Through multiplier eects,
every 10 Intel jobs supported, on average, was found to
create 31 jobs in other sectors of the economy.[193]

Intel invests heavily in research in China and about 100

researchers or 10% of the total number of researchers 27.4.4 Funding of a school
from Intel are located in Beijing.[177]
In Rio Rancho, New Mexico, Intel is the leading
In 2011, the Israeli government oered Intel $290 million employer.[194] In 1997, a community partnership between
to expand in the country. As a condition, Intel will have Sandoval County and Intel Corporation funded and built
to employ 1,500 more workers in Kiryat Gat and between Rio Rancho High School.[195][196]
6001000 workers in the north.[178]
In January 2014, it was reported that Intel would cut
about 5,000 jobs from its work force of 107,000. The 27.4.5 Ultrabook Fund
announcement was made a day after it reported earnings
that missed analyst targets.[179]
In 2011, Intel Capital announced a new fund to supthe
In March 2014, it was reported that Intel would embark port startups working on technologies in line with [197]
companys
concept
for
next
generation
notebooks.
upon a $6 billion plan to expand its activities in Israel. The
plan calls for continued investment in existing and new The company is setting aside a $300 million fund to be
next three to four years in areas related
Intel plants until 2030. As of 2014 Intel employs 10,000 spent over the[197]
to
ultrabooks.
Intel announced the ultrabook concept
workers at four development centers and two production
at
Computex
in
2011.
The ultrabook is dened as a thin
[180]
plants in Israel.
(less than 0.8 inches [~2 cm] thick[198] ) notebook that utilizes Intel processors[198] and also incorporates tablet features such as a touch screen and long battery life.[197][198]
At the Intel Developers Forum in 2011, four Taiwan
ODMs showed prototype ultrabooks that used Intels Ivy
Bridge chips.[199] Intel plans to improve power consumpDiversity
tion of its chips for ultrabooks, like new Ivy Bridge processors in 2013, which will only have 10W default therIntel has a Diversity Initiative, including employee di- mal design power.[200]
versity groups as well as supplier diversity programs.[181]
Intels goal for Ultrabooks price is below $1000;[198]
Like many companies with employee diversity groups,
however, according to two presidents from Acer and
they include groups based on race and nationality as well
Compaq, this goal will not be achieved if Intel does not
as sexual identity and religion. In 1994, Intel sanctioned
lower the price of its chips.[201]
one of the earliest corporate Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and
Transgender employee groups,[182] and supports a Muslim employees group,[183] a Jewish employees group,[184]
27.4.6 Finances
and a Bible-based Christian group.[185][186]
Intel received a 100% rating on the rst Corporate Equality Index released by the Human Rights Campaign in
2002. It has maintained this rating in 2003 and 2004. In
addition, the company was named one of the 100 Best
Companies for Working Mothers in 2005 by Working
Mother magazine.
In January 2015, Intel announced the investment of $300
million over the next ve years to enhance gender and
racial diversity in their own company as well as the techIntel stock price, Nov 1986 Nov 2006
nology industry as a whole.[187][188][189][190][191]

238

CHAPTER 27. INTEL

Intels market capitalization is $140.84 billion (March 26,

2012). It publicly trades on NASDAQ with the symbol INTC. A widely held stock, the following indices include Intel shares: Dow Jones Industrial Average, S&P
500, NASDAQ-100, Russell 1000 Index, Russell 1000
Growth Index and SOX (PHLX Semiconductor Sector).
On July 15, 2008, Intel announced that it had achieved
the highest earnings in the history of the company during
Q2 2008.[202]

27.4.7

Advertising and brand management

20092011 badge design.

Intel Inside
Intel has become one of the worlds most recognizable
computer brands following its long-running Intel Inside
campaign. The campaign, which started in 1991, was created by Intel marketing manager Dennis Carter.[203] The
ve-note jingle was introduced in 1994 and by its tenth
anniversary was being heard in 130 countries around
the world. The initial branding agency for the Intel Inside campaign was DahlinSmithWhite Advertising of Salt
Lake City. The Intel swirl logo was the work of DahlinSmithWhite art director Steve Grigg under the direction
of Intel president and CEO Andy Grove.
The Intel Inside advertising campaign sought public brand
loyalty and awareness of Intel processors in consumer
computers.[204] Intel paid some of the advertisers costs
for an ad that used the Intel Inside logo and xylomarimba
jingle.[205]

for online marketing.[206] The Intel 2010 annual nancial

report indicated that $1.8 billion (6% of the gross margin
and nearly 16% of the total net income) was allocated to
all advertising with Intel Inside being part of that.[207]
Sonic logo
The famous D D G D A xylophone/xylomarimba
jingle, sonic logo, tag, audio mnemonic was produced
by Musikvergnuegen and written by Walter Werzowa,
once a member of the Austrian 1980s sampling band
Edelweiss.[208] The sonic Intel logo has undergone substantial changes in tone since the introduction of the Pentium III, Pentium 4, and Core processors, yet keeps the
same jingle.
Naming strategy
In 2006, Intel expanded its promotion of open specication platforms beyond Centrino, to include the Viiv media
center PC and the business desktop Intel vPro.

In mid January 2006, Intel announced that they were

dropping the long running Pentium name from their processors. The Pentium name was rst used to refer to
the P5 core Intel processors (Pent refers to the 5 in P5,)
and was done to circumvent court rulings that prevent
the trademarking of a string of numbers, so competitors
could not just call their processor the same name, as had
been done with the prior 386 and 486 processors (both
of which had copies manufactured by IBM and AMD).
They phased out the Pentium names from mobile processors rst, when the new Yonah chips, branded Core
Solo and Core Duo, were released. The desktop procesThe Intel Inside logo from 1991 to 2006.
sors changed when the Core 2 line of processors were reIn 2008, Intel planned to shift the emphasis of its Intel leased. By 2009 Intel was using a good-better-best stratInside campaign from traditional media such as televi- egy with Celeron being good, Pentium better, and the Infamily representing the best the company has to
sion and print to newer media such as the Internet.[206] tel Core
[209]
oer.
Intel required that a minimum of 35% of the money it
provided to the companies in its co-op program be used According to spokesman Bill Calder, Intel has maintained

27.4. CORPORATE AFFAIRS

only the Celeron brand, the Atom brand for netbooks and
the vPro lineup for businesses. Since late 2009, Intels
mainstream processors have been called Celeron, Pentium, Core i3, Core i5, and Core i7, in order of performance from lowest to highest. The rst generation core
products carry a 3 digit name, such as i5 750, and the
second generation products carry a 4 digit name, such as
the i5 2500. In both cases, a K at the end of it shows
that it is an unlocked processor, enabling additional overclocking abilities (for instance, 2500K). vPro products
will carry the Intel Core i7 vPro processor or the Intel
Core i5 vPro processor name.[210] In October 2011, Intel
started to sell its Core i7-2700K Sandy Bridge chip to
customers worldwide.[211]
Beginning in 2010 Centrino will only be applied to Intels WiMAX and Wi-Fi technologies; it won't be a PC
brand anymore. This will be an evolutionary process
taking place over time, Intel acknowledges that multiple
brands will be in the market including older ones throughout the transition.[210]

239

27.4.9 Corporate responsibility record

Intel has been accused by some residents of Rio Rancho,
New Mexico of allowing VOCs to be released in excess
of their pollution permit. One resident claimed that a release of 1.4 tons of carbon tetrachloride was measured
from one acid scrubber during the fourth quarter of 2003
but an emission factor allowed Intel to report no carbon
tetrachloride emissions for all of 2003.[221]
Another resident alleges that Intel was responsible for the
release of other VOCs from their Rio Rancho site and
that a necropsy of lung tissue from two deceased dogs
in the area indicated trace amounts of toluene, hexane,
ethylbenzene, and xylene isomers,[222] all of which are
solvents used in industrial settings but also commonly
found in gasoline, retail paint thinners and retail solvents. During a sub-committee meeting of the New Mexico Environment Improvement Board, a resident claimed
that Intels own reports documented more than 1,580
pounds (720 kg) of VOCs were released in June and July
2006.[223]
Intels environmental performance is published annually
in their corporate responsibility report.[224]

In its 2012 rankings on the progress of consumer

electronics companies relating to conict minerals, the
27.4.8 Open source support
Enough Project rated Intel the best of 24 companies, calling it a Pioneer of progress.[225] In 2014, chief execuIntel has a signicant participation in the open source tive Brian Krzanich urged the rest of the industry to follow
communities since 1999.[212] For example, in 2006 Intel Intels lead by also shunning conict minerals.[226]
released MIT-licensed X.org drivers for their integrated
graphic cards of the i965 family of chipsets. Intel released FreeBSD drivers for some networking cards,[213] 27.4.10 Religious controversy
available under a BSD-compatible license,[214] which
were also ported to OpenBSD.[214] Binary rmware les Orthodox Jews have protested against Intel operating
for non-wireless Ethernet devices were also released un- in Israel on Saturday, Shabbat. Intel ringed its oce
der a BSD licence allowing free redistribution.[215] Intel with barbed wire before the protest, but there was no
ran the Moblin project until April 23, 2009, when they violence.[227] As of December 2009, the situation has
handed the project over to the Linux Foundation. Intel been stable for Intel Israel while some employees realso runs the LessWatts.org campaigns.[216]
ported working overtime on Shabbat.
However, after the release of the wireless products called
Intel Pro/Wireless 2100, 2200BG/2225BG/2915ABG
and 3945ABG in 2005, Intel was criticized for not granting free redistribution rights for the rmware that must be
included in the operating system for the wireless devices
to operate.[217] As a result of this, Intel became a target
of campaigns to allow free operating systems to include
binary rmware on terms acceptable to the open source
community. Linspire-Linux creator Michael Robertson
outlined the dicult position that Intel was in releasing
to open source, as Intel did not want to upset their large
customer Microsoft.[218] Theo de Raadt of OpenBSD also
claimed that Intel is being an Open Source fraud after
an Intel employee presented a distorted view of the situation at an open-source conference.[219] In spite of the signicant negative attention Intel received as a result of the
wireless dealings, the binary rmware still has not gained
a license compatible with free software principles.[220]

27.4.11 Age discrimination

Intel has faced complaints of age discrimination in ring
and layos. Intel was sued in 1993 by nine former employees, over allegations that they were laid o because
they were over the age of 40.[228]
A group called FACE Intel (Former and Current Employees of Intel) claims that Intel weeds out older employees.
FACE Intel claims that more than 90 percent of people
who have been laid o or red from Intel are over the
age of 40. Upside magazine requested data from Intel
breaking out its hiring and ring by age, but the company declined to provide any.[229] Intel has denied that age
plays any role in Intels employment practices.[230] FACE
Intel was founded by Ken Hamidi, who was red from
Intel in 1995 at the age of 47.[229] Hamidi was blocked

240

CHAPTER 27. INTEL

in a 1999 court decision from using Intels email system since Intels initial response indicated its unwillingness to
to distribute criticism of the company to employees,[231] settle with AMD.[238][239] In 2008 a court date was nally
which overturned in 2003 in Intel Corp. v. Hamidi.
set,[240] but in 2009 Intel settled with a $1.25 billion payout to AMD (see below).[241]
In October 2006, a Transmeta lawsuit was led against Intel for patent infringement on computer architecture and
power eciency technologies.[242] The lawsuit was setFurther information: Semiconductor sales leaders by year tled in October 2007, with Intel agreeing to pay US$150
million initially and US$20 million per year for the next
ve years. Both companies agreed to drop lawsuits
In the 1980s, Intel was among the top ten sellers of against each other, while Intel was granted a perpetual
semiconductors (10th in 1987) in the world. In 1991, In- non-exclusive license to use current and future patented
tel became the biggest chip maker by revenue and has held Transmeta technologies in its chips for 10 years.[243]
the position ever since. Other top semiconductor companies include TSMC, Advanced Micro Devices, Samsung, On November 4, 2009, New Yorks attorney general led
an antitrust lawsuit against Intel Corp, claiming the comTexas Instruments, Toshiba and STMicroelectronics.
pany used illegal threats and collusion to dominate the
Competitors in PC chip sets include AMD, VIA Tech- market for computer microprocessors.
nologies, SiS, and Nvidia. Intels competitors in networking include Freescale, Inneon, Broadcom, Marvell On November 12, 2009, AMD agreed to drop the
Technology Group and AMCC, and competitors in ash antitrust[241]lawsuit against Intel in exchange for $1.25
A joint press release published by the two
memory include Spansion, Samsung, Qimonda, Toshiba, billion.
chip
makers
stated While the relationship between the
STMicroelectronics, and Hynix.
two companies has been dicult in the past, this agreeThe only major competitor in the x86 processor mar- ment ends the legal disputes and enables the companies
ket is Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), with which Intel to focus all of our eorts on product innovation and
has had full cross-licensing agreements since 1976: each development.[244][245]
partner can use the others patented technological innovations without charge after a certain time.[232] However, Main article: High-Tech Employee Antitrust Litigation
the cross-licensing agreement is canceled in the event of
an AMD bankruptcy or takeover.[233] Some smaller com- An antitrust lawsuit[246] and a class-action suit relating to
petitors such as VIA and Transmeta produce low-power cold calling employees of other companies is still pendx86 processors for small factor computers and portable ing. [247]
equipment. However, the advent of such mobile computing devices, in particular, smartphones, has in recent
years led to a decline in PC sales. This is seen as the main 27.5.2 Anti-competitive allegations
reason for Intels 2013 Q1 net income drop of 25%.[234]
As over 95% of the worlds smartphones are currently See also: AMD v. Intel
powered by processors designed by ARM Holdings, this
company has become a major competitor for Intels processor market. ARM is also planning to make inroads
Japan
into the PC and server market.[235]

27.5 Competition

In 2005, the local Fair Trade Commission found that Intel

violated the Japanese Antimonopoly Act. The com27.5.1 Lawsuits
mission ordered Intel to eliminate discounts that had disTo avoid a trial, Intel agreed to
Intel has often been accused by competitors of using le- criminated against AMD.
[248][249][250][251]
comply
with
the
order.
gal claims to thwart competition. Intel claims that it is
defending its intellectual property. Intel has been plainti and defendant in numerous legal actions.
European Union
In September 2005, Intel led a response to an AMD
lawsuit,[236] disputing AMDs claims, and claiming that
Intels business practices are fair and lawful. In a rebuttal, Intel deconstructed AMDs oensive strategy and argued that AMD struggled largely as a result of its own
bad business decisions, including underinvestment in essential manufacturing capacity and excessive reliance on
contracting out chip foundries.[237] Legal analysts predicted the lawsuit would drag on for a number of years,

In July 2007, the European Commission accused Intel of

anti-competitive practices, mostly against AMD.[252] The
allegations, going back to 2003, include giving preferential prices to computer makers buying most or all of
their chips from Intel, paying computer makers to delay
or cancel the launch of products using AMD chips, and
providing chips at below standard cost to governments
and educational institutions.[253] Intel responded that the

27.6. MARKET SHARE

allegations were unfounded and instead qualied its market behavior as consumer-friendly.[253] General counsel
Bruce Sewell responded that the Commission had misunderstood some factual assumptions as to pricing and
manufacturing costs.[254]
In February 2008, Intel stated that its oce in Munich
had been raided by European Union regulators. Intel reported that it was cooperating with investigators.[255] Intel
faced a ne of up to 10% of its annual revenue, if found
guilty of stiing competition.[256] AMD subsequently
launched a website promoting these allegations.[257][258]
In June 2008, the EU led new charges against Intel.[259]
In May 2009, the EU found that Intel had engaged in
anti-competitive practices and subsequently ned Intel
1.06 billion (US$1.44 billion), a record amount. Intel was found to have paid companies, including Acer,
Dell, HP, Lenovo and NEC,[260] to exclusively use Intel
chips in their products, and therefore harmed other companies including AMD.[260][261][262] The European Commission said that Intel had deliberately acted to keep competitors out of the computer chip market and in doing so
had made a serious and sustained violation of the EUs
antitrust rules.[260] In addition to the ne, Intel was ordered by the Commission to immediately cease all illegal
practices.[260] Intel has stated that they will appeal against
the Commissions verdict. In June 2014, the General
Court, which sits below the European Court of Justice,
rejected the appeal.[260]

241
these payments if the computer makers were perceived
as working too closely with its competitors. Intel has denied these claims.[271]
On July 22, 2010, Dell agreed to a settlement with
the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to
pay $100M in penalties resulting from charges that Dell
did not accurately disclose accounting information to investors. In particular, the SEC charged that from 2002
to 2006, Dell had an agreement with Intel to receive rebates in exchange for not using chips manufactured by
AMD. These substantial rebates were not disclosed to investors, but were used to help meet investor expectations
regarding the companys nancial performance; These
exclusivity payments grew from 10 percent of Dells operating income in FY 2003 to 38 percent in FY 2006, and
peaked at 76 percent in the rst quarter of FY 2007..[272]
Dell eventually did adopt AMD as a secondary supplier in
2006, and Intel subsequently stopped their rebates, causing Dells nancial performance to fall.[273][274][275]

27.6 Market share

According to IDC, while Intel still enjoys the biggest
market share in both the overall worldwide PC microprocessor market (79.3%) and the mobile PC microprocessor (84.4%) in the second quarter of 2011, the numbers decreased by 1.5% and 1.9% compared to the rst
quarter.[276][277]

South Korea

Per Passmark's (?) CPU benchmark, which takes into

account individual benchmarking of their software and
In September 2007, South Korean regulators accused In- each system results are reported with, Intel has retained
tel of breaking antitrust law. The investigation began in 70% and more of the active market versus AMD since
February 2006, when ocials raided Intels South Korean Q1 2008.[278]
oces. The company risked a penalty of up to 3% of its
annual sales, if found guilty.[263] In June 2008, the Fair
Trade Commission ordered Intel to pay a ne of US$25.5
27.7 Boycott,
Divestment and
million for taking advantage of its dominant position to
oer incentives to major Korean PC manufacturers on
Sanctions
the condition of not buying products from AMD.[264]
According to the Christian Science Monitor, Intels plant
at Kiryat Gat was built on the site of former Palestinian
United States
villages of Al-Faluja and Iraq al-Manshiyya; and AlAwda - the Palestinian Right to Return Coalition - a supNew York started an investigation of Intel in Janporter of Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions, has called
uary 2008 on whether the company violated antitrust
on Intel to close this plant.[279]
laws in pricing and sales of its microprocessors.[265]
In June 2008, the Federal Trade Commission also began an antitrust investigation of the case.[266] In December 2009, the FTC announced it would initiate an 27.8 See also
administrative proceeding against Intel in September
2010.[267][268][269][270]
ASCI Red
In November 2009, following a two-year investigation,
New York Attorney General Andrew Cuomo sued Intel,
accusing them of bribery and coercion, claiming that Intel bribed computer makers to buy more of their chips
than those of their rivals, and threatened to withdraw

AMD
Comparison of ATI Graphics Processing Units
Comparison of Intel processors

242
Comparison of Nvidia graphics processing units
Cyrix
Engineering sample (CPU)
Intel GMA (Graphics Media Accelerator)
Intel Museum
Intel Science Talent Search
Intel Developer Zone (Intel DZ)
List of Intel chipsets
List of Intel CPU microarchitectures
List of Intel manufacturing sites
List of Intel microprocessors
List of Semiconductor Fabrication Plants
Semiconductor sales leaders by year
Wintel
Intel related biographical articles on Wikipedia:

CHAPTER 27. INTEL

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Andy Grove

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Bill Gaede

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Bob Colwell

[16] Less Watts: About the Intel Open Source Technology

Center

Craig Barrett (chief executive)

Gordon Moore
Justin Rattner
Pat Gelsinger
Paul Otellini
Robert Noyce
Sean Maloney

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August 2, 2011.
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27.10 External links

Intel at DMOZ
Intel ocial website
Intel Developer Zone

Business data for INTEL CORP.:

Hoovers
Reuters
SEC lings

Chapter 28

Microsoft Windows
Windows redirects here. For the part of a building, see
window. For other uses, see Windows (disambiguation).
Microsoft Windows or Windows is a metafamily of
graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and
sold by Microsoft. It consists of several families of operating systems, each of which cater to a certain sector
of the computing industry. Active Windows families include Windows NT, Windows Embedded and Windows
Phone; these may encompass subfamilies, e.g. Windows
Embedded Compact (Windows CE) or Windows Server.
Defunct Windows families include Windows 9x and
Windows Mobile.
Microsoft introduced an operating environment named
Windows on November 20, 1985 as a graphical operating
system shell for MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces (GUIs).[6] Microsoft
Windows came to dominate the worlds personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking
Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984. However,
since 2012, it sells less than Android when counting on
all of the computing platforms Windows runs on (same
as Android), not just desktop; in 2014, selling less than a
quarter of Android.
As of April 2014, the most recent versions of Windows for personal computers, smartphones, server computers and embedded devices are respectively Windows
8.1, Windows Phone 8.1, Windows Server 2012 R2 and
Windows Embedded 8. A specialized version of Windows runs on the Xbox One game console.

Windows: The operating system for mainstream personal computers. The latest version
is Windows 8.1. It is almost impossible for
someone unfamiliar with the subject to identify the members of this family by name because they do not adhere to any specic rule;
e.g. Windows Vista, Windows 7 and Windows
RT are members of this family but Windows
3.1 is not. The main competitor of this family is OS X by Apple Inc. (c.f. Usage share of
operating systems Market share by category)
Windows Server: The operating system for
server computers.
The latest version is
Windows Server 2012 R2. Unlike its clients
sibling, it has adopted a strong naming scheme.
The main competitor of this family is Linux.
(c.f. Usage share of operating systems Market share by category)
Windows PE: A lightweight version of its Windows sibling meant to operate as a live operating system, used for installing Windows
on bare-metal computers (especially on many
computers at once), recovery or troubleshooting purposes. The latest version is Windows
PE 5.1.
Windows Phone: An operating system sold only to
manufacturers of smartphones. The rst version was
Windows Phone 7. The latest version is Windows
Phone 8.1. The main competitor of this family is
Android by Google. (c.f. Usage share of operating
systems Market share by category)

28.1 Genealogy
28.1.1

Windows NT: Started as a family of operating system with Windows NT 3.1, an operating system for
server computers and workstations. It now consists
of three operating system subfamilies that are released almost at the same time and share the same
kernel

By marketing role

Microsoft, the developer of Windows, has registered several trademarks each of which denote a family of Windows operating systems that target a specic sector of the
computing industry. As of 2014, the following Windows
families are being actively developed:
250

Windows Embedded: Initially, Microsoft developed Windows CE as a general-purpose operating system for every device that was too resourcelimited to be called a full-edged computer. Eventually, however, Windows CE was renamed Windows Embedded Compact and was folded under

28.2. VERSION HISTORY

251

released until November 1985.[9] Windows 1.0 was to

compete with Apple's operating system, but achieved
little popularity. Windows 1.0 is not a complete operating system; rather, it extends MS-DOS. The shell
of Windows 1.0 is a program known as the MS-DOS
Executive. Components included Calculator, CalenThe following Windows families are no longer being de- dar, Cardle, Clipboard viewer, Clock, Control Panel,
Notepad, Paint, Reversi, Terminal and Write. Windows
veloped:
1.0 does not allow overlapping windows. Instead all windows are tiled. Only modal dialog boxes may appear over
Windows 9x: An operating system that targeted
other windows.
consumers market. Discontinued because of suboptimal performance. (PC World called its last ver- Windows 2.0 was released in December 1987 and was
sion, Windows ME, one of the worst products of more popular than its predecessor. It features several imall times.)[8] Microsoft now caters to the consumers provements to the user interface and memory management. Windows 2.03 changed the OS from tiled windows
market with Windows NT.
to overlapping windows. The result of this change led
Windows Mobile: The predecessor to Windows to Apple Computer ling a suit against Microsoft allegPhone, it was a mobile phone operating system. The ing infringement on Apples copyrights.[10][11] Windows
rst version was called Pocket PC 2000; the third 2.0 also introduced more sophisticated keyboard shortversion, Windows Mobile 2003 is the rst version cuts and could make use of expanded memory.
to adopt the Windows Mobile trademark. The last
Windows 2.1 was released in two dierent versions:
version is Windows Mobile 6.5.
Windows/286 and Windows/386. Windows/386 uses the
virtual 8086 mode of Intel 80386 to multitask several
DOS programs and the paged memory model to emu28.2 Version history
late expanded memory using available extended memory.
Windows/286, in spite of its name, runs on both Intel
Main article: History of Microsoft Windows
8086 and Intel 80286 processors. It runs in real mode
See also: List of Microsoft Windows versions
but can make use of the high memory area.
Windows Compact trademark which also consists
of Windows Embedded Industry, Windows Embedded Professional, Windows Embedded Standard,
Windows Embedded Handheld and Windows Embedded Automotive.[7]

In addition to full Windows-packages, there were

The term Windows collectively describes any or all of sev- runtime-only versions that shipped with early Windows
eral generations of Microsoft operating system products. software from third parties and made it possible to run
These products are generally categorized as follows:
their Windows software on MS-DOS and without the full
Windows feature set.
The early versions of Windows are often thought of
as graphical shells, mostly because they ran on top of
[12]
HowMain articles: Windows 1.0, Windows 2.0 and Windows MS-DOS and use it for le system services.
ever,
even
the
earliest
Windows
versions
already
assumed
2.1x
The history of Windows dates back to September 1981, many typical operating system functions; notably, having their own executable le format and providing their
own device drivers (timer, graphics, printer, mouse, keyboard and sound). Unlike MS-DOS, Windows allowed
users to execute multiple graphical applications at the
same time, through cooperative multitasking. Windows
implemented an elaborate, segment-based, software virtual memory scheme, which allows it to run applications larger than available memory: code segments and
resources are swapped in and thrown away when memory
became scarce; data segments moved in memory when a
given application had relinquished processor control.

28.2.1

Early versions

Windows 1.0, the rst version, released in 1985

28.2.2 Windows 3.0 and 3.1

when Chase Bishop, a computer scientist, designed the
rst model of an electronic device and project Interface Main articles: Windows 3.0 and Windows 3.1x
Manager was started. It was announced in November Windows 3.0, released in 1990, improved the design,
1983 (after the Apple Lisa, but before the Macintosh) mostly because of virtual memory and loadable virtual
under the name Windows, but Windows 1.0 was not device drivers (VxDs) that allow Windows to share ar-

252

CHAPTER 28. MICROSOFT WINDOWS

Internet Explorer.[17] Mainstream support for Windows
95 ended on December 31, 2000 and extended support
for Windows 95 ended on December 31, 2001.[18]

Windows 95 was followed up with the release of

Windows 98 on June 25, 1998, which introduced the
Windows Driver Model, support for USB composite devices, support for ACPI, hibernation, and support for
multi-monitor congurations. Windows 98 also included
integration with Internet Explorer 4 through Active Desktop and other aspects of the Windows Desktop Update (a
series of enhancements to the Explorer shell which were
also made available for Windows 95). In May 1999, Microsoft released Windows 98 Second Edition, an updated
version of Windows 98. Windows 98 SE added Internet
Windows 3.0, released in 1990
Explorer 5.0 and Windows Media Player 6.2 amongst
other upgrades. Mainstream support for Windows 98
support for Winbitrary devices between multi-tasked DOS applications. ended on June 30, 2002 and extended
[19]
dows
98
ended
on
July
11,
2006.
Windows 3.0 applications can run in protected mode,
which gives them access to several megabytes of memory On September 14, 2000, Microsoft released Windows
without the obligation to participate in the software vir- ME (Millennium Edition), the last DOS-based version
tual memory scheme. They run inside the same address of Windows. Windows ME incorporated visual interface
space, where the segmented memory provides a degree of enhancements from its Windows NT-based counterpart
protection. Windows 3.0 also featured improvements to Windows 2000, had faster boot times than previous verthe user interface. Microsoft rewrote critical operations sions (which however, required the removal of the abilfrom C into assembly. Windows 3.0 is the rst Microsoft ity to access a real mode DOS environment, removing
Windows version to achieve broad commercial success, compatibility with some older programs),[20] expanded
selling 2 million copies in the rst six months.[13][14]
multimedia functionality (including Windows Media
Windows 3.1, made generally available on March 1, Player 7, Windows Movie Maker, and the Windows Im1992, featured a facelift. In August 1993, Windows for age Acquisition framework for retrieving images from
Workgroups, a special version with integrated peer-to- scanners and digital cameras), additional system utilities
System Restore, and
peer networking features and a version number of 3.11, such as System File Protection and
[21]
updated
home
networking
tools.
However, Windows
was released. It was sold along Windows 3.1. Support
ME
was
faced
with
criticism
for
its
speed
and instability,
[15]
for Windows 3.1 ended on December 31, 2001.
along with hardware compatibility issues and its removal
of real mode DOS support. PC World considered Windows ME to be one of the worst operating systems Mi28.2.3 Windows 9x
crosoft had ever released, and the 4th worst tech product
of all time.[8]
Main article: Windows 9x
The next major consumer-oriented release of Windows,
Windows 95, was released on August 24, 1995. While
still remaining MS-DOS-based, Windows 95 introduced
support for native 32-bit applications, plug and play hardware, preemptive multitasking, long le names of up
to 255 characters, and provided increased stability over
its predecessors. Windows 95 also introduced a redesigned, object oriented user interface, replacing the
previous Program Manager with the Start menu, taskbar,
and Windows Explorer shell. Windows 95 was a major
commercial success for Microsoft; Ina Fried of CNET remarked that by the time Windows 95 was nally ushered
o the market in 2001, it had become a xture on computer desktops around the world.[16] Microsoft published
four OEM Service Releases (OSR) of Windows 95, each
of which was roughly equivalent to a service pack. The
rst OSR of Windows 95 was also the rst version of
Windows to be bundled with Microsofts web browser,

28.2.4 Windows NT
Main article: Windows NT

Early versions
In November 1988, a new development team within Microsoft (which included former Digital Equipment Corporation developers Dave Cutler and Mark Lucovsky) began work on a revamped version of IBM and Microsofts
OS/2 operating system known as NT OS/2. NT OS/2
was intended to be a secure, multi-user operating system
with POSIX compatibility and a modular, portable kernel
with preemptive multitasking and support for multiple
processor architectures. However, following the successful release of Windows 3.0, the NT development team de-

28.2. VERSION HISTORY

cided to rework the project to use an extended 32-bit port
of the Windows API known as Win32 instead of those
of OS/2. Win32 maintained a similar structure to the
Windows APIs (allowing existing Windows applications
to easily be ported to the platform), but also supported
the capabilities of the existing NT kernel. Following its
approval by Microsofts sta, development continued on
what was now Windows NT, the rst 32-bit version of
Windows. However, IBM objected to the changes, and
ultimately continued OS/2 development on its own.[22][23]
The rst release of the resulting operating system,
Windows NT 3.1 (named to associate it with Windows
3.1) was released in July 1993 with versions for desktop workstations and servers. Windows NT 3.5 was released in September 1994, focusing on performance improvements and support for Novell's NetWare, and was
followed up by Windows NT 3.51 in May 1995, which
included additional improvements and support for the
PowerPC architecture. Windows NT 4.0 was released
in June 1996, introducing the redesigned interface of
Windows 95 to the NT series. On February 17, 2000,
Microsoft released Windows 2000, a successor to NT 4.0.
The Windows NT name was dropped at this point in order
to put a greater focus on the Windows brand.[23]

253
After Windows 2000, Microsoft also changed its release
schedules for server operating systems; the server counterpart of Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, was released in April 2003.[23] It was followed in December
2005 by Windows Server 2003 R2.

Windows Vista and later

After a lengthy development process, Windows Vista was
released on November 30, 2006 for volume licensing and
January 30, 2007 for consumers. It contained a number
of new features, from a redesigned shell and user interface
to signicant technical changes, with a particular focus on
security features. It was available in a number of dierent
editions, and has been subject to some criticism. Vistas
server counterpart, Windows Server 2008 was released in
early 2008.

On July 22, 2009, Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008

R2 were released as RTM (release to manufacturing)
while the former was released to the public 3 months later
on October 22, 2009. Unlike its predecessor, Windows
Vista, which introduced a large number of new features,
Windows 7 was intended to be a more focused, incremental upgrade to the Windows line, with the goal of
being compatible with applications and hardware with
which Windows Vista was already compatible.[29] WinWindows XP
dows 7 has multi-touch support, a redesigned Windows
The next major version of Windows, Windows XP, was shell with an updated[30]taskbar, a home networking system
released on October 25, 2001. The introduction of Win- called HomeGroup, and performance improvements.
dows XP aimed to unify the consumer-oriented Windows Windows 8, the successor to Windows 7, was released
9x series with the architecture introduced by Windows generally on October 26, 2012. A number of signiNT, a change which Microsoft promised would pro- cant changes were made on Windows 8, including the invide better performance over its DOS-based predeces- troduction of a user interface based around Microsofts
sors. Windows XP would also introduce a redesigned Metro design language with optimizations for touchuser interface (including an updated Start menu and a based devices such as tablets and all-in-one PCs. These
task-oriented Windows Explorer), streamlined multi- changes include the Start screen, which uses large tiles
media and networking features, Internet Explorer 6, inte- that are more convenient for touch interactions and algration with Microsofts .NET Passport services, modes low for the display of continually updated information,
to help provide compatibility with software designed for and a new class of apps which are designed primarily for
previous versions of Windows, and Remote Assistance use on touch-based devices. Other changes include infunctionality.[24]
creased integration with cloud services and other online
At retail, Windows XP was now marketed in two main platforms (such as social networks and Microsofts own
editions: the Home edition was targeted towards con- SkyDrive and Xbox Live services), the Windows Store
sumers, while the Professional edition was targeted service for software distribution, and a new variant known
RT for use on devices that utilize the ARM
towards business environments and power users, and as Windows [31][32][33][34][35][36]
An update to Windows 8,
architecture.
included additional security and networking features.
called
Windows
8.1,
was
released
on October 17, 2013,
Home and Professional were later accompanied by the
and
includes
features
such
as
new
live tile sizes, deeper
Media Center edition (designed for home theater PCs,
SkyDrive
integration,
and
many
other
revisions.[37]
with an emphasis on support for DVD playback, TV
tuner cards, DVR functionality, and remote controls),
and the Tablet PC edition (designed for mobile devices meeting its specications for a tablet computer, with
support for stylus pen input and additional pen-enabled
applications).[25][26][27] Mainstream support for Windows
XP ended on April 14, 2009. Extended support ended on
April 8, 2014.[28]

On September 30, 2014, Microsoft announced Windows

10 as the successor to Windows 8.1. It will be released in
late 2015 and addresses shortcomings in the user interface
rst introduced with Windows 8. Changes include the
return of the Start Menu, a virtual desktop system, and
the ability to run Windows Store apps within windows on
the desktop rather than in full-screen mode.[38]

254
Multilingual support

CHAPTER 28. MICROSOFT WINDOWS

and its predecessors supported PowerPC, DEC Alpha
and MIPS R4000. (Although some these platforms implement 64-bit computing, the operating system treated
them as 32-bit.) However, Windows 2000, the successor of Windows NT 4.0, dropped support for all platforms except the third generation x86 (known as IA-32)
or newer in 32-bit mode. The client line of Window NT
family still runs on IA-32, although the Windows Server
line has ceased supporting this platform with the release
of Windows Server 2008 R2.

Multilingual support is built into Windows. The language

for both the keyboard and the interface can be changed
through the Region and Language Control Panel. Components for all supported input languages, such as Input
Method Editors, are automatically installed during Windows installation (in Windows XP and earlier, les for
East Asian languages, such as Chinese, and right-to-left
scripts, such as Arabic, may need to be installed separately, also from the said Control Panel). Third-party With the introduction of the Intel Itanium architecture
IMEs may also be installed if a user feels that the pro- (IA-64), Microsoft released new versions of Windows
vided one is insucient for their needs.
to support it. Itanium versions of Windows XP and
Interface languages for the operating system are free for Windows Server 2003 were released at the same time as
download, but some languages are limited to certain edi- their mainstream x86 counterparts. Windows XP 64-Bit
tions of Windows. Language Interface Packs (LIPs) are Edition, released in 2005, is the last Windows client opredistributable and may be downloaded from Microsofts erating systems to support Itanium. Windows Server line
Download Center and installed for any edition of Win- continued to support this platform until Windows Server
dows (XP or later) - they translate most, but not all, of the 2012; Windows Server 2008 R2 is the last Windows opWindows interface, and require a certain base language erating system to support Itanium architecture.
(the language which Windows originally shipped with). On April 25, 2005, Microsoft released Windows XP ProThis is used for most languages in emerging markets. Full fessional x64 Edition and Windows Server 2003 x64 EdiLanguage Packs, which translates the complete operating tions to support the x86-64 (or simply x64), the eighth
system, are only available for specic editions of Win- generation of x86 architecture. Windows Vista was the
dows (Ultimate and Enterprise editions of Windows Vista rst client version of Windows NT to be released simultaand 7, and all editions of Windows 8, 8.1 and RT ex- neously in IA-32 and x64 editions. x64 is still supported.
cept Single Language). They do not require a specic
base language, and are commonly used for more popular An edition of Windows 8 known as Windows RT was
languages such as French or Chinese. These languages specically created for computers with ARM architeccannot be downloaded through the Download Center, but ture.
available as optional updates through the Windows Update service (except Windows 8).

28.2.5 Windows CE

The interface language of installed applications are not

aected by changes in the Windows interface language. Main articles: Windows CE and Windows Phone
Availability of languages depends on the application de- Windows CE (ocially known as Windows Embedvelopers themselves.
Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012 introduces a new
Language Control Panel where both the interface and input languages can be simultaneously changed, and language packs, regardless of type, can be downloaded from
a central location. The PC Settings app in Windows 8.1
and Windows Server 2012 R2 also includes a counterpart settings page for this. Changing the interface language also changes the language of preinstalled Windows
Store apps (such as Mail, Maps and News) and certain
other Microsoft-developed apps (such as Remote Desktop). The above limitations for language packs are however still in eect, except that full language packs can be
installed for any edition except Single Language, which The latest current version of Windows CE, Windows Embedded
caters to emerging markets.
Compact 7, displaying a concept media player UI.
ded Compact), is an edition of Windows that runs on
minimalistic computers, like satellite navigation systems
and some mobile phones. Windows Embedded Compact
Windows NT included support for several dierent plat- is based on its own dedicated kernel, dubbed Windows
forms before the x86-based personal computer became CE kernel. Microsoft licenses Windows CE to OEMs and
dominant in the professional world. Windows NT 4.0 device makers. The OEMs and device makers can modPlatform support

28.4. USAGE SHARE

255

ify and create their own user interfaces and experiences,

while Windows CE provides the technical foundation to
do so.
Windows CE was used in the Dreamcast along with
Segas own proprietary OS for the console. Windows CE
was the core from which Windows Mobile was derived.
Its successor, Windows Phone 7, was based on components from both Windows CE 6.0 R3 and Windows CE
7.0. Windows Phone 8 however, is based on the same
NT-kernel as Windows 8.
Windows Embedded Compact is not to be confused with
Windows XP Embedded or Windows NT 4.0 Embedded,
modular editions of Windows based on Windows NT kernel.

28.2.6

Xbox OS

Xbox OS is an unocial name given to the version of

Windows that runs on the Xbox One.[39] It is a more specic implementation with an emphasis on virtualization
(using Hyper-V) as it is three operating systems running The Windows family tree
at once, consisting of the core operating system, a second
implemented for games and a more Windows-like environment for applications.[40]

28.4 Usage share

Main article: Usage share of operating systems

28.3 Timeline of releases

Main article: Timeline of Microsoft Windows
Windows timeline: Table
Windows timeline: Bar chart

^ Not a subtotal. Not all versions are listed

in this table.
^ Also includes mobile operating systems.

28.4.1 Usage share as a general platform

view

talk

edit

According to Gartner, Windows (including all platforms)

sold less than a quarter of Android (the so-called mobile
operating system) in 2014,[46] and has been outsold every year since 2012. Android runs on tablets (personal
computers), smartphones (and traditional PCs but few
users do). In 2013, Android-based devices outsold Windows 2.8:1 (2:1 in mature markets) or by 573 million
units (estimating the gap to widen much in 2015 as it did
in 2014).[47][48][49]
An estimated three billion Android smartphones only
(with tablets selling similar to desktop PCs) have been
sold by the end of 2014 (including previous years) rivaling Windows installed base in PCs.

256

CHAPTER 28. MICROSOFT WINDOWS

Unlike Android, programs may not work across dierent a token containing only the most basic privileges is asversions of Windows, but that is planned in Windows 10. signed. In this way, the new logon session is incapable
of making changes that would aect the entire system.
When logging in as a user in the Administrators group,
two separate tokens are assigned. The rst token con28.5 Security
tains all privileges typically awarded to an administrator,
and the second is a restricted token similar to what a stanConsumer versions of Windows were originally designed
dard user would receive. User applications, including the
for ease-of-use on a single-user PC without a network
Windows Shell, are then started with the restricted toconnection, and did not have security features built in
ken, resulting in a reduced privilege environment even
[50]
from the outset.
However, Windows NT and its sucunder an Administrator account. When an application
cessors are designed for security (including on a network)
requests higher privileges or Run as administrator is
and multi-user PCs, but were not initially designed with
clicked, UAC will prompt for conrmation and, if conInternet security in mind as much, since, when it was
sent is given (including administrator credentials if the
rst developed in the early 1990s, Internet use was less
account requesting the elevation is not a member of the
[51]
prevalent.
administrators group), start the process using the unreThese design issues combined with programming errors stricted token.[57]
(e.g. buer overows) and the popularity of Windows
means that it is a frequent target of computer worm and
virus writers. In June 2005, Bruce Schneier's Counter- 28.5.1 File permissions
pane Internet Security reported that it had seen over 1,000
new viruses and worms in the previous six months.[52] All Windows versions from Windows NT 3 have been
In 2005, Kaspersky Lab found around 11,000 malicious based on a le system permission system referred to as
programsviruses, Trojans, back-doors, and exploits AGLP (Accounts, Global, Local, Permissions) AGDLP
which in essence where le permissions are applied to the
written for Windows.[53]
le/folder in the form of a 'local group' which then has
Microsoft releases security patches through its Windows
other 'global groups as members. These global groups
Update service approximately once a month (usually the
then hold other groups or users depending on diersecond Tuesday of the month), although critical updates
ent Windows versions used. This system varies from
are made available at shorter intervals when necessary.[54]
other vendor products such as Linux and NetWare due
In versions of Windows after and including Windows
to the 'static' allocation of permission being applied di2000 SP3 and Windows XP, updates can be automatically
rectory to the le or folder. However using this prodownloaded and installed if the user selects to do so. As
cess of AGLP/AGDLP/AGUDLP allows a small numa result, Service Pack 2 for Windows XP, as well as Serber of static permissions to be applied and allows for easy
vice Pack 1 for Windows Server 2003, were installed by
changes to the account groups without reapplying the le
users more quickly than it otherwise might have been.[55]
permissions on the les and folders.
While the Windows 9x series oered the option of having
proles for multiple users, they had no concept of access
privileges, and did not allow concurrent access; and so 28.5.2 Windows Defender
were not true multi-user operating systems. In addition,
they implemented only partial memory protection. They On January 6, 2005, Microsoft released a Beta version
of Microsoft AntiSpyware, based upon the previously rewere accordingly widely criticised for lack of security.
leased Giant AntiSpyware. On February 14, 2006, MiThe Windows NT series of operating systems, by con- crosoft AntiSpyware became Windows Defender with
trast, are true multi-user, and implement absolute mem- the release of Beta 2. Windows Defender is a freeware
ory protection. However, a lot of the advantages of being program designed to protect against spyware and other
a true multi-user operating system were nullied by the unwanted software. Windows XP and Windows Server
fact that, prior to Windows Vista, the rst user account 2003 users who have genuine copies of Microsoft Wincreated during the setup process was an administrator dows can freely download the program from Microsofts
account, which was also the default for new accounts. web site, and Windows Defender ships as part of WinThough Windows XP did have limited accounts, the ma- dows Vista and 7.[58] In Windows 8, Windows Defender
jority of home users did not change to an account type and Microsoft Security Essentials have been combined
with fewer rights partially due to the number of pro- into a single program, named Windows Defender. It is
grams which unnecessarily required administrator rights based on Microsoft Security Essentials, borrowing its fea and so most home users ran as administrator all the tures and user interface. Although it is enabled by default,
time.
it can be turned o to use another anti-virus solution.[59]
[56]
Windows Vista changes this by introducing a privilege Windows Malicious Software Removal Tool and the opelevation system called User Account Control. When log- tional Microsoft Safety Scanner are two other free secuging in as a standard user, a logon session is created and rity products oered by Microsoft.

28.7. SEE ALSO

28.5.3

Third-party analysis

In an article based on a report by Symantec,[60] internetnews.com has described Microsoft Windows as having
the fewest number of patches and the shortest average
patch development time of the ve operating systems it
monitored in the last six months of 2006.[61]
A study conducted by Kevin Mitnick and marketing communications rm Avantgarde in 2004 found that an unprotected and unpatched Windows XP system with Service Pack 1 lasted only 4 minutes on the Internet before
it was compromised, and an unprotected and also unpatched Windows Server 2003 system was compromised
after being connected to the internet for 8 hours.[62] This
study does not apply to Windows XP systems running
the Service Pack 2 update (released in late 2004), which
vastly improved the security of Windows XP. The computer that was running Windows XP Service Pack 2 was
not compromised. The AOL National Cyber Security Alliance Online Safety Study of October 2004 determined
that 80% of Windows users were infected by at least one
spyware/adware product. Much documentation is available describing how to increase the security of Microsoft
Windows products. Typical suggestions include deploying Microsoft Windows behind a hardware or software
rewall, running anti-virus and anti-spyware software,
and installing patches as they become available through
Windows Update.[63]

28.6 Alternative implementations

Owing to the operating systems popularity, a number
of applications have been released that aim to provide
compatibility with Windows applications, either as a
compatibility layer for another operating system, or as a
standalone system that can run software written for Windows out of the box. These include:
Wine a free and open-source implementation of
the Windows API, allowing one to run many Windows applications on x86-based platforms, including UNIX, Linux and OS X. Wine developers refer
to it as a compatibility layer[64] and use Windowsstyle APIs to emulate Windows environment.
CrossOver a Wine package with licensed
fonts. Its developers are regular contributors
to Wine, and focus on Wine running ocially
supported applications.
Cedega proprietary fork of Wine by
TransGaming Technologies, designed specifically for running Microsoft Windows games
on Linux. A version of Cedega known as
Cider allows Windows games to run on OS
X. Since Wine was licensed under the LGPL,
Cedega has been unable to port the improve-

257
ments made to Wine to their proprietary codebase. Cedega ceased its service in February
2011.
Darwine a port of Wine for OS X and
Darwin.
Operates by running Wine on
QEMU.
Linux Unied Kernel A set of patches to
the Linux kernel allowing rst-class Windows
executable les in Linux (using Wine DLLs)
to use Windows drivers and be faster than interpreted Wine.
ReactOS an open-source OS intended to run the
same software as Windows, originally designed to
simulate Windows NT 4.0, now aiming at Windows
7 compatibility. It has been in the development stage
since 1996.
Linspire formerly LindowsOS, a commercial
Linux distribution initially created with the goal
of running major Windows software. Changed its
name to Linspire after Microsoft v. Lindows. Discontinued in favor of Xandros Desktop.
Freedows OS an open-source attempt at creating a Windows clone for x86 platforms, intended to
be released under the GNU General Public License.
Started in 1996 by Reece K. Sellin, the project was
never completed, getting only to the stage of design
discussions which featured a number of novel concepts until it was suspended in 2002.[65][66][67]

28.7 See also

Architecture of Windows NT
Wintel
De facto standard
Dominant design

28.8 References
[1] Lesson 2 - Windows NT System Overview. Microsoft
TechNet. Microsoft. Retrieved November 25, 2014.
[2] Popa, Bogdan (24 August 2013). Windows 8.1 Build
9600 Compiled, RTM Still on Its Way. Softpedia. SoftNews. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
[3] Hachman, Mark (23 January 2015). Windows 10 preview download is available now. PCWorld. IDG. Retrieved 24 January 2015.
[4] Listing of available Windows 7 language packs.
Msdn.microsoft.com. Retrieved April 5, 2014.

258

CHAPTER 28. MICROSOFT WINDOWS

[5] App packages and deployment (Windows Store apps)

(Windows)". Msdn.microsoft.com. Retrieved April 5,
2014.

[27] A Look at Freestyle and Mira. Paul Thurrotts SuperSite for Windows. Penton. September 3, 2002. Retrieved
January 3, 2011.

[6] The Unusual History of Microsoft Windows. Retrieved

April 22, 2007.

[28] Windows XP Professional Lifecycle Support. Retrieved

January 3, 2011.

[7] RTOS: Embedded Real Time Operating Systems. microsoft.com. Microsoft. Retrieved 7 November 2014.

[29] Mike Nash (October 28, 2008). Windows 7 Unveiled

Today at PDC 2008. Windows Team Blog. Microsoft.
Retrieved November 11, 2008.

[8] The 25 Worst Tech Products of All Time. PC World.

IDG. Retrieved February 10, 2012.
[9] A history of Windows (at microsoft.com)
[10] The Apple vs. Microsoft GUI Lawsuit. 2006. Retrieved
March 12, 2008.
[11] Apple Computer, Inc. v. MicroSoft Corp., 35 F.3d 1435
(9th Cir. 1994)". Retrieved March 12, 2008.
[12] Windows Evolution. Soft32.com News.
[13] Chronology of Personal Computer Software.

[31] Case, Loyd. Test Driving Windows 8 RTM. PC World.

IDG. Retrieved September 9, 2012.
[32] Roso, Matt. Heres Everything You Wanted To Know
About Microsofts Upcoming iPad Killers. Business Insider. Retrieved February 10, 2012.
[33] Announcing the Windows 8 Editions. Microsoft. April
16, 2012. Retrieved April 17, 2012.

[14] Microsoft Company.

[15] Windows 3.1 Standard Edition Support Lifecycle. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[16] Windows 95 turns 15: Has Microsofts OS peaked?".
CNET/CNN Tech. August 25, 2010. Archived from the
original on August 26, 2010. Retrieved August 22, 2012.
[17] Microsoft Internet Explorer Web Browser Available on
All Major Platforms, Oers Broadest International Support (Press release). Microsoft. April 30, 1996. Retrieved February 14, 2011.
[18] Windows 95 Support Lifecycle. Microsoft. Retrieved
January 3, 2011.
[19] Windows 98 Standard Edition Support Lifecycle. Microsoft. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[20] Improving Cold Boot Time for System Manufacturers. Microsoft. December 4, 2001. Retrieved August
26, 2010.
[21] Windows Millennium Edition: All About Me.
World. Retrieved May 21, 2013.

[30] Brandon LeBlanc (October 28, 2008). How Libraries

& HomeGroup Work Together in Windows 7. Windows
Team Blog. Microsoft. Retrieved November 11, 2008.

PC

[22] Custer, Helen (1993). Inside Windows NT. Redmond:

Microsoft Press. ISBN 1-55615-481-X.
[23] Thurrott, Paul (January 24, 2003). Windows Server
2003: The Road To Gold - Part One: The Early Years.
Archived from the original on January 1, 2005. Retrieved
May 28, 2012.
[24] Windows XP review. CNET. Retrieved May 24, 2013.

[34] Building Windows for the ARM processor architecture.

Microsoft. Retrieved November 21, 2012.
[35] Microsoft talks Windows Store features, Metro app sandboxing for Windows 8 developers. The Verge. Vox Media. Retrieved September 8, 2012.
[36] Miller, Michael. Build: More Details On Building Windows 8 Metro Apps. PC Magazine. Retrieved February
10, 2012.
[37] Windows 8.1 now available!. Blogs.windows.com. Retrieved on October 31, 2013.
[38] Announcing Windows 10 - Windows Blog. September
30, 2014. Retrieved September 30, 2014.
[39] AnandTech | The Xbox One - Mini Review & Comparison
to Xbox 360/PS4
[40] Xbox One: Hardware and software specs detailed and
analyzed - Three operating systems in one. ExtremeTech. Retrieved 2013-12-01.
[41] Microsoft Support Lifecycle. Microsoft.
[42] Microsoft Delivers New Wave of Technologies to Help
Businesses Thrive in Todays Economy (Press release).
Microsoft. May 11, 2009. Retrieved May 22, 2009.
[43] Operating System Market Share. Net Market Share. Net
Applications. December 2014. Retrieved 2 January 2015.
[44] StatCounter Global Stats. Global Stats. StatCounter.
December 2014. Retrieved 2 January 2015.

[25] David Coursey (October 25, 2001). The 10 top things

you MUST know about Win XP. ZDNet. Retrieved July
22, 2008.

[45] Global Web Stats. W3Counter. Awio Web Services.

December 2014. Retrieved 2 January 2015.

[26] David Coursey (August 31, 2001). Your top Windows

XP questions answered! (Part One)". ZDNet. CNET Networks. Archived from the original on December 19, 2007.
Retrieved January 3, 2011.

[46] Gartner Says Tablet Sales Continue to Be Slow in 2015:

Tablet Sales to Reach 8 Percent Growth in 2015 While PC
Market to Grow 1 Percent. January 5, 2015. Retrieved
January 23, 2014.

28.9. EXTERNAL LINKS

259

[47] Gartner Says Sales of Tablets Will Represent Less Than

10 Percent of All Devices in 2014: Smartphones to Represent 71 Percent of the Global Mobile Phone Market in
2014: Android Device Shipments to Reach One Billion
in Emerging Markets in 2015 (Press release). Gartner.
October 15, 2014. Retrieved October 19, 2014.

[64] Wine. Winehq.org. Retrieved April 5, 2014.

[50] Multi-user memory protection was not introduced until

Windows NT and XP, and a computers default user was
an administrator until Windows Vista. Source: UACBlog.

28.9 External links

[65] A Students Dream of Creating A New Operating System Encounters Problems. The Chronicle of Higher Education. September 18, 1998. Retrieved May 17, 2013.

[66] Older blog entries for chipx86. Advogato.org. Advogato. June 27, 2002. Retrieved May 17, 2013.
[48] http://techcrunch.com/2014/10/15/
tablet-sales-growth-plummets-in-2014-as-android-smartphones-continue-to-soar-gartner
[67] Freedows splits. Slashdot. Dice Holdings. August 31,
1998. Retrieved May 17, 2013.
[49] http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=
prUS25187214

[51] Telephones and Internet Users by Country, 1990 and

2005. Information Please Database. Retrieved June 9,
2009.
[52] Bruce Schneier (June 15, 2005). Crypto-Gram Newsletter. Counterpane Internet Security, Inc. Retrieved April
22, 2007.
[53] Andy Patrizio (April 27, 2006). Linux Malware On The
Rise. InternetNews. QuinStreet. Retrieved January 3,
2011.
[54] Ryan Naraine (June 8, 2005). Microsofts Security Response Center: How Little Patches Are Made. eWeek.
Zi Davis Enterprise. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[55] John Foley (October 20, 2004). Windows XP SP2
Distribution Surpasses 100 Million. InformationWeek.
UBM TechWeb. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[56] Microsoft describes in detail the steps taken to combat this
in a TechNet bulletin. Source: Windows Vista Security
and Data Protection Improvements.
[57] Kenny Kerr (September 29, 2006). Windows Vista for
Developers Part 4 User Account Control. Retrieved
March 15, 2007.
[58] Windows Vista: Security & Safety. Microsoft. Retrieved April 16, 2012.
[59] Microsoft Answers: How do I keep Windows 8 Consumer Preview secure from malware?". Microsoft. Retrieved April 16, 2012.
[60] Symantec Internet Security Threat Report Trends for
July December 2006 (PDF). Internet Security Threat
Report Volume XI. Symantec. March 2007. Retrieved
January 3, 2011.
[61] Andy Patrizio (March 21, 2007). Report Says Windows
Gets The Fastest Repairs. InternetNews. QuinStreet. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[62] Automated Bots Overtake PCs Without Firewalls
Within 4 Minutes. Avantgarde. Avantgarde. November
30, 2004. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[63] Richard Rogers (September 21, 2009). 5 Steps To Securing Your Windows XP Home Computer. Computer
Security News. Computer Security News. Retrieved January 3, 2011.

Ocial website
Ocial blog
Microsoft Developer Network
Windows Client Developer Resources
Microsoft Windows History Timeline
Pearson Education, InformIT History of Microsoft
Windows
Microsoft Windows 7 for Government

Chapter 29

Linux
This article is about the operating system. For the A distribution oriented toward desktop use will typically
kernel, see Linux kernel. For other uses, see Linux include X11, Wayland or Mir as the windowing sys(disambiguation).
tem, and an accompanying desktop environment such as
GNOME or the KDE Software Compilation. Some such
Linux ( i /lnks/ LIN-uks[5][6] or, less frequently distributions may include a less resource intensive deskused, /lanks/ LYN-uks)[6][7] is a Unix-like and mostly top such as LXDE or Xfce, for use on older or less powerPOSIX-compliant[8] computer operating system assem- ful computers. A distribution intended to run as a server
bled under the model of free and open-source software may omit all graphical environments from the standard
development and distribution. The dening component install, and instead include other software to set up and
of Linux is the Linux kernel,[9] an operating system kernel operate a solution stack such as LAMP. Because Linux
rst released on 5 October 1991 by Linus Torvalds.[10][11] is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution
The Free Software Foundation uses the name GNU/Linux for any intended use.
to describe the operating system, which has led to some
controversy.[12][13]
Linux was originally developed as a free operating system
for Intel x86based personal computers, but has since
been ported to more computer hardware platforms than
any other operating system. It is the leading operating system on servers and other big iron systems such
as mainframe computers and supercomputers,[14][15][16]
but is used on only around 1% of desktop computers.[17]
Linux also runs on embedded systems, which are devices whose operating system is typically built into the
rmware and is highly tailored to the system; this includes
mobile phones,[18] tablet computers, network routers, facility automation controls, televisions[19][20] and video
game consoles. Android, the most widely used operating system for tablets and smartphones, is built on top of
the Linux kernel.[21]

29.1 History
Main article: History of Linux

29.1.1 Antecedents

The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 at AT&T's Bell Laboratories in
the United States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie,
Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna.[22] It was rst released in 1971, initially written entirely in assembly language as a common practice at the time. Later, in a key
pioneering approach in 1973, Unix was re-written in the
programming language C by Dennis Ritchie (with excepThe development of Linux is one of the most prominent
tions to the kernel and I/O). The availability of an operatexamples of free and open-source software collaboraing system written in a high-level language allowed easier
tion. The underlying source code may be used, modied,
portability to dierent computer platforms.
and distributedcommercially or non-commercially
by anyone under licenses such as the GNU General Public With AT&T being required to license the operating sysLicense. Typically, Linux is packaged in a form known tems source code to anyone who asked (due to an earas a Linux distribution, for both desktop and server use. lier antitrust case forbidding them from entering the comSome popular mainstream Linux distributions include puter business),[23] Unix grew quickly and became widely
Debian, Ubuntu, Linux Mint, Fedora, openSUSE, Arch adopted by academic institutions and businesses. In
Linux, and the commercial Red Hat Enterprise Linux and 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs. Free of the
SUSE Linux Enterprise Server. Linux distributions in- legal obligation requiring free licensing, Bell Labs began
clude the Linux kernel, supporting utilities and libraries selling Unix as a proprietary product.
and usually a large amount of application software to ful- The GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman,
ll the distributions intended use.
had the goal of creating a complete Unix-compatible
software system composed entirely of free software.
260

29.1. HISTORY

261
kernel.
Torvalds began the development of the Linux kernel on
MINIX and applications written for MINIX were also
used on Linux. Later, Linux matured and further Linux
kernel development took place on Linux systems.[29]
GNU applications also replaced all MINIX components,
because it was advantageous to use the freely available
code from the GNU Project with the edgling operating system; code licensed under the GNU GPL can be
reused in other projects as long as they also are released
under the same or a compatible license. Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license, which prohibited commercial redistribution, to the GNU GPL.[30] Developers worked to integrate GNU components with the
Linux kernel, making a fully functional and free operating
system.[25]

29.1.3 Naming

Linus Torvalds, principal author of the Linux kernel

Work began in 1984.[24] Later, in 1985, Stallman started

the Free Software Foundation and wrote the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL) in 1989. By the early
1990s, many of the programs required in an operating
system (such as libraries, compilers, text editors, a Unix
shell, and a windowing system) were completed, although
low-level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and
the kernel were stalled and incomplete.[25]
Linus Torvalds has said that if the GNU kernel had been
available at the time (1991), he would not have decided
to write his own.[26]
Although not released until 1992 due to legal complications, development of 386BSD, from which NetBSD,
OpenBSD and FreeBSD descended, predated that of
Linux. Linus Torvalds has said that if 386BSD had been
available at the time, he probably would not have created
Linux.[27]

5.25-inch oppy discs holding a very early version of Linux

Linus Torvalds had wanted to call his invention Freax, a

portmanteau of free, freak, and x (as an allusion
to Unix). During the start of his work on the system, he
stored the les under the name Freax for about half of a
MINIX, initially released in 1987, is an inexpensive min- year. Torvalds had already considered the name Linux,
imal Unix-like operating system, designed for education but initially dismissed it as too egotistical.[31]
in computer science, written by Andrew S. Tanenbaum.
Starting with version 3 in 2005, MINIX became free and In order to facilitate development, the les were uploaded
to the FTP server (ftp.funet.) of FUNET in September
was redesigned for use in embedded systems.
1991. Ari Lemmke, Torvalds coworker at the Helsinki
University of Technology (HUT) who was one of the
volunteer administrators for the FTP server at the time,
29.1.2 Creation
did not think that Freax was a good name. So, he
Linux on the server without consultIn 1991, while attending the University of Helsinki, Tor- named the project
[31]
Later,
however, Torvalds consented to
ing
Torvalds.
[28]
and
valds became curious about operating systems
Linux.
frustrated by the licensing of MINIX, which limited it to
educational use only. He began to work on his own oper- To demonstrate how the word Linux should be proating system kernel, which eventually became the Linux nounced ( i /lnks/ LIN-uks[5][6] ), Torvalds included an

262

CHAPTER 29. LINUX

audio guide ( listen ) with the kernel source code.[32]

Another variant of pronunciation is /lanks/ LYNuks.[6][7]

29.1.4

Commercial and popular uptake

Ubuntu, a popular Linux distribution

Main article: Linux adoption

Today, Linux systems are used in every domain, from
embedded systems to supercomputers,[16][33] and have
secured a place in server installations often using the
popular LAMP application stack.[34] Use of Linux distributions in home and enterprise desktops has been
growing.[35][36][37][38][39][40][41] Linux distributions have
also become popular in the netbook market, with many
devices shipping with customized Linux distributions installed, and Google releasing their own Google Chrome
OS designed for netbooks.
Linuxs greatest success in the consumer market is perhaps the mobile device market, with Android being one
of the most prominent OSes among smartphones, tablets The Galaxy Nexus running Android
and recently wearable technology. Linux gaming is also
on the rise with Valve showing its support for Linux and
rolling out its own gaming oriented Linux distribution. 29.2 Design
Linux distributions have also gained popularity with various local and national governments, such as the federal
A Linux-based system is a modular Unix-like operating
government of Brazil.
system. It derives much of its basic design from principles
established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Such a
system uses a monolithic kernel, the Linux kernel, which
29.1.5 Current development
handles process control, networking, and peripheral and
le system access. Device drivers are either integrated
Torvalds continues to direct the development of directly with the kernel or added as modules loaded while
the kernel.[42] Stallman heads the Free Software the system is running.[45]
Foundation,[43] which in turn supports the GNU Separate projects that interface with the kernel provide
components.[44] Finally, individuals and corporations much of the systems higher-level functionality. The
develop third-party non-GNU components. These third- GNU userland is an important part of most Linux-based
party components comprise a vast body of work and may systems, providing the most common implementation of
include both kernel modules and user applications and the C library, a popular CLI shell, and many of the comlibraries.
mon Unix tools which carry out many basic operating sysLinux vendors and communities combine and distribute
the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in
the form of Linux distributions.

tem tasks. The graphical user interface (or GUI) used by

most Linux systems is built on top of an implementation
of the X Window System.[46] More recently, the Linux
community seeks to advance to Wayland as the new dis-

29.2. DESIGN

263

play server protocol in place of X11; Ubuntu, however,

develops Mir instead of Wayland.[47]
Installed components of a Linux system include the
following:[46][48]
A bootloader, for example GNU GRUB, LILO,
SYSLINUX, Coreboot or Gummiboot. This is a
program that loads the Linux kernel into the computers main memory, by being executed by the
computer when it is turned on and after the rmware
initialization is performed.
An init program, such as the traditional sysvinit and
the newer systemd, OpenRC and Upstart. This is the
rst process launched by the Linux kernel, and is at
the root of the process tree: in other terms, all processes are launched through init. It starts processes
such as system services and login prompts (whether
graphical or in terminal mode).
Software libraries, which contain code that can be
used by running processes. On Linux systems using ELF-format executable les, the dynamic linker
that manages use of dynamic libraries is known as
ld-linux.so. If the system is set up for the user to
compile software themselves, header les will also
be included to describe the interface of installed libraries. Beside the most commonly used software library on Linux systems, the GNU C Library (glibc),
there are numerous other libraries.

Bash, a shell developed by GNU[49] and widely used in Linux

For desktop systems, the default mode is usually a graphical user interface, although the CLI is available through
terminal emulator windows or on a separate virtual console.
CLI shells are the text-based user interfaces, which use
text for both input and output. The dominant shell used in
Linux is the GNU Bourne-Again Shell (bash), originally
developed for the GNU project. Most low-level Linux
components, including various parts of the userland, use
the CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for
automation of repetitive or delayed tasks, and provides
very simple inter-process communication.

C standard library is the library needed to run

standard C programs on a computer system,
with the GNU C Library being the most commonly used. Several alternatives are available,
such as the EGLIBC (which was used by Debian for some time) and uClibc (which was de- On desktop systems, the most popular user interfaces
are the GUI shells, packaged together with extensive
signed for uClinux).
desktop environments, such as the K Desktop Envi Widget toolkits are the libraries used to build
ronment (KDE), GNOME, Cinnamon, Unity, LXDE,
graphical user interfaces (GUIs) for software
Pantheon and Xfce, though a variety of additional user inapplications. Numerous widget toolkits are
terfaces exist. Most popular user interfaces are based on
available, including GTK+ and Clutter (softthe X Window System, often simply called X. It proware) developed by the GNOME project,
vides network transparency and permits a graphical appliQt developed by the Qt Project and led
cation running on one system to be displayed on another
by Digia, and Enlightenment Foundation Liwhere a user may interact with the application; however,
braries (EFL) developed primarily by the
certain extensions of the X Window System are not caEnlightenment team.
pable of working over the network.[50] Several popular X
User interface programs such as command shells or display servers exist, with the reference implementation,
X.Org Server, being the most popular.
windowing environments.
Dierent window managers variants exist for X11,
including the tiling, dynamic, stacking and compositing
29.2.1 User interface
ones. Simpler X window managers, such as FVWM,
Enlightenment, and Window Maker, provide a
The user interface, also known as the shell, is either a minimalist functionality with respect to the desktop
command-line interface (CLI), a graphical user inter- environments. A window manager provides a means
face (GUI), or through controls attached to the associ- to control the placement and appearance of individual
ated hardware, which is common for embedded systems. application windows, and interacts with the X Window

264

CHAPTER 29. LINUX

System. The desktop environments include window

managers as part of their standard installations (Mutter
for GNOME, KWin for KDE, Xfwm for xfce) although
users may choose to use a dierent window manager if
preferred.

Main articles: Linux distribution and Free software

The primary dierence between Linux and many other
popular contemporary operating systems is that the Linux
kernel and other components are free and open-source
software. Linux is not the only such operating system,
although it is by far the most widely used.[54] Some free
and open-source software licenses are based on the principle of copyleft, a kind of reciprocity: any work derived
from a copyleft piece of software must also be copyleft
itself. The most common free software license, the GNU
General Public License (GPL), is a form of copyleft, and
is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components
from the GNU Project.

Wayland is a display server protocol intended as a replacement for the aged X11 protocol; as of 2014, Wayland has not received wider adoption. Unlike X11, Wayland does not need an external window manager and
compositing manager. Therefore, a Wayland compositor takes the role of the display server, window manager
and compositing manager. Weston is the reference implementation of Wayland, while GNOMEs Mutter and
KDEs KWin are being ported to Wayland as standalone
display servers instead of merely compositing window Linux based distributions are intended by developers
managers. Enlightenment has already been successfully for interoperability with other operating systems and esported to Wayland since version 19.
tablished computing standards. Linux systems adhere
to POSIX,[55] SUS,[56] LSB, ISO, and ANSI standards
where possible, although to date only one Linux distribu29.2.2 Video input infrastructure
tion has been POSIX.1 certied, Linux-FT.[57][58]
Free software projects, although developed through
collaboration, are often produced independently of each
other. The fact that the software licenses explicitly permit
Linux currently has two modern kernel-userspace APIs redistribution, however, provides a basis for larger scale
for handing video input devices: V4L2 API for video projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone
streams and radio, and DVB API for digital TV projects and make it available all at once in the form of a
reception.[51]
Linux distribution.
Due to the complexity and diversity of dierent devices, Many Linux distributions, or distros, manage a remote
and due to the large amount of formats and standards han- collection of system software and application software
dled by those APIs, this infrastructure needs to evolve to packages available for download and installation through
better t other devices. Also, a good userspace device a network connection. This allows users to adapt the oplibrary is the key of the success for having userspace ap- erating system to their specic needs. Distributions are
plications to be able to work with all formats supported maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer
by those devices.[52][53]
organizations, and commercial entities. A distribution is
responsible for the default conguration of the installed
Linux kernel, general system security, and more generally integration of the dierent software packages into
29.3 Development
a coherent whole. Distributions typically use a package
manager such as dpkg, Synaptic, YAST, yum, or Portage
to install, remove and update all of a systems software
from one central location.
Main article: Video4Linux

1970

1980

1990

2000

9.1

NetBSD

BSD family

6.0.1
OpenBSD

BSD (Berkeley Software Distribution)

Bill Joy

SunOS

Time

2010

FreeBSD

5.3

4.4

29.3.1 Community

4.1.4
Darwin
NextStep 3.3

Mac OS X

Xenix OS

10.8.4

Apple

Microsoft/SCO

GNU/Hurd K16

GNU
Richard Stallman
Minix

GNU/Linux

3.10.9

Linus Torvalds

3.2.1

Andrew S. Tanenbaum
Research UNIX
Bell Labs: Ken Thompson,
Dennis Ritchie, et al.

10.5
Commercial UNIX

UnixWare
Univel/SCO

AT&T

Solaris
Sun Microsystems

System III & V family

See also: Free software community and Linux User

Group

11 11/11
11i v3

HP-UX

7.1 TL1

AIX
IBM
IRIX

6.5.30

SGI

Simplied history of Unix-like operating systems. Linux shares

similar architecture and concepts (as part of the POSIX standard)
but does not share non-free source code with the original Unix or
MINIX.

A distribution is largely driven by its developer and user

communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis, Debian being a wellknown example. Others maintain a community version
of their commercial distributions, as Red Hat does with
Fedora and SUSE does with openSUSE.
In many cities and regions, local associations known as
Linux User Groups (LUGs) seek to promote their pre-

29.4. USES

265

ferred distribution and by extension free software. They

hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation
to new users. Many Internet communities also provide
support to Linux users and developers. Most distributions and free software / open-source projects have
IRC chatrooms or newsgroups. Online forums are another means for support, with notable examples being
LinuxQuestions.org and the various distribution specic
support and community forums, such as ones for Ubuntu,
Fedora, and Gentoo. Linux distributions host mailing
lists; commonly there will be a specic topic such as usage or development for a given list.

ing both Linux applications and operating system programs are found within the GNU toolchain, which includes the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) and the
GNU build system. Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for Ada, C, C++, Go and Fortran. Many programming languages have a cross-platform reference implementation that supports Linux, for example PHP, Perl,
Ruby, Python, Java, Go, Rust and Haskell. First released in 2003, the LLVM project provides an alternative cross-platform open-source compiler for many languages. Proprietary compilers for Linux include the Intel
C++ Compiler, Sun Studio, and IBM XL C/C++ Compiler. BASIC in the form of Visual Basic is supported
There are several technology websites with a Linux in such forms as Gambas, FreeBASIC, and XBasic, and
QuickBASIC or
focus.
Print magazines on Linux often include in terms of terminal programming or
Turbo
BASIC
programming
in
the
form
of QB64.
cover disks including software or even complete Linux
[59][60]
distributions.
A common feature of Unix-like systems, Linux includes
Although Linux distributions are generally available with- traditional specic-purpose programming languages tarout charge, several large corporations sell, support, and geted at scripting, text processing and system conguracontribute to the development of the components of the tion and management in general. Linux distributions supsystem and of free software. An analysis of the Linux ker- port shell scripts, awk, sed and make. Many programs
nel showed 75 percent of the code from December 2008 also have an embedded programming language to support
to January 2010 was developed by programmers working conguring or programming themselves. For example,
for corporations, leaving about 18 percent to volunteers regular expressions are supported in programs like grep,
and 7% unclassied.[61] Major corporations that provide or locate, while advanced text editors, like GNU Emacs,
contributions include Dell, IBM, HP, Oracle, Sun Mi- have a complete Lisp interpreter built-in.
crosystems (now part of Oracle), SUSE, and Nokia. A
number of corporations, notably Red Hat, Canonical, and
SUSE, have built a signicant business around Linux distributions.

Most distributions also include support for PHP, Perl,

Ruby, Python and other dynamic languages. While not as
common, Linux also supports C# (via Mono), Vala, and
Scheme. A number of Java Virtual Machines and development
kits run on Linux, including the original Sun MiThe free software licenses, on which the various softcrosystems
JVM (HotSpot), and IBMs J2SE RE, as well
ware packages of a distribution built on the Linux kernel
as
many
open-source
projects like Kae and JikesRVM.
are based, explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship between a Linux distri- GNOME and KDE are popular desktop environments
bution as a whole and individual vendors may be seen and provide a framework for developing applications.
as symbiotic. One common business model of com- These projects are based on the GTK+ and Qt widget
mercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for toolkits, respectively, which can also be used indepenbusiness users. A number of companies also oer a dently of the larger framework. Both support a wide vaspecialized business version of their distribution, which riety of languages. There are a number of Integrated
adds proprietary support packages and tools to adminis- development environments available including Anjuta,
ter higher numbers of installations or to simplify admin- Code::Blocks, CodeLite, Eclipse, Geany, ActiveState
istrative tasks.
Komodo, KDevelop, Lazarus, MonoDevelop, NetBeans,
editors Vim,
Another business model is to give away the software in and Qt Creator, while the long-established
[62]
nano
and
Emacs
remain
popular.
order to sell hardware. This used to be the norm in the
computer industry, with operating systems such as CP/M,
Apple DOS and versions of Mac OS prior to 7.6 freely
copyable (but not modiable). As computer hardware 29.4 Uses
standardized throughout the 1980s, it became more dicult for hardware manufacturers to prot from this tactic,
See also: Linux range of use
as the OS would run on any manufacturers computer that
shared the same architecture.
As well as those designed for general purpose use on
desktops and servers, distributions may be specialized for
dierent purposes including: computer architecture sup29.3.2 Programming on Linux
port, embedded systems, stability, security, localization
Most Linux distributions support dozens of programming to a specic region or language, targeting of specic user
languages. The original development tools used for build- groups, support for real-time applications, or commit-

266

CHAPTER 29. LINUX

Hardware

Web server solution stacks (LAMP)

Linux kernel

Distributed computing

Keyboard & Mouse

Distributed Computing

Real-time computing
(RTC)

Desktop Computer

also Braille, Touch-Display, Speech recognition,

Graphics tablet, 3D-Mouse, Wii nunchak, etc.

Workstation
Home Computer
Desktop replacement laptop
Thin client

Touch-Display
Attitude sensor, Motion sensor,
Speech recognition

Linux Process Scheduler

Linux Security Modules

Mobile computer

Linux Network scheduler

Note-/ Net-/ Smartbook

Tablet
Smartphone
PDA / Handheld game console

Speech recognition
Attitude sensor
Motion sensor

Network stack
Netlter
Linux device drivers

Wearable Computer

Linux le system drivers

Wristwatch
Virtual Retina Display
Head-mounted display

Display, Sound
Vibration

Embedded Computer
Customer-premises equipment
Measurement Equipment
Laboratory Equipment
Layer3-Switches
other embedded systems

remote
(SSH, HTTP,
Serial, I2C, ...)

Routing daemons

Software Development
Package management systems

High-performance computing
(HPC)

CAD, CAM & CAE Software

Oce
Image Processing
Desktop Publishing (DTP)

Windowing Systems

(SSH, HTTP, ...)

Graphical User Interfaces

(Shells)

Supercomputer
Computer Cluster
Mainframe computer

remote

Pool of free and open-source and

proprietary software

Human-MachineInterface

Desktop UI
Touch UI

Wearable UI

Video processing software

3D computer graphics
Computer animation
Motion graphics

Digital Audio Workstation

DJ Mixing Software
Video games
Home cinema solutions

The popularity of Linux on standard desktop computers

and laptops has been increasing over the years.[65] Currently most distributions include a graphical user environment, with the two most popular environments being
GNOME (which can utilize additional shells such as the
default GNOME Shell and Ubuntu Unity), and the KDE
Plasma Desktop.

No single ocial Linux desktop exists: rather desktop environments and Linux distributions select compoLinux is ubiquitously found on various types of hardware.
nents from a pool of free and open-source software with
which they construct a GUI implementing some more or
less strict design guide. GNOME, for example, has its
ment to a given desktop environment. Furthermore, some human interface guidelines as a design guide, which gives
distributions deliberately include only free software. Cur- the humanmachine interface an important role, not just
rently, over three hundred distributions are actively devel- when doing the graphical design, but also when considoped, with about a dozen distributions being most popular ering people with disabilities, and even when focusing on
for general-purpose use.[63]
security.[66]
Linux is a widely ported operating system kernel. The The collaborative nature of free software development alLinux kernel runs on a highly diverse range of computer lows distributed teams to perform language localization
architectures: in the hand-held ARM-based iPAQ and of some Linux distributions for use in locales where localthe mainframe IBM System z9, System z10; in devices izing proprietary systems would not be cost-eective. For
ranging from mobile phones to supercomputers.[64] Spe- example the Sinhalese language version of the Knoppix
cialized distributions exist for less mainstream architec- distribution became available signicantly before Mitures. The ELKS kernel fork can run on Intel 8086 or crosoft translated Windows XP into Sinhalese. In this
Intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors, while the Clinux case the Lanka Linux User Group played a major part in
kernel fork may run on systems without a memory man- developing the localized system by combining the knowlagement unit. The kernel also runs on architectures that edge of university professors, linguists, and local develwere only ever intended to use a manufacturer-created op- opers.
erating system, such as Macintosh computers (with both
PowerPC and Intel processors), PDAs, video game consoles, portable music players, and mobile phones. See Performance and applications
List of Linux supported architectures.
There are several industry associations and hardware The performance of Linux on the desktop has been a
conferences devoted to maintaining and improving controversial topic; for example in 2007 Con Kolivas acsupport for diverse hardware under Linux, such as cused the Linux community of favoring performance on
servers. He quit Linux kernel development out of frusFreedomHEC.
tration with this lack of focus on the desktop, and then
gave a tell all interview on the topic.[67] Since then a
signicant amount of development has focused on im29.4.1 Desktop
proving the desktop experience. Projects such as Upstart
and systemd aim for a faster boot time; the Wayland and
Mir projects aim at replacing X11 while enhancing deskGTK+
top performance, security and appearance.[68]
EFL
Qt
SDL
Debian software archives: 37,000
software packages

Plasma 2

Enlight. DR19

Cinnamon

Cairo-Dock

GNOME Shell

2D Application

Media Application

3D Application

possibly adaptations to Wayland/Mir

possibly adaptations to Wayland/Mir

possibly adaptations to Wayland/Mir

User Interface Toolkits (in the form of libraries):

Pango
ATK
Clutter
Cairo (Xr)

libwayland-client

Widgets for
Unity and Plasma

Ubuntu

libwayland-client

GNUstep
wxWidgets
FLTK
...

libwayland-client

Android

Unity

Desktop widgets

Desktop Shells:

libwayland-client
libX/libXCB

libwayland / COGL

Many popular applications are available for a wide variety of operating systems. For example Mozilla Firefox,
OpenOce.org/LibreOce and Blender have downloadLinux kernel,
able versions for all major operating systems. FurtherLinux kernel
CPU & GPU
more, some applications initially developed for Linux,
Hardware
such as Pidgin, and GIMP, were ported to other operating
Visible software components of the Linux desktop stack in- systems (including Windows and Mac OS X) due to their
clude the display server, widget engines, and some of the more popularity. In addition, a growing number of proprietary
[69]
such
widespread widget toolkits. There are also components not di- desktop applications are also supported on Linux,
as Autodesk Maya, Softimage XSI and Apple Shake in
rectly visible to end users, including D-Bus and PulseAudio.
the high-end eld of animation and visual eects; see the
See also: Desktop environment and Linux adoption: List of proprietary software for Linux for more details.
Measuring desktop adoption
There are also several companies that have ported their
kms (Kernel Mode Setting)
drm (Direct Rendering Manager)

? kdbus ?

unetwork

NetworkManager

packagekitd

GLib

GObject
Glib
GModule
GThread
GIO

Alternative display servers:

PulseAudio-d

libinput

evdev

glibc
Clibc

systemd

libwayland-server

Wayland Compositor

(contains udev)

weston, clayton, mutter, KWin

udisks

System daemons:

avahi-daemon

System libraries:

D-Bus-Daemon

Display server:

kmod-fs-ext4

libxserver

X-Server

window
manager

X.Org
Xfree86
X-Win32
X11.app

metacity
mutter
KWin
Compiz

netlter

device drivers & other modules

radeon nouveau lima etna_viv freedreno tegra-re

Keyboard & Mouse

Touch-Screen
BrailleDisplay

cache coherent L2-Caches

main memory

ALSA: emu20k1, ctx, hda... kmod-ltq-atm-vr9

ath9k

UMTS/CDMA/LTE
GPS-receiver
G-sensor

libmir-serv

mir
mir

SF

window
manager

SurfaceFlinger

Compiz

SELinux
TOMOYO
Smack
AppArmor

Ethernet
802.11-(abc)
Bluetooth

libhybris

window
manager
AWM

libbionic

binder ashmem pmem

wakelocks logger ...

(Android-forked)

29.4. USES
own or other companies games to Linux, with Linux also
being a supported platform on both the popular Steam
and Desura digital-distribution services.[70]

267
Cinnamon
Common Desktop Environment (CDE)

Enlightenment
Many other types of applications available for Microsoft
Windows and Mac OS X also run on Linux. Commonly,
GNOME Shell (GNOME 3)
either a free software application will exist which does the
functions of an application found on another operating
KDE Plasma (KDE 4)
system, or that application will have a version that works
LXDE
on Linux, such as with Skype and some video games like
Dota 2 and Team Fortress 2. Furthermore, the Wine
MATE (GNOME 2)
project provides a Windows compatibility layer to run
unmodied Windows applications on Linux. It is spon Pantheon
sored by commercial interests including CodeWeavers,
Sugar
which produces a commercial version of the software.
Since 2009, Google has also provided funding to the
Trinity (KDE 3)
Wine project.[71][72] CrossOver, a proprietary solution
based on the open-source Wine project, supports run Unity
ning Windows versions of Microsoft Oce, Intuit appli Xfce
cations such as Quicken and QuickBooks, Adobe Photoshop versions through CS2, and many popular games such
as World of Warcraft. In other cases, where there is no
Linux port of some software in areas such as desktop pub- 29.4.2 Netbooks
lishing[73] and professional audio,[74][75][76] there is equivLinux distributions have also become popular in the
alent software available on Linux.
netbook market, with many devices such as the ASUS
Eee PC and Acer Aspire One shipping with customized
Linux distributions installed.[77]
Components and installation
Besides externally visible components, such as X window
managers, a non-obvious but quite central role is played
by the programs hosted by freedesktop.org, such as DBus or PulseAudio; both major desktop environments
(GNOME and KDE) include them, each oering graphical front-ends written using the corresponding toolkit
(GTK+ or Qt). A display server is another component,
which for the longest time has been communicating in
the X11 display server protocol with its clients; prominent software talking X11 includes the X.Org Server and
Xlib. Frustration over the cumbersome X11 core protocol, and especially over its numerous extensions, has led
to the creation of a new display server protocol, Wayland.
Installing, updating and removing software in Linux is
typically done through the use of package managers such
as the Synaptic Package Manager, PackageKit, and Yum
Extender. While most major Linux distributions have extensive repositories, often containing tens of thousands
of packages, not all the software that can run on Linux
is available from the ocial repositories. Alternatively,
users can install packages from unocial repositories,
download pre-compiled packages directly from websites,
or compile the source code by themselves. All these
methods come with dierent degrees of diculty; compiling the source code is in general considered a challenging process for new Linux users, but it is hardly needed
in modern distributions and is not a method specic to
Linux.
Samples of graphical desktop environments

In 2009, Google announced its Google Chrome OS, a

minimal Linux based operating system which application
consists only of the Google Chrome browser, a le manager and a media player.[78] The netbooks that shipped
with the operating system, termed Chromebooks, started
appearing in the market in June 2011.[79]

29.4.3 Servers, mainframes and supercomputers

Web cache

Linux kernel

Squid
Polipo
Trac server

AppArmor
SELinux
Smack
TOMOYO

Process Scheduler

Web server
Apache
Cherokee
Lighttpd
Nginx

CGI scripting
Perl
PHP
Python

Database
MariaDB
MySQL
Drizzle

Netlter

Environment: CCC

Hardware
CPU
&
RAM

Crackers
Botnets for DDoS-attacks
cracking attempts
...

Attacks
stave o

Network scheduler
NIC
device
driver
kmod-fs-ext4
kmod-fs-btrfs
Lustre
...

Competitors

&
Requests

Linux network stack

compete for customers

serve

Networking
hardware

Internet
Responses

Customers

low latency

Storage
SATA
SAS
RAID
iSCSI
NAS

want attendance

Botnets
DDoS-Attacks

Broad overview of the LAMP software bundle, displayed here

together with Squid. A high-performance and high-availability
web server solution providing security in a hostile environment.

Linux distributions have long been used as server operating systems, and have risen to prominence in that area;
Netcraft reported in September 2006, that eight of the ten
most reliable internet hosting companies ran Linux distributions on their web servers.[80] Since June 2008, Linux

268

CHAPTER 29. LINUX

distributions represented ve of the top ten, FreeBSD

three of ten, and Microsoft two of ten;[81] since February 2010, Linux distributions represented six of the top
ten, FreeBSD two of ten, and Microsoft one of ten.[82]

Mozillas Firefox OS consists of the Linux kernel, a

hardware abstraction layer, a web standards based runtime environment and user interface, and an integrated
web browser.[93]

Linux distributions are the cornerstone of the

LAMP server-software combination (Linux, Apache,
MariaDB/MySQL, Perl/PHP/Python) which has
achieved popularity among developers, and which is one
of the more common platforms for website hosting.[83]

Canonical has released Ubuntu Touch, its own mobile OS

that aims to bring convergence to the user experience on
the OS and its desktop counterpart, Ubuntu. The OS also
provides a full Ubuntu desktop when connected to an external monitor.[94]

Linux distributions have become increasingly popular on

mainframes in the last decade partly due to pricing and
29.4.5 Embedded devices
the open-source model.[16] In December 2009, computer
giant IBM reported that it would predominantly market
See also: Embedded Linux and Linux devices
and sell mainframe-based Enterprise Linux Server.[84]
Due to its low cost and ease of customization, Linux
Linux distributions are also commonly used as operating
systems for supercomputers; in the decade since Earth
Simulator supercomputer, all the fastest supercomputers
have used Linux. As of November 2014, 97% of the
worlds 500 fastest supercomputers run some variant of
Linux,[85] including the top 80.[86]

29.4.4

Smart devices

Several OSes for smart devices, e.g. smartphones, tablet

computers, smart TVs, and in-vehicle infotainment (IVI)
systems, are Linux-based. The three major platforms are
mer, Tizen, and Android.
The Jolla Phone has the Linux based Sailsh OS
Android has become the dominant mobile operating system for smartphones, during the second quarter of 2013,
79.3% of smartphones sold worldwide used Android.[87]
Android is also a popular OS for tablets, and Android
smart TVs and in-vehicle infotainment systems have also
appeared in the market.
Cell phones and PDAs running Linux on open-source
platforms became more common from 2007; examples
include the Nokia N810, Openmoko's Neo1973, and the
Motorola ROKR E8. Continuing the trend, Palm (later
acquired by HP) produced a new Linux-derived operating
system, webOS, which is built into its new line of Palm
Pre smartphones.
Nokia's Maemo, one of the earliest mobile OSes, was
based on Debian.[88] It was later merged with Intel's
Moblin, another Linux-based OS, to form MeeGo.[89]
The project was later terminated in favor of Tizen, an
operating system targeted at mobile devices as well as invehicle infotainment (IVI). Tizen is a project within The
Linux Foundation. Several Samsung products are already
running Tizen, Samsung Gear 2 being the most signicant example.[90] Samsung Z smartphones will use Tizen
instead of Android.[91]

In-car entertainment system of the Tesla Model S is based on

Ubuntu[95]

is often used in embedded systems. In the nonmobile telecommunications equipment sector, the majority of customer-premises equipment (CPE) hardware
runs some Linux-based operating system. OpenWrt is
a community driven example upon which many of the
As a result of MeeGos termination, the Mer project OEM rmwares are based.
forked the MeeGo codebase to create a basis for mobile- For example, the popular TiVo digital video recorder
oriented OSes.[92] In July 2012, Jolla announced Sailsh also uses a customized Linux,[98] as do several network
OS, their own mobile OS built upon Mer technology.
rewalls and routers from such makers as Cisco/Linksys.

29.4. USES

269
sion of Steam, a popular game distribution platform on
PC.[101] Many Steam games were ported to Linux.[102]
On 13 December 2013, Valve released SteamOS, a gaming oriented OS based on Debian, for beta testing, and
has plans to ship Steam Machines as a gaming and
entertainment platform.[103] Valve has also developed
VOGL, an OpenGL debugger intended to aid video game
development,[104] as well as porting its Source game engine to desktop Linux.[105] As a result of Valves eort,
several prominent games such as DotA 2, Team Fortress
2, Portal, Portal 2 and Left 4 Dead 2 are now natively
available on desktop Linux.
On 31 July 2013, Nvidia released Shield as an attempt to
use Android as a specialized gaming platform.[106]

29.4.7 Specialized uses

After decades of animosity between Microsoft and the Linux

community,[96] the Nokia X is Microsofts rst product which uses
the Linux kernel.[97]

The Korg OASYS, the Korg KRONOS, the Yamaha

Motif XS/Motif XF music workstations,[99] Yamaha
S90XS/S70XS, Yamaha MOX6/MOX8 synthesizers,
Yamaha Motif-Rack XS tone generator module, and
Roland RD-700GX digital piano also run Linux. Linux
is also used in stage lighting control systems, such as the
WholeHogIII console.[100]

29.4.6

Gaming

Due to the exibility, customizability and free and opensource nature of Linux, it becomes possible to highly tune
Linux for a specic purpose. There are two main methods for creating a specialized Linux distribution: building
from scratch or from a general-purpose distribution as a
base. The distributions often used for this purpose include Debian, Fedora, Ubuntu (which is itself based on
Debian), Arch Linux, Gentoo, and Slackware. In contrast, Linux distributions built from scratch do not have
general-purpose bases; instead, they focus on the JeOS
philosophy by including only necessary components and
avoiding resource overhead caused by components considered redundant in the distributions use cases.

Home theater PC
A home theater PC (HTPC) is a PC that is mainly used as
an entertainment system, especially a Home theater system. It is normally connected to a television, and often
an additional audio system.
OpenELEC, a Linux distribution that incorporates the
media center software Kodi, is an OS tuned specically
for an HTPC. Having been built from the ground up adhering to the JeOS principle, the OS is very lightweight
and very suitable for the conned usage range of an
HTPC.

Main article: Linux gaming

There are also special editions of Linux distributions

that include the MythTV media center software, such as
There had been several games that run on traditional Mythbuntu, a special edition of Ubuntu.
desktop Linux, and many of which originally written for
desktop OS. However, due to most game developers not
paying attention to such a small market as desktop Linux, Digital security
only a few prominent games have been available for desktop Linux. On the other hand, as a popular mobile plat- Kali Linux is a Debian-based Linux distribution designed
form, Android has gained much developer interest and for digital forensics and penetration testing. It comes prethere are many games available for Android.
installed with several software applications for penetraOn 14 February 2013, Valve released a Linux ver- tion testing and identifying security exploits.[107]

270

CHAPTER 29. LINUX

System rescue

29.5 Market share and uptake

Linux Live CD sessions have long been used as a tool

for recovering data from a broken computer system and
for repairing the system. Building upon that idea, several Linux distributions tailored for this purpose have
emerged, most of which use GParted as a partition editor,
with additional data recovery and system repair software:

Main article: Linux adoption

See also: Usage share of operating systems

Many quantitative studies of free/open-source software

focus on topics including market share and reliability,
with numerous studies specically examining Linux.[111]
The Linux market is growing rapidly, and the revenue of
Linux
GParted Live a Debian-based distribution devel- servers, desktops, and packaged software running
[112]
was
expected
to
exceed
$35.7
billion
by
2008.
Anoped by the GParted project.
alysts and proponents attribute the relative success of
Linux to its security, reliability, low cost, and freedom
Parted Magic a commercial Linux distribution.
from vendor lock-in.[113][114]

SystemRescueCD a Gentoo-based distribution Desktops and laptops According to web server statistics, as of December 2014, the estimated market
with support for editing Windows registry.
share of Linux on desktop computers is 1.25%.
In comparison, Microsoft Windows has a market
share of around 91%, while Mac OS covers around
In space
7%.[17]
SpaceX uses multiple redundant ight computers in a Web servers IDC's Q1 2007 report indicated that Linux
fault-tolerant design in the Falcon 9 rocket. Each Merlin
held 12.7% of the overall server market at that
engine is controlled by three voting computers, with two
time.[115] This estimate was based on the number of
physical processors per computer that constantly check
Linux servers sold by various companies, and did
each others operation. Linux is not inherently faultnot include server hardware purchased separately
tolerant (no operating system is, as it is a function of the
which had Linux installed on it later. In Septemwhole system including the hardware), but the ight comber 2008 Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer stated that
puter software makes it so for its purpose.[108] For ex60% of Web servers ran Linux versus 40% that ran
ibility, commercial o-the-shelf parts and system-wide
Windows Server.[116]
radiation-tolerant design are used instead of radiation
hardened parts.[108] As of September 2014, SpaceX has Mobile devices Android, which is based on the Linux
made 13 launches of the Falcon 9 since 2010, and all
kernel, has become the dominant operating system
13 have successfully delivered their primary payloads to
for smartphones. During the second quarter of
Earth orbit, including some missions meant for to the
2013, 79.3% of smartphones sold worldwide used
International Space Station.
Android.[87] Android is also a popular operating system for tablets, being responsible for more than 60%
In addition, Windows was used as an operating system
of tablet sales as of 2013.[117] According to web
on non-mission critical systemslaptops used on board
server statistics, as of December 2014 Android has a
the space station, for examplebut it has been replaced
market share of about 46%, with iOS holding 45%,
with Linux; the rst Linux-powered humanoid robot is
[109]
and the remaining 9% attributed to various niche
also undergoing in-ight testing.
platforms.[118]
The Jet Propulsion Laboratory has used Linux for a number of years to help with projects relating to the construction of unmanned space ight and deep space explo- Film production For years Linux has been the platform of choice in the lm industry. The rst
ration"; NASA uses Linux in robotics in the Mars rover,
major lm produced on Linux servers was 1997s
[110]
and Ubuntu Linux to save data from satellites.
Titanic.[119][120] Since then major studios including DreamWorks Animation, Pixar, Weta Digital,
and Industrial Light & Magic have migrated to
Teaching
Linux.[121][122][123] According to the Linux Movies
Group, more than 95% of the servers and desktops
at large animation and visual eects companies use
Linux distributions have been created to provide handsLinux.[124]
on experience with coding and source code to students,
on devices such as the Raspberry Pi. In addition to producing a practical device, the intention is to show students Use in government Linux distributions have also
gained popularity with various local and national
how things work under the hood.

29.6. COPYRIGHT, TRADEMARK, AND NAMING

governments. The federal government of Brazil
is well known for its support for Linux.[125][126]
News of the Russian military creating its own
Linux distribution has also surfaced, and has come
to fruition as the G.H.ost Project.[127] The Indian
state of Kerala has gone to the extent of mandating
that all state high schools run Linux on their
computers.[128][129] China uses Linux exclusively
as the operating system for its Loongson processor
family to achieve technology independence.[130]
In Spain, some regions have developed their own
Linux distributions, which are widely used in
education and ocial institutions, like gnuLinEx in
Extremadura and Guadalinex in Andalusia. France
and Germany have also taken steps toward the
adoption of Linux.[131]

271
In a later study, the same analysis was performed
for Debian version 4.0 (etch, which was released in
2007).[138] This distribution contained close to 283 million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it
would have required about seventy three thousand manyears and cost US$8.16 billion (in 2015 dollars) to develop by conventional means.

29.6 Copyright, trademark, and

naming
See also: GNU/Linux naming controversy and SCOLinux controversies

The name Linux is also used for a laundry detergent made by

Swiss company Rsch.

In the United States, the name Linux is a trademark registered to Linus Torvalds.[4] Initially, nobody registered
it, but on 15 August 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr.
led for the trademark Linux, and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some
aected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and, in 1997, the case was settled.[139]
The licensing of the trademark has since been handled
by the Linux Mark Institute. Torvalds has stated that he
trademarked the name only to prevent someone else from
using it. LMI originally charged a nominal sublicensing
fee for use of the Linux name as part of trademarks,[140]
but later changed this in favor of oering a free, perpetual
Torvalds states that the Linux kernel will not move from
[141]
[133][134]
version 2 of the GPL to version 3.
He specically worldwide sublicense.
dislikes some provisions in the new license which prohibit The Free Software Foundation prefers GNU/Linux as the
the use of the software in digital rights management.[135] name when referring to the operating system as a whole,
It would also be impractical to obtain permission from all because it considers Linux to be a variant of the GNU
the copyright holders, who number in the thousands.[136] operating system, initiated in 1983 by Richard Stallman,
[13][12]
A 2001 study of Red Hat Linux 7.1 found that this distri- president of the Free Software Foundation.
Linux kernel is licensed under the GNU General Public
License (GPL), version 2. The GPL requires that anyone who distributes software based on source code under
this license, must make the originating source code (and
any modications) available to the recipient under the
same terms.[132] Other key components of a typical Linux
distribution are also mainly licensed under the GPL, but
they may use other licenses; many libraries use the GNU
Lesser General Public License (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the X.org implementation of
the X Window System uses the MIT License.

bution contained 30 million source lines of code.[137] Using the Constructive Cost Model, the study estimated that
this distribution required about eight thousand man-years
of development time. According to the study, if all this
software had been developed by conventional proprietary
means, it would have cost about $1.48 billion (2015 US
dollars) to develop in the United States.[137] Most of the
source code (71%) was written in the C programming
language, but many other languages were used, including C++, Lisp, assembly language, Perl, Python, Fortran,
and various shell scripting languages. Slightly over half of
all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Linux
kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the
total.[137]

A minority of public gures and software projects other

than Stallman and the Free Software Foundation, notably
Debian (which had been sponsored by the Free Software
Foundation up to 1996[142] ), also use GNU/Linux when
referring to the operating system as a whole.[98][143][144]
Most media and common usage, however, refers to this
family of operating systems simply as Linux, as do many
large Linux distributions (for example, SUSE Linux and
Red Hat). As of May 2011, about 8% to 13% of a modern Linux distribution is made of GNU components (the
range depending on whether GNOME is considered part
of GNU), as determined by counting lines of source code
making up Ubuntus Natty release; meanwhile, about
9% is taken by the Linux kernel.[145]

272

29.7 See also

Comparison of Linux distributions
Comparison of open source and closed source
Comparison of operating systems
Comparison of X Window System desktop environments
Criticism of Linux
Linux Documentation Project
Linux Foundation
List of Linux distributions
List of games released on Linux
List of operating systems
Linus Torvalds Possible NSA approach
Usage share of operating systems

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[116] Niccolai, James (September 2008). Ballmer Still Searching for an Answer to Google. Retrieved June 4, 2009.
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[119] Strauss, Daryll. Linux Helps Bring Titanic to Life. Re[141] Linux Mark Institute. Retrieved February 24, 2008.
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276

29.9 External links

Linux at DMOZ
Graphical map of GNU/Linux OS Internals
Linux kernel website and archives
Linux.org
The History of Linux in GIT Repository Format
19922010
A list of free Linux distributions, provided by the
Free Software Foundation

CHAPTER 29. LINUX

Chapter 30

MS-DOS
This article is about Microsofts MS-DOS. For other
compatible operating systems of the DOS family, see
DOS.
MS-DOS (/msds/ EM-es-DOSS; short for Microsoft
Disk Operating System) is an operating system for
x86-based personal computers mostly developed by
Microsoft. It was the most commonly used member
of the DOS family of operating systems, and was the
main operating system for IBM PC compatible personal
computers during the 1980s to the mid-1990s, when it
was gradually superseded by operating systems oering
a graphical user interface (GUI), in various generations
of the Microsoft Windows operating system.

30.1 History
Further information: DOS and Timeline of DOS operating systems
MS-DOS was a renamed form of 86-DOS [9] owned
by Seattle Computer Products, written by Tim Paterson. Development of 86-DOS took only six weeks, as
it was basically a clone of Digital Research's CP/M (for
8080/Z80 processors), ported to run on 8086 processors
and with two notable dierences compared to CP/M, an
improved disk sector buering logic and the introduction of FAT12 instead of the CP/M lesystem. This rst
version was shipped in August 1980.[5] Microsoft, which
needed an operating system for the then-new Intel 8086
but had none available, hired Tim Paterson in May 1981
and bought 86-DOS 1.10 for $75,000 in July of the same
year. Microsoft kept the version number, but renamed
it MS-DOS. They also licensed MS-DOS 1.10/1.14 to
IBM, who, in August 1981, oered it as PC DOS 1.0
as one of three operating systems[10] for the IBM 5150,
or the IBM PC.[5]

MS-DOS resulted from a request in 1981 by IBM for

an operating system to use in its IBM PC range of personal computers. Microsoft quickly bought the rights to
86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products,[7] and began
work on modifying it to meet IBMs specication. IBM
licensed and released it in August 1981 as PC DOS 1.0
for use in their PCs. Although MS-DOS and PC DOS
were initially developed in parallel by Microsoft and IBM,
in subsequent years the two products went their separate
Within a year Microsoft licensed MS-DOS to over 70
ways.
other companies.[11] It was designed to be an OS that
During its life, several competing products were released could run on any 8086-family computer. Each computer
for the x86 platform,[8] and MS-DOS went through eight would have its own distinct hardware and its own verversions, until development ceased in 2000. Initially MS- sion of MS-DOS, similar to the situation that existed for
DOS was targeted at Intel 8086 processors running on CP/M, and with MS-DOS emulating the same solution
computer hardware using oppy disks to store and access as CP/M to adapt for dierent hardware platforms. To
not only the operating system, but application software this end, MS-DOS was designed with a modular strucand user data as well. Progressive version releases deliv- ture with internal device drivers, minimally for primary
ered support for other mass storage media in ever greater disk drives and the console, integrated with the kernel and
sizes and formats, along with added feature support for loaded by the boot loader, and installable device drivers
newer processors and rapidly evolving computer archi- for other devices loaded and integrated at boot time. The
tectures. Ultimately it was the key product in Microsofts OEM would use a development kit provided by Microsoft
growth from a programming languages company to a di- to build a version of MS-DOS with their basic I/O drivers
verse software development rm, providing the company and a standard Microsoft kernel, which they would typwith essential revenue and marketing resources. It was ically supply on disk to end users along with the hardalso the underlying basic operating system on which early ware. Thus, there were many dierent versions of MSversions of Windows ran as a GUI. It is a exible operat- DOS for dierent hardware, and there is a major dising system, and consumes negligible installation space.
tinction between an IBM-compatible (or ISA) machine
and an MS-DOS [compatible] machine. Some machines,
like the Tandy 2000, were MS-DOS compatible but not
IBM-compatible, so they could only run software writ277

278

CHAPTER 30. MS-DOS

ten exclusively for MS-DOS without dependence on the

peripheral hardware of the IBM PC architecture.

30.2 Versions

This design would have worked well for compatibility, if

application programs had only used MS-DOS services to
perform device I/O, and indeed the same design philosophy is embodied in Windows NT (see Hardware Abstraction Layer). However, in MS-DOSs early days, the
greater speed attainable by programs through direct control of hardware was of particular importance, especially
for games, which often pushed the limits of their contemporary hardware. Very soon an IBM-compatible architecture became the goal, and before long all 8086-family
computers closely emulated IBMs hardware, and only a
single version of MS-DOS for a xed hardware platform
was needed for the market. This version is the version of
MS-DOS that is discussed here, as the dozens of other
OEM versions of MS-DOS were only relevant to the
systems they were designed for, and in any case were very
similar in function and capability to the same-numbered
standard version for the IBM PC, with a few notable exceptions.

Main articles: Comparison of DOS operating systems

and Timeline of DOS operating systems

While MS-DOS appeared on PC clones, true IBM computers used PC DOS, a rebranded form of MS-DOS.
Ironically, the dependence on IBM-compatible hardware
caused major problems for the computer industry when
the original design had to be changed. For example, the
original design could support no more than 640 kilobytes
of memory (the 640 KB barrier), because IBMs hardware design reserved the address space above this limit
for peripheral devices and ROM. Manufacturers had to
develop complicated schemes (EMS and XMS, and other
minor proprietary ones) to access additional memory.
This limitation would not have been a problem if the
original idea of interfacing with hardware through MSDOS had endured. (However, MS-DOS was also a real
mode operating system, and the Intel x86 architecture
only supports up to 1 MB of memory address space in
Real Mode, so for simple access to megabytes of memory, MS-DOS would have had to be rewritten to run in
80286 or 80386 Protected Mode.) Also, Microsoft originally described MS-DOS as an operating system for Intel 8086-based microcomputers, and the 8086 CPU (and
its cousin the 8088) itself has only 1 MB of total memory
address space.
On 25 March 2014, Microsoft made the code to SCP
MS-DOS 1.25 and a mixture of Altos MS-DOS 2.11
and TeleVideo PC DOS 2.11 available to the public under the Microsoft Research License Agreement, which
makes the code source-available, but not open source as
dened by Open Source Initiative or Free Software Foundation standards.[2][3][4][12]

Microsoft licensed or released versions of MS-DOS under dierent names like Lifeboat Associates Software
Bus 86[13] aka SB-DOS,[8] COMPAQ-DOS,[13] NCRDOS or Z-DOS[8] before it eventually enforced the MSDOS name for all versions but the IBM one, which was
originally called IBM Personal Computer DOS, later
shortened to IBM PC DOS. (Competitors released compatible DOS systems such as DR DOS and PTS-DOS that
could also run DOS applications.)
The following versions of MS-DOS were released to the
public:[14][15]
MS-DOS 1.x
Version 1.10 (OEM) possible basis for IBMs
Personal Computer DOS 1.0
Version 1.11 (OEM) possible basis for IBMs
Personal Computer DOS 1.0
Version 1.14 (OEM) possible basis for IBMs
Personal Computer DOS 1.0
Version 1.24 (OEM) basis for IBMs Personal Computer DOS 1.1
Version 1.25 (OEM) basis for non-IBM
OEM versions of MS-DOS, including SCP
MS-DOS 1.25
Compaq-DOS 1.12, a Compaq OEM version of MS-DOS
(1.25 or higher)
Zenith Z-DOS 1.19, a Zenith
OEM version of MS-DOS
(1.25 or higher)[16]
MS-DOS 2.x Support for 10 MB hard disk drives
and tree-structure ling system
Version 2.0 (OEM)
Version 2.1 (OEM)
Version 2.11 (OEM)
Altos MS-DOS 2.11, an Altos OEM version of MS-DOS 2.11 for the ACT-86C
TeleVideo PC DOS 2.11, an TeleVideo
OEM version of MS-DOS 2.11
MS-DOS 3.x
Version 3.0 (OEM) Support for FAT16.
First version to support 5.25 inch, 1.2 MB
oppy drives and diskettes.
Version 3.1 (OEM) Support for Microsoft
Networks

30.3. COMPETITION

279

Version 3.11 (OEM) - First version to support

3.5 inch, 720 kB oppy drives and diskettes.

Version 6.21 (Retail) Stacker-infringing

DBLSPACE removed.

Version 3.2 (OEM) - First version to support

3.5 inch, 720 kB oppy drives and diskettes.

Version 6.22 (Retail) New DRVSPACE

compression.[21]

Version 3.21 (OEM)

Version 3.22 (OEM) - (HP 95LX)
Version 3.25 (OEM)
Version 3.3 (OEM) - First version to support
3.5 inch, 1.44 MB oppy drives and diskettes.
Version 3.3a (OEM)
Version 3.31 (OEM) Compaq MS-DOS
3.31 supports FAT16B and larger drives.[17]
MS-DOS 4.0 (multitasking) and MS-DOS 4.1 A separate branch of development with additional
multitasking features, released between 3.2 and 3.3,
and later abandoned. It is unrelated to any later versions, including versions 4.00 and 4.01 listed below
MS-DOS 4.x (IBM-developed) includes a graphical/mouse interface. It had many bugs and compatibility issues.[18]
Version 4.00 (OEM)
Version 4.01 (OEM) IBM patched Version
4.00 before Microsoft released it. First version
to introduce volume serial number when formatting hard disks and oppy disks (Disk duplication also[19] and when using SYS to make
a oppy disk or a partition of a hard drive
bootable).[20]
Version 4.01a (OEM)
MS-DOS 5.x

MS-DOS 7.x
Version 7.0 (Windows 95, Windows 95A)
Support for VFAT long le names and 32-bits
signed integer errorlevel. New editor. JO.SYS
is an alternative lename of the IO.SYS kernel
le and used as such for special purposes.
JO.SYS allows booting from either CD-ROM
drive or hard disk. Last version to recognize
only the rst 8.4 GB of a hard disk.
Version 7.1 (Windows 95B Windows 98SE)
Support for FAT32 le system. Last general
purpose DOS to load Windows.
MS-DOS 8.0
Version 8.0 (Windows ME) Integrated
drivers for faster Windows loading. Four different kernels (IO.SYS) observed.[22]
Version 8.0 (Windows XP) DOS boot disks
created by XP and later contain les from
Windows ME. The internal command prompt
still reports version 5.0
Microsoft DOS was released through the OEM channel,
until DRI released DR DOS 5.0 as a retail upgrade. With
PC DOS 5.00.1, the IBM-Microsoft agreement started to
end, and IBM entered the retail DOS market with IBM
DOS 5.00.1, 5.02, 6.00 and PC DOS 6.1, 6.3, 7, 2000
and 7.1.

Localized versions of MS-DOS existed for dierent

markets.[23] While Western issues of MS-DOS evolved
around the same set of tools and drivers just with localized message languages and diering sets of supported
codepages and keyboard layouts, some language versions
were considerably dierent from Western issues and were
AST Premium Exec DOS 5.0 (OEM) - a adapted to run on localized PC hardware with additional
version for the AST Premium Exec series BIOS services not available in Western PCs, support mulof notebooks with various extensions, in- tiple hardware codepages for displays and printers, supcluding improved load-high and extended port DBCS, alternative input methods and graphics output. Aected issues include Japanese (DOS/V), Korean,
codepage support
Arabic (ADOS 3.3/5.0), Hebrew (HDOS 3.3/5.0), Rus Version 5.0a (Retail) With this release, IBM sian (RDOS 4.01/5.0) as well as some other Eastern Euand Microsoft versions diverge.
ropean versions of DOS.
Version 5.0.500 (WinNT) All Windows NT
32-bit versions ship with les from DOS 5.0
Version 5.0 (Retail) includes a full-screen
editor. A number of bugs required re issue.
First version to support 3.5 inch, 2.88 MB
oppy drives and diskettes. First version to
support partition of hard drives up to 2 GiB.

MS-DOS 6.x

30.3 Competition

Version 6.0 (Retail) Online help through On microcomputers based on the Intel 8086 and 8088
QBASIC. Disk compression, upper memory processors, including the IBM PC and clones, the inioptimization and antivirus included.
tial competition to the PC DOS/MS-DOS line came from
Version 6.2 Scandisk as replacement for Digital Research, whose CP/M operating system had inCHKDSK. Fix serious bugs in DBLSPACE.
spired MS-DOS. In fact, there remains controversy as

280

CHAPTER 30. MS-DOS

In the emerging world of home users, a variety of other
computers based on various other processors were in serious competition with the IBM PC: the Apple II, early
Apple Macintosh, the Commodore 64 and others did not
use the 808x processor; many 808x machines of dierent architectures used custom versions of MS-DOS. At
rst all these machines were in competition. In time the
IBM PC hardware conguration became dominant in the
808x market as software written to communicate directly
with the PC hardware without using standard operating
system calls ran much faster, but on true PC-compatibles
only. Non-PC-compatible 808x machines were too small
a market to have fast software written for them alone, and
the market remained open only for IBM PCs and machines that closely imitated their architecture, all running
either a single version of MS-DOS compatible only with
PCs, or the equivalent IBM PC DOS. Most clones cost
much less than IBM-branded machines of similar performance, and became widely used by home users, while
IBM PCs had a large share of the business computer market.

Microsoft and IBM together began what was intended as

the follow-on to MS-DOS/PC DOS, called OS/2. When
OS/2 was released in 1987, Microsoft began an advertising campaign announcing that DOS is Dead and stating
The original MS-DOS advertisement in 1981.
that version 4 was the last full release. OS/2 was designed
for ecient multi-tasking an IBM speciality derived
from deep experience with mainframe operating systems
to whether QDOS was more or less plagiarised from and oered a number of advanced features that had
early versions of CP/M code. Digital Research released been designed together with similar look and feel; it was
CP/M-86 a few months after MS-DOS, and it was of- seen as the legitimate heir to the kludgy DOS platform.
fered as an alternative to MS-DOS and Microsofts licens- MS-DOS had grown in spurts, with many signicant feaing requirements, but at a higher price. Executable pro- tures being taken or duplicated from Microsofts other
grams for CP/M-86 and MS-DOS were not interchange- products and operating systems. MS-DOS also grew by
able with each other; many applications were sold in both incorporating, by direct licensing or feature duplicating,
MS-DOS and CP/M-86 versions until MS-DOS became the functionality of tools and utilities developed by inpreponderant (later Digital Research operating systems dependent companies, such as Norton Utilities, PC Tools
could run both MS-DOS and CP/M-86 software). MS- (Microsoft Anti-Virus), QEMM expanded memory manDOS originally supported the simple .COM, which was ager, Stacker disk compression, and others.
modelled after a similar but binary incompatible format
During the period when Digital Research was competknown from CP/M-80. CP/M-86 instead supported a reing in the operating system market some computers, like
locatable format using the le extension .CMD to avoid
Amstrad PC1512, were sold with oppy disks for two
name conicts with CP/M-80 and MS-DOS .COM les.
operating systems (only one of which could be used at a
MS-DOS version 2.0 added a more advanced relocatable
time), MS-DOS and CP/M-86 or a derivative of it. Dig.EXE executable le format.
ital Research produced DOS Plus, which was compatiMost of the machines in the early days of MS-DOS had ble with MS-DOS 2.11, supported CP/M-86 programs,
diering system architectures and there was a certain de- had additional features including multi-tasking, and could
gree of incompatibility, and subsequently vendor lock- read and write disks in CP/M and MS-DOS format.
in. Users who began using MS-DOS with their machines
While OS/2 was under protracted development, Digital
were compelled to continue using the version customized
Research released the MS-DOS compatible DR DOS 5.0,
for their hardware, or face trying to get all of their propriwhich included features only available as third-party addetary hardware and software to work with the new system.
ons for MS-DOS. Unwilling to lose any portion of the
In the business world the 808x-based machines that MS- market, Microsoft responded by announcing the pendDOS was tied to faced competition from the Unix operat- ing release of MS-DOS 5.0 in May 1990. This efing system which ran on many dierent hardware archi- fectively killed most DR DOS sales until the actual retectures. Microsoft itself sold a version of Unix for the lease of MS-DOS 5.0 in June 1991. Digital Research
PC called Xenix.

30.5. USE OF UNDOCUMENTED APIS

281

brought out DR DOS 6.0, which sold well until the pre- of MS-DOS 6.21, which had disk-compression removed.
announcement of MS-DOS 6.0 again stied the sales of Shortly afterwards came version 6.22, with a new version
DR DOS.
of the disk compression system, DriveSpace, which had
Microsoft had been accused of carefully orchestrating a dierent compression algorithm to avoid the infringing
leaks about future versions of MS-DOS in an attempt to code.
create what in the industry is called FUD (fear, uncertainty, and doubt) regarding DR DOS. For example, in
October 1990, shortly after the release of DR DOS 5.0,
and long before the eventual June 1991 release of MSDOS 5.0, stories on feature enhancements in MS-DOS
started to appear in InfoWorld and PC Week. Brad Silverberg, Vice President of Systems Software at Microsoft
and General Manager of its Windows and MS-DOS Business Unit, wrote a forceful letter to PC Week (November
5, 1990), denying that Microsoft was engaged in FUD
tactics (to serve our customers better, we decided to be
more forthcoming about version 5.0) and denying that
Microsoft copied features from DR DOS:
The feature enhancements of MS-DOS
version 5.0 were decided and development was
begun long before we heard about DR DOS
5.0. There will be some similar features. With
50 million MS-DOS users, it shouldn't be surprising that DRI has heard some of the same requests from customers that we have. (Schulman et al. 1994).[24]
The pact between Microsoft and IBM to promote OS/2
began to fall apart in 1990 when Windows 3.0 became a
marketplace success. Much of Microsofts further contributions to OS/2 also went into creating a third GUI replacement for DOS, Windows NT.
IBM, which had already been developing the next version
of OS/2, carried on development of the platform without
Microsoft and sold it as the alternative to DOS and Windows.

30.4 Legal issues

As a response to Digital Research's DR DOS 6.0, which
bundled SuperStor disk compression, Microsoft opened
negotiations with Stac Electronics, vendor of the most
popular DOS disk compression tool, Stacker. In the due
diligence process, Stac engineers had shown Microsoft
part of the Stacker source code. Stac was unwilling to
meet Microsofts terms for licensing Stacker and withdrew from the negotiations. Microsoft chose to license
Vertisofts DoubleDisk, using it as the core for its DoubleSpace disk compression.[25]
MS-DOS 6.0 and 6.20 were released in 1993, both including the Microsoft DoubleSpace disk compression
utility program. Stac successfully sued Microsoft for
patent infringement regarding the compression algorithm
used in DoubleSpace. This resulted in the 1994 release

Prior to 1995, Microsoft licensed MS-DOS (and Windows) to computer manufacturers under three types of
agreement: per-processor (a fee for each system the company sold), per-system (a fee for each system of a particular model), or per-copy (a fee for each copy of MSDOS installed). The largest manufacturers used the perprocessor arrangement, which had the lowest fee. This
arrangement made it expensive for the large manufacturers to migrate to any other operating system, such as DR
DOS. In 1991, the U.S. government Federal Trade Commission began investigating Microsofts licensing procedures, resulting in a 1994 settlement agreement limiting
Microsoft to per-copy licensing. Digital Research did
not gain by this settlement, and years later its successor
in interest, Caldera, sued Microsoft for damages in the
Caldera v. Microsoft lawsuit. It was believed that the
settlement ran in the order of $150m, but was revealed in
November 2009 with the release of the Settlement Agreement to be $280m.[26]

30.5 Use of undocumented APIs

Microsoft also used a variety of tactics in MS-DOS and
several of their applications and development tools that,
while operating perfectly when running on genuine MSDOS (and PC DOS), would break when run on another
vendors implementation of DOS. Notable examples of
this practice included:
Microsofts QuickPascal released in early 1989 was
the rst MS product that checked for MS-DOS by
modifying the programs Program Segment Prex using undocumented DOS functions, and then
checked whether or not the associated value changed
in a xed position within the DOS data segment (also
undocumented). This check also made it into later
MS products, including Microsoft QuickC v2.5,
Programmers Workbench and Microsoft C v6.0.[24]
The AARD code, a block of code in the Windows
3.1 beta installer. It was XOR encrypted, selfmodifying, and deliberately obfuscated, using various undocumented DOS structures and functions to
determine whether or not Windows really was running on MS-DOS.[24]
Note that the Windows 3.0 beta code only gave
a warning that Windows would not operate
properly on a foreign OS. It did in fact run
just ne on DR DOS 6.0.
Interrupt routines called by Windows to inform MSDOS that Windows is starting/exiting, information

282

CHAPTER 30. MS-DOS

that MS-DOS retained in an IN_WINDOWS ag,
in spite of the fact that MS-DOS and Windows were
supposed to be two separate products.[24]

30.6 End of MS-DOS

30.7 Windows command-line interface

All versions of Microsoft Windows have had an MS-DOS
like command-line interface (CLI). This could run many
DOS and variously Win32, OS/2 1.x and POSIX command line utilities in the same command-line session, allowing piping between commands. The user interface,
and the icon up to Windows 2000, followed the native
MS-DOS interface.
The 16-bit versions of Windows (up to 3.11) ran as a
Graphical User Interface (GUI) on top of MS-DOS. With
Windows 95, 98, 98 SE and ME, the MS-DOS part was
integrated, treating both operating systems as a complete
package. The command line accessed the DOS command line (usually COMMAND.COM), through a Windows module (WINOLDAP.MOD).

As of 2011, MS-DOS is still used in some enterprises to run legacy

applications, such as this US Navy food service management system.

Since the release of Windows 95 up until Windows NT,

it was segregated as a full product used for bootstrapping,
troubleshooting, and backwards-compatibility with old
DOS games and no longer released as a standalone product.
Windows XP contains a copy of the Windows ME boot
disk, stripped down to bootstrap only. This is accessible only by formatting a oppy as an MS-DOS startup
disk. Files like the driver for the CD-ROM support were
deleted from the Windows ME bootdisk and the startup
les (AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS) no longer
had content. This modied disk was the base for creating the MS-DOS image for Windows XP. Some of the
deleted les can be recovered with an undelete tool.[27]
With Windows Vista the les on the startup disk are dated
18 April 2005 but are otherwise unchanged, including the
string MS-DOS Version 8 Copyright 19811999 Microsoft Corp inside COMMAND.COM.

A new line of Windows, (Windows NT), boot through

a kernel whose sole purpose is to load Windows. One
can not run Win32 applications in the loader system in
the manner that OS/2, UNIX or Consumer Windows can
launch character mode sessions.
The command session permits running of various supported command line utilities from Win32, MS-DOS,
OS/2 1.x and POSIX. The emulators for MS-DOS, OS/2
and POSIX use the hosts window in the same way that
Win16 applications use the Win32 explorer. Using the
hosts window allows one to pipe output between emulations.
The MS-DOS emulation is done through the NTVDM
(NT Virtual DOS Machine). This is a modied SoftPC
(a former product similar to VirtualPC), running a modied MS-DOS 5 (NTIO.SYS and NTDOS.SYS). The output is handled by the console DLLs, so that the program
at the prompt (CMD.EXE, 4NT.EXE, TCC.EXE), can
see the output. 64-bit Windows does not have either the
DOS emulation, or the DOS commands (EDIT, DEBUG,
EDLIN), that come with 32-bit Windows.

The DOS version returns 5.00 or 5.50, depending on

which API function is used to determine it. Utilities from
MS-DOS 5.00 run in this emulation without modication. The very early beta programs of NT show MS-DOS
30.00, but programs running in MS-DOS 30.00 would
However the only versions of MS-DOS currently recog- assume that OS/2 was in control.
nized as stand-alone OSs, and supported as such by Microsoft are MS-DOS 6.0 and 6.22, both of which remain The OS/2 emulation is handled through OS2SS.EXE and
available for download via their MSDN, volume license, OS2.EXE, and DOSCALLS.DLL. OS2.EXE is a version
and OEM license partner websites, for customers with of the OS/2 shell (CMD.EXE), which passes commands
down to the OS2SS.EXE, and input-output to the Winvalid login credentials.
dows NT shell. Windows 2000 was the last version of NT
MS-DOS is still used in embedded x86 systems due to to support OS/2. The emulation is OS/2 1.30.
its simple architecture and minimal memory and processor requirements. The command line interpreter of NT- POSIX is emulated through the POSIX shell, but no
based versions of Windows, CMD.EXE, maintains most emulated shell: the commands are handled directly in
of the same commands and some compatibility with DOS CMD.EXE.
batch les.
The Command Prompt is often called the MS-DOS

30.10. SEE ALSO

prompt. In part, this was the ocial name for it in
Windows 9x and early versions of Windows NT (NT
3.5 and earlier), and in part because the SoftPC emulation of DOS redirects output into it. Actually only
COMMAND.COM and other 16bit commands run in a
NTVDM with AUTOEXEC.NT and CONFIG.NT initialisation determined by _default.pif, optionally permitting the use of Win32 console applications and internal
commands with a NTCMDPROMPT directive.
Win32 console applications use CMD.EXE as their command prompt shell. This confusion does not exist under
OS/2 because there are separate DOS and OS/2 prompts,
and running a DOS program under OS/2 will launch a
separate DOS window to run the application.
All versions of Windows for x86-64 and Itanium architectures no longer include the NTVDM and can therefore
no longer natively run MS-DOS or 16-bit Windows applications. There are alternatives in the form of Virtual
machine emulators such as Microsofts own Virtual PC,
as well as VMware, DOSBox, and others.

283
manufactured PC DOS for IBM, PC DOS and MS-DOS
were (to continue the genetic analogy) identical twins
that diverged only in adulthood and eventually became
quite dierent products. Although DR DOS is regarded
as a clone of MS-DOS, the DR DOS versions appeared
months and years before Microsofts products. (For example, MS-DOS 4, released in July 1988, was followed
by DR DOS 5.0 in May 1990. MS-DOS 5.0 came in
April 1991, with DR DOS 6.0 being released the following June. MS-DOS 6.0 did not arrive until April 1993,
with Novell DOS 7, DR DOS' successor, following the
next month.[28] ) What made the dierence in the end was
Microsofts control of the Windows platform and their
programming practices which intentionally made Windows appear as if it ran poorly on competing versions
of DOS.[24] DRI had to release interim releases to circumvent Windows limitations inserted articially,[24] designed specically to provide Microsoft with an unfair
competitive advantage.[24]
PC DOS,
DR DOS / Novell DOS / OpenDOS,

30.8 Legacy compatibility

GNU/DOS / FreeDOS

PTS-DOS,
From 1983 onwards, various companies worked on
ROM-DOS.
graphical user interfaces (GUIs) capable of running on
PC hardware. With DOS being the dominant operat- These products are collectively referred to as DOS. Howing system several companies released alternate shells, ever, MS-DOS can be a generic reference to DOS on
e.g. Microsoft Word for DOS, XTree, and the Norton IBM-PC compatible computers.
Commander. However, this required duplication of effort and did not provide much consistency in interface
design (even between products from the same company). 30.10 See also
Later, in 1985, Microsoft Windows was released as Microsofts rst attempt at providing a consistent user interface (for applications). The early versions of Windows
ran on top of MS-DOS and its clones. At rst Windows
met with little success, but this was also true for most
other companies eorts as well, for example GEM. After
version 3.0 (1990), Windows gained market acceptance.
Windows 9x used the DOS boot process to launch into
protected mode. Basic features related to the le system,
such as long le names, were only available to DOS when
running as a subsystem of Windows. Windows NT runs
independently of DOS but includes NTVDM, a component for simulating a DOS environment for legacy applications.

4DOS designed to replace the default command

interpreter COMMAND.COM
Bad command or le name
Comparison of DOS operating systems
DOSBox
DOSKey, MS-DOS utility
History of Microsoft Windows
List of DOS commands
List of Microsoft Windows versions
List of MS-DOS games
Microsoft Windows

30.9 Related systems

MS-DOS API

Main article: DOS

Tao ExDOS Commercial solution for DOS software on new Windows systems.

Several similar products were produced by other companies. In the case of PC DOS and DR DOS, it is common
but incorrect to call these clones. Given that Microsoft

Timeline of DOS operating systems

Win32 console a text-rendering system akin to
MS-DOS

284

CHAPTER 30. MS-DOS

30.11 References

[16] ultrawindows.nl. ultrawindows.nl. Retrieved 2012-0927.

[1] Paterson, Tim. An Inside Look at MS-DOS. Seattle

Computer Products. Seattle. Archived from the original
on 4 February 2001.
[2] Paterson, Tim (2013-12-19) [1983]. Microsoft DOS
V1.1 and V2.0: /msdos/v11source/MSDOS.ASM.
Computer History Museum, Microsoft.
Retrieved
2014-03-25. (NB. While the publishers claim this would
be MS-DOS 1.1 and 2.0, it actually is SCP MS-DOS 1.25
and a mixture of Altos MS-DOS 2.11 and TeleVideo PC
DOS 2.11.)
[3] Shustek, Len (2014-03-24). Microsoft MS-DOS early
source code. Software Gems: The Computer History
Museum Historical Source Code Series. Retrieved 201403-29. (NB. While the author claims this would be MSDOS 1.1 and 2.0, it actually is SCP MS-DOS 1.25 and a
mixture of Altos MS-DOS 2.11 and TeleVideo PC DOS
2.11.)

[17] Up to 512 MiB only.

[18] Shultz, Greg (2006-11-06). Dinosaur Sightings: Installing MS-DOS 4. TechRepublic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved 2014-03-30.
[19] Only if boot record of source oppy disk contains volume
serial number also.
[20] DOS 4.0: About volume serial number. Faqs.org. Retrieved 2012-09-27.
[21] MS-DOS 6 Technical Reference. Microsoft TechNet.
Retrieved 2014-02-13.
[22] One for the oppy disk, one for a bootable partition of a
hard disk, the other two are not known.
[23] Country. MS-DOS 6 Technical Reference. TechNet.
ANSI.SYS. Retrieved 2014-04-01.

[4] Levin, Roy (2014-03-25). Microsoft makes source code

for MS-DOS and Word for Windows available to public. Ocial Microsoft Blog. Retrieved 2014-03-29. (NB.
While the author claims this would be MS-DOS 1.1 and
2.0, it actually is SCP MS-DOS 1.25 and a mixture of
Altos MS-DOS 2.11 and TeleVideo PC DOS 2.11.)

[24] Schulman, Andrew (1994). Undocumented DOS: A Programmers Guide to Reserved MS-DOS Functions and Data
Structures (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-20163287-X.

[5] MS-DOS: A Brief Introduction. The Linux Information

Project. Retrieved 24 December 2012.

[26] Exhibits to Microsofts Cross Motion for Summary Judgment in Novell WordPerfect Case. Groklaw. 2009-1123. Retrieved 2011-10-22.

[6] Obsolete Products Life-Cycle Policy. Microsoft. July

30, 2009. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
[7] A Short History of MS-DOS. Archived from the original on 2013-08-01.
[8] Allan, Roy A. (2001). Microsoft in the 1980s, part III
1980s The IBM/Macintosh era. A history of the personal computer: the people and the technology. London,
Ontario: Allan Pub. p. 14. ISBN 0-9689108-0-7. Retrieved December 5, 2009.
[9] Conner, Doug. Father of DOS Still Having Fun at Microsoft. Micronews. Retrieved December 5, 2009.
[10] Personal Computer Announced by IBM.
September 27, 2014.

Retrieved

[11] Freiberger, Paul (1982-08-23). Bill Gates, Microsoft

and the IBM Personal Computer. InfoWorld. p. 22. Retrieved 29 January 2015.
[12] Phipps, Simon (2014-03-26). Psych! Microsoft didn't
really open-source MS-DOS. InfoWorld. Retrieved
2014-03-27.
[13] Ray Duncan (1988). The MS-DOS Encyclopedia version
1.0 through 3.2. Microsoft Press. ISBN 1-55615-049-0.
[14] MS-DOS Versions Information. Emsps.com. Retrieved
2012-09-27.
[15] DAN. DOS history. Pcmuseum.tripod.com. Retrieved
2012-09-27.

[25] BYTE Magazine, How Safe is Disk Compression?, February, 1994.

[27] Sedory, Daniel B. (8 December 2004). Windows XP

MS-DOS Startup Disk. The Starmans Realm. Archived
from the original on 24 October 2010.
[28] Timeline 19801993

30.12 External links

MS-DOS Source - MS-DOS 1.1 and MS-DOS 2.0
Source Code at Computer History Museum
MS-DOS overview - on Microsoft website
Current License Agreement Policies for MS-DOS
and Windows
Tim Paterson on DOS Paterson wrote the QDOS
OS
Richard Bonners DOS website
Batles the DOS batch le programming handbook and tutorial
Arachne graphical browser for DOS
Linux/dosemu
Ralf Browns Interrupt List
DOSBox, a multiplatform DOS emulator

30.12. EXTERNAL LINKS

Garbo An MS-DOS program distribution library
at the University of Vaasa, Finland
MS-DOS 6 Technical Reference at Microsoft TechNet
Promotional video for MS-DOS 5
Testing MS-DOS limitations.

285

Chapter 31

Google
(as of 2007);[20] and to process over one billion search
requests,[21] and about 24 petabytes of user-generated
data, each day (as of 2009).[22][23][24][25] In December
2013 Alexa listed google.com as the most visited website
in the world. Numerous Google sites in other languages
other GoogleGoogle /u()l/ is a United States-headquartered, gure in the top one hundred, as do several [26]
owned sites such as YouTube and Blogger. Its market
multinational corporation specializing in Internet-related
services and products. These include online advertising dominance has led to prominent media coverage, including criticism of the company over issues such as search
technologies, search, cloud computing, and software.[8]
[27][28]
[9][10]
Most of its prots are derived from AdWords,
an neutrality, copyright, censorship, and privacy.
online advertising service that places advertising near the
list of search results.
This article is about the corporation. For the search
engine, see Google Search. For other uses, see Google
(disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Goggle or Googol.

Google was founded by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while 31.1 History
they were Ph.D. students at Stanford University. Together they own about 14 percent of its shares but control Main article: History of Google
56 of the stockholder voting power through supervoting Google began in January 1996 as a research project by
stock. They incorporated Google as a privately held company on September 4, 1998. An initial public oering
followed on August 19, 2004. Its mission statement from
the outset was to organize the worlds information and
make it universally accessible and useful,[11] and its unocial slogan was "Don't be evil.[12][13] In 2004, Google
moved to its new headquarters in Mountain View, California, nicknamed the Googleplex.[14]
Rapid growth since incorporation has triggered a chain of
products, acquisitions and partnerships beyond Googles
core search engine. It oers online productivity software
including email (Gmail), a cloud storage service (Google
Drive), an oce suite (Google Docs) and a social networking service (Google+). Desktop products include
applications for web browsing, organizing and editing
photos, and instant messaging. The company leads the
development of the Android mobile operating system and
the browser-only Chrome OS[15] for a netbook known as a
Chromebook. Google has moved increasingly into communications hardware: it partners with major electronics manufacturers[16] in the production of its high-quality
low-cost[17] Nexus devices and acquired Motorola Mobility in May 2012.[18] In 2012, a ber-optic infrastructure was installed in Kansas City to facilitate a Google
Fiber broadband service.[19]

Googles original homepage had a simple design because the

company founders were not experienced in HTML, the markup
language used for designing web pages.[29]

Larry Page and Sergey Brin when they were both PhD
students at Stanford University in Stanford, California.[30]
While conventional search engines ranked results by
counting how many times the search terms appeared on
the page, the two theorized about a better system that analyzed the relationships between websites.[31] They called
this new technology PageRank; it determined a websites
relevance by the number of pages, and the importance of
those pages, that linked back to the original site.[32][33]

The corporation has been estimated to run more than A small search engine called RankDex from IDD Inone million servers in data centers around the world formation Services designed by Robin Li was, since
1996, already exploring a similar strategy for site-scoring
286

31.1. HISTORY

287

and page ranking.[34] The technology in RankDex was

patented in July 1999[35] and used later when Li founded
Baidu in China.[36][37]
Page and Brin originally nicknamed their new search engine BackRub, because the system checked backlinks
to estimate the importance of a site.[38][39][40] Eventually, they changed the name to Google, originating from
a misspelling of the word "googol",[41][42] the number
one followed by one hundred zeros, which was picked
to signify that the search engine was intended to provide
large quantities of information.[43] Originally, Google ran
under Stanford Universitys website, with the domains
google.stanford.edu and z.stanford.edu.[44][45]
The domain name for Google was registered on September 15, 1997,[46] and the company was incorporated on
September 4, 1998. It was based in the garage of a friend
(Susan Wojcicki[30] ) in Menlo Park, California. Craig
Silverstein, a fellow PhD student at Stanford, was hired
as the rst employee.[30][47][48]
In May 2011, the number of monthly unique visitors to
Google surpassed one billion for the rst time, an 8.4 percent increase from May 2010 (931 million).[49] In January
2013, Google announced it had earned US$50 billion in
annual revenue for the year of 2012. This marked the
rst time the company had reached this feat, topping their
2011 total of $38 billion.[50]

31.1.1

Financing, 1998 and initial public

oering, 2004

The rst funding for Google was an August 1998 contribution of $100,000 from Andy Bechtolsheim, cofounder of Sun Microsystems, given before Google was
incorporated.[52] Early in 1999, while graduate students,
Brin and Page decided that the search engine they had developed was taking up too much time and distracting their
academic pursuits. They went to Excite CEO George
Bell and oered to sell it to him for $1 million. He rejected the oer and later criticized Vinod Khosla, one of
Excites venture capitalists, after he negotiated Brin and
Page down to $750,000. On June 7, 1999, a $25 million
round of funding was announced,[53] with major investors
including the venture capital rms Kleiner Perkins Caueld & Byers and Sequoia Capital.[52]
Googles initial public oering (IPO) took place ve
years later on August 19, 2004. At that time Larry
Page, Sergey Brin, and Eric Schmidt agreed to work together at Google for 20 years, until the year 2024.[54]
The company oered 19,605,052 shares at a price of
$85 per share.[55][56] Shares were sold in an online auction format using a system built by Morgan Stanley and
Credit Suisse, underwriters for the deal.[57][58] The sale
of $1.67bn gave Google a market capitalization of more
than $23bn.[59] By January 2014, its market capitalization had grown to $397bn.[60] The vast majority of the
271 million shares remained under the control of Google,

Googles rst production server. Googles production servers continue to be built with inexpensive hardware.[51]

and many Google employees became instant paper millionaires. Yahoo!, a competitor of Google, also beneted
because it owned 8.4 million shares of Google before the
IPO took place.[61]
There were concerns that Googles IPO would lead to
changes in company culture. Reasons ranged from shareholder pressure for employee benet reductions to the
fact that many company executives would become instant paper millionaires.[62] As a reply to this concern, cofounders Sergey Brin and Larry Page promised in a report
to potential investors that the IPO would not change the
companys culture.[63] In 2005, articles in The New York
Times and other sources began suggesting that Google had
lost its anti-corporate, no evil philosophy.[64][65][66][67]
In an eort to maintain the companys unique culture,
Google designated a Chief Culture Ocer, who also
serves as the Director of Human Resources. The purpose
of the Chief Culture Ocer is to develop and maintain
the culture and work on ways to keep true to the core
values that the company was founded on: a at organization with a collaborative environment.[68] Google has
also faced allegations of sexism and ageism from former
employees.[69][70] In 2013 class action against several Silicon Valley companies, including Google, was led for

288

CHAPTER 31. GOOGLE

alleged no cold call agreements which restrained the re- 31.1.3 2013 onward
cruitment of high-tech employees.[71]
The stock performed well after the IPO, with shares hit- Google announced the launch of a new company called
ting $700 for the rst time on October 31, 2007,[72] pri- Calico on September 19, 2013, which will be led by
marily because of strong sales and earnings in the online Apple chairman Arthur Levinson. In the ocial public
advertising market.[73] The surge in stock price was fu- statement, Page explained that the health and wellbeing
on the challenge of ageing and assoeled mainly by individual investors, as opposed to large company will focus
[84]
ciated
diseases.
[73]
institutional investors and mutual funds. The company
is listed on the NASDAQ stock exchange under the ticker As of September 2013, Google operates 70 oces in
symbol GOOG and on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange un- more than 40 countries.[85] Google celebrated its 15-year
der the ticker symbol GGQ1.
anniversary on September 27, 2013, although it has used
other dates for its ocial birthday.[86] The reason for the
choice of September 27 remains unclear, and a dispute
with rival search engine Yahoo! Search in 2005 has been
suggested as the cause.[87][88]

31.1.2

Growth

In March 1999, the company moved its oces to Palo

Alto, California, which is home to several prominent
Silicon Valley technology startups.[74] The next year,
against Page and Brins initial opposition toward an
advertising-funded search engine,[75] Google began selling advertisements associated with search keywords.[30]
In order to maintain an uncluttered page design and
increase speed, advertisements were solely text-based.
Keywords were sold based on a combination of price bids
and click-throughs, with bidding starting at ve cents per
click.[30]

The Alliance for Aordable Internet (A4AI) was

launched in October 2013 and Google is part of the coalition of public and private organisations that also includes
Facebook, Intel and Microsoft. Led by Sir Tim BernersLee, the A4AI seeks to make Internet access more aordable so that access is broadened in the developing world,
where only 31% of people are online. Google will help to
decrease internet access prices so that they fall below the
UN Broadband Commissions worldwide target of 5% of
monthly income.[89]

The corporations consolidated revenue for the third quarter of 2013 is reported in mid-October 2013 as $14.89
billion, a 12 percent increase compared to the previous
quarter. Googles Internet business was responsible for
$10.8 billion of this total, with an increase in the number
This model of selling keyword advertising was rst pi- of users clicks on advertisements.[90]
oneered by Goto.com, an Idealab spin-o created by
Bill Gross.[76][77] When the company changed names In November 2013, Google announced plans for a new
to Overture Services, it sued Google over alleged in- 1-million-sq-ft (93,000 sq m) oce in London, which is
fringements of the companys pay-per-click and bidding due to open in 2016. The new premises will be able to
patents. Overture Services would later be bought by Ya- accommodate 4,500 employees and has been identied as
biggest ever commercial property acquisitions
hoo! and renamed Yahoo! Search Marketing. The case one of the[91]
in
Britain.
was then settled out of court; Google agreed to issue
shares of common stock to Yahoo! in exchange for a per- In October 2014, according to the Interbrand ranking,
petual license.[78]
Google was the second most valuable brand in the world
[92]
In 2001, Google received a patent for its PageRank (behind Apple) with a valuation of $107.4 billion;
year puts the
mechanism.[79] The patent was ocially assigned to Stan- a Millward Brown report from the same
[93]
Google
brand
ahead
of
Apples
at
#1.
ford University and lists Lawrence Page as the inventor.
In 2003, after outgrowing two other locations, the company leased an oce complex from Silicon Graphics at
1600 Amphitheatre Parkway in Mountain View, California.[80] The complex became known as the Googleplex,
a play on the word googolplex, the number one followed by a googol zeroes. The Googleplex interiors were
designed by Clive Wilkinson Architects. Three years
later, Google bought the property from SGI for $319
million.[81] By that time, the name Google had found
its way into everyday language, causing the verb "google"
to be added to the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary and the Oxford English Dictionary, denoted as to
use the Google search engine to obtain information on the
Internet.[82][83]

31.1.4 Acquisitions and partnerships

See also: List of mergers and acquisitions by Google
Since 2001, Google has acquired many companies,
primarily small venture capital-funded rms. In 2004,
Google acquired Keyhole, Inc.[94] The start-up company
developed a product called Earth Viewer that gave a
three-dimensional view of the Earth. Google renamed the
service to Google Earth in 2005. Google acquired Urchin
Software in April 2005, using their 'Urchin on Demand'
product (along with ideas from Adaptive Paths 'Measure
Map') to create Google Analytics in 2006.

31.1. HISTORY

289
Increasing its advertising reach even further, Google
and Fox Interactive Media of News Corporation entered
into a $900 million agreement to provide search and
advertising on the then-popular social networking site
MySpace.[108]
In 2007, Google began sponsoring NORAD Tracks
Santa, displacing former sponsor AOL. NORAD Tracks
Santa purports to follow Santa Claus progress on Christmas Eve,[109] using Google Earth to track Santa in 3-D
for the rst time.[110] Google-owned YouTube gave NORAD Tracks Santa its own channel.[111]

Larry Page and Sergey Brin in 2003

In 2008, Google developed a partnership with GeoEye to

launch a satellite providing Google with high-resolution
(0.41 m monochrome, 1.65 m color) imagery for Google
Earth. The satellite was launched from Vandenberg Air
Force Base on September 6, 2008.[112] Google also announced in 2008 that it was hosting an archive of Life
Magazine's photographs. Some of the images in the
archive were never published in the magazine.[113] The
photos were watermarked and originally had copyright
notices posted on all photos, regardless of public domain
status.[114]

In October 2006, Google announced that it had acquired the video-sharing site YouTube for $1.65 billion
in Google stock, and the deal was nalized on November 13, 2006.[95] Google does not provide detailed gures for YouTubes running costs, and YouTubes revenues in 2007 were noted as "not material" in a regulatory
ling.[96] In June 2008, a Forbes magazine article projected the 2008 YouTube revenue at $200 million, noting In 2010, Google Energy made its rst investment in a
renewable energy project, putting $38.8 million into two
progress in advertising sales.[97]
wind farms in North Dakota. The company announced
On April 13, 2007, Google reached an agreement to acthe two locations will generate 169.5 megawatts of power,
quire DoubleClick for $3.1 billion, giving Google valuenough to supply 55,000 homes. The farms, which were
able relationships that DoubleClick had with Web pubdeveloped by NextEra Energy Resources, will reduce foslishers and advertising agencies.[98] Later that same year,
sil fuel use in the region and return prots. NextEra EnGoogle purchased GrandCentral for $50 million.[99] The
ergy Resources sold Google a twenty-percent stake in the
site would later be changed over to Google Voice. On Auproject to get funding for its development.[115] In Februgust 5, 2009, Google bought out its rst public company,
ary 2010, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
purchasing video software maker On2 Technologies for
FERC granted Google an authorization to buy and sell
$106.5 million.[100] Google also acquired Aardvark, a soenergy at market rates.[116] The order specically states
cial network search engine, for $50 million, and comthat Google Energya subsidiary of Googleholds the
mented on its internal blog, we're looking forward to colrights for the sale of energy, capacity, and ancillary serlaborating to see where we can take it.[101] In April 2010,
vices at market-based rates, but acknowledges that neiGoogle announced it had acquired a hardware startup,
ther Google Energy nor its aliates own or control any
Agnilux.[102]
generation or transmission facilities.[117] The corporaIn addition to the many companies Google has purchased, tion exercised this authorization in September 2013 when
the company has partnered with other organizations for it announced that it will purchase all of the electricity proresearch, advertising, and other activities. In 2005, duced by the not-yet-built 240-megawatt Happy Hereford
Google partnered with NASA Ames Research Center to wind farm.[118]
build 1,000,000 square feet (93,000 m2 ) of oces.[103]
Also in 2010, Google purchased Global IP Solutions, a
The oces would be used for research projects inNorway-based company that provides web-based televolving large-scale data management, nanotechnology,
conferencing and other related services. This acquisidistributed computing, and the entrepreneurial space intion enabled Google to add telephone-style services to
dustry. Google entered into a partnership with Sun Miits list of products.[119] On May 27, 2010, Google ancrosystems in October 2005 to help share and distribute
nounced
it had also closed the acquisition of the moeach others technologies.[104]
bile ad network AdMob. This occurred days after the
The company also partnered with AOL[105] to enhance Federal Trade Commission closed its investigation into
each others video search services. Googles 2005 part- the purchase.[120] Google acquired the company for an
nerships also included nancing the new .mobi top-level undisclosed amount.[121] In July 2010, Google signed an
domain for mobile devices, along with other companies agreement with an Iowa wind farm to buy 114 megawatts
including Microsoft, Nokia, and Ericsson.[106] Google of energy for 20 years.[122]
would later launch "AdSense for Mobile", taking adOn April 4, 2011, The Globe and Mail reported that
vantage of the emerging mobile advertising market.[107]

290

CHAPTER 31. GOOGLE

Google bid $900 million for six thousand Nortel Net- The 2012 acquisition of WIMM Labs, a company that
works patents.[123]
previously made an Android-powered smartwatch, was
On August 15, 2011, Google made its largest-ever ac- conrmed in August 2013. As of August 31, 2013,
commented on the news conquisition to-date when announced that it would acquire Google has not publicly
[139]
cerning
WIMM
Labs.
The acquisition of Flutter, a
[124][125]
Motorola Mobility for $12.5 billion
subject to
creator
of
hand
gesture
recognition
technology, was conapproval from regulators in the United States and Eurmed
by
the
corporation
in
early
October 2013. The
rope. In a post on Googles blog, Google Chief Execureported
price
is
$40
million
and
Google
spokesperson
tive and co-founder Larry Page revealed that the acquistated: We're really impressed by the Flutter teams abilsition was a strategic move to strengthen Googles patent
portfolio. The companys Android operating system has ity to design new technology based on cutting-edge research. Flutters technology allows users to enact hand
come under re in an industry-wide patent battle, as Apsuch as iTunes,
ple and Microsoft have sued Android device makers such gestures to control navigation for apps
Windows Media Player, and Winamp.[140]
[126]
as HTC, Samsung, and Motorola.
The merger was
completed on the May 22, 2012, after the approval of On January 26, 2014 Google Inc. announced it had
Peoples Republic of China.[127]
agreed to acquire DeepMind Technologies, a privately
This purchase was made in part to help Google gain Mo- held articial intelligence company from London. Deeptorolas considerable patent portfolio on mobile phones Mind describes themselves as having the ability to comand wireless technologies to help protect it in its ongoing bine the best techniques from machine learning and syspatent disputes with other companies,[128] mainly Apple tems neuroscience to build general-purpose learning algoand Microsoft[126] and to allow it to continue to freely rithms. DeepMinds rst commercial applications were
oer Android.[129] After the acquisition closed, Google used in simulations, e-commerce and games. As of Dewas reported that DeepMind had roughly
began to restructure the Motorola business to t Googles cember 2013, it
[141]
75
employees.
The technology news website Re/code
strategy. On August 13, 2012, Google announced plans
reported
that
the
company
was purchased for $400 mil[130]
to layo 4000 Motorola Mobility employees.
On Delion
though
it
was
not
disclosed
where the information
cember 10, 2012, Google sold the manufacturing opcame
from.
A
Google
spokesman
would not comment
erations of Motorola Mobility to Flextronics for $75
[142][143]
of
the
price.
The
purchase
of
DeepMind aids in
[131]
million.
As a part of the agreement, Flextronics
Googles
recent
growth
in
the
articial
intelligence and
will manufacture undisclosed Android and other mobile
[144]
robotics
community.
[132]
devices.
On December 19, 2012, Google sold the
Motorola Home business division of Motorola Mobility
to Arris Group for $2.35 billion in a cash-and-stock transaction. As a part of this deal, Google acquired a 15.7%
stake in Arris Group valued at $300 million.[133]
On June 5, 2012, Google announced it acquired
Quickoce, a company widely known for their mobile
productivity suite for both iOS and Android. Google
plans to integrate Quickoces technology into its own
product suite.[134]
On February 6, 2013, Google announced it had acquired
Channel Intelligence for $125 million. Channel Intelligence, a technology company that helps customers buy
products online, is active globally in 31 dierent countries and works with over 850 retailers. Google will use
this technology to enhance its e-commerce business.[135]

On January 29, 2014, Google announced it was selling

its Motorola Mobility unit to China-based Lenovo, for
$2.91bn. The company kept the extensive patent collection used to develop Android products, considered the
most valuable part of the original deal.[144] Nonetheless
the sale price was signicantly less than the $12.5 billion
Google had bought Motorola Mobility for. The $2.91bn
price tag consisted of $660 million in cash, $750 million in Lenovo ordinary shares, and a $1.5 billion 3-year
promissory note.[145]
In March 2014, Google conrmed it had purchased
the remnants of gaming startup, Green Throttle Games,
which developed a Bluetooth gaming controller for
Android.[146]

In May 2014, Google announced it had purchased Quest

Visual,
maker of the augmented reality translator app
The ocial conrmation of Googles acquisition of the
[147]
Word
Lens.
Israel-based startup Waze occurred in June 2013. Waze
is promoted as a community-based trac and navigation In June 2014, Google purchased satellite imaging rm
app.[136]
Skybox Imaging for $500 million.[148]
Following the acquisition of Waze, Google submitted a
10-Q ling with the Securities Exchange Commission
(SEC) that revealed that the corporation spent $1.3 billion
on acquisitions during the rst half of 2013. The ling
also revealed that the Waze acquisition cost Google $966
million, instead of the $1.1 billion gure that was initially
presented in media sources.[136][137][138]

In July 2014, Google purchased the online music service

Songza.[149]

31.1.5 Google data centers

As of 2014, Google Inc. owned and operated six Google
Modular Data Centers across the U.S., one in Chile, one

31.2. PRODUCTS AND SERVICES

in Finland, one in Ireland, one in Belgium, one in Singapore and one on Taiwan.[150] In 2011, the company had
announced plans to build three data centers at a cost of
more than $200 million in Asia (Singapore, Hong Kong
and Taiwan) and said they would be operational within
two years.[151][152] In December 2013, Google announced
that it had scrapped the plan to build a data center in Hong
Kong. [153]

291
scheme. The sister service, Google AdSense, allows website owners to display these advertisements on their website and earn money every time ads are clicked.[163]

One of the criticisms of this program is the possibility

of click fraud, which occurs when a person or automated
script clicks on advertisements without being interested
in the product, causing the advertiser to pay money to
Google unduly. Industry reports in 2006 claimed that apIn October 2013, The Washington Post reported that proximately 14 to 20 percent of clicks were fraudulent or
the U.S. National Security Agency intercepted commu- invalid.[164]
nications between Googles data centers, as part of a In February 2003, Google stopped showing the advertiseprogram named MUSCULAR.[154][155] This wiretapping ments of Oceana, a non-prot organization protesting a
was made possible because Google did not encrypt data major cruise ships sewage treatment practices. Google
passed inside its own network.[156] Google began encrypt- cited its editorial policy at the time, stating Google does
ing data sent between data centers in 2013.[157]
not accept advertising if the ad or site advocates against

31.2 Products and services

See also: List of Google products

31.2.1

Advertising

other individuals, groups, or organizations.[165] The policy was later changed.[166] In June 2008, Google reached
an advertising agreement with Yahoo!, which would have
allowed Yahoo! to feature Google advertisements on its
web pages. The alliance between the two companies was
never completely realized because of antitrust concerns
by the U.S. Department of Justice. As a result, Google
pulled out of the deal in November 2008.[167][168]
In an attempt to advertise its own products, Google
launched a website called Demo Slam, developed to
demonstrate technology demos of Google Products.[169]

31.2.2 Search engine

Main article: Google Search
According to market research published by comScore in

Google on ad-tech London, 2010

For the 2006 scal year, the company reported $10.492

billion in total advertising revenues and only $112 million in licensing and other revenues.[158] In 2011, 96%
of Googles revenue was derived from its advertising
programs.[159] In addition to its own algorithms for understanding search requests, Google uses technology from
the company DoubleClick, to project user interest and
target advertising to the search context and the user
history.[160][161]

November 2009, Google Search is the dominant search

engine in the United States market, with a market share
of 65.6%.[170] Google indexes billions[171] of web pages,
so that users can search for the information they desire
through the use of keywords and operators.

Google Analytics allows website owners to track where

and how people use their website, for example by examining click rates for all the links on a page.[162] Google
advertisements can be placed on third-party websites in
a two-part program. Googles AdWords allows advertisers to display their advertisements in the Google content
network, through either a cost-per-click or cost-per-view

In 2003, The New York Times complained about Googles

indexing, claiming that Googles caching of content on
its site infringed its copyright for the content.[172] In this
case, the United States District Court of Nevada ruled
in favor of Google in Field v. Google and Parker v.
Google.[173][174] The publication 2600: The Hacker Quarterly has compiled a list of words that the web giants new

Google homepage as of December 22, 2013

292

CHAPTER 31. GOOGLE

instant search feature will not search.[175]

of Gmail, but Google claims that mail sent to or from

Google Watch has criticized Googles PageRank algo- Gmail is never read by a human being beyond the acis only used to improve relevance of
rithms, saying that they discriminate against new web- count holder and
[194]
advertisements.
[176]
sites and favor established sites.
The site has also alleged that there are connections between Google and the In 2004, Google started open source software project
National Security Agency (NSA) and the Central Intelli- hosting, called Google Code, which allows developers
gence Agency (CIA).[177]
to download incomplete programs at no charge. Google
Google also hosts Google Books. The company began Docs, another part of Googles productivity suite, allows
scanning books and uploading limited previews, and full users to create, edit, and collaborate on documents in
books where allowed, into its new book search engine. an online environment, similar to Microsoft Word. The
The Authors Guild, a group that represents 8,000 U.S. service was originally called Writely, but was obtained
2006, and was released as an
authors, led a class action suit in a New York City by Google on March 9,[195]
invitation-only
preview.
On June 6 after the acquisifederal court against Google in 2005 over this service.
tion,
Google
created
an
experimental
spreadsheet editing
Google replied that it is in compliance with all existing
[196]
program,
which
was
combined
with
Google Docs on
and historical applications of copyright laws regarding
[197]
October
10.
[178]
books.
Google eventually reached a revised settlement in 2009 to limit its scans to books from the U.S., the
UK, Australia, and Canada.[179] Furthermore, the Paris 31.2.4
Civil Court ruled against Google in late 2009, asking it
to remove the works of La Martinire (ditions du Seuil)
from its database.[180] In competition with Amazon.com,
Google sells digital versions of new books.[181]

Enterprise products

On July 21, 2010, in response to Bing, Google updated its image search to display a streaming sequence
of thumbnails that enlarge when pointed at. Though
web searches still appear in a batch per page format, on
July 23, 2010, dictionary denitions for certain English
words began appearing above the linked results for web
searches.[182]
The Hummingbird update to the Google search engine
was announced in September 2013. The update was introduced over the month prior to the announcement and
allows users ask the search engine a question in natural
language rather than entering keywords into the search
box.[183]

31.2.3

Productivity tools

Gmail, a free webmail service provided by Google, was

launched as an invitation-only beta program on April 1,
2004,[184] and became available to the general public on
February 7, 2007.[185] The service was upgraded from
beta status on July 7, 2009,[186] at which time it had 146
million users monthly.[187] The service was the rst online email service with one gigabyte of storage. It was
also the rst to keep emails from the same conversation
together in one thread, similar to an Internet forum.[184]
Googles search appliance at the 2008 RSA Conference
The service oers over 15 GB of free storage, shared with
other Google Apps, with additional storage ranging from Google Search Appliance was launched in February
20 GB to 16 TB available for $0.25 per 1 GB per year.[188] 2002, targeted toward providing search technology for
Gmail uses AJAX, a programming technique that al- larger organizations.[30] Google launched the Mini three
lows web pages to be interactive without refreshing years later, which was targeted at smaller organizations.
the browser.[189] Steve Ballmer (Microsofts former Late in 2006, Google began to sell Custom Search BusiCEO),[190] Liz Figueroa,[191] Mark Rasch,[192] and the ness Edition, providing customers with an advertisingeditors of Google Watch[193] have criticised the privacy free window into Google.coms index. The service was

31.2. PRODUCTS AND SERVICES

293

renamed Google Site Search in 2008.[198]

a version that includes television service for $120 per

[19]
Google Apps allows organizations to bring Googles web month.
application oerings, such as Gmail and Google Docs, In 2007, reports surfaced that Google was planning the
into their own domains. The service is available in sev- release of its own mobile phone, possibly a competitor to
eral editions: a basic free edition (formerly known as Apple's iPhone.[211][212][213] The project, called Android,
Google Apps Standard edition), Google Apps for Busi- turned out not to be a phone but an operating system
ness, Google Apps for Education, and Google Apps for mobile devices, which Google acquired and then refor Government. In the same year Google Apps was leased as an open source project under the Apache 2.0
launched, Google acquired Postini[199] and proceeded to license.[214] Google provides a software development kit
integrate the companys security technologies into Google for developers so applications can be created to be run on
Apps[200] under the name Google Postini Services.[201]
Android-based phones. In September 2008, T-Mobile
released the G1, the rst Android-based phone.[215] On
January 5, 2010, Google released an Android phone un31.2.5 Other products
der its own company name called the Nexus One.[216] A
report in July 2013 stated that Googles share of the global
Google Translate is a server-side machine transla- smartphone market, led by Samsung products, was 64%
tion service, which can translate between 80 dierent in March 2013.[217]
languages.[202] For some languages, handwriting recogOther projects Google has worked on include a new colnition, or speech recognition can be used as input, and
laborative communication service, a web browser, and
translated text can be pronounced through speech synthea mobile operating system. The rst of these was rst
sis.[203] The software uses corpus linguistics techniques,
announced on May 27, 2009. The company described
where the program learns from professionally transGoogle Wave as a product that helps users communilated documents, specically UN and European Parliacate and collaborate on the web. The service is Googles
ment proceedings.[204]
email redesigned, with realtime editing, the ability
Google launched its Google News service in 2002, an to embed audio, video, and other media, and extenautomated service which summarizes news articles from sions that further enhance the communication experivarious websites.[205] In March 2005, Agence France ence. Google Wave was initially in a developers prePresse (AFP) sued Google for copyright infringement in view, where interested users had to be invited to test
federal court in the District of Columbia, a case which the service, but was released to the general public on
Google settled for an undisclosed amount in a pact that May 19, 2010, at Googles I/O keynote. On September
included a license of the full text of AFP articles for use 1, 2008, Google pre-announced the upcoming availabilon Google News.[206]
ity of Google Chrome, an open source web browser,[218]
In 2006, Google made a bid to oer free wireless broad- which was then released on September 2, 2008. On July
band access throughout the city of San Francisco along 7, 2009, Google announced Google Chrome OS, an open
with Internet service provider EarthLink. Large telecom- source Linux-based operating system that includes only a
and is designed to log users into their Google
munications companies such as Comcast and Verizon op- web browser
[219][220]
account.
posed the eorts, claiming it was unfair competition
and that cities would be violating their commitments to
oer local monopolies to these companies. In his testimony before Congress on network neutrality in 2006,
Googles Chief Internet Evangelist Vint Cerf blamed the
tactics on the fact that nearly half of all consumers lack
choice in broadband providers.[207] Google currently offers free wi- access in its hometown of Mountain View,
California.[208]
In 2010, Google announced the Google Fiber project,
with plans to build an ultra-high-speed broadband network for 50,000 to 500,000 customers in one or more
American cities.[209] On March 30, 2011, Google announced that Kansas City, Kansas would be the rst community where the new network would be deployed.[210]
In July 2012, Google completed the construction of a
ber-optic broadband internet network infrastructure in
Kansas City, and after building an infrastructure, Google
announced pricing for Google Fiber. The service will offer three options including a free broadband internet option, a 1Gbit/s internet option for $70 per month, and

Google Goggles is a mobile application available on Android and iOS used for image recognition and non-textbased search. In addition to scanning QR codes, the app
can recognize historic landmarks, import business cards,
and solve Sudoku puzzles.[221] While Goggles could originally identify people as well, Google has limited that
functionality as a privacy protection.[222]
In 2011, Google announced Google Wallet, a mobile application for wireless payments.[223] In late June 2011,
Google soft-launched a social networking service called
Google+.[224] On July 14, 2011, Google announced that
Google+ had reached 10 million users just two weeks after it was launched in this limited trial phase.[225] After
four weeks in operation, it reached 25 million users.[226]
At a launch event on July 24, 2013, in San Francisco,
U.S., a newer version of the Nexus 7 Google tablet device was released to the public, alongside the Chromecast
dongle that allows users to stream YouTube and Netix
videos via smartphones.[227]

294

CHAPTER 31. GOOGLE

In 2013, Google launched Google Shopping Express, a

delivery service initially available only in San Francisco
and Silicon Valley.[228]
On February 3, 2014, Google released its rst Chromecast SDK.[229]

31.3 Corporate aairs and culture

Then-CEO, now Chairman of Google Eric Schmidt with Sergey

Brin and Larry Page (left to right) in 2008.

On Fortune magazines list of best companies to work for,

Google ranked rst in 2007, 2008 and 2012[230][231][232]
and fourth in 2009 and 2010.[233][234] Google was also
nominated in 2010 to be the worlds most attractive employer to graduating students in the Universum Communications talent attraction index.[235] Googles corporate
philosophy includes principles such as you can make
money without doing evil, you can be serious without a
suit, and work should be challenging and the challenge
should be fun.[236]

31.3.1

Employees

As of 2013, Google had 47,756 employees (in the fourth

quarter, including the Motorola subsidiary),[6] among
them more than 10,000 software developers based in
more than 40 oces.[237]

Eric Schmidt

March 2008, Sheryl Sandberg, then vice-president of

global online sales and operations, began her position
as chief operating ocer of Facebook.[241] At the same
time, Ash ElDifrawi, formerly head of brand advertising,
left to become chief marketing ocer of Netshops.[242]
On April 4, 2011, Larry Page became CEO and Eric
Schmidt became Executive Chairman of Google.[243]
In July 2012, Googles rst female employee, Marissa
Mayer, left Google to become Yahoo!'s CEO.[244]
As a motivation technique, Google uses a policy often
called Innovation Time O, where Google engineers are
encouraged to spend 20% of their work time on projects
that interest them. Some of Googles newer services, such
as Gmail, Google News, Orkut, and AdSense originated
from these independent endeavors.[246] In a talk at Stanford University, Marissa Mayer, Googles Vice President
of Search Products and User Experience until July 2012,
showed that half of all new product launches in the second half of 2005 had originated from the Innovation Time
O.[247]

After the companys IPO in 2004, founders Sergey Brin

and Larry Page and CEO Eric Schmidt requested that
their base salary be cut to $1. Subsequent oers by
the company to increase their salaries were turned down,
primarily because their main compensation continues
to come from owning stock in Google. Before 2004,
Schmidt made $250,000 per year, and Page and Brin each 31.3.2
received an annual salary of $150,000.[238]

Googleplex

In 2007 and early 2008, several top executives left Main article: Googleplex
Google. In October 2007, former chief nancial oGoogles headquarters in Mountain View, California,
cer of YouTube Gideon Yu joined Facebook[239] along is referred to as the Googleplex", a play on words on
with Benjamin Ling, a high-ranking engineer.[240] In the number googolplex and the headquarters itself being

31.3. CORPORATE AFFAIRS AND CULTURE

295

Google Mountain View dinosaur 'Stan'

New employees are called Nooglers, and are given a propeller

beanie cap to wear on their rst Friday.[245]

Bicycles painted in the corporate color scheme are available for

free use by any employee travelling around the Googleplex

Free food is available to employees 24/7, with the oerings provided by paid vending machines prorated based
on and favoring those of better nutritional value.[249]
Googles extensive amenities are not available to all of
its workers. Temporary workers such as book scanners
do not have access to shuttles, Google cafes, or other
perks.[250]
Google Mountain View campus garden

In 2006, Google moved into 311,000 square feet (28,900

m2 ) of oce space in New York City, at 111 Eighth Avenue in Manhattan.[251] The oce was specially designed
and built for Google and houses its largest advertising
sales team, which has been instrumental in securing large
partnerships.[251] The New York headquarters is similar
in design and functionality to its Mountain View headquarters, and includes a game room, micro kitchens, and
a video game area.[252] As of February 2012, a signicant
engineering team is based in New York City.[253] As of
September 2013, Googles East Coast oce is located at
76 Ninth Ave, New York City, New York.[254]

a complex of buildings. The lobby is decorated with a piano, lava lamps, old server clusters, and a projection of
search queries on the wall. The hallways are full of exercise balls and bicycles. Many employees have access
to the corporate recreation center. Recreational amenities are scattered throughout the campus and include a
workout room with weights and rowing machines, locker
rooms, washers and dryers, a massage room, assorted
video games, table football, a baby grand piano, a billiard table, and ping pong. In addition to the recreation
room, there are snack rooms stocked with various foods In November 2006, Google opened oces on Carnegie
and drinks, with special emphasis placed on nutrition.[248] Mellon's campus in Pittsburgh, focusing on shopping-

296

CHAPTER 31. GOOGLE

related advertisement coding and smartphone applica- by Larry Page and Sergey Brin to notify users of their
tions and programs.[255][256]
absence in case the servers crashed. Subsequent Google
By late 2006, Google also established a new headquarters Doodles were designed by an outside contractor, until
for its AdWords division in Ann Arbor, Michigan.[257] Larry and Sergey asked then-intern Dennis Hwang to deOther oce locations in the U.S. include Ann Arbor, sign a logo for Bastille Day in 2000. From that point onand created by a team
Michigan; Atlanta, Georgia; Austin, Texas; Boulder, Col- ward, Doodles have been organized
[265]
of
employees
termed
Doodlers.
orado; Cambridge, Massachusetts; New York City; San
Francisco, California; Seattle, Washington; Reston, Virginia, and Washington, D.C. Furthermore, Google has
several international oces.

31.3.4 Easter eggs and April Fools Day

jokes
Main article: List of Googles hoaxes and easter eggs

Googles NYC oce building houses its largest advertising sales

team.[251]

In October 2006, the company announced plans to install

thousands of solar panels to provide up to 1.6 megawatts
of electricity, enough to satisfy approximately 30% of the
campus energy needs.[258] The system will be the largest
solar power system constructed on a U.S. corporate campus and one of the largest on any corporate site in the
world.[258] In addition, Google announced in 2009 that
it was deploying herds of goats to keep grassland around
the Googleplex short, helping to prevent the threat from
seasonal bush res while also reducing the carbon footprint of mowing the extensive grounds.[259][260] The idea
of trimming lawns using goats originated from R. J. Widlar, an engineer who worked for National Semiconductor.[261] In 2008, Google faced accusations in Harpers
Magazine of being an energy glutton. The company
was accused of employing its "Don't be evil" motto and its
public energy-saving campaigns to cover up or make up
for the massive amounts of energy its servers require.[262]

31.3.3

Doodles

Main article: Google Doodle

Since 1998, Google has been designing special, temporary alternate logos to place on their homepage intended
to celebrate holidays, events, achievements and people.
The rst Google Doodle was in honor of the Burning
Man Festival of 1998.[263][264] The doodle was designed

Google has a tradition of creating April Fools Day jokes.

On April 1, 2000, Google MentalPlex allegedly featured
the use of mental power to search the web.[266] In 2007,
Google announced a free Internet service called TiSP,
or Toilet Internet Service Provider, where one obtained
a connection by ushing one end of a ber-optic cable down their toilet.[267] Also in 2007, Googles Gmail
page displayed an announcement for Gmail Paper, allowing users to have email messages printed and shipped
to them.[268] In 2008, Google announced Gmail Custom
time where users could change the time that the email was
sent.[269]
In 2010, Google changed its company name to Topeka
in honor of Topeka, Kansas, whose mayor changed the
citys name to Google for a short amount of time in an attempt to sway Googles decision in its new Google Fiber
Project.[270][271] In 2011, Google announced Gmail Motion, an interactive way of controlling Gmail and the computer with body movements via the users webcam.[272]
Googles services contain easter eggs, such as the
Swedish Chef's Bork bork bork, Pig Latin, Hacker or
leetspeak, Elmer Fudd, Pirate, and Klingon as language
selections for its search engine.[273] The search engine
calculator provides the Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything from Douglas
Adams' The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy.[274] When
searching the word recursion, the spell-checkers result
for the properly spelled word is exactly the same word,
creating a recursive link.[275]
When searching for the word "anagram, meaning a rearrangement of letters from one word to form other valid
words, Googles suggestion feature displays Did you
mean: nag a ram?"[276] In Google Maps, searching for
directions between places separated by large bodies of
water, such as Los Angeles and Tokyo, results in instructions to "kayak across the Pacic Ocean. During FIFA
World Cup 2010, search queries including "World Cup"
and "FIFA" caused the Goooo...gle page indicator at
the bottom of every result page to read Goooo...al!"
instead.[277]

31.4. SEE ALSO

31.3.5

Philanthropy

Main article: Google.org

In 2004, Google formed the not-for-prot philanthropic
Google.org, with a start-up fund of $1 billion.[278] The
mission of the organization is to create awareness about
climate change, global public health, and global poverty.
One of its rst projects was to develop a viable plug-in
hybrid electric vehicle that can attain 100 miles per gallon.
Google hired Larry Brilliant as the programs executive
director in 2004,[279] and the current director is Megan
Smith.[280]
In 2008, Google announced its project 10100 " which accepted ideas for how to help the community and then allowed Google users to vote on their favorites.[281] After
two years of silence, during which many wondered what
had happened to the program,[282] Google revealed the
winners of the project, giving a total of ten million dollars to various ideas ranging from non-prot organizations
that promote education to a website that intends to make
all legal documents public and online.[283]

297

31.3.7 Environment
Since 2007, Google has aimed for carbon neutrality
in regard to its operations.[291][292] Google disclosed in
September 2011 that it continuously uses enough electricity to power 200,000 homes, almost 260 million
watts or about a quarter of the output of a nuclear power
plant. Total carbon emissions for 2010 were just under
1.5 million metric tons, most due to fossil fuels that provide electricity for the data centers. Google said that 25
percent of its energy was supplied by renewable fuels in
2010. An average search uses only 0.3 watt-hours of electricity, so all global searches are only 12.5 million watts
or 5% of the total electricity consumption by Google[293]
In June 2013, the Washington Post reported that Google
had donated $50,000 to the Competitive Enterprise Institute, a libertarian think tank that calls human carbon
emissions a positive factor in the environment and argues
that global warming is not a concern.[294]

In July 2013, it was reported that Google had hosted a

fundraising event for Oklahoma Senator Jim Inhofe, who
has called climate change a hoax.[295] In 2014 Google
cut ties with the American Legislative Exchange CounIn 2011, Google donated 1 million euros to International cil (ALEC) after pressure from the Sierra Club, major
Mathematical Olympiad to support the next ve annual unions and Googles own scientists, because of ALECs
International Mathematical Olympiads (20112015).[284] stance on climate change and opposition to renewable
On July 2012, Google launched a "Legalize Love" cam- energy.[296]
paign in support of gay rights.[285]

31.3.8 Lobbying

31.3.6

Tax avoidance

Google uses various tax avoidance strategies. Out of

the ve largest American technology companies it pays
the lowest taxes to the countries of origin of its revenues. The company accomplishes this partly by licensing technology through subsidiaries in Ireland, Bermuda,
the Bahamas, and the Netherlands.[286] This has reportedly sparked a French investigation into Googles transfer
pricing practices.[287]
Following criticism of the amount of corporate taxes
that Google paid in the United Kingdom, Chairman Eric
Schmidt said, Its called capitalism. We are proudly
capitalistic. During the same December 2012 interview
Schmidt conrmed that the company had no intention of
paying more to the UK exchequer.[288] In 2013, Schmidt
responded to questions about taxes paid in the UK by
pointing to the advertising fees Google charged UK companies as a source of economic growth.[289]
Google Vice President Matt Brittin testied to the Public
Accounts Committee of the UK House of Commons that
his UK sales team made no sales and hence owed no sales
taxes to the UK.[290]

In 2013, Google ranked 5th in lobbying spending, up

from 213th in 2003. In 2012, Google ranked 2nd in campaign donations of technology and internet sections.[297]

31.4 See also

AtGoogleTalks
Comparison of web search engines
Criticism of Google
Don't Be Evil
Google (verb)
Google Balloon Internet
Google Catalogs
Google China
Google Chrome Experiments
Google logo
Google Maps
Google platform

298

CHAPTER 31. GOOGLE

Google Street View

[15] Chromebook. Google. Retrieved August 17, 2011.

Google tax

[16] Ricker, Thomas. Google: Nexus program explained, unfazed by Motorola acquisition. theverge.com. Vox Media. Retrieved July 31, 2014.

Google Ventures venture capital fund

[17] Kleinman, Jacob. Google Exec: New Nexus Coming.

technobualo.com. TechnoBualo. Retrieved July 31,
2014.

Google X
Life sciences division of Google X

[18] Brad Stone; Peter Burrows (May 22, 2012). Its Ocial: Google Is Now a Hardware Company. Bloomberg
Businessweek. Retrieved September 4, 2012.

Google+
Googlebot web crawler

[19] Hesseldahl, Arik (July 26, 2012). Google Gets Into the
Cable TV Business, for Real. AllThingsD.com. Retrieved September 15, 2012.

Googlization
List of Google domains
List of mergers and acquisitions by Google
Reunion

[20] Pandia Search Engine News Google: one million

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[295] Suzanne Goldenberg (July 9, 2013). Google hosts

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31.6 External links

Ocial website (Mobile)
Corporate homepage
Corporate history and timeline
Google Research
Google on Blogger
Googles channel on YouTube
Google website at the Wayback Machine (archived
November 11, 1998)
Google at DMOZ
Google at CrunchBase
Google companies grouped at OpenCorporates

Business data for Google, Inc.:

Hoovers
Reuters
SEC lings

Chapter 32

IBM Personal Computer

IBM PC redirects here. For general IBM-like PCs, see maker Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) grew by
IBM PC compatible.
more than 35%.[5] The company began selling minicomputers, but in January 1982 the United States Department of Justice ended the antitrust suit because, The New
The IBM Personal Computer, commonly known as the
IBM PC, is the original version and progenitor of the York Times reported, the government recognized what
computer experts and securities analysts had long since
IBM PC compatible hardware platform. It is IBM model
I.B.M. no longer dominates the computer
number 5150, and was introduced on August 12, 1981. concluded:[1][6]
business.
It was created by a team of engineers and designers under
the direction of Don Estridge of the IBM Entry Systems IBM wished to avoid the same outcome with the
Division in Boca Raton, Florida.
new personal computer industry,[4] dominated by the
The generic term "personal computer" was in use before Commodore PET, Atari 8-bit family, Apple II, Tandy
[7]
1981, applied as early as 1972 to the Xerox PARC's Alto, Corporation's TRS-80, and various CP/M machines.
but because of the success of the IBM Personal Com- With $150 million in sales by 1979 and projected annual
puter, the term PC came to mean more specically a growth of more than 40% in the early 1980s, the microdesktop microcomputer compatible with IBMs PC prod- computer market was large enough for IBMs attention.
ucts. Within a short time of the introduction, third-party Other large technology companies such as Texas Instruit, and some large
suppliers of peripheral devices, expansion cards, and soft- ments and Data General had entered
[2][8]
IBM
customers
were
buying
Apples,
so the company
ware proliferated; the inuence of the IBM PC on the
saw
introducing
its
own
personal
computer
as a defense
personal computer market was substantial in standardiz[3]
against
rivals,
large
and
small.
ing a platform for personal computers. IBM compatible became an important criterion for sales growth; only In 1980 and 1981 rumors spread of an IBM personal
the Apple Macintosh family kept signicant market share computer, perhaps a miniaturized version of the IBM
without compatibility with the IBM personal computer. System/370,[9] while Matsushita acknowledged that it
had discussed with IBM the possibility of manufacturing a personal computer for the American company.[10]
The Japanese project, codenamed Go, ended before
32.1 History
the 1981 release of the American-designed IBM PC codenamed Chess, but two simultaneous projects further
32.1.1 Rumors
confused rumors about the forthcoming product.[11]
International Business Machines (IBM), one of the
worlds largest companies, had a 62% share of the
mainframe computer market in 1981.[1] Its share of the
overall computer market, however, had declined from
60% in 1970 to 32% in 1980.[2] Perhaps distracted by a
long-running antitrust lawsuit, the colossus of Armonk"
completely missed the fast-growing minicomputer market during the 1970s,[3][4] and was behind rivals such as
Wang, Hewlett-Packard, and Control Data in other areas.
In 1979 BusinessWeek asked Is IBM just another stodgy,
mature company?"[2]

32.1.2 Too late?

Whether IBM had waited too long to enter an industry Apple and others were already successful in was
unclear.[5][2] Data General and Texas Instruments small
computers were not very successful. Historically selling
products developed over several years and which cost as
much as the annual sales of a successful microcomputer
company, they had to learn how to quickly mass-produce
and market new computers.[8] Observers expected AT&T
[2]
By 1981 IBMs stock price had declined by 22%. Its to soon enter the computer industry, and other large comearnings for the rst half the year grew by 5.3%one panies such as Exxon, Montgomery Ward, Pentel, and
third of the ination ratewhile those of minicomputer Sony were designing their own microcomputers.[12]
307

308

CHAPTER 32. IBM PERSONAL COMPUTER

APL\1130.[21] In 1973 APL was generally available only

on mainframe computers, and most desktop sized microcomputers such as the Wang 2200 or HP 9800 offered only BASIC. Because it was the rst to emulate APL\1130 performance on a portable, single-user
computer, PC Magazine in 1983 designated SCAMP a
revolutionary concept and the worlds rst personal
computer.[21][22] The prototype is in the Smithsonian Institution. A non-working industrial design model was also
created in 1973 illustrating how the SCAMP engineering
prototype could be transformed into a usable product design for the marketplace. IBM executive Bill Lowe used
the engineering prototype and design model internally by
the viability of creating
Many in the microcomputer industry resented IBMs in his early eorts to demonstrate
a single-user computer.[23]
power and wealth, and disliked the perception that a company so staid that it had its own employee songbook Successful demonstrations of the 1973 SCAMP prowould legitimize a market founded by startups.[17][16] totype led to the IBM 5100 portable microcomputer
The potential importance to microcomputers of a com- launched in 1975. In the late 1960s such a machine would
pany so prestigious, that a popular saying in Ameri- have been nearly as large as two desks and would have
can companies stated No one ever got red for buy- weighed about half a ton.[21] The IBM 5100 was a coming IBM, was nonetheless clear.[18][11][19] InfoWorld, plete computer system programmable in BASIC or APL,
which described itself as The Newsweekly for Micro- with a small built-in CRT monitor, keyboard, and tape
computer Users, stated that for my grandmother, and drive for data storage. It was also very expensive, up
for millions of people like her, IBM and computer are to $20,000 USD. It was specically designed for prosynonymous.[20] BYTE (The Small Systems Journal) fessional and scientic customers, not business users or
stated in an editorial[11] just before the announcement of hobbyists.[24] Despite news reports that it was the rst
the IBM PC:
IBM product without a model number, when the PC was
introduced in 1981 it was designated as the IBM 5150,
putting it in the 5100 series[25] though its architecture
Rumors abound about personal computers
was not directly descended from the IBM 5100. Later
to come from giants such as Digital Equipment
models followed in the trend: For example, the PC/XT,
Corporation and the General Electric ComIBM Portable Personal Computer, and PC AT are IBM
pany. But there is no contest. IBMs new permachine types 5160, 5155, and 5170, respectively.[26]
sonal computer ... is far and away the media
star, not because of its features, but because it
Following SCAMP, the IBM Boca Raton Laboratory creexists at all. When the number eight company
ated several single-user computer design concepts to supin the Fortune 500 enters the eld, that is news
port Lowes ongoing eort to convince IBM there was a
... The inuence of a personal computer made
strategic opportunity in the personal computer business.
by a company whose name has literally come to
A selection of these early IBM design concepts created
mean computer to most of the world is hard
in the infancy of personal computing is highlighted in the
to contemplate.
book DELETE: A Design History of Computer Vapourware. One such concept in 1977, code-named Aquarius,
The editorial acknowledged the fear within the micro- was a working prototype utilizing advanced bubble memcomputer industry of a company many viewed as the en- ory cartridges. While this design was more powerful and
emy, but concluded with optimism: I want to see per- smaller than Apple II launched the same year, the adsonal computing take a giant step.[11]
vanced bubble technology was deemed unstable and not
ready for mass production.[23]
An observer stated that IBM bringing out a personal
computer would be like teaching an elephant to tap
dance.[13] Its least expensive computer was $15,000, the
company only sold through its internal sales force and had
no experience with resellers or retail stores,[4][14][15] and
it did not introduce the rst product designed to work with
non-IBM equipment until 1980.[5] While it traditionally
let others pioneer a new market, the personal-computer
development and pricing cycles were much faster than for
mainframes, with products becoming obsolete quickly.[2]
Another observer claimed that IBM made decisions so
slowly that, when tested, what they found is that it would
take at least nine months to ship an empty box.[16]

32.1.3

Predecessors

Desktop sized programmable calculators by Hewlett

Packard had evolved into the HP 9830 BASIC language
computer by 1972. In 1972-1973 a team led by Dr.
Paul Friedl at the IBM Los Gatos Scientic Center developed a portable computer prototype called SCAMP
(Special Computer APL Machine Portable) based on the
IBM PALM processor with a Philips compact cassette
drive, small CRT and full function keyboard. SCAMP
emulated an IBM 1130 minicomputer in order to run

32.1.4 Project Chess

Some employees opposed IBM entering the market.[27]
One said Why on earth would you care about the personal computer? It has nothing at all to do with oce automation. Besides, he added, all it can do is cause embarrassment for IBM.[28] The company had determined
from studying the market for years, and building the prototypes during the 1970s, that IBM was unable to internally build a personal computer protably.[29][2][23]

32.1. HISTORY
IBM President John Opel was not among those skeptical
of personal computers. He and CEO Frank Cary had divided the company into semi-autonomous Independent
Business Units (IBU) to encourage innovation.[27][14]
After Lowe became the rst head of the Entry Level
Systems IBU in Boca Raton[14] his team researched the
market. Computer dealers were very interested in selling an IBM product, but told Lowe that the company
could not design, sell, or service it as IBM had previously done. An IBM microcomputer, they said, must be
composed of standard parts that store employees could
repair.[30] While dealers disliked Apples business practices, including a shortage of the Apple II while the company focused on the III, they saw no alternative because
they doubted that IBMs traditional sales methods and bureaucracy would change.[15]
As with other large computer companies,[8] new products at IBM typically required about four to ve years for
development.[31][32][29] Atari in 1980 proposed that it act
as original equipment manufacturer for an IBM microcomputer. Aware that the company needed to enter the
market quickly[33] even the schools in Broward County,
near Boca Raton, purchased Apples[34] in July 1980
Lowe met with Opel, Cary, and others on the important
Corporate Management Committee.[29][2] He mentioned
the Atari proposal, and also suggested acquiring Atari
because we can't do this within the culture of IBM.
Lowe demonstrated the concept with an industrial design
model based on the Atari 800 platform.[23][27][13][30]
Instead of acquiring Atari, Cary ordered Lowe to build
a personal computer within a year. The committee allowed him to form an independent group of employees
"the Dirty Dozen, led by engineer Bill Sydneswhich,
Lowe promised, could design a prototype in 30 days. The
crude prototype barely worked when he demonstrated it
in August, but Lowe presented a detailed business plan
that proposed that the new computer have an open architecture, use non-proprietary components and software,
and be sold through retail stores, all contrary to IBM
tradition.[13][23][27][30]

309

32.1.5 Open standards

The IBM team developed the PC in about a year,[4][31]
and although the company denied doing so, many observers later concluded that IBM intentionally emulated
Apple.[39] The many Apple II owners on the team inuenced its decision to design the computer with an open
architecture[36] and publish technical information so others could build expansion slot peripherals.[4]
Although IBM knew that it could not avoid competition from third-party software on proprietary hardware
Digital Research released CP/M-86 for the IBM Displaywriter, for example[5] it considered using the IBM 801
RISC processor and its operating system, developed at the
Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights,
New York. The 801 processor was more than an order of
magnitude more powerful than the Intel 8088, and the
operating system more advanced than the PC DOS 1.0
operating system from Microsoft. Ruling out an in-house
solution made the teams job much easier and may have
avoided a delay in the schedule, but the ultimate consequences of this decision for IBM were far-reaching. IBM
had recently developed the Datamaster business microcomputer, which used an Intel processor and peripheral
ICs; familiarity with these chips and the availability of the
Intel 8088 processor was a deciding factor in the choice
of processor for the new product. Even the 62-pin expansion bus slots were designed to be similar to the Datamaster slots. Delays due to in-house development of the
Datamaster software also inuenced the design team to a
fast-track development process for the PC, with publicly
available technical information to encourage third-party
developers.[41][14]
IBM had always used its own components but could not
do so protably with Acorn. To save time and money,
the IBU built the machine with commercial o-the-shelf
parts from original equipment manufacturers whenever
possible, with assembly occurring in Boca Raton. The
IBU would decide whether it would be more economical
to Make or Buy each manufacturing step.[2][4] Various
IBM divisions for the rst time competed with outsiders
to build parts of the new computer; a North Carolina IBM
factory built the keyboard, the Endicott, New York factory had to lower its bid for printed circuit boards, and
a Taiwanese company built the monitor.[2][27][35] IBM
chose the 8088 over the superior 8086 because Intel offered a better price on the former and could provide more
units.[42] Rather than developing unique IBM PC monitor
and printer designs, project management used an existing
monitor from IBM Japan and an Epson printer. Because
of the o-the-shelf parts only the system unit and keyboard has unique IBM industrial design elements, and the
IBM copyright appears in only the ROM BIOS and on the
company logo.[43][4]

The committee agreed that Lowes approach was the most

likely to succeed. With Opels strong support, in October it approved turning the group into another IBU codenamed Project Chess to develop Acorn, with unusually large funding to help achieve the goal of introducing
the product within one year of the August demonstration.
After Lowes promotion in November Don Estridge became the head of Chess,[35][14][27] and by January 1981
the team made its rst demonstration of the computer
within IBM.[29] Other key members included Sydnes,[27]
Lewis Eggebrecht,[36] David Bradley,[37] Mark Dean,[38]
and David O'Connor.[39] Many were already hobbyists
who owned their own computers[31] including Estridge,
who had an Apple II.[40] After the team received permission to expand to 150 by the end of 1980, it received more Because the product would carry the IBM logo, the only
than 500 calls in one day from IBM employees interested corporate division the IBU could not bypass was the
in joining the IBU.[2]
Quality Assurance Unit.[35] Another aspect of IBM that

310

CHAPTER 32. IBM PERSONAL COMPUTER

did not change was its emphasis on secrecy.[34] Those

working on the project were under strict condentiality
agreements. When an individual mentioned in public on
a Saturday that his company was working on software for
a new IBM computer, IBM security appeared at the company on Monday to investigate the leak.[44] Developers
received prototype computers in boxes lined with lead to
block X-rays and soldered sealed, and had to keep them
in locked, windowless rooms;[45] to develop software Microsoft emulated the PC on a DEC minicomputer and
used the prototype for debugging.[14] After the PCs debut, IBM Boca Raton employees continued to decline to
discuss their jobs in public. One writer compared the silence after asking one about his role at the company to
"hit[ting] the wall at the Boston Marathon: the conversation is over.[34]

32.1.6

Debut

IBM introduced the Personal Computer on 12 August

1981. Pricing started at $1,565 for a conguration with
16K RAM, Color Graphics Adapter, and no disk drives.
The company intentionally set prices for it and other
congurations that were comparable to Apples;[4][27][13]
one analyst stated that IBM has taken the gloves o.[1]
Microsoft, Digital Research, Personal Software, and
Peachtree Software provided software for the new computer. The launch titles included both VisiCalc[46] and
Adventure; the willingness of the colossus of Armonk to
sell a video game that, its press release stated, brought
players into a fantasy world of caves and treasures astounded observers.[47][15]
The companys rapid development of the computer,[31]
and encouragement of outside developersit did not
sell internally developed PC software until April 1984
amazed others;[39][48] BYTE called it startling,[5] and
one developer reported that its a very dierent
IBM.[25] In contrast to other companies that did not release technical details[49] Texas Instruments, for example, intentionally made developing third-party TI 99/4A
software dicult,[50][51] even requiring a lockout chip in
cartridges[52] Sydnes stated that The denition of a
personal computer is third-party hardware and software,
and Estridge said that IBM did not keep software development proprietary because it could not out-BASIC
Microsoft BASIC. We would have to ... out-VisiCalc
VisiCorp and out-Peachtree Peachtreeand you just
can't do that.[39]

computer.[20] Another said They were very open and

helpful about giving us all the technical information we
needed. The feeling was so radically dierentits like
stepping out into a warm breeze. He concluded, After years of hasslingghting the Not-Invented-Here
attitudewe're the gods.[25] Estridge explicitly invited
small, cottage developers to create products,[46] and the
company asked users to submit software for publishing by
IBM[55] with, he said, our logo and our support.[56]
IBM sold the PC at a large discount to employees, encouraged them to write software,[15] and distributed a catalog
of inexpensive software written by individuals that might
not otherwise appear in public.[57][58]
BYTE described IBM as having the strongest marketing
organization in the world,[5] and the PCs sales and marketing also diered from its previous projects. The company was aware of its corporate reputation among potential customers; an early advertisement began Presenting
the IBM of Personal Computers,[4][59][49] and another
told developers that the company would consider publishing software for Education. Entertainment. Personal nance. Data management. Self-improvement. Games.
Communications. And yes, business.[55] A third advertisement began My own IBM computer. Imagine that.
It emphasized the novelty of an individual owning an
IBM computer: "[I]ts yours. For your business, your
project, your department, your class, your family and, indeed, for yourself.[60] In addition to its existing corporate sales force IBM opened its own Product Center retail stores, and for the rst time sold through others such
as ComputerLand.[4][15] Because retail stores receive revenue from repairing computers and providing warranty
service, IBM broke a 70-year tradition by permitting and
training non-IBM service personnel to x the PC.[2]

The Little Tramp

After considering Alan Alda, Beverly Sills, Kermit the

Frog, and Billy Martin as celebrity endorsers[61] IBM
chose Charlie Chaplin's The Little Tramp character
played by Billy Scudderfor a series of advertisements
based on Chaplins lms.[62][63] The very popular and
award-winning $36-million marketing campaign made
the star of Modern Timesa lm that expressed Chaplins
opposition to big business, mechanization, and technological eciencythe (as Creative Computing described
him) warm cuddly mascot of one of the worlds largest
[64][63][62][4][65]
Outsiders like Microsoft received cooperation that was, companies.
one writer said, "unheard of" for IBM.[53] The IBM Chaplin and his character became so widely associated
PC Technical Reference Manual included complete cir- with IBMTime stated that The Tramp ... has given
cuit schematics, commented ROM BIOS source code, [it] a human face[64] that others used his bowler hat and
and other engineering and programming information; cane to represent or satirize the company.[66][67][68][69][63]
it was so comprehensive that one reviewer suggested Although the Chaplin estate sued those like Otrona who
that the manual could serve as a university textbook,[54] used the trademark without permission, PC Magazine 's
and so clear that a developer claimed that he could April 1983 issue had 12 advertisements that referred to
design an expansion card without seeing the physical the Little Tramp.[62]

32.1. HISTORY

32.1.7

Reaction

311
said They didn't seem to care. It took them a full year to
realize what had happened.[74]

BYTE was correct in predicting that an IBM personal

computer would receive much public attention. David
Bunnell recalled that
32.1.8

Success

None of my associates wanted to talk about

the Apple II or the Osborne I computer anymore, nor did they want to fantasize about writing the next super-selling program ... All they
wanted to talk about was the IBM Personal
Computerwhat it was, its potential and limitations, and most of all, the impact IBM would
have on the business of personal computing.[39]

The IBM PC was immediately successful. BYTE reported

a rumor that more than 40,000 were ordered on the day
of the announcement;[5] one dealer reportedly received
22 $1,000 deposits from customers although he could not
promise a delivery date.[13] The company could have sold
its entire projected rst-year production to employees,
and IBM customers that were reluctant to purchase Apples were glad to buy microcomputers from its traditional
supplier.[15] By October some referred to the computer
Within six weeks Bunnell left Osborne/McGraw-Hill and simply as the PC.[75]
helped found PC Magazine,[32] the rst periodical for the By COMDEX in November Tecmar developed 20
new computer.[49]
products including memory expansion and expansion
Competitors were more skeptical. Adam Osborne said chassis,[76] surprising even IBM.[39] Jerry Pournelle rewhen you buy a computer from IBM, you buy a la carte. ported after attending the 1982 West Coast Computer
By the time you have a computer that does anything, it Faire that because IBM encourages amateurs with
will cost more than an Apple. I don't think Apple has documents that tell all, an explosion of [third-party]
anything to worry about. Apples Mike Markkula agreed hardware and software was visible at the convention.[51]
that IBMs product was more expensive than the Apple PC World counted 753 software packages for the PC after
II,[70] and claimed that its unsuccessful[71] Apple III busi- one yearmore than four times the number available for
ness computer oers better performance. He denied the Apple Macintosh one year after its 1984 release
that the IBM PC oered more memory, stating that his including 422 applications and almost 200 utilities and
company could oer more than 128K but frankly we languages.[77] By that time 30 to 40 companies engaged
don't know what anyone would do with that memory. in what InfoWorld described as bloodthirsty competiJon Shirley of Tandy admitted that IBM had a legendary tion to sell memory-expansion cards,[78] and PC Magazine
service reputation but claimed that his companys thou- had to rename its planned 1001 Products to Use with
sands of Radio Shack stores can provide better service, Your IBM PC special issue after the number of prodwhile predicting the IBM PCs major market will be uct listings it received exceeded the gure.[20] Tecmar
IBM addicts. Many believed that the IBM PCs alleged and other companies that beneted from IBMs openness
weaknesses, such as the use of single-sided, single-density rapidly grew in size and importance, as did PC Magadisks with less storage than the computers RAM, existed zine; within two years it expanded from 96 bimonthly
because the company was uncertain about the market and to 800 monthly pages, including almost 500 pages of
was experimenting before releasing a better computer.[70] advertisements.[79][4]
Rivals had many advantages. While IBM began with
one microcomputer, little available hardware or software,
and a couple of hundred dealers,[72] Radio Shack had
more stores than McDonalds,[73] all of which only sold
its broad range of computers and accessories. Apple
had ve times as many dealers in the US as IBM, an established international distribution network, an installed
base of more than 250,000 customers, and hundreds of
independent developers of software and peripherals. At
least ten Apple databases and ten word processors were
available, while the PC had no databases and one word
processor.[72]

Although IBM sold fewer than 100,000 PCs in its rst

year,[77] by the end of 1982 the company was selling
one every minute of the business day.[18] It estimated
that 50 to 70% of PCs sold in retail stores went to the
home,[80] and the publicity from selling a popular product to consumers caused IBM to, a spokesman said, enter the world by familiarizing them with the Colossus of
Armonk. Although the PC only provided two to three
percent of sales[2] the company found that it had underestimated demand by as much as 800%, and because its
prices were based on forecasts of much lower volume
250,000 over ve years, which would have made the PC
IBM productthe computer became
Steve Jobs at Apple ordered a team to examine an IBM a very successful
[27][14]
very
protable.
PC. After nding it unimpressiveChris Espinosa called
the computer a half-assed, hackneyed attemptthe In August 1983 the Chess IBU, with 4,000 employcompany condently purchased a full-page advertisement ees, became the Entry Systems Division.[27][14] The
in The Wall Street Journal with the headline Welcome, PC surpassed the Apple II as the best-selling personal
IBM. Seriously. Microsoft head Bill Gates was at Apple computer[81] with more than 750,000 sold by the end of
headquarters the day of IBMs announcement and later the year.[14] inCider wrote This may be an Apple maga-

312

CHAPTER 32. IBM PERSONAL COMPUTER

zine, but lets not kid ourselves, IBM has devoured competitors like a cloud of locusts.[82] Retailers also beneted, with 65% of BusinessLand's revenue coming from
the PC. Demand still so exceeded supply two years after
its debut that, despite IBM shipping 40,000 PCs a month,
dealers reportedly received 60% or less of their desired
quantity.[83] Pournelle received the PC he paid for in early
July 1983 on 1 November,[84] and IBM Boca Raton employees had to wait ve weeks to buy their own.[34]

32.2 IBM PC as standard

One traditional strategy that the company did not abandon was aggressive pricing; as competitors began to affect demand for the PC, it lowered prices to maintain
sales.[4] In his 1985 obituary, The New York Times wrote
that Estridge had led the extraordinarily successful entry
of the International Business Machines Corporation into
the personal computer eld. The Entry Systems Division had 10,000 employees and by itself would have been
the worlds third-largest computer company behind IBM
and DEC,[81] with more revenue than IBMs minicomputer business despite its much later start. IBM was the
only major company with signicant minicomputer and
microcomputer businesses,[6] in part because rivals like
DEC and Wang did not adjust to the retail market.[88]

outcome revealed that the strategy of targeting the oce

market was the key to higher sales.

Main article: Inuence of the IBM PC on the personal

computer market

The success of the IBM computer led other companies

to develop IBM Compatibles, which in turn led to branding like diskettes being advertised as IBM format. An
IBM PC clone could be built with o-the-shelf parts, but
the BIOS required some reverse-engineering. Companies
like Compaq, Phoenix Software Associates, American
32.1.9 Domination
Megatrends, Award, and others achieved fully functional
versions of the BIOS, allowing companies like DELL,
By then Apple was less welcoming of the rival inCider Gateway and HP to manufacture PCs that worked like
stated had a godlike reputation.[82] Its focus on the III IBMs product. The IBM PC became the industry stanhad delayed improvements to the II, and the sophisticated dard.
Lisa was unsuccessful in part because, unlike the II and
the PC, Apple discouraged third-party developers. The
head of a retail chain said It appears that IBM had a better understanding of why the Apple II was successful than
had Apple.[15] Jobs, after trying to recruit Estridge to 32.3 Third-party distribution
become Apples president,[74] admitted that in two years
IBM had joined Apple as the industrys two strongest
competitors. He warned in a speech before previewing Because IBM had no retail experience, the retail chains
the forthcoming "1984" Super Bowl commercial: It ap- ComputerLand and Sears Roebuck provided important
[89][4][15]
ComputerLand
pears IBM wants it all ... Will Big Blue dominate the knowledge of the marketplace.
and
Sears
became
the
main
outlets
for
the new prodentire computer industry? The entire information age?
[85]
uct.
More
than
190
Computerland
stores
already
existed,
Was George Orwell right about 1984?"
IBM had $4
while
Sears
was
in
the
process
of
creating
a
handful
of inbillion in annual PC revenue by 1984, more than twice
store
computer
centers
for
sale
of
the
new
product.
This
that of Apple and as much as the sales of Apple, Com[86]
guaranteed
IBM
widespread
distribution
across
the
U.S.
modore, HP, and Sperry combined. A Fortune survey
found that 56% of American companies with personal Targeting the new PC at the home market, Sears Roebuck
computers used IBM PCs, compared to Apples 16%.[87] sales failed to live up to expectations. This unfavorable

Rumors of lookalike, compatible computers, created

without IBMs approval, began almost immediately after the IBM PCs release.[5][25] Other manufacturers soon
reverse engineered the BIOS to produce their own noninfringing functional copies. Columbia Data Products introduced the rst IBM-PC compatible computer in June
1982. In November 1982, Compaq Computer Corporation announced the Compaq Portable, the rst portable
IBM PC compatible. The rst models were shipped in
January 1983.

32.4 Models
All IBM personal computers are software backwardscompatible with each other in general, but not every program will work in every machine. Some programs are
time sensitive to a particular speed class. Older programs
will not take advantage of newer higher-resolution and
higher-color display standards, while some newer programs require newer display adapters. (Note that as the
display adapter was an adapter card in all of these IBM
models, newer display hardware could easily be, and often was, retrotted to older models.) A few programs,
typically very early ones, are written for and require a
specic version of the IBM PC BIOS ROM. Most notably, BASICA which was dependent on the BIOS ROM
had a sister program called GW-BASIC which supported
more functions and was 100% backwards compatible and
could run independent from the BIOS ROM.

32.5. PC

313
only motherboard external connectors were the keyboard
and cassette ports.
The simple PC speaker sound hardware was also on
board.

The original PCs maximum memory using IBM parts

was 256 kB, achievable through the installation of 64 kB
on the motherboard and three 64 kB expansion cards.
The processor was an Intel 8088 running at 4.77 MHz,
4/3 the standard NTSC color burst frequency of 315/88
= 3.57954[lower-alpha 1] MHz. (In early units, the Intel 8088
used was a 1978 version, later were 1978/81/2 versions
of the Intel chip; second-sourced AMDs were used after
IBM PC 5150.
1983). Some owners replaced the 8088 with an NEC V20
for a slight increase in processing speed and support for
real mode 80186 instructions. The V20 gained its speed
32.5 PC
increase through the use of a hardware multiplier which
the 8088 lacked. An Intel 8087 co-processor could also
The CGA video card, with a suitable modulator, could be added for hardware oating-point arithmetic.
use an NTSC television set or an RGBi monitor for disIBM sold the rst IBM PCs in congurations with 16 or
play; IBMs RGBi monitor was their display model 5153.
64 kB of RAM preinstalled using either nine or thirtyThe other option that was oered by IBM was an MDA
six 16-kilobit DRAM chips. (The ninth bit was used for
and their monochrome display model 5151. It was possiparity checking of memory.) After the IBM XT shipped,
ble to install both an MDA and a CGA card and use both
the IBM PC motherboard was congured more like the
monitors concurrently[92] if supported by the application
XTs motherboard with 8 narrower slots, as well as the
program. For example, AutoCAD, Lotus 1-2-3 and othsame RAM conguration as the IBM XT. (64 kB in one
ers allowed use of a CGA Monitor for graphics and a sepbank, expandable to 256kB by populating the other 3
arate monochrome monitor for text menus. Some model
banks.)
5150 PCs with CGA monitors and a printer port also included the MDA adapter by default, because IBM pro- Although the TV-compatible video board, cassette port
vided the MDA port and printer port on the same adapter and Federal Communications Commission Class B certication were all aimed at making it a home computer,[94]
card; it was in fact an MDA/printer port combo card.
the original PC proved too expensive for the home marAlthough cassette tape was originally envisioned by IBM
ket. At introduction, a PC with 64 kB of RAM and a
as a low-budget storage alternative, the most commonly
single 5.25-inch oppy drive and monitor sold for US
used medium was the oppy disk. The 5150 was available
$3,005 (equivalent to $7,795 in 2015), while the cheapwith one or two 5-1/4 oppy drives - with two drives the
est conguration (US $1,565) that had no oppy drives,
program disc(s) would be in drive A, while drive B would
only 16 kB RAM, and no monitor (again, under the exhold the disc(s) for working les; with one drive the user
pectation that users would connect their existing TV sets
had to swap program and le discs into the single drive.
and cassette recorders) proved too unattractive and lowFor models without any drives or storage medium, IBM
spec, even for its time (cf. footnotes to the above IBM
intended users to connect their own cassette recorder via
PC range table).[95][96] While the 5150 did not become a
the 5150s cassette socket. The cassette tape socket was
top selling home computer, its oppy-based conguration
physically the same DIN plug as the keyboard socket and
became an unexpectedly large success with businesses.
next to it, but electrically completely dierent.
A hard disk could not be installed into the 5150s system unit without changing to a higher-rated power supply. The IBM 5161 Expansion Chassis came with its
own power supply and one 10 MB hard disk and allowed
the installation of a second hard disk.[93] The system unit
had ve expansion slots, and the expansion unit had eight;
however, one of the system units slots and one of the expansion units slots had to be occupied by the Extender
Card and Receiver Card, respectively, which were needed
to connect the expansion unit to the system unit and make
the expansion units other slots available, for a total of 11
slots. A working conguration required that some of the
slots be occupied by display, disk, and I/O adapters, as
none of these were built into the 5150s motherboard; the

32.5.1 XT
Main article: IBM Personal Computer XT
The IBM Personal Computer XT, IBM model 5160,
was introduced two years after the PC and featured a 10
megabyte hard drive. It had eight expansion slots but the
same processor and clock speed as the PC. The XT had no
cassette jack, but still had the Cassette Basic interpreter
in ROMs.
The XT could take 256 kB of memory on the main board
(using 64 kbit DRAM); later models were expandable to

314

CHAPTER 32. IBM PERSONAL COMPUTER

640 kB. The remaining 384 kilobytes of the 8088 address

space were used for the BIOS ROM, adapter ROM and
RAM space, including video RAM space. It was usually
sold with a Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA) video
card or a CGA video card.
The eight expansion slots were the same as the model
5150 but were spaced closer together. Although rare, a
card designed for the 5150 would be wide enough to obstruct the adjacent slot in an XT.[97][98] Because of the
spacing, an XT motherboard would not t into a case designed for the PC motherboard, but the slots and peripheral cards were compatible. The XT expansion bus (later
called 8 bit Industry Standard Architecture" (ISA) by
competitors) was retained in the IBM AT, which added
connectors for some slots to allow 16-bit transfers; 8 bit
cards could be used in an AT.

ter the success of Compaqs suitcase-size portable machine (the Compaq Portable). It was released in February, 1984, and was eventually replaced by the IBM Convertible.
The Portable was an XT motherboard, transplanted into
a Compaq-style luggable case. The system featured 256
kilobytes of memory (expandable to 512 kB), an added
CGA card connected to an internal monochrome (amber) composite monitor, and one or two half-height 5.25
360K oppy disk drives. Unlike the Compaq Portable,
which used a dual-mode monitor and special display card,
IBM used a stock CGA board and a composite monitor,
which had lower resolution. It could however, display
color if connected to an external monitor or television.

32.5.5 AT
32.5.2

XT/370

Main article: PC-based IBM-compatible mainframes

The IBM Personal Computer XT/370 was an XT with
three custom 8-bit cards: the processor card (370PC-P)
contained a modied Motorola 68000 chip, microcoded
to execute System/370 instructions, a second 68000 to
handle bus arbitration and memory transfers, and a modied 8087 to emulate the S/370 oating point instructions.
The second card (370PC-M) connected to the rst and
contained 512 kB of memory. The third card (PC3277EM), was a 3270 terminal emulator necessary to install
the system software for the VM/PC software to run the
processors.

Main article: IBM Personal Computer/AT

The IBM Personal Computer/AT (model 5170), announced August 15, 1984, used an Intel 80286 processor,
originally running at 6 MHz. It had a 16-bit ISA bus and
20 MB hard drive. A faster model, running at 8 MHz and
sporting a 30-megabyte hard disk [101] was introduced in
1986.[102]

The AT was designed to support multitasking; the new

SysRq (System request key), little noted and often overlooked, is part of this design, as is the 80286 itself, the
rst Intel 16-bit processor with multitasking features (i.e.
the 80286 protected mode). IBM made some attempt
at marketing the AT as a multi-user machine, but it sold
mainly as a faster PC for power users. For the most part,
The computer booted into DOS, then ran the VM/PC IBM PC/ATs were used as more powerful DOS (singleControl Program.[99][100]
tasking) personal computers, in the literal sense of the PC
name.

32.5.3

PCjr

Main article: IBM PCjr

The IBM PCjr was IBMs rst attempt to enter the
market for relatively inexpensive educational and homeuse personal computers. The PCjr, IBM model number
4860, retained the IBM PCs 8088 CPU and BIOS interface for compatibility, but its cost and dierences in
the PCjrs architecture, as well as other design and implementation decisions, eventually led to the PCjr, and
the related IBM JX, being commercial failures.

32.5.4

Portable

Main article: IBM Portable Personal Computer

The IBM Portable Personal Computer 5155 model 68
was an early portable computer developed by IBM af-

Early PC/ATs were plagued with reliability problems, in

part because of some software and hardware incompatibilities, but mostly related to the internal 20 MB hard
disk, and High Density Floppy Disk Drive.[103]
While some people blamed IBMs hard disk controller
card and others blamed the hard disk manufacturer
Computer Memories Inc. (CMI), the IBM controller card
worked ne with other drives, including CMIs 33-MB
model. The problems introduced doubt about the computer and, for a while, even about the 286 architecture in
general, but after IBM replaced the 20 MB CMI drives,
the PC/AT proved reliable and became a lasting industry
standard.
IBM ATs Drive parameter table listed the
CMI-33 as having 615 cylinders instead of the
640 the drive was designed with, as to make
the size an even 30 MB. Those who re-used the
drives mostly found that the 616th cylinder was
bad due to it being used as a landing area.

32.6. TECHNOLOGY

32.5.6

315

AT/370

The IBM Personal Computer AT/370 was an AT with

two custom 16-bit cards, running almost exactly the same
setup as the XT/370.

32.5.7

Convertible

Main article: IBM PC Convertible

The IBM PC Convertible, released April 3, 1986, was
IBMs rst laptop computer and was also the rst IBM
computer to utilize the 3.5 oppy disk which went on to
become the standard. Like modern laptops, it featured
power management and the ability to run from batteries.
It was the follow-up to the IBM Portable and was model
number 5140. The concept and the design of the body
was made by the German industrial designer Richard Sapper.
It utilized an Intel 80c88 CPU (a CMOS version of the
Intel 8088) running at 4.77 MHz, 256 kB of RAM (expandable to 640 kB), dual 720 kB 3.5 oppy drives, and
a monochrome CGA-compatible LCD screen at a price
of $2,000. It weighed 13 pounds (5.8 kg) and featured a
built-in carrying handle.
The PC Convertible had expansion capabilities through
a proprietary ISA bus-based port on the rear of the machine. Extension modules, including a small printer and
a video output module, could be snapped into place. The
machine could also take an internal modem, but there was
no room for an internal hard disk.

32.5.8

Next-generation IBM PS/2

Original IBM Personal Computer motherboard, IBM 5150. It

has ve 8-bit Industry Standard Architecture slots, and two DIN
connectors for keyboard and cassette interface.

sound (PC speaker, tone generation) circuitry, and keyboard interface. The original PC also has a cassette interface.
The bus used in the original PC became very popular, and
it was subsequently named ISA. While it was popular, it
was more commonly known as the PC-bus or XT-bus; the
term ISA arose later when industry leaders chose to continue manufacturing machines based on the IBM PC AT
architecture rather than license the PS/2 architecture and
its MCA bus from IBM. The XT-bus was then retroactively named 8-bit ISA or XT ISA, while the unqualied
term ISA usually refers to the 16-bit AT-bus (as better dened in the ISA specications.) The AT-bus is an extension of the PC-/XT-bus and is in use to this day in computers for industrial use, where its relatively low speed, 5
volt signals, and relatively simple, straightforward design
(all by year 2011 standards) give it technical advantages
(e.g. noise immunity for reliability).

The IBM PS/2 line was introduced in 1987. The Model

30 at the bottom end of the lineup was very similar to
earlier models; it used an 8086 processor and an ISA bus.
The Model 30 was not IBM compatible in that it did
not have standard 5.25-inch drive bays; it came with a
3.5-inch oppy drive and optionally a 3.5-inch-sized hard
disk. Most models in the PS/2 line further departed from
IBM compatible by replacing the ISA bus completely
with Micro Channel Architecture.
Quadram Quadboard.

32.6 Technology
32.6.1

Electronics

The main circuit board in an PC is called the motherboard

(IBM terminology calls it a planar). This mainly carries
the CPU and RAM, and it has a bus with slots for expansion cards. On the motherboard are also the ROM subsystem, DMA and IRQ controllers, coprocessor socket,

A monitor and any oppy or hard disk drives are connected to the motherboard through cables connected to
graphics adapter and disk controller cards, respectively,
installed in expansion slots. Each expansion slot on the
motherboard has a corresponding opening in the back of
the computer case through which the card can expose
connectors; a blank metal cover plate covers this case
opening (to prevent dust and debris intrusion and control
airow) when no expansion card is installed. Memory
expansion beyond the amount installable on the moth-

316

CHAPTER 32. IBM PERSONAL COMPUTER

erboard was also done with boards installed in expansion slots, and I/O devices such as parallel, serial, or network ports were likewise installed as individual expansion boards. For this reason, it was easy to ll the ve
expansion slots of the PC, or even the eight slots of the
XT, even without installing any special hardware. Companies like Quadram and AST addressed this with their
popular multi-I/O cards which combine several peripherals on one adapter card that uses only one slot; Quadram
oered the QuadBoard and AST the SixPak.

receiver/transmitter (UART) (at I/O address 0x3F8 or

0x3E8) controls the serial communication at the (pseudo)[108] RS-232 port.

32.6.3 Joystick port

As part of its bid to target the home computer market, IBM oered the Game Control Adapter for the PC,
which supported analog joysticks similar to those on the
Apple II. Although analog controls proved inferior for
arcade-style games, they were an asset in certain other
genres such as ight simulators. The joystick port on
the IBM PC supported two controllers, but required a Ysplitter cable to connect both at once. It remained the
standard joystick interface on IBM compatibles until being replaced by USB during the 2000s.

Intel 8086 and 8088-based PCs require expanded memory (EMS) boards to work with more than 640 kB of
memory. (Though the 8088 can address one megabyte
of memory, the last 384 kB of that is used or reserved
for the BIOS ROM, BASIC ROM, extension ROMs installed on adapter cards, and memory address space used
by devices including display adapter RAM and even the
64 kB EMS page frame itself.) The original IBM PC AT
used an Intel 80286 processor which can access up to 16
MB of memory (though standard DOS applications can- 32.6.4 Keyboard
not use more than one megabyte without using additional
APIs.) Intel 80286-based computers running under OS/2 Main article: IBM PC keyboard
can work with the maximum memory.
The keyboard that came with the IBM 5150 was

32.6.2

Peripheral integrated circuits

The set of peripheral chips selected for the original

IBM PC dened the functionality of an IBM compatible. These became the de facto base for later application
specic integrated circuits (ASIC)s used in compatible
products.
The original system chips were one Intel 8259 programmable interrupt controller (PIC) (at I/O address
0x20), one Intel 8237 direct memory access (DMA)
controller (at I/O address 0x00),and an Intel 8253 programmable interval timer (PIT) (at I/O address 0x40).
The PIT provides the 18.2 Hz clock ticks, dynamic
memory refresh timing, and can be used for speaker
output;[104] one DMA channel is used to perform the
memory refresh.
The mathematics coprocessor was the Intel 8087 using
I/O address 0xF0. This was an option for users who
needed extensive oating-point arithmetic, such as users
of computer-aided drafting.
The IBM PC AT added a second, slave 8259 PIC (at
I/O address 0xA0), a second 8237 DMA controller for
16-bit DMA (at I/O address 0xC0), a DMA address
register (implemented with a 74LS612 IC) (at I/O address 0x80),[105] and a Motorola MC146818 real-time
clock (RTC) with nonvolatile memory (NVRAM) used
for system conguration (replacing the DIP switches and
jumpers used for this purpose in PC and PC/XT models (at I/O address 0x70).[106] On expansion cards, the
Intel 8255 programmable peripheral interface (PPI) (at
I/O addresses 0x378 is used for parallel I/O controls
the printer,[107] and the 8250 universal asynchronous

The original keyboard for the IBM 5150

an extremely reliable and high-quality electronic keyboard originally developed in North Carolina for the
Datamaster system.[109] Each key was rated to be reliable
to over 100 million keystrokes. For the IBM PC, a separate keyboard housing was designed with a novel usability
feature that allowed users to adjust the keyboard angle for
personal comfort. Compared with the keyboards of other
small computers at the time, the IBM PC keyboard was
far superior and played a signicant role in establishing a
high-quality impression. For example, the industrial design of the keyboard, together with the system unit, was
recognized with a major design award.[43] Byte magazine
in the fall of 1981 went so far as to state that the keyboard was 50% of the reason to buy an IBM PC. The importance of the keyboard was denitely established when
the 1983 IBM PCjr opped, in very large part for having a much dierent and mediocre Chiclet keyboard that
made a poor impression on customers. Oddly enough, the
same thing almost happened to the original IBM PC when
in early 1981 management seriously considered substituting a cheaper and lower quality keyboard. This mistake
was narrowly avoided on the advice of one of the original
development engineers.

32.6. TECHNOLOGY

317

However, the original 1981 IBM PC 84-key keyboard

was criticized by typists for its non-standard placement
of the Return and left Shift keys, and because it did not
have separate cursor and numeric pads that were popular on the pre-PC DEC VT100 series video terminals. In
1982, Key Tronic introduced the now standard 101-key
PC keyboard. In 1984, IBM corrected the Return and
left Shift keys on its AT keyboard, but shortened the
Backspace key, making it harder to reach. In 1986, IBM
changed to the 101 key enhanced keyboard, which added
the separate cursor and numeric key pads, relocated all
the function keys and the Ctrl keys, and the Esc key was
also relocated to the opposite side of the keyboard.

acter codes. This character set was not suitable for some
international applications, and soon a veritable cottage industry emerged providing variants of the original character set in various national variants. In IBM tradition,
these variants were called code pages. These codings are
now obsolete, having been replaced by more systematic
and standardized forms of character coding, such as ISO
8859-1, Windows-1251 and Unicode. The original character set is known as code page 437.

Another feature of the original keyboard is the relatively

loud click sound each key made when pressed. Since
typewriter users were accustomed to keeping their eyes on
the hardcopy they were typing from and had come to rely
on the mechanical sound that was made as each character
was typed onto the paper to ensure that they had pressed
the key hard enough (and only once), the PC keyboard
used a keyswitch that produced a click and tactile bump
intended to provide that same reassurance.

Cassette tape

32.6.6 Storage media

Main article: IBM cassette tape

IBM equipped the model 5150 with a cassette port for
connecting a cassette drive and assumed that home users
would purchase the low-end model and save les to cassette tapes as was typical of home computers of the time.
However, adoption of the oppy- and monitor-less conguration was low; few (if any) IBM PCs left the factory without a oppy disk drive installed. Also, DOS
was not available on cassette tape, only on oppy disks
(hence Disk Operating System). 5150s with just external cassette recorders for storage could only use the
built-in ROM BASIC as their operating system. As DOS
saw increasing adoption, the incompatibility of DOS programs with PCs that used only cassettes for storage made
this conguration even less attractive. The ROM BIOS
supported cassette operations.

The IBM PC keyboard is very robust and exible. The

low-level interface for each key is the same: each key
sends a signal when it is pressed and another signal when
it is released. An integrated microcontroller in the keyboard scans the keyboard and encodes a scan code and
release code for each key as it is pressed and released
separately. Any key can be used as a shift key, and a large
number of keys can be held down simultaneously and separately sensed. The controller in the keyboard handles
typematic operation, issuing periodic repeat scan codes
for a depressed key and then a single release code when The IBM PC cassette interface encodes data using frethe key is nally released.
quency modulation with a variable data rate. Either a
An IBM PC compatible may have a keyboard that does one or a zero is represented by a single cycle of a square
not recognize every key combination a true IBM PC does, wave, but the square wave frequencies dier by a factor
such as shifted cursor keys. In addition, the compatible of two, with ones having the lower frequency. Therefore,
vendors sometimes used proprietary keyboard interfaces, the bit periods for zeros and ones also dier by a factor
of two, with the unusual eect that a data stream with
preventing the keyboard from being replaced.
more zeros than ones will use less tape (and time) than an
Although the PC/XT and AT used the same style of keyequal-length (in bits) data stream containing more ones
board connector, the low-level protocol for reading the
than zeros, or equal numbers of each.
keyboard was dierent between these two series. The
AT keyboard uses a bidirectional interface which allows IBM also had an exclusive license agreement with Mithe computer to send commands to the keyboard. An AT crosoft to include BASIC in the ROM of the PC; clone
keyboard could not be used in an XT, nor the reverse. manufacturers could not have ROM BASIC on their maThird-party keyboard manufacturers provided a switch chines, but it also became a problem as the XT, AT,
on some of their keyboards to select either the AT-style and PS/2 eliminated the cassette port and IBM was
still required to install the (now useless) BASIC with
or XT-style protocol for the keyboard.
them. The agreement nally expired in 1991 when MiSee also: Keyboard layout
crosoft replaced BASICA/GW-BASIC with QBASIC.
The main core BASIC resided in ROM and linked
up with the RAM-resident BASIC.COM/BASICA.COM
included with PC-DOS (they provided disk support and
32.6.5 Character set
other extended features not present in ROM BASIC). Because BASIC was over 50k in size, this served a useful
The original IBM PC used the 7-bit ASCII alphabet as function during the rst three years of the PC when maits basis, but extended it to 8 bits with nonstandard char- chines only had 64k-128k of memory, but became less

318

CHAPTER 32. IBM PERSONAL COMPUTER

important by 1985. For comparison, clone makers such of 1982. After the upgraded 64k-256k motherboard PCs
as Compaq were forced to include a version of BASIC arrived in early 1983, single-sided drives and the cassette
that resided entirely in RAM.
model were discontinued.
Floppy diskettes

IBMs original oppy disk controller card also included

an external 37-pin D-shell connector. This allowed users
to connect additional external oppy drives by third party
vendors, but IBM did not oer their own external oppies
until 1986.
The industry-standard way of setting oppy drive numbers was via setting jumper switches on the drive unit,
however IBM chose to instead use a method known as the
cable twist which had a oppy data cable with a bend in
the middle of it that served as a switch for the drive motor control. This eliminated the need for users to adjust
jumpers while installing a oppy drive.
Fixed disks

Tandon 5.25-inch Diskette Drive with a partially inserted doubledensity diskette containing DOS 1.1.

Most or all 5150 PCs had one or two 5.25-inch oppy disk
drives. These were either single-sided double-density
(SSDD) or double-sided double-density (DSDD) drives.
The IBM PC never used single density oppy drives. The
drives and disks were commonly referred to by capacity,
such as 160KB oppy disk or 360KB oppy drive.
DSDD drives were backwards compatible; they could
read and write SSDD oppies. The same type of physical diskette media could be used for both drives, but a
disk formatted for double-sided use could not be read on 20MB Seagate ST-225 with a controller card by Western Digital
a single-sided drive.
The disks were Modied Frequency Modulation (MFM)
coded in 512-byte sectors, and were soft-sectored.[110]
They contained 40 tracks per side at the 48 track per
inch (TPI) density,[111] and initially were formatted to
contain eight sectors per track. This meant that SSDD
disks initially had a formatted capacity of 160 kB,[112]
operating system was later updated to allow formatting
the disks with nine sectors per track. This yielded a formatted capacity of 180 kB with SSDD disks while DSDD
disks had a capacity of 320 kB.[113] However, the DOS
/drives,[114] and 360 kB with DSDD disks/drives.[115] The
unformatted capacity of the oppy disks was advertised
as 250KB for SSDD and 500KB for DSDD (KB
ambiguously referring to either 1000 or 1024 bytes; essentially the same for rounded-o values), however these
raw 250/500 kB were not the same thing as the usable
formatted capacity; under DOS, the maximum capacity
for SSDD and DSDD disks was 180 kB and 360 kB, respectively. Regardless of type, the le system of all oppy
disks (under DOS) was FAT12.

The 5150 could not itself power hard drives without

retrotting a stronger power supply, but IBM later oered
the 5161 Expansion Unit, which not only provided more
expansion slots, but also included a 10 MB (later 20 MB)
hard drive powered by the 5161s own separate 130-watt
power supply. The IBM 5161 Expansion Unit was released in early 1983.
During the rst year of the IBM PC, it was commonplace for users to install third-party Winchester hard disks
which generally connected to the oppy controller and required a patched version of PC-DOS which treated them
as a giant oppy disk (there was no subdirectory support).
IBM began oering hard disks with the XT, however the
original PC was never sold with them. Nonetheless, many
users installed hard disks and upgraded power supplies in
them.

After oppy disks became obsolete in the early 2000s,

the letters A and B became unused. But for 25 years, virtually all DOS-based PC software assumed the program
The earliest IBM PCs had only single-sided oppy drives installation drive was C, so the primary HDD continues
until double-sided drives became available in the spring to be the C drive even today. Other operating system

32.6. TECHNOLOGY
families (e.g. Unix) are not bound to these designations.
OS support

319
that software could call for basic tasks such as video output, keyboard input, and disk access in addition to interrupt handling, loading the operating system on bootup, and testing memory and other system components.
Thanks to the vectored interrupts of the x86 CPUs, clone
makers could easily reverse-engineer the IBM PC BIOS
without stealing any copyrighted code.
The original IBM PC BIOS was 8k in size and occupied four 2k ROM chips on the motherboard, with a fth
and sixth empty slot left for any extra ROMs the user
wished to install. IBM oered three dierent BIOS revisions during the PCs lifespan. The initial BIOS was
dated April 1981 and came on the earliest models with
single-sided oppy drives and PC DOS 1.00. The second version was dated October 1981 and arrived on the
Revision B models sold with double-sided drives and
PC DOS 1.10. It corrected some bugs, but was otherwise
unchanged. Finally, the third BIOS version was dated
October 1982 and found on all IBM PCs with the newer
64k-256k motherboard. This revision was more-or-less
identical to the XTs BIOS. It added support for detecting ROMs on expansion cards as well as the ability to use
640k of memory (the earlier BIOS revisions had a limit
of 544k). Unlike the XT, the original PC remained functionally unchanged from 1983 until its discontinuation in
early 1987 and did not get support for 101-key keyboards
or 3.5 oppy drives, nor was it ever oered with halfheight oppies.

IBM Disk Operating System version 1.1 by Microsoft

Which operating system IBM customers would choose

was at rst unclear.[56] Although the company expected
that most would use PC DOS[39] IBM supported using CP/M-86which became available six months after
DOS[116] or UCSD p-System as operating systems.[46]
IBM promised that it would not favor one operating
system over the others; the CP/M-86 support surprised
Gates, who claimed that IBM was blackmailed into
it.[56] IBM was correct, nonetheless, in its expectation;
one survey found that 96.3% of PCs were ordered with
the $40 DOS compared to 3.4% for the $240 CP/M86.[117]
The IBM PCs ROM BASIC and BIOS supported cassette tape storage. PC DOS itself did not support cassette
tape storage. PC DOS version 1.00 supported only 160
kB SSDD oppies, but version 1.1, which was released
nine months after the PCs introduction, supported 160
kB SSDD and 320 kB DSDD oppies. Support for the
slightly larger nine sector per track 180 kB and 360 kB
formats arrived 10 months later in March 1983.

32.6.7

BIOS

32.6.8 Video output

IBM initially oered two video adapters for the PC, the
Color/Graphics Adapter and the Monochrome Display
and Printer Adapter. CGA was intended to be a typical home computer display; it had NTSC output and
could be connected to a composite monitor or a TV set
with an RF modulator in addition to RGB for digital
RGBI-type monitors, although IBM did not oer their
own RGB monitor until 1983. Supported graphics modes
were 40 or 80x25 color text with 8x8 character resolution,
320x200 bitmap graphics with two xed 4-color palettes,
or 640x200 monochrome graphics.
The MDA card and its companion 5151 monitor supported only 80x25 text with a 9x14 character resolution
(total pixel resolution was 720x350). It was mainly intended for the business market and so also included a
printer port.
During 1982, the rst third-party video card for the
PC appeared when Hercules Computer Technologies released a clone of the MDA that could use bitmap graphics. Although not supported by the BIOS, the Hercules
Graphics Adapter became extremely popular for business
use due to allowing sharp, high resolution graphics plus
text and itself was widely cloned by other manufacturers.

The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) provided the core In 1985, after the launch of the IBM AT, the new
ROM code for the PC. It contained a library of functions Enhanced Graphics Adapter became available which

320

CHAPTER 32. IBM PERSONAL COMPUTER

could support 320x200 or 640x200 in 16 colors in ad- machines from Apple and others. The reviewer admitted
dition to high-resolution 640x350 16 color graphics.
that the computer came as a shock. I expected that the
IBM also oered a video board for the PC, XT, and giant would stumble by overestimating or underestimatAT known as the Professional Graphics Adapter during ing the capabilities the public wants and stubbornly insist1984-86, mainly intended for CAD design. It was ex- ing on incompatibility with the rest of the microcomputer
tremely expensive, required a special monitor, and was world. But IBM didn't stumble at all; instead, the giant
jumped leagues in front of the competition ... the only
rarely ordered by customers.
disappointment about the IBM Personal Computer is its
VGA graphics cards could also be installed in IBM PCs dull name.[46]
and XTs, although they were introduced after the comIn a more detailed review in January 1982, BYTE called
puters discontinuation.
the IBM PC a synthesis of the best the microcomputer
industry has oered to date ... as well designed on the
32.6.9 Serial port addresses and interrupts inside as it is on the outside. The magazine praised the
keyboard as bar none, the best ... on any microcomThe serial port is an 8250 or a derivative (such as the puter, describing the unusual Shift key locations as mi16450 or 16550), mapped to eight consecutive IO ad- nor [problems] compared to some of the gigantic mistakes made on almost every other microcomputer keydresses and one interrupt request line.
board. The review also complimented IBMs manuals,
Only COM1: and COM2: addresses were dened by the which it predicted will set the standard for all microoriginal PC. Attempts to share IRQ3 and IRQ4 to use computer documentation in the future. Not only are they
additional ports require special measures in hardware and well packaged, well organized, and easy to understand,
software, since shared IRQs were not dened in the origi- but they are also complete". Observing that detailed technal PC design. The most typical devices plugged into the nical information was available much earlier ... than it
serial port were modems and mice. Plotters and serial has been for other machines, the magazine predicted that
printers were also among the more commonly-used serial given a reasonable period of time, plenty of hardware
peripherals, and there were numerous other more unusual and software will probably be developed for the comuses such as operating cash registers, factory equipment, puter. The review stated that although the IBM PC cost
and connecting terminals.
more than comparably congured Apple II and TRS-80
computers, and the insucient number of slots for all desirable expansion cards was its most serious weakness,
32.6.10 Printer port
you get a lot more for your money and concluded, In
two years or so, I think [it] will be one of the most popIBM made a deal with Japan-based Epson to producer
ular and best-supported ... IBM should be proud of the
printers for the PC and all IBM-branded printers were
people who designed it.[49]
manufactured by that company (Epson of course also
sold printers with their own name). There was a considerable amount of controversy when IBM included a
printer port on the PC that did not follow the industry- 32.8 Longevity
standard Centronics design, and it was rumored that this
had been done to prevent customers from using non- Many IBM PCs have remained in service long after their
Epson/IBM printers with their machines (plugging a Cen- technology became largely obsolete. In June 2006, IBM
tronics printer into an IBM PC could damage the printer, PC and XT models were still in use at the majority of
the parallel port, or both). Although third-party cards U.S. National Weather Service upper-air observing sites,
were available with Centronics ports on them, PC clones used to process data as it is returned from the ascendquickly copied the IBM printer port and by the late 80s, ing radiosonde, attached to a weather balloon, although
it had largely displaced the Centronics standard.
they have been slowly phased out. Factors that have
contributed to the 5150 PCs longevity are its exible
modular design, its open technical standard (making information needed to adapt, modify, and repair it read32.7 Reception
ily available), use of few special nonstandard parts, and
BYTE wrote in October 1981 that the IBM PCs hard- rugged high-standard IBM manufacturing, which proware is impressive, but even more striking are two de- vided for exceptional long-term reliability and durability.
cisions made by IBM: to use outside suppliers already Many newer PCs, by contrast, use proprietary parts and
established in the microcomputer industry, and to pro- PCs themselves become obsolete quickly. According to
vide information and assistance to independent, small- Moores Law the power of a microprocessor doubles evscale software writers and manufacturers of peripheral ery 18 months and it becomes easier to simply dispose of
devices. It praised the smart hardware design and the PC than to upgrade or repair it.
stated that its price was not much higher than the 8-bit The slot specications are still used in current PCs as well

32.12. REFERENCES

321

as the limitation of having four active partitions on a hard

disk. Many systems still come with PS/2 style Keyboard
and mouse connectors, and power supply connectors are
based on later standards.

[3] I.B.M.'S Speedy Redirection. The New York Times.

1983-11-02. Retrieved 2011-02-25.

32.9 Collectability

[5] Libes, Sol (December 1981). Bytelines. BYTE. pp.

314318. Retrieved 29 January 2015.

The IBM model 5150 Personal Computer has become a

collectable among vintage computer collectors, due to the
system being the rst true PC as we know them today.
Today these systems can fetch anywhere from $100 to
$4500, depending on cosmetic and operational condition.
The IBM model 5150 has proven to be reliable; despite
their age of 30 years or more, some still function as they
did when new.[118]

[6] Jeery, Brian (1985-09-30). IBMs high-end micros

encroaching on mini territory. Computerworld. pp.
SR/2021. Retrieved 2 January 2015.

32.10 See also

386SLC
Apple Macintosh
Aptiva
Conventional memory
IBM 4860
IBM 5120
IBM 5155
IBM token ring networks
Input/Output Base Address
List of IBM products
ThinkCentre
ThinkPad

32.11 Notes
[1] Repeating decimal notation

32.12 References
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2015.
[73] Bartimo, Jim (August 20, 1984). Radio Shack Polishes
Its Image. InfoWorld. pp. 4752. Retrieved February
28, 2011.
[74] Isaacson, Walter (2013). Steve Jobs. Simon and Schuster.
p. 135,149. ISBN 1451648545.
[75] Edlin, Jim; Bunnell, David (FebruaryMarch 1982).
IBMs New Personal Computer: Taking the Measure /
Part One. PC Magazine. p. 42. Retrieved 20 October
2013.

[88] Bartimo, Jim (1984-11-05). Mainframe BUNCH Goes

Micro. InfoWorld. pp. 4750. Retrieved 6 January
2015.
[89] Mace, Scott (1981-10-05). Where You Can Go to Purchase the New Computers. InfoWorld. p. 49. Retrieved
1 January 2015.
[90] IBM did not oer own brand cassette recorders, but the
5150 had a cassette player jack, and IBM anticipated that
entry level home users would connect their own cassette
recorders for data storage instead of using the more expensive oppy drives (and use their existing TV sets as
monitors); to this end, IBM initially oered the 5150 in a
basic conguration without any oppy drives or monitor at
the price of $1,565, whereas they oered a system with a
monitor and single oppy drive for an initial $3,005. Few
if any users however bought IBM 5150 PCs without oppy
drives.
[91] Scott Mueller, Upgrading and Repairing PCs, 2nd Ed, Que
Books 1992,ISBN 0-88022-856-3, page 94
[92] Dual-Head operation on vintage PCs

324

CHAPTER 32. IBM PERSONAL COMPUTER

[93] Scott Mueller Upgrading and Repairing PCs, Second Edi- [112] 163,840 bytes, i.e. 512 bytes 8 sectors 40 tracks on
tion, Que Books, 1992, ISBN 0-88022-856-3 page 48
the one side used
[94] David J. Bradley The Creation of the IBM PC, BYTE,ISSN [113] 327,680 bytes, i.e. 512 bytes 8 sectors 40 tracks 2
sides
0360-5280/09,Volume 15, Number 9, September 1990
pp. 414-420
[114] 184,320 bytes, i.e. 512 bytes 9 sectors 40 tracks on
the one side used
[95] Whence Came the IBM PC Test and Measurement World,
retrieved March 2,
[115] 368,640 bytes, i.e. 512 bytes 9 sectors 40 tracks 2
sides
[96] Gene Smart and Andrew Reinhardt, 15 years of Bits, Bytes
and Other Great Moments, BYTE Magazine, September
[116] Edlin, Jim (JuneJuly 1982). CP/M Arrives. PC Mag1990 pg. 382
azine. p. 43. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[97] Howard81.co.uk
[117] PCommuniques. PC Magazine. February 1983. p. 53.
Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[98] Howard81.co.uk
[99] Corestore.org

[118] Can You Do Real Work With the 30-Year-Old IBM

5150? | PCWorld

[100] Muller, Guide to repairing and upgrading PCs 6th edition

[101] i.e. 33% more speed, 50% more disk space
[102] PC Magazine, Sept. 30, 1986, pp. 179-184
[103] The opening sentence of an April 29, 1986 PC Magazine
article reads If you own an IBM PC AT and your hard
disk hasn't crashed yet, don't worry -- it probably will.
highbeam.com & encyclopedia.com (the latter a Chicago
Sun-Times article citing the PC Magazine story). IBM
recovered, although with mixed comments, as noted in the
Sept. 30, 1986 PC Magazine article, The Two Faces of
IBMs 8-MHz AT, pp. 179 - 184.
[104] wustl.edu - ECE306 Lecture 16
[105] The DMA address register extends the 16-bit transfer
memory address capacity of the 8237 to 24 bits
[106] illinois.edu - Real time clock plus RAM
[107] ctv.se - PC KITS-tutorial page (parallel port, joystick
port)
[108] The IBM PC serial port is not strictly RS-232, since it uses
TTL signal levels, whereas RS-232 requires signals of +/3 to 15 volts; some signal levels that are valid for a TTL
high state, and all signal levels that represent a TTL low
state, fall within the forbidden range of 3 to +3 volts for
standard RS-232. (However, it is not dicult to design
and construct a level converter that will convert between
IBM serial port and standard RS-232 signals.)
[109] David Bradley, BYTE September 1990
[110] IBM (July 1982). Technical Reference: Personal Computer Hardware Reference Library (Revised Edition ed.).
IBM Corp. pp. 293. 6025008.
[111] Sometimes the tracks were also referred as cylinders,
which is technically correct and analogous to hard drive
cylinders. One oppy disk track equaled one cylinder,
however with double-sided oppies, only the rst sides
cylinder numbers were identical to the track numbers; on
the second side, the cylinders 1-40 corresponded to tracks
41-80 of the formatted oppy.

General references
Norton, Peter (1986). Inside the IBM PC. Revised
and enlarged. New York. Brady. ISBN 0-89303583-1.
August 12, 1981 press release announcing the IBM
PC (PDF format).
Mueller, Scott (1992). Upgrading and Repairing
PCs, Second Edition, Que Books, ISBN 0-88022856-3
Chposky, James; Ted Leonsis (1988). Blue Magic The People, Power and Politics Behind the IBM Personal Computer. Facts On File. ISBN 0-8160-13918.
IBM (1983). Personal Computer Hardware Reference Library: Guide to Operations, Personal Computer XT. IBM Part Number 6936831.
IBM (1984). Personal Computer Hardware Reference Library: Guide to Operations, Portable Personal Computer. IBM Part Numbers 6936571 and
1502332.
IBM (1986). Personal Computer Hardware Reference Library: Guide to Operations, Personal Computer XT Model 286. IBM Part Number 68X2523.
This article is based on material taken from the Free
On-line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008 and incorporated under the relicensing
terms of the GFDL, version 1.3 or later.

32.13 Further reading

Birth of the IBM PC, IBM Corporation History
Archives website

32.14. EXTERNAL LINKS

32.14 External links

IBM 5150 information at www.minuszerodegrees.
net
IBM PC 5150 System Disks and ROMs
IBM PC from IT Dictionary
IBM PC history and technical information
What a legacy! The IBM PCs 25 year legacy
CNN.com - IBM PC turns 25
IBM-5150 and collection of old digital and analog
computers at oldcomputermuseum.com
IBM PC images and information
A brochure from November, 1982 advertising the
IBM PC
A Picture of the XT/370 cards, showing the dual
68000 processors
The History Of The IBM Personal Computer

325

Chapter 33

Digital Equipment Corporation

Digital Equipment Corporation, also known as DEC[1]
and using the trademark Digital, was a major American company in the computer industry from the 1960s to
the 1990s. It was a leading vendor of computer systems,
including computers, software, and peripherals, and its
PDP and successor VAX products were the most successful of all minicomputers in terms of sales.

1980s, and especially the introduction of powerful 32-bit

systems in the 1990s, quickly eroded the value of DECs
systems. DECs last major attempt to nd a space in the
rapidly changing market was the DEC Alpha 64-bit RISC
processor architecture. DEC initially started work on Alpha as a way to re-implement their VAX series, but also
employed it in a range of high-performance workstations.
Although the Alpha processor family met both of these
goals, and, for most of its lifetime, was the fastest processor family on the market, extremely high asking prices[2]
were outsold by lower priced x86 chips from Intel and
clones such as AMD.

From 1957 until 1992 its headquarters were located in a

former wool mill in Maynard, Massachusetts, since renamed Clock Tower Place and now home to multiple
companies. DEC was acquired in June 1998 by Compaq,
which subsequently merged with Hewlett-Packard in May
2002. Some parts of DEC, notably the compiler business The company was acquired in June 1998 by Compaq, in
and the Hudson, Massachusetts facility, were sold to Intel. what was at that time the largest merger in the history of
Digital Equipment Corporation should not be confused the computer industry. At the time, Compaq was focused
with the unrelated companies Digital Research, Inc or on the enterprise market and had recently purchased sevWestern Digital, although the latter manufactured the eral other large vendors. DEC was a major player overLSI-11 chipsets used in DECs low end PDP-11/03 com- seas where Compaq had less presence. However, Compaq had little idea what to do with its acquisitions, and
puters.
soon found itself in nancial diculty of its own. The
company subsequently merged with Hewlett-Packard in
May 2002. As of 2007 some of DECs product lines were
still produced under the HP name.
33.1 Overview
Initially focusing on the small end of the computer market allowed DEC to grow without its potential competitors making serious eorts to compete with them. Their
PDP series of machines became popular in the 1960s,
especially the PDP-8, widely considered to be the rst
successful minicomputer. Looking to simplify and update their line, DEC replaced most of their smaller machines with the PDP-11 in 1970, eventually selling over
600,000 units and cementing DECs position in the industry. Originally designed as a follow-on to the PDP11, DECs VAX-11 series was the rst widely used 32bit minicomputer, sometimes referred to as "superminis".
These were able to compete in many roles with larger
mainframe computers, such as the IBM System/370. The
VAX was a best-seller, with over 400,000 sold, and its
sales through the 1980s propelled the company into the
second largest in the industry. At its peak, DEC was the
second largest employer in Massachusetts, second only to
the state government.

33.2 History
33.2.1 Origins
Ken Olsen and Harlan Anderson were two engineers who
had been working at MIT Lincoln Laboratory on the labs
various computer projects. The Lab is best known for
their work on what would today be known as interactivity, and their machines were among the rst where
operators had direct control over programs running in
real time. These had started in 1944 with the famed
Whirlwind which was originally developed to make a
ight simulator for the US Navy, although this was never
completed.[3] Instead, this eort evolved into the SAGE
system for the US Air Force, which used large screens
and light guns to allow operators to interact with radar
data stored in the computer.[4]

The rapid rise of the business microcomputer in the late When the Air Force project wound down, the Lab turned
326

33.2. HISTORY

327
community was hostile to investing in computer companies. Many smaller computer companies had come and
gone in the 1950s, wiped out when new technical developments rendered their platforms obsolete, and even large
companies like RCA and General Electric were failing to
make a prot in the market. The only serious expression
of interest came from Georges Doriot and his American
Research and Development Corporation (AR&D). Worried that a new computer company would nd it dicult to arrange further nancing, Doriot suggested the
edgling company change its business plan to focus less
on computers, and even change their name from Digital
Computer Corporation.[7]
The pair returned with an updated business plan that outlined two phases for the companys development. They
would start by selling computer modules as stand-alone
devices that could be purchased separately and wired together to produce a number of dierent digital systems
for lab use. Then, if these digital modules were able
to build a self-sustaining business, the company would
be free to use them to develop a complete computer in
their Phase II.[8] The newly christened Digital Equipment
Corporation received $70,000 from AR&D for a 70%
share of the company,[7] and began operations in a Civil
War era textile mill in Maynard, Massachusetts, where
plenty of inexpensive manufacturing space was available.

DEC was headquartered at a former wool mill at Clock Tower

Place, Maynard MA from 1957 until 1992

33.2.2 Digital modules

their attention to an eort to build a version of the Whirlwind using transistors in place of vacuum tubes. In order
to test their new circuitry, they rst built a small 18-bit
machine known as TX-0 which rst ran in 1956.[5] When
the TX-0 successfully proved the basic concepts, attention turned to a much larger system, the 36-bit TX-2 with
a then-enormous 64 kWords of core memory. Core was
so expensive that parts of TX-0s memory were stripped
for the TX-2, and what remained of the TX-0 was then
given to MIT on permanent loan.[6]
At MIT, Olsen and Anderson noticed something odd: students would line up for hours to get a turn to use the
stripped-down TX-0, while largely ignoring a faster IBM
machine that was also available. The two decided that
the draw of interactive computing was so strong that they
felt there was a market for a small machine dedicated to
this role, essentially a commercialized TX-0. They could
sell this to users where graphical output or realtime operation would be more important than outright performance.
Additionally, as the machine would cost much less than
the larger systems then available, it would also be able to
serve users that needed a lower-cost solution dedicated to
a specic task, where a larger 36-bit machine would not
be needed.[7]

System Building Blocks (System Module) 1103 hex-inverter card

(both sides)

In early 1958 DEC shipped its rst products, the Digital Laboratory Module line. The Modules consisted
of a number of individual electronic components and
germanium transistors mounted to a circuit board, the actual circuits being based on those from the TX-2.[9]

The Laboratory Modules were packaged in an extruded

aluminum housing,[10] intended to sit on an engineers
workbench, although a rack-mount bay was sold that held
9 laboratory modules.[11] They were then connected together using banana plug patch cords inserted at the front
In 1957 when the pair and Kens brother Stan went look- of the modules. Three versions were oered, running at
ing for capital, they found that the American business 5 MHz (1957), 500 kHz (1959), or 10 MHz (1960).[12]

328

CHAPTER 33. DIGITAL EQUIPMENT CORPORATION

The Modules proved to be in high demand in other computer companies, who used them to build equipment to
test their own systems. Despite the recession of the late
1950s, the company sold $94,000 worth of these modules
during 1958 alone, turning a prot at the end of its rst
year.[7]
The original Laboratory Modules were soon supplemented with the Digital Systems Module line, which
were identical internally but packaged dierently. The
Systems Modules were designed with all of the connections at the back of the module using 22-pin Amphenol
connectors, and were attached to each other by plugging
them into a backplane that could be mounted in a 19-inch
rack. The backplanes allowed 25 modules in a single 51/4 inch section of rack, and allowed the high densities A PDP-1 system, with Steve Russell, developer of Spacewar! at
the console. This is a canonical example of the PDP-1, with the
needed to build a computer.[9]
console typewriter on the left, CPU and main control panel in the

The original laboratory and system module lines were center, the Type 30 display on the right.
oered in 500 kilocycle, 5 megacycle and 10 megacycle versions. In all cases, the supply voltages were 15
and +10 volts, with logic levels of 3 volts (passive pull- core memory, 18-bits per word, and ran at a basic speed
of 100,000 operations per second. It was constructed
down) and 0 volts (active pull-up).[11]
using many System Building Blocks that were packaged
DEC used the Systems Modules to build their Memory
into several 19-inch racks. The racks were themselves
Test machine for testing core memory systems, selling
packaged into a single large mainframe case, with a
about 50 of these pre-packaged units over the next eight
hexagonal control panel containing switches and lights
years.[13] The PDP-1 and LINC computers were also built
mounted to lay at table-top height at one end of the mainusing Systems Modules (see below).
frame. Above the control panel was the systems standard
Modules were part of DECs product line into the 1970s, input/output solution, a punch tape reader and writer.
although they went through several evolutions during this Most systems were purchased with two peripherals, the
time as technology changed. The same circuits were Type 30 vector graphics display, and a Soroban Engineerthen packaged as the rst R (red) series "Flip-Chip" ing modied IBM Model B Electric typewriter that was
modules. Later, other module series provided addi- used as a printer. The Soroban system was notoriously
tional speed, much higher logic density, and industrial I/O unreliable, and often replaced with a modied Friden
capabilities.[14] Digital published extensive data about the Flexowriter, which also contained its own punch tape sysmodules in free catalogs that became very popular.
tem. A variety of more-expensive add-ons followed, including magnetic tape systems, punched card readers and
punches, and faster punch tape and printer systems.

33.2.3

PDP-1 family

Main article: PDP-1

With the company established and a successful product
on the market, DEC turned its attention to the computer
market once again as part of its planned Phase II.[8] In
August 1959, Ben Gurley started design of the companys
rst computer, the PDP-1. In keeping with Doriots instructions, the name was an initialism for "Programmable
Data Processor", leaving o the term computer. As
Gurley put it, We aren't building computers, we're building 'Programmable Data Processors. The prototype was
rst shown publicly at the Joint Computer Conference
in Boston in December 1959.[15] The rst PDP-1 was
delivered to Bolt, Beranek and Newman in November 1960,[16] and formally accepted the next April.[17]
The PDP-1 sold in basic form for $120,000, or about
$900,000 in 2011 US dollars.[18] By the time production
ended in 1969, 53 PDP-1s had been delivered.[13][19]

When DEC introduced the PDP-1, they also mentioned

larger machines at 24, 30 and 36 bits, based on the same
design.[20] During construction of the prototype PDP-1,
some design work was carried out on a 24-bit PDP-2, and
the 36-bit PDP-3. Although the PDP-2 never proceeded
beyond the initial design, the PDP-3 found some interest
and was designed in full.[21] Only one PDP-3 appears to
have been built, in 1960, by the CIAs Scientic Engineering Institute (SEI) in Waltham, Massachusetts. According to the limited information available, they used it
to process radar cross section data for the Lockheed A-12
reconnaissance aircraft. Gordon Bell remembered that it
was being used in Oregon some time later, but could not
recall who was using it.[22]

In November 1962 DEC introduced the $65,000 PDP-4.

The PDP-4 was similar to the PDP-1 and used a similar instruction set, but used slower memory and dierent
packaging to lower the price. Like the PDP-1, about 54
PDP-4s were eventually sold, most to a customer base
The PDP-1 was supplied standard with 4096 words of similar to the original PDP-1.[23]

33.2. HISTORY

329

In 1964 DEC introduced its new Flip Chip module design, and used it to re-implement the PDP-4 as the PDP7. The PDP-7 was introduced in December 1964, and
about 120 were eventually produced.[24] An upgrade to
the Flip Chip led to the R series, which in turn led to the
PDP-7A in 1965.[25] The PDP-7 is most famous as the
original machine for the Unix operating system,[26] and
until the Interdata 8/32 Unix only ran on DEC systems.[27]
A more dramatic upgrade to the PDP-1 series was introduced in August 1966, the PDP-9.[28] The PDP-9 was
instruction compatible with the PDP-4 and 7, but ran
about twice as fast as the 7 and was intended to be used
in larger deployments. At only $19,900 in 1968,[29] the
PDP-9 was a big seller, eventually selling 445 machines,
more than all of the earlier models combined.[30]
Even while the PDP-9 was being introduced, its replacement was being designed, and was introduced as
1969s PDP-15, which re-implemented the PDP-9 using
integrated circuits in place of modules. Much faster than
the PDP-9 even in basic form, the PDP-15 also included
a oating point unit and a separate input/output processor for further performance gains. Over 400 PDP-15s
were ordered in the rst eight months of production, and
production eventually amounted to 790 examples in 12
basic models.[30] However, by this time other machines
in DECs lineup could ll the same niche at even lower
price points, and the PDP-15 would be the last of the 18bit series.

33.2.4

PDP-8 family

Main article: PDP-8

In 1962, Lincoln Laboratory used a selection of System Building Blocks to implement a small 12-bit machine, and attached it to a variety of analog-to-digital (A
to D) input/output (I/O) devices that made it easy to interface with various analog lab equipment. The LINC
proved to attract intense interest in the scientic community, and has since been referred to as the rst real
minicomputer,[31] a machine that was small and inexpensive enough to be dedicated to a single task even in a small
lab.
Seeing the success of the LINC, in 1963 DEC took the
basic logic design but stripped away the extensive A to
D systems to produce the PDP-5. The new machine,
the rst outside the PDP-1 mould, was introduced at
WESTCON on 11 August 1963. A 1964 ad expressed
the main advantage of the PDP-5, Now you can own the
PDP-5 computer for what a core memory alone used to
cost: $27,000[32] 116 PDP-5s were produced until the
lines were shut down in early 1967. Like the PDP-1 before it, the PDP-5 inspired a series of newer models based
on the same basic design that would go on to be more famous than its parent.

A PDP-8 on display at the Smithsonian's National Museum of

American History in Washington, D.C.. This example is from
the rst generation of PDP-8s, built with discrete transistors and
later known as the Straight 8.

modules using Flip Chips. The machine was re-packaged

into a small tabletop case, which remains distinctive for
its use of smoked plastic over the CPU which allowed
one to easily see the wire-wrapped internals of the CPU.
Sold standard with 4 kWords of 12-bit core memory and
a Teletype Model 33 ASR for basic input/output, the machine listed for only $18,000. The PDP-8 is referred to
as the rst real minicomputer because of its sub-$25,000
price.[33][34] Sales were, unsurprisingly, very strong, and
helped by the fact that several competitors had just entered the market with machines aimed directly at the
PDP-5s market space, which the PDP-8 trounced. This
gave the company two years of unrestricted leadership,[35]
and eventually 1450 straight eight machines were produced before it was replaced by newer implementations
of the same basic design.[32]

DEC hit an even lower price-point with the PDP-8/S, the

S for serial. As the name implies the /S used a serial
arithmetic unit, which was much slower but reduced costs
so much that the system sold for under $10,000.[36] DEC
then used the new PDP-8 design as the basis for a new
LINC, the two-processor LINC-8. The LINC-8 used one
PDP-8 CPU and a separate LINC CPU, and included instructions to switch from one to the other. This allowed
customers to run their existing LINC programs, or upgrade to the PDP-8, all in software. Although not a huge
On 22 March 1965, DEC introduced the PDP-8, which seller, 142 LINC-8s were sold starting at $38,500.[32]
replaced the PDP-5s modules with the new R-series Like the original LINC to PDP-5 evolution, the LINC-

330

CHAPTER 33. DIGITAL EQUIPMENT CORPORATION

8 was then modied into the single-processor PDP-12,

adding another 1000 machines to the 12-bit family.[32][37]
Newer circuitry designs led to the PDP-8/I and PDP-8/L
in 1968.[14] In 1975, one year after an agreement between
Digital and Intersil, the Intersil 6100 chip was launched,
eectively a PDP-8 on a chip. This was a way to allow
PDP-8 software to be run even after the ocial end-oflife announcement for the Digital PDP-8 product line.

(S: Semiconductor Version). Later, unied the product

lines upgrades produced the compatible DECSYSTEM20, along with TOPS-20 that included virtual memory. The Jupiter Project was supposed to continue the
Mainframe product line into the future by using Gate
Arrays with the innovating Air Mover Cooling System, coupled with built in Floating Point Processing Engine called FBOX, delivering a top notch scientic
computing niche, yet the critical performance measurement was based upon COBOL compilation which did
not fully utilize the primary design features of Jupiter";
33.2.5 PDP-10 family
Though Jupiter Project failed, the engineers immediately adapted the 36 bits design into 32 bits design and
Main article: PDP-10
While the PDP-5 introduced a lower-cost line, 1963s seamlessly came out as VAX8600 released in 1985.

33.2.6 DECtape
Main article: DECtape
One of the most unusual peripherals produced for the
PDP-10 was the DECtape. The DECtape was a length
of special 3/4-inch wide magnetic tape wound on 5-inch
reels. The recording format was a 10-track approach using xed-length numbered 'blocks organized into a standard le structure, including a directory. Files could be
A B (blue) series Flip Chip module containing nine transistors, written, read, changed, and deleted on a DECtape as
1971
though it were a disk drive. For greater eciency, the
DECtape drive could read and write to a DECtape in both
PDP-6 was intended to take DEC into the mainframe directions.
market with a 36-bit machine. However, the PDP-6
In fact, some PDP-10 systems had no disks at all, usproved to be a hard sell with customers, as it oered
ing DECtapes alone for their primary data storage. The
few advantages over similar machines from the better esDECtape was also widely used on other PDP models,
tablished vendors like IBM or Honeywell, in spite of its
since it was much easier to use than hand-loading mullow cost around $300,000. Only 23 were sold,[38] or 26
tiple paper tapes. Primitive early time-sharing systems
depending on the source,[39] and unlike earlier models
could use DECtapes as system devices and swapping dethe low sales meant the PDP-6 was not improved with
vices. Although superior to paper tape, DECtapes were
intermediate versions. However, the PDP-6 is historirelatively slow, and were supplanted as reliable disk drives
cally important as the platform that introduced Monibecame aordable.
tor, an early time-sharing operating system that would
evolve into the widely used TOPS-10.[40]
In spite of the PDP-6s limited commercial success, it introduced many features that clearly had commercial benet. When the Flip Chip packaging allowed the PDP-6
to be re-implemented at a much lower cost, DEC took
the opportunity to carry out a similar evolution of their
36-bit design and introduced the PDP-10 in 1968. The
PDP-10 was as much a success as the PDP-6 was a failure; during its lifetime about 700 mainframe PDP-10s
were sold before production ended in 1984.[38] The PDP10 was widely used in university settings, and thus was
the basis of many advances in computing and operating
system design during the 1970s. DEC later re-branded
all of the models in the 36-bit series as the DECsystem10, and PDP-10s are generally referred to by the model
of their CPU, like KA10, soon upgraded to the KI10
(I:Integrated Circuits Version); then to KL10 (L:Large
Scale Integration - ECL logics Version); also the KS10

33.2.7 PDP-11
Main article: PDP-11
The PDP-11 16-bit computer was designed in a crash

PDP-11/20, the rst model of PDP-11 on display at EPFL.

program by Harold McFarland, Gordon Bell, Roger

33.2. HISTORY
Cady, and others.[41] The project was able to leap forward
in design with the arrival of Harold McFarland, who had
been researching 16-bit designs at Carnegie Mellon University. One of his simpler designs became the PDP-11,
although when they rst viewed the proposal, management was not impressed and almost cancelled it.[41]

331
oped using standalone paper-tape utilities. DOS-11 was
the PDP-11s rst disk operating system, but was soon
supplanted by more capable systems. RSX provided a
general-purpose multitasking environment and supported
a wide variety of programming languages. IAS was a
time-sharing version of RSX-11D. Both RSTS and Unix
were time-sharing systems available to educational institutions at little or no cost, and these PDP-11 systems were
destined to be the sandbox for a rising generation of engineers and computer scientists. Large numbers of PDP11/70s were deployed in telecommunications and industrial control applications. AT&T Corporation became
DECs largest customer.

In particular, the new design did not include many of the

addressing modes that were intended to make programs
smaller in memory, a technique that was widely used on
other DEC machines and CISC designs in general. This
would mean the machine would spend more time accessing memory, which would slow it down. However,
the machine also extended the idea of multiple General
Purpose Registers (GPRs), which gave the programmer RT-11 provided a practical real-time operating system in
exibility to use these high-speed memory caches as they minimal memory, allowing the PDP-11 to continue Digneeded, potentially addressing the performance issues.
itals critical role as a computer supplier for embedded
systems. Historically, RT-11 also served as the inspiration for many microcomputer OSs, as these were generally being written by programmers who cut their teeth on
one of the many PDP-11 models. For example, CP/M
used a command syntax similar to RT-11s, and even retained the awkward PIP program used to copy data from
one computer device to another. As another historical
footnote, DECs use of "/" for switches (command-line
options) would lead to the adoption of "\" for pathnames
in MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows as opposed to "/" in
Unix.[42]
The evolution of the PDP-11 followed earlier systems,
eventually including a single-user deskside personal comPDP-11/34 top view, showing the Unibus slots with the CPU, DK puter form, the MicroPDP-11. In total, around 600,000
PDP-11s of all models were sold. and a wide variety of
drive controller and other options.
third-party peripheral vendors had also entered the comA major advance in the PDP-11 design was Digitals puter product ecosystem.
Unibus, which supported all peripherals through memory
mapping. This allowed a new device to be added easily, generally only requiring plugging a hardware interface 33.2.8 VAX
board into the backplane and possibly adding a jumper to
the wire wrapped backplane, and then installing software Main article: VAX
that read and wrote to the mapped memory to control it.
The relative ease of interfacing spawned a huge market In 1976, DEC decided to extend the PDP-11 architecture
of third party add-ons for the PDP-11, which made the
to 32 bits while adding a complete virtual memory system
machine even more useful.
to the simple paging and memory protection of the PDPThe combination of architectural innovations proved superior to competitors and the 11 architecture was soon
the industry leader, propelling DEC back to a strong market position. The design was later expanded to allow
paged physical memory and memory protection features,
useful for multitasking and time-sharing. Some models
supported separate instruction and data spaces for an effective virtual address size of 128 kB within a physical
address size of up to 4 MB. Smaller PDP-11s, implemented as single-chip CPUs, continued to be produced
until 1996, by which time over 600,000 had been sold.[30]

11. The result was the VAX architecture, where VAX

stands for Virtual Address eXtension (from 16 to 32 bits).
The rst computer to use a VAX CPU was the VAX11/780, which DEC referred to as a superminicomputer.
Although it was not the rst 32-bit minicomputer, the
VAX-11/780s combination of features, price, and marketing almost immediately propelled it to a leadership position in the market after it was released in 1978. VAX
systems were so successful that in 1983, DEC canceled its
Jupiter project, which had been intended to build a successor to the PDP-10 mainframe, and instead focused on
as the single computer architecture
The PDP-11 supported several operating systems, in- promoting the VAX
[43]
for
the
company.
cluding Bell Labs new Unix operating system as well
as DECs DOS-11, RSX-11, IAS, RT-11, DSM-11, and Supporting the VAXs success was the VT52, one of the
RSTS/E. Many early PDP-11 applications were devel- most successful smart terminals. Building on earlier less

332

CHAPTER 33. DIGITAL EQUIPMENT CORPORATION

successful models (the VT05 and VT50), the VT52 was

the rst terminal that did everything one might want in a
single chassis. The VT52 was followed by the even more
successful VT100 and its follow-ons, making DEC one of
the largest terminal vendors in the industry. With the VT
series, DEC could now oer a complete top-to-bottom
system from computer to all peripherals, which formerly
required collecting the required devices from dierent
suppliers.

menu-based user interface which appeared to be radically

dierent from PC DOS or CP/M, which were more commonly used on the 8080 and 8088 based microcomputers
of the time. A second oering, the DECmate II was the
latest version of the PDP-8 based word processors, but
not really suited to general computing, nor competitive
with Wang Laboratories' popular word processing equipment.

The best known of DECs early microcomputers was the

dual-processor (Z80 and 8088) Rainbow 100, which ran
the 8-bit CP/M operating system on the Z80 and the 16bit CP/M-86 operating system on the Intel 8086 processor. It could also run a UNIX System III implementation
called VENIX. Applications from standard CP/M could
be re-compiled for the Rainbow, but by this time users
were expecting custom-built (pre-compiled binary) appli33.2.9 Early microcomputers
cations such as Lotus 1-2-3, which was eventually ported
along with MS-DOS 2.0 and introduced in late 1983. AlThe introduction of the rst general pur- though the Rainbow generated some press, it was unsucpose microprocessors inevitably led to the rst cessful due to its high price and lack of marketing and
microcomputers around 1975.
At the time these sales support.[48]
systems were of limited utility, and Ken Olsen famously
[49]
oppy disk drive
derided them in 1977, stating There is no reason for The way the DEC standard RX50
[45]
supported
DECs
initial
oerings
seemed
to encapsulate
any individual to have a computer in his home.
their
approach
to
the
personal
computer
market. AlUnsurprisingly, DEC did not put much eort into the
though
the
mechanical
drive
hardware
was
nearly
identimicrocomputer area in the early days of the market.
cal
to
other
5"
oppy
disk
drives
available
on
competing
Interestingly in 1977, the Heathkit H11 was announced;
[50]
a PDP-11 in kit form. At the beginning of the 1980s, systems, DEC sought to dierentiate their product by
DEC built the VT180 (codenamed Robin), which using a proprietary disk format for the data written on the
was a VT100 terminal with an added Z80-based micro- disk. The DEC format had a higher capacity for data, but
computer running CP/M, but this product was initially the RX50 drives were incompatible with other PC oppy
drives. This required DEC owners to buy higher-priced,
available only to DEC employees.[46]
specially formatted oppy media, which was harder to
It was only after IBM had successfully launched the IBM obtain through standard distribution channels. DEC atPC in 1981 that DEC responded with their own sys- tempted to enforce exclusive control over its oppy metems. In 1982, Digital introduced not one, but three dia sales by copyrighting its proprietary disk format, and
incompatible machines which were each tied to dier- requiring a negotiated license agreement and royalty payent proprietary architectures. The rst, the DEC Profes- ments from anybody selling compatible media. The prosional, was based on the PDP-11/23 (and later, the 11/73) prietary data format meant that RX50 oppies were not
running the RSX-11M+ derived, but menu-driven, P/OS interchangeable with other PC oppies, further isolating
(Professional Operating System). This DEC machine DEC products from the developing de facto standard PC
easily outperformed the PC, but was more expensive market. Hardware hackers and DEC enthusiasts eventuthan, and completely incompatible with IBM PC hard- ally reverse-engineered the RX50 format,[49][51] but the
ware and software, oering far fewer options for cus- damage had already been done, in terms of market contomizing a system. Unlike CP/M and DOS microcom- fusion and isolation.
puters, every copy of every program for the Professional
had to be provided with a unique key for the particular A further system was introduced in 1986 as the
machine and CPU for which it was bought. At that time VAXmate, which included Microsoft Windows 1.0 and
this was mainstream policy, because most computer soft- used VAX/VMS-based le and print servers along with
ware was either bought from the company that built the integration into DECs own DECnet-family, providing
computer or custom-constructed for one client. How- LAN/WAN connection from PC to mainframe or suever, the emerging third-party software industry disre- permini. The VAXmate replaced the Rainbow, and in
garded the PDP-11/Professional line and concentrated on its standard form was the rst widely marketed diskless
other microcomputers where distribution was easier. At workstation.
DEC itself, creating better programs for the Professional
was not a priority, perhaps from fear of cannibalizing the
PDP-11 line. As a result the Professional was a superior
machine, running inferior software.[47] In addition, a new
user would have to learn an awkward, slow, and inexible
The VAX processor architecture and family of systems
evolved and expanded through several generations during the 1980s, culminating in the NVAX microprocessor
implementation and VAX 7000/10000 series in the early
1990s.[44]

33.2. HISTORY

33.2.10

333

Networking and clusters

Hundreds of millions of dollars were spent on these

projects, at the same time that workstations using RISC
In 1984, DEC launched its rst 10 Mbit/s Ethernet. Eth- microprocessors were starting to approach VAX CPUs in
ernet allowed scalable networking, and VAXcluster al- performance.
lowed scalable computing. Combined with DECnet and
Ethernet-based terminal servers (LAT), DEC had produced a networked storage architecture which allowed 33.2.12 Faltering in the market
them to compete directly with IBM. Ethernet replaced
token ring, and went on to become the dominant network- As microprocessors continued to improve in the 1980s,
it soon became clear that the next generation would oer
ing model in use today.
performance and features equal to the best of DECs lowIn September 1985, DEC became the fth company to
end minicomputer lineup. Worse, the Berkeley RISC and
register a .com domain name (dec.com).
Stanford MIPS designs were aiming to introduce 32-bit
Along with the hardware and protocols, DEC also in- designs that would outperform the fastest members of the
troduced the VAXcluster concept, which allowed several VAX family, DECs cash cow.[52]
VAX machines to be tied together into a single larger storConstrained by the huge success of their VAX/VMS
age system. VAXclusters allowed a DEC-based company
products, which followed the proprietary model, the comto scale their services by adding new machines to the cluspany was very late to respond to these threats. In the early
ter at any time, as opposed to buying a faster machine and
1990s, DEC found its sales faltering and its rst layos
using that to replace a slower one. The exibility this offollowed. The company that created the minicomputer,
fered was compelling, and allowed DEC to attack higha dominant networking technology, and arguably the rst
end markets formerly out of their reach.
computers for personal use, had abandoned the low end
market, whose dominance with the PDP-8 had built the
company in a previous generation. Decisions about what
33.2.11 Diversication
to do about this threat led to inghting within the comAlthough their microcomputer eorts were eventually pany that seriously delayed their responses.
considered failures, the PDP-11 and VAX lines continued to sell in record numbers. Better yet, DEC was competing very well against the market leader, IBM, taking
an estimated $2 billion away from them in the mid-80s.
In 1986, Digitals prots rose 38 percent when the rest
of the computer industry experienced a downturn, and
by 1987 the company was threatening IBMs number one
position in the computer industry.[7]
At its peak, Digital was the second-largest computer company in the world, with over 100,000 employees. It was
during this time that the company branched out development into a wide variety of projects that were far from
its core business in computer equipment. The company
invested heavily in custom software. In the 1970s and
earlier most software was custom-written to serve a specic task, but by the 1980s the introduction of relational
databases and similar systems allowed powerful software
to be built in a modular fashion, potentially saving enormous amounts of development time. Software companies like Oracle became the new darlings of the industry,
and DEC started their own eorts in every hot niche, in
some cases several projects for the same niche. Some of
these products competed with DECs own partners, notably Rdb which competed with Oracles products on the
VAX, part of a major partnership only a few years earlier.
Although many of these products were well designed,
most of them were DEC-only or DEC-centric, and customers frequently ignored them and used third-party
products instead. This problem was further exacerbated
by Olsens aversion to traditional advertising and his belief that well-engineered products would sell themselves.

One group suggested that every possible development in

the industry be poured into the construction of a new
VAX family that would leapfrog the performance of the
existing machines. This would limit the market erosion
in the top-end segment, where prot margins were maximized and DEC could continue to survive as a minicomputer vendor. This line of thought led, eventually, to
the VAX 9000 series, which were plagued with problems
when they were rst introduced in October 1989, already
two years late.[53] The problems took so long to work out,
and the prices of the systems were so high, that DEC was
never able to make the line the success they hoped.
Others within the company felt that the proper response
was to introduce their own RISC designs and use those
to build new machines. However, there was little ocial support for these eorts, and no less than four separate small projects ran in parallel at various labs around
the US. Eventually these were gathered into the DEC
PRISM project, which delivered a credible 32-bit design
with some unique features allowing it to serve as the basis
of a new VAX implementation.[54] Inghting with teams
dedicated to DECs big iron made funding dicult, and
the design was not nalized until April 1988, and then
cancelled shortly thereafter.[55]
Another group concluded that new workstations like
those from Sun Microsystems and Silicon Graphics would
take away a large part of DECs existing customer base
before the new VAX systems could address the issues,
and that the company needed its own Unix workstation
as soon as possible. Fed up with slow progress on both
the RISC and VAX fronts, a group in Palo Alto started a

334

CHAPTER 33. DIGITAL EQUIPMENT CORPORATION

skunkworks project to introduce their own systems. Selecting the MIPS processor, which was widely available,
introducing the new DECstation series with the model
3100 on 11 January 1989.[56] These systems would see
some success in the market, but were later displaced by
similar models running the Alpha.

33.2.13

with ARM Limited to produce the StrongARM microprocessor. This was based in part on ARM7 and in part
on DEC technologies like Alpha, and was targeted at
embedded systems and portable devices. It was highly
compatible with the ARMv4 architecture and was very
successful, competing eectively against rivals such as
the SuperH and MIPS architectures in the portable digital assistant market. Microsoft subsequently dropped
32-bit MIPS and 64-bit Alpha sys- support for these other architectures in their Pocket PC
platform. In 1997, as part of a lawsuit settlement, the
tems
StrongARM intellectual property was sold to Intel. They
continued to produce StrongARM, as well as developing
it into the XScale architecture. Intel subsequently sold
this business to Marvell Technology Group in 2006.

33.2.15 Designing solutions

Beyond DECsystem-10/20, PDP, VAX and Alpha, Digital was well respected for its communication subsystem designs, such as Ethernet, DNA (DIGITAL Network
Architecture predominantly DECnet products), DSA
(Digital Storage Architecture disks/tapes/controllers),
and its dumb terminal subsystems including VT100 and
DECserver products.[58]
Inside view of AlphaServer 2100.

Eventually, in 1992, DEC launched the DECchip 21064

processor, the rst implementation of their Alpha
instruction set architecture, initially named Alpha AXP
(the AXP was a non-acronym and was later dropped).
This was a 64-bit RISC architecture (as opposed to the
32-bit CISC architecture used in the VAX) and one of the
rst pure (not an extension of an earlier 32-bit architecture) 64-bit microprocessor architectures and implementations. The Alpha oered class-leading performance at
its launch, and subsequent variants continued to do so into
the 2000s. An AlphaServer SC45 supercomputer was
still ranked No. 6 in the world in November 2004.[57]
Alpha-based computers (the DEC AXP series, later the
AlphaStation and AlphaServer series) superseded both
the VAX and MIPS architecture in DECs product lines,
and could run OpenVMS, DEC OSF/1 AXP (later, Digital Unix or Tru64 UNIX) and Microsofts then-new operating system, Windows NT.

33.2.16 Final years

New 1993 corporate logo

At its peak in the late 1980s, Digital had $14 billion in

sales and ranked among the most protable companies in
the USA. With its strong sta of engineers, Digital was
expected to usher in the age of personal computers, but
the autocratic and trend-resistant Mr. Olsen was openly
skeptical of the desktop machines, saying the personal
computer will fall at on its face in business, and regarding them as toys used for playing video games. Digitals
fortunes declined after missing out on some critical marIn 1998, following the takeover by Compaq Computers, ket shifts, particularly toward the personal computer. The
a decision was made that Microsoft would no longer sup- board forced Olsen to resign as president in July 1992.[59]
port and develop Windows NT for the Alpha series com- In June 1992, Ken Olsen was replaced by Robert Palmer
puters, a decision that was seen as the beginning of the as the companys president. Digitals board of directors
end for the Alpha series computers.
also granted Palmer the title of chief executive ocer
(CEO), a title that had never been used during Digitals
35-year existence. Palmer had joined DEC in 1985 to
33.2.14 StrongARM
run Semiconductor Engineering and Manufacturing. His
relentless campaign to be CEO, and success with the AlMain article: StrongARM
pha microprocessor family, made him a candidate to succeed Olsen. At the same time a more modern logo was
In the mid-1990s, Digital Semiconductor collaborated designed[60]

33.2. HISTORY

335

Palmer restructured Digital into nine business units that

reported directly to him. Nonetheless, Digital continued
to suer record losses in recent quarters, including a loss
of $260.5 million for the quarter that ended on September 30, 1992. It reported $2.8 billion in losses for its
scal year 1992. January 5, 1993 saw the retirement of
John F. Smith as senior vice president of operations, the
second in command at Digital, and his position was not
lled. A 35-year company veteran, he had joined Digital in 1958 as the companys 12th employee, passing
up a chance to work for Bell Laboratories in New Jersey to work for Digital, then a tiny start-up company in
the mill town of Maynard, Mass. Smith rose to become
one of the three senior vice presidents in 1987 and was
widely considered among the potential successors to Ken
Olsen, especially when Smith was appointed chief operating ocer in 1991. Smith became a corporate spokesman
on nancial issues, and had lled in at trouble spots for
which Olsen ordered more attention. However Smith was
passed over in favor of Palmer when Olsen was forced to
resign in July 1992, though Smith stayed on for a time to
help turn around the struggling company.[61]

During the protable years up until the early 1990s, DEC

was a company that boasted that it never had a general
layo.[63] Following the 1992 economic downturn, layos became regular events as the company continually
downsized to try to stay aoat.[64] Palmer was tasked with
the goal of bringing DEC back to protability, which he
attempted to do by changing the established DEC business culture, hiring new executives from outside the company, and selling o various non-core business units:[65]

In June 1993, Palmer and several of his top lieutenants

presented their reorganization plans to applause from the
board of directors, and several weeks later Digital reported its rst protable quarter in several years. However on April 15, 1994, Digital reported a loss of $183
millionthree to four times higher than the loss many
people on Wall Street had predicted (compared with a
loss of $30 million in the comparable period a year earlier), causing the stock price on the NYSE to plunge
$5.875 to $23, a 20 percent drop. The losses at that point
totaled $339 million for the current scal year. Sales of
the VAX, long the companys biggest moneymaker, continued to decline, which in turn also hurt Digitals lucrative service and maintenance business (that made up
more than a third of Digital Equipments revenue of $14
billion in the 1993 scal year), which declined 11 percent year over year to $1.5 billion in the most recent
quarter. Markets acceptance of Digital Alpha computers
and chips has been slower than the company had hoped,
even though Alphas sales for the quarter estimated at
$275 million were up signicantly from $165 million
in the December quarter. Digital also made a strong
push into personal computers and workstations, which
had even lower margins than Alpha computers and chips.
Also, Digital was playing catchup with its own Unix
oerings for client-server networks, as it long emphasized its own VMS software, while corporate computer
users based their client-server networks on the industrystandard Unix software (of which Hewlett Packard was
one of the market leaders). Digitals problems were similar to that of larger rival I.B.M., due to the fundamental
shift in the computer industry that made it unlikely that
Digital could ever again operate protably at its former
size of 120,000 employees, and while its workforce had
been reduced to 92,000 people many analysts expected
that they would have to cut another 20,000.[62]

Text terminal business (VT100 and its successors)

was sold in August 1995 to Boundless Technologies.

Worldwide training was spun o to form an independent/new company called Global Knowledge Network.
Rdb, DECs database product, was sold to Oracle.
Rights to the PDP-11 line and several PDP-11 operating systems were sold to Mentec in 1994, though
DEC continued to produce some PDP-11 hardware
for a few years.[66]
Disk and DLT technologies was sold to Quantum
Corporation in 1994.

CORBA-based product, ObjectBroker, and its messaging software, MessageQ, were sold to BEA Systems, Inc in March 1997.
In May 1997, DEC sued Intel for allegedly infringing on its Alpha patents in designing the original
Pentium, Pentium Pro, and Pentium II chips.[67] As
part of a settlement, much of DECs chip design
and fabrication business was sold to Intel. This included DECs StrongARM implementation of the
ARM computer architecture, which Intel marketed
as the XScale processors commonly used in Pocket
PCs. The core of Digital Semiconductor, the Alpha
microprocessor group, remained with DEC, while
the associated oce buildings went to Intel as part
of the Hudson, Mass. fabrication site.
Printer business was sold in 1997 to GENICOM
(now TallyGenicom), which then produced models
bearing the Digital logo.
Networking business was sold c.1997 to Cabletron
Systems, and subsequently spun o as Digital Network Products Group.
DECtalk and DECvoice voice products were spun
o, and eventually arrived at Fonix Speech Group.
By 1997, Digital had subsidiary companies in more
than two dozen countries including Austria, Australia,
Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China (Peoples Republic),
Colombia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland,
France, Germany, Ireland, Israel, Japan, Jersey States,
New Zealand, Netherlands, Norway, Russia, Singapore,

336

CHAPTER 33. DIGITAL EQUIPMENT CORPORATION

Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, and the United

Kingdom.[68]

33.3 Research

Eventually, on 26 January 1998, what remained of the

company (including Digitals multivendor global services
organization and customer support centers) was sold to
PC manufacturer Compaq in what was the largest merger
up to that time in the computer industry. Several years
earlier, Compaq had considered a bid for Digital but became seriously interested only after Digitals major divestments and refocusing on the Internet in 1997. At
the time of Compaqs acquisition announcement, Digital had a total of 53,500 employees, down from a peak
of 130,000 in the 1980s, but it still employed about 65
percent more people than Compaq to produce about half
the volume of sales revenues. After the merger closed,
Compaq moved aggressively to reduce Digitals high selling, general, and administrative (SG&A) costs (equal to
24 percent of total 1997 revenues) and bring them more
in line with Compaqs SG&A expense ratio of 12 percent
of revenues.[69]

DECs Research Laboratories (or Research Labs, as they

were commonly known) conducted Digitals corporate research. Some of them were operated by Compaq and are
still operated by Hewlett-Packard. The laboratories were:

The Digital logo survived for a while after the company

ceased to exist, as the logo of Digital GlobalSoft, an IT
services company in India (which was a 51 percent subsidiary of Compaq). Digital GlobalSoft was later renamed HP GlobalSoft (also known as the HP Global
Delivery India Center or HP GDIC), and no longer uses
the Digital logo.

Ed deCastro co-founder of Data General Corporation

Western Research Laboratory (WRL) in Palo Alto,

California, USA
Systems Research Center (SRC) in Palo Alto, California, USA
Network Systems Laboratory (NSL) in Palo Alto,
California, USA
Cambridge Research Laboratory
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

(CRL)

in

Paris Research Laboratory (PRL) in Paris, France

MetroWest Technology Campus (MTC) in

Maynard, Massachusetts, USA
Compaq used the acquisition to move into enterprise services and compete with IBM, and by 2001 services made
up over 20% of Compaqs revenues, largely due to the Some of the former employees of Digitals Research Labs
Digital employees inherited from the merger.[70] Digitals or Digitals R&D in general include:
own PC manufacturing was discontinued after the merger
closed. As Compaq did not wish to compete with one of
Gordon Bell technical visionary, VP Engineering
its key partner suppliers, the remainder of Digital Semi1972-1983; Microsoft Research
conductor (the Alpha microprocessor group) was sold to
Leonard Bosack
Intel, which placed those employees back in their Hudson
(Massachusetts) oce, which they had vacated when the
Henry Burkhardt III co-founder of Data General
site was sold to Intel in 1997.
Corporation and Kendall Square Research
Compaq struggled as a result of the merger with
Mike Burrows
Digital,[69] and was acquired by Hewlett-Packard in 2002.
Compaq, and later HP, continued to sell many of the for Luca Cardelli
mer Digital products but re-branded with their own logos. For example, HP now sells what were formerly Dig Dave Cutler led RSX-11M and VAX/VMS
itals StorageWorks disk/tape products,[71] as a result of
operating systems development; then led Windows
the Compaq acquisition.
NT development at Microsoft

The digital.com and DEC.com domain names are now

owned by Hewlett-Packard and redirect to their US
website.[72] Digital once held the Class A IP address block
16.0.0.0/8.[73]
The Digital Federal Credit Union (DCU, now DFCU),
which was chartered in 1979 for employees of DEC, is
now open to essentially everyone. DFCU has over 700
dierent sponsors, including the companies that acquired
pieces of DEC.

Jim Gettys early developer of X Window System

Henri Gouraud
Jim Gray
Alan Kotok
Leslie Lamport
Butler Lampson
Louis Monier
Isaac Nassi
Radia Perlman
Marcus Ranum

33.4. ACCOMPLISHMENTS
Brian Reid
Paul Vixie

337
the company long before their value was recognized in
the market.

Digital, Intel and Xerox through their collaboration to

Some of the former employees of Digital Equipment create the DIX standard, were champions of Ethernet,
Corp who were responsible for developing Alpha and but Digital is the company that made Ethernet commercially successful. Initially, Ethernet-based DECnet and
StrongARM
LAT protocols interconnected VAXes with DECserver
terminal servers. Starting with the Unibus to Ethernet
Daniel W. Dobberpuhl
adapter, multiple generations of Ethernet hardware from
Digital were the de facto standard. The CI computer in Jill Keller
terconnect adapter was the industrys rst network in Rich Witek
terface controller to use separate transmit and receive
rings.
Some of the work of the Research Labs was published in
Digital also invented clustering, an operating system techthe Digital Technical Journal,[74] which was in published
nology that treated multiple machines as one logical enfrom 1985 until 1998.[75]
tity. Clustering permitted sharing of pooled disk and tape
storage via the HSC50/70/90 and later series of Hierarchical Storage Controllers (HSC). The HSCs delivered
33.4 Accomplishments
the rst hardware RAID 0 and RAID 1 capabilities and
the rst serial interconnects of multiple storage technoloDigital supported the ANSI standards, especially the gies. This technology was the forerunner to architectures
ASCII character set, which survives in Unicode and such as Network of Workstations which are used for masthe ISO 8859 character set family. Digitals own sively cooperative tasks such as web-searches and drug
Multinational Character Set also had a large inuence on research.
ISO 8859-1 (Latin-1) and, by extension, Unicode .
The LA36 and LA120 dot matrix printers became indusThe rst versions of the C language and the Unix operating system ran on Digitals PDP series of computers
(rst on a PDP-7, then the PDP-11's), which were among
the rst commercially viable minicomputers, although for
several years Digital itself did not encourage the use of
Unix.

try standards and may have hastened the demise of the

Teletype Corporation.

The VT100 computer terminal became the industry

standard, implementing a useful subset of the ANSI
X3.64 standard, and even today terminal emulators such
as HyperTerminal, PuTTY and Xterm still emulate a
Digital produced widely used and inuential interactive VT100 (or its more capable successor, the VT220).
operating systems, including OS-8, TOPS-10, TOPS-20, The X Window System, the network transparent window
RSTS/E, RSX-11, RT-11, and OpenVMS. PDP comput- system used on UNIX and Linux, and also available on
ers, in particular the PDP-11 model, inspired a generation other operating systems, was developed at MIT jointly
of programmers and software developers. Some PDP-11 between Project Athena and the Laboratory for Computer
systems more than 25 years old (software and hardware) Science. Digital was the primary sponsor for this project,
are still being used to control and monitor factories, trans- which was a contemporary of the GNU Project but not
portation systems and nuclear plants. Digital was an early associated with it.
champion of time-sharing systems.
In the period 1994-1999 Linus Torvalds developed verThe command-line interfaces found in Digitals systems, sions of Linux on early AlphaServer systems made availeventually codied as DCL, would look familiar to any able to him by the engineering department. Comuser of modern microcomputer CLIs; those used in ear- paq software engineers developed special Linux kernel
lier systems, such as CTSS, IBM's JCL, or Univac's time- modules.[76] A well-known Linux distribution that ran on
sharing systems, would look utterly alien. Many fea- AlphaServer systems was Red Hat 7.2.[77] Another distures of the CP/M and MS-DOS CLI show a recog- tribution that ran on Alpha was Gentoo Linux.
nizable family resemblance to Digitals OSes, including
command names such as DIR and HELP and the name- Microsoft was not exclusively bound to the Alpha chip so
it pursued other processor makers such as IBM with the
dot-extension le naming conventions.
PowerPC architecture and eventually capitalized on the
VAX and MicroVAX computers (very widespread in the emerging strength of the Intel x86 based processors.
1980s) running VMS formed one of the most important
proprietary networks, DECnet, which linked business and Notes-11 and its follow-on product, VAX Notes, were
research facilities. The DECnet protocols formed one of two of the rst examples of online collaboration software,
the rst peer-to-peer networking standards, with DECnet a category that has become to be known as groupware.
phase I being released in the mid-1970s. Email, le shar- Len Kawell, one of the original Notes-11 developers later
ing, and distributed collaborative projects existed within joined Lotus Development Corporation and contributed

338

CHAPTER 33. DIGITAL EQUIPMENT CORPORATION

to their Lotus Notes product.

Digital was one of the rst businesses connected to the
Internet, with dec.com, registered in 1985,[78] being one
of the rst of the now ubiquitous .com domains. DECs
gatekeeper.dec.com was a well-known software repository
during the pre-World Wide Web days, and Digital was
also the rst computer vendor to open a public website,
on 1 October 1993.[79] The popular AltaVista, created by
Digital, was one of the rst comprehensive Internet search
engines. (Although Lycos was earlier, it was much more
limited.)

[6] Highlights from The Computer Museum Report Volume

8 Spring 1984, The Computer Museum, Boston, MA,
archived at ed-thelen.org, retrieved 19 February 2010
[7] Digital Equipment Corporation, International Directory
of Company Histories, Volume 6, St. James Press, 1992
[8] A Proposal to American Research and Development
Corporation 27 May 1957
[9] Richard Best, Russell Doane and John McNamara,
Digital Modules, The Basis for Computers, Computer
Engineering, A DEC view of hardware systems design,
Digital Press, 1978

DEC invented Digital Linear Tape (DLT), formerly

known as CompacTape, which began as a compact [10] DEC Laboratory Module FLIP-FLOP 201, Computer
History Museum
backup medium for MicroVAX systems, and later grew
to capacities of 800 gigabytes.
[11] DEC Building Block Logic, Second Ed., Digital Equip-

ment Corporation, Nov. 1960; 48 pages.

Work on the rst hard-disk-based MP3-player, the
Personal Jukebox, started at the DEC Systems Research
[12] Richard Best, Russell Doane and John McNamara,
Center. (The project was started about a month before
Digital Modules, The Basis for Computers, in Computer
the merger into Compaq was completed.)
Engineering, A DEC view of hardware systems design,

DECs Western Research Lab created the Itsy Pocket

Computer. This was developed into the Compaq iPaq
line of PDAs, which replaced the Compaq Aero PDA.

Digital Press, 1978

[13] Present 1978, pg. 3
[14] Present 1978, pg. 10
[15] Eastern Joint Computer Conference and Exhibition, ocial program of 1959 meeting in Boston

33.5 User organizations

Originally the users group was called DECUS (Digital
Equipment Computer User Society) during the 1960s to
1990s. When Compaq acquired Digital in 1998, the users
group was renamed CUO, the Compaq Users Organisation. When HP acquired Compaq in 2002, CUO became HP-Interex, although there are still DECUS groups
in several countries. In the United States, the organization
is represented by the Encompass organization; currently
Connect.

[17] Computers and Automation, April 1961, pg. 8B

[18] Bureau of Labor Statistics Ination Calculator, 1961
2011
[19] History of Computing, Lexikon Services, ISBN 0944601-78-2
[20] Datamation,
Volume
ber/December), pg. 24

Number

(Novem-

[21] Preliminary Specications: Programmed Data Processor

Model Three (PDP-3)", DEC, October 1960

33.6 Notes
[1] DEC used by Digital itself:" PDP11 Processor Handbook (1973): page 8, DEC, PDP, UNIBUS are registered
trademarks of Digital Equipment Corporation;" page 14, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) designs and
manufactures many of the peripheral devices oered with
PDP-11's. As a designer and manufacturer of peripherals,
DEC can oer extremely reliable equipment... The LA30
DECwriter, a totally DEC-designed and built teleprinter,
can serve as an alternative to the Teletype.
[2] Alpha: The History in Facts and Comments - The Collapse of DEC. Alasir.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-17.
[3] MITREs Project Whirlwind Computer Collection
Transferred to MIT, MITRE, 1 July 2009
[4] Semi-Automatic Ground
MITRE, 25 January 2005

[16] DIGITAL Computing Timeline, 1960

Environment

(SAGE)",

[5] TX-0 Computer, Computer History Museum

[22] Posting in Announcements from The DEC Connection,

The DEC Connection, 14 January 2007
[23] Gordon Bell, DIGITAL Computing Timeline, 1962,
PDP-4
[24] Gordon Bell, DIGITAL Computing Timeline, 1964,
PDP-7
[25] Gordon Bell, DIGITAL Computing Timeline, 1965,
PDP-7A
[26] Eric Steven Raymond, Origins and History of Unix,
19691995, 19 September 2003
[27] Fiedler, Ryan (October 1983). The Unix Tutorial / Part
3: Unix in the Microcomputer Marketplace. BYTE. p.
132. Retrieved 30 January 2015.
[28] Gordon Bell, DIGITAL Computing Timeline, 1965,
PDP-9

33.6. NOTES

339

[29] DEC Advertisement, Chemical and Engineering News,

Volume 46 (1968), pg. 85

[53] John Marko, Market Place; Digital Finally Follows a

Trend, The New York Times, 16 July 1990

[30] Miller 1997, pg. 452

[54] Dileep Bhandarkar et al., High performance issue oriented architecture, Proceedings of Compcon Spring '90,
pg. 153160

[31] Wesley Clark, The Linc, Perhaps the First MiniComputer, From Cave Paintings to the Internet
[32] DEC FAQ: What is a PDP-8?"
[33] DEC PDP-8 minicomputer, 1965, The Science Museum
[34] Internet History:1965", Computer History Museum
[35] Present 1978, pg. 7
[36] Present 1978, pg. 8
[37] Miller 1997, pg. 456
[38] Miller 1997, pg. 457
[39] Gordon Bell, DIGITAL Computing Timeline, 1964,
PDP-6
[40] PDP-6 Timesharing Software, DEC Publication F-61B
[41] Larry McGowan, How the PDP-11 Was Born (according
to Larry McGowan), 19 August 1998
[42] alt.folklore.computers List of Frequently Asked Questions

[55] Mark Smotherman, PRISM (Parallel Reduced Instruction Set Machine)", Clemson University School of Computing, October 2009
[56] Thomas Furlong et al., Development of the DECstation
3100, Digital Technical Journal, Volume 2 Number 2
(Spring 1990), pg. 8488
[57] www.top500.org Top 10 Supercomputing Sites, November 2004
[58] For in-depth articles regarding Digital technologies, refer
to the archived Digital Technical Journal
[59]
[60] Ned Batchelder and Vt100.net.
[61] COMPANY NEWS; No. 2 Ocer Retires at Digital
Equipment - New York Times. Nytimes.com (1993-0106). Retrieved on 2014-04-12.
[62] COMPANY REPORTS; A Deepening of Losses at Digital Equipment - New York Times. Nytimes.com. Retrieved on 2014-04-12.

[43] Electronic Business. Cahners. 1984. p. 76.

[63] Schein, et al, pp. 67, 109.
[44] DEC Microprocessors: NVAX (1991)
[64] Schein, et al, p. 233.
[45] Olsen later claimed he was referring to home automation,
see Ken Olsen
[46] Croxton, Greg. DEC Robin (VT-180) & documentation. DigiBarn Computer Museum. Retrieved 21 March
2011.
[47] Katan, M.B., Scholte, B.A., 1984. Application of a Professional 350 in a university department - a consumers report, in: Proceedings Digital Equipment Computer Users
Society. Amsterdam, p. 368.
[48] The Rainbow 100 Frequently Asked Questions. Drive
W. Approximatrix, LLC. 2009. Retrieved 15 December
2010.
[49] Stravers, Kees. The RX50 FAQ. Keess VAX page. Retrieved 21 March 2011.
[50] Geek Historian. MP01482 RX50 EngrDrws Jul82.
Tech History Digital Equipment Corporation. Retrieved
21 March 2011.
[51] Wilson, John. PUTR.COM V2.01. Retrieved 21
March 2011. This relatively recent work is a welldeveloped example of programs to enhance interchange
of data between DEC formatted media and standard PC
systems
[52] John L. Hennessy; David A. Patterson; David Goldberg
(2003). Computer Architecture: A Quantitative Approach.
Morgan Kaufmann. p. 152. ISBN 978-1-55860-596-1.

[65] Schein, et al, pp. 128, 144, 234.

[66] PDP-11 RSX RT RSTS Emulator Osprey Charon
[67] DEC, Cyrix sue Intel, by Gale Bradley and Jim Detar,
Electronic News 43, #2168 (19 May 1997), ISSN 10616624.
[68] SEC Web site retrieved 22 January 2008
[69] Dell Computer Corporation Online Case. Mhhe.com.
Retrieved on 2014-04-12.
[70] Digital Equipment Corp - Takeover By Compaq Computer Corp. - Intel, Service, Services, and Personal.
Ecommerce.hostip.info. Retrieved on 2013-07-17.
[71] HP StorageWorks Data and Network Storage Products
and Solutions
[72] Digital.com, DEC.com
[73] List of assigned /8 IPv4 address blocks
[74] Digital Technical Journal Online Issues
[75] At least some of the research reports are available online
at ftp.digital.com, in the subdirectories WRL, SRC, NSL,
CRL, PRL (see Research section). Veried July 2006
[76] Compaq was actively participating during the period
1994-1999 into the Linux development, veried July 2014

340

CHAPTER 33. DIGITAL EQUIPMENT CORPORATION

[77] Red Hat and Compaq Announce Port of Red Hat Linux
7.2 to Compaqs Alpha Processors (January 8, 2002), veried July 2014
[78] dec.com
[79] DECTEI-L Archives February 1994 (#2)

33.7 References
(Present), Digital Equipment Corporation: Nineteen Fifty-Seven to the Present, DEC Press, 1978
David Donald Miller (1997). Open Vms Operating System Concepts. Elsevier. ISBN 978-1-55558157-2.
Alan R. Earls (2004-06-30). Digital Equipment Corporation. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-0-73853587-6.
Paul J; Edgar H; Peter S; Michael M (2003-07-01).
DEC is dead, long live DEC. Berrett-Koehler Pub.
ISBN 978-1-57675-225-8.
Jamie Parker Pearson (September 1992). Digital at
work: snapshots from the rst thirty-ve years. Digital Press. ISBN 1-55558-092-0.
Glenn & George Harrar Rifkin; George Harrar
(1988). The Ultimate Entrepreneur: The Story
of Ken Olsen and Digital Equipment Corporation.
McGraw-Hill/Contemporary. ISBN 978-0-80924559-8.
C. Gordon Bell; J. Craig Mudge; John E. McNamara; Digital Equipment Corporation (1978). Computer engineering: A DEC view of hardware systems
design. ISBN 0-932376-00-2.

33.8 External links

GBells CyberMuseum for Digital Equipment Corp
(DEC)
Rise and Fall of Digital (Equipment Corporation), a
company chronicle at a German computer museum
Ken Olsen, New England Economic Adventure
Works by Digital Equipment Corporation at Project
Gutenberg
Works by or about Digital Equipment Corporation
at Internet Archive (search optimized for the non-Beta
site)

Chapter 34

Hewlett-Packard
HP redirects here. For the unit of power, see bidding war for 3PAR with a $33 a share oer ($2.07
horsepower. For other uses, see HP (disambiguation).
billion), which Dell declined to match.[7]
On October 6, 2014, Hewlett-Packard announced plans
Coordinates: 372449N 1220842W / 37.413579N to split the PC and printers business from its enterprise
122.14508W
products and services business. The split is expected to
Hewlett-Packard Company or HP (styled as hp ) is close by October 2015 and will result in two publicly
companies: Hewlett-Packard Enterprise and HP,
an American multinational information technology cor- traded
[8]
Inc.
poration headquartered in Palo Alto, California, United
States. It provides hardware, software and services to
consumers, small- and medium-sized businesses (SMBs)
and large enterprises, including customers in the government, health and education sectors.

34.1 History

The company was founded in a one-car garage in Palo Further information: List of Hewlett-Packard executive
Alto by William Bill Redington Hewlett, David Dave leadership
Packard, and Mike Limon, starting with a line of electronic test equipment. HP is the worlds leading PC
manufacturer and has been since 2007, fending o a
challenge by Chinese manufacturer Lenovo, according to 34.1.1 Founding
Gartner.[2] It specializes in developing and manufacturing
computing, data storage, and networking hardware, designing software and delivering services. Major product
lines include personal computing devices, enterprise and
industry standard servers, related storage devices, networking products, software and a diverse range of printers and other imaging products. HP markets its products to households, small- to medium-sized businesses
and enterprises directly as well as via online distribution,
consumer-electronics and oce-supply retailers, software
partners and major technology vendors. HP also has
services and consulting business around its products and
partner products. In 2013 it was the worlds secondlargest PC vendor by unit sales.[3]
Hewlett-Packard company events have included the spino of its electronic and bio-analytical measurement instruments part of its business as Agilent Technologies in
1999, its merger with Compaq in 2002, the sponsor of
Mission: Space in 2003, and the acquisition of EDS in
2008, which led to combined revenues of $118.4 billion in 2008 and a Fortune 500 ranking of 9 in 2009.
In November 2009, HP announced the acquisition of
3Com,[4] with the deal closing on April 12, 2010.[5] On
April 28, 2010, HP announced the buyout of Palm, Inc.
for $1.2 billion.[6] On September 2, 2010, HP won its

The garage in Palo Alto where Hewlett and Packard began their
company

Bill Hewlett [9] and Dave Packard graduated with degrees in electrical engineering from Stanford University
in 1935. The company originated in a garage in nearby
Palo Alto during a fellowship they had with a past professor, Frederick Terman at Stanford during the Great
Depression. Terman was considered a mentor to them
in forming Hewlett-Packard.[10] In 1939, Packard and
Hewlett established Hewlett-Packard (HP) in Packards

341

342

CHAPTER 34. HEWLETT-PACKARD

garage with an initial capital investment of US$538.[11] (but not Hewlett) to be exempt from the draft.[13]
Hewlett and Packard tossed a coin to decide whether the
company they founded would be called Hewlett-Packard
or Packard-Hewlett.[12] HP incorporated on August 18, 34.1.3 1960s
1947, and went public on November 6, 1957.
HP is recognized as the symbolic founder of Silicon ValOf the many projects they worked on, their very rst
ley, although it did not actively investigate semiconductor
nancially successful product was a precision audio
devices until a few years after the "traitorous eight" had
oscillator, the Model HP200A. Their innovation was the
abandoned William Shockley to create Fairchild Semiuse of a small incandescent light bulb (known as a pilot
conductor in 1957. Hewlett-Packards HP Associates dilight) as a temperature dependent resistor in a critical
vision, established around 1960, developed semiconducportion of the circuit, the negative feedback loop which
tor devices primarily for internal use. Instruments and
stabilized the amplitude of the output sinusoidal wavecalculators were some of the products using these deform. This allowed them to sell the Model 200A for
vices.
$54.40 when competitors were selling less stable oscillators for over $200. The Model 200 series of genera- HP partnered in the 1960s with Sony and the Yokogawa
tors continued until at least 1972 as the 200AB, still tube- Electric companies in Japan to develop several highquality products. The products were not a huge success,
based but improved in design through the years.
as there were high costs in building HP-looking prodOne of the companys earliest customers was Walt Disney
ucts in Japan. HP and Yokogawa formed a joint venProductions which bought eight Model 200B oscillators
ture (Yokogawa-Hewlett-Packard) in 1963 to market HP
(at $71.50 each) for use in certifying the Fantasound
products in Japan.[14] HP bought Yokogawa Electrics
surround sound systems installed in theaters for the movie
share of Hewlett-Packard Japan in 1999.[15]
Fantasia.
HP spun o a small company, Dynac, to specialize in digital equipment. The name was picked so that the HP logo
34.1.2 Early years
hp could be turned upside down to be a reverse reect
image of the logo dy of the new company. Eventually
Dynac changed to Dymec, then was folded back into HP
in 1959.[16] HP experimented with using Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) minicomputers with its instruments, but after deciding that it would be easier to build
another small design team than deal with DEC, HP entered the computer market in 1966 with the HP 2100 /
HP 1000 series of minicomputers. These had a simple
accumulator-based design, with registers arranged somewhat similarly to the Intel x86 architecture still used today. The series was produced for 20 years, in spite of
several attempts to replace it, and was a forerunner of
the HP 9800 and HP 250 series of desktop and business
computers.

34.1.4 1970s

Hewlett-Packard logo, mid-1970s

The HP 3000 was an advanced stack-based design for a

business computing server, later redesigned with RISC
technology. The HP 2640 series of smart and intelligent
terminals introduced forms-based interfaces to ASCII
1954 Hewlett-Packard logo
terminals, and also introduced screen labeled function
They worked on counter-radar technology and artillery keys, now commonly used on gas pumps and bank ATMs.
shell fuses during World War II, which allowed Packard The HP 2640 series included one of the rst bit mapped

34.1. HISTORY
graphics displays that when combined with the HP 2100
21MX F-Series microcoded Scientic Instruction Set[17]
enabled the rst commercial WYSIWYG Presentation
Program, BRUNO that later became the program HPDraw on the HP 3000. Although scoed at in the formative days of computing, HP would eventually surpass even
IBM as the worlds largest technology vendor, in terms of
sales.[18]

343
and usability (the latter products are now part of spin-o
Agilent's product line). The companys design philosophy in this period was summarized as design for the guy
at the next bench.
The 98x5 series of technical desktop computers started
in 1975 with the 9815, and the cheaper 80 series, again
of technical computers, started in 1979 with the 85.[20]
These machines used a version of the BASIC programming language which was available immediately after
they were switched on, and used a proprietary magnetic
tape for storage. HP computers were similar in capabilities to the much later IBM Personal Computer, although
the limitations of available technology forced prices to be
high.

34.1.5 1980s

The new Hewlett-Packard 9100A personal computer is ready,

willing, and able ... to relieve you of waiting to get on the big
computer.

Although Programma 101 was the rst commercial

"desktop computer", HP is identied by Wired magazine
as the producer of the worlds rst device to be called
a personal computer, the Hewlett-Packard 9100A, introduced in 1968.[19] HP called it a desktop calculator, because, as Bill Hewlett said, If we had called it a computer, it would have been rejected by our customers computer gurus because it didn't look like an IBM. We therefore decided to call it a calculator, and all such nonsense
disappeared. An engineering triumph at the time, the
logic circuit was produced without any integrated circuits;
the assembly of the CPU having been entirely executed in
discrete components. With CRT display, magnetic-card
storage, and printer, the price was around $5,000. The
machines keyboard was a cross between that of a scientic calculator and an adding machine. There was no
alphabetic keyboard.

In 1984, HP introduced both inkjet and laser printers for the desktop. Along with its scanner product
line, these have later been developed into successful
multifunction products, the most signicant being singleunit printer/scanner/copier/fax machines. The print
mechanisms in HPs tremendously popular LaserJet line
of laser printers depend almost entirely on Canon's components (print engines), which in turn use technology developed by Xerox. HP develops the hardware, rmware,
and software that convert data into dots for the mechanism to print. HP transitioned from the HP3000 to the
HP9000 series minicomputers with attached storage such
as the HP 7935 hard drive holding 404 MiB.
On March 3, 1986, HP registered the HP.com domain
name, making it the ninth Internet .com domain ever to
be registered.
In 1987, the Palo Alto garage where Hewlett and Packard
started their business was designated as a California State
historical landmark.

34.1.6 1990s

Steve Wozniak, co-founder of Apple, originally designed

the Apple I computer while working at HP and oered it
to them under their right of rst refusal to his work, but
they did not take it up as the company wanted to stay in
scientic, business, and industrial markets.
The company earned global respect for a variety of products. They introduced the worlds rst handheld scientic electronic calculator in 1972 (the HP-35), the rst
handheld programmable in 1974 (the HP-65), the rst
alphanumeric, programmable, expandable in 1979 (the
HP-41C), and the rst symbolic and graphing calcula- Hewlett-Packard logo used from 1981 to 2009
tor, the HP-28C. Like their scientic and business calculators, their oscilloscopes, logic analyzers, and other In the 1990s, HP expanded their computer product line,
measurement instruments have a reputation for sturdiness which initially had been targeted at university, research,

344

CHAPTER 34. HEWLETT-PACKARD

and business users, to reach consumers.

HP also grew through acquisitions, buying Apollo Computer in 1989 and Convex Computer in 1995.
Later in the decade, HP opened hpshopping.com as an independent subsidiary to sell online, direct to consumers;
in 2005, the store was renamed HP Home & Home Ofce Store.
From 1995 to 1998, Hewlett-Packard were sponsors of
the English football team Tottenham Hotspur.
In 1999, all of the businesses not related to computers, storage, and imaging were spun o from HP to
form Agilent Technologies. Agilents spin-o was the
largest initial public oering in the history of Silicon Val- Hewlett-Packard Deskjet 3845 printer
ley.[21] The spin-o created an $8 billion company with
about 30,000 employees, manufacturing scientic instruments, semiconductors, optical networking devices, and
electronic test equipment for telecom and wireless R&D
and production.
In July 1999, HP appointed Carly Fiorina as CEO, the
rst female CEO of a company in the Dow Jones Industrial Average. Fiorina served as CEO during the technology industry downturn of the early 2000s. During her
tenure, the market value of HP halved and the company
incurred heavy job losses.[22] The HP Board of Directors
asked Fiorina to step down in 2005, and she resigned on
February 9, 2005.

34.1.7

2000s
HP Presario F700 F767CL

and AlphaServer.

A sign marking the entrance to the HP corporate headquarters in

Palo Alto, California, 2006

The merger occurred after a proxy ght with Bill

Hewletts son Walter, who objected to the merger. Compaq itself had bought Tandem Computers in 1997 (which
had been started by ex-HP employees), and Digital
Equipment Corporation in 1998. Following this strategy, HP became a major player in desktops, laptops, and
servers for many dierent markets. After the merger
with Compaq, the new ticker symbol became HPQ, a
combination of the two previous symbols, HWP and
CPQ, to show the signicance of the alliance and also
key letters from the two companies Hewlett-Packard and
Compaq (the latter company being famous for its Q
logo on all of its products.)

In 2004, HP released the DV 1000 Series, including the

HP Pavilion dv 1658 and 1040 two years later in May
2006, HP began its campaign, The Computer is Personal
Again. The campaign was designed to bring back the fact
that the PC is a personal product. The campaign utilized
viral marketing, sophisticated visuals, and its own website (www.hp.com/personal). Some of the ads featured
In 1998, Compaq had already taken over Digital Equip- Pharrell, Petra Nemcova, Mark Burnett, Mark Cuban,
ment Corporation. HP therefore still oers support for Alicia Keys, Jay-Z, Gwen Stefani, and Shaun White.
the former Digital Equipment products PDP-11, VAX On May 13, 2008, HP and Electronic Data Systems
On September 3, 2001, HP announced that an agreement had been reached with Compaq to merge the two
companies.[23] In May, 2002, after passing a shareholder
vote, HP ocially merged with Compaq. Prior to this,
plans had been in place to consolidate the companies
product teams and product lines.[24]

34.1. HISTORY

345

HP stock price since 2000.

iPAQ h4150 Pocket PC from 2003

June 30, HP announced[26] that the waiting period under the Hart-Scott-Rodino Antitrust Improvements Act
of 1976 had expired. The transaction still requires EDS
stockholder approval and regulatory clearance from the
European Commission and other non-U.S. jurisdictions
and is subject to the satisfaction or waiver of the other
closing conditions specied in the merger agreement.
The agreement was nalized on August 26, 2008, and it
was publicly announced that EDS would be re-branded
EDS an HP company. As of September 23, 2009, EDS
is known as HP Enterprise Services.
On November 11, 2009, 3Com and Hewlett-Packard announced that Hewlett-Packard would be acquiring 3Com
for $2.7 billion in cash.[27] The acquisition is one of the
biggest in size among a series of takeovers and acquisitions by technology giants to push their way to become
one-stop shops. Since the beginning of the nancial crisis in 2007, tech giants have constantly felt the pressure
to expand beyond their current market niches. Dell purchased Perot Systems recently to invade into the technology consulting business area previously dominated by
IBM. Hewlett-Packards latest move marked its incursion into enterprise networking gear market dominated
by Cisco.

34.1.8 2010s
On April 28, 2010, Palm, Inc. and Hewlett-Packard announced that HP would be acquiring Palm for $1.2 billion in cash and debt,[28] In the months leading up to the
buyout, it was rumored that Palm was going to be purchased by either HTC, Dell, RIM or HP. The addition
of Palm handsets to the HP product line provided some
overlap with the then current iPAQ mobile products but
was thought to signicantly increase HPs mobile presence as those devices had not been selling well. The addition of Palm brought to HP a library of valuable patents as
well as the mobile operating platform known as webOS.
On July 1, 2010, the acquisition of Palm was nal.[29]
iPAQ 112 Pocket PC from 2008
The purchase of Palm, Inc.'s webOS began a big gamble to build HPs own ecosystem.[30] On July 1, 2011,
[25]
(EDS) announced
that they had signed a denitive HP launched its rst tablet named HP TouchPad, bringagreement under which HP would purchase EDS. On ing webOS to tablet devices. On September 2, 2010, HP

346

CHAPTER 34. HEWLETT-PACKARD

establish itself in major new markets such as cloud and
mobile services. Apothekers strategy was broadly to aim
at disposing of hardware and moving into the more profitable software services sector. On August 18, 2011, HP
announced that it would strategically exit the smartphone
and tablet computer business, focusing on higher-margin
strategic priorities of Cloud, solutions and software with
an emphasis on enterprise, commercial and government
markets[40] They also contemplated selling o their personal computer division or spinning it o into a separate
company,[41] quitting the 'PC' business, while continuing
to sell servers and other equipment to business customers,
was a strategy already undertaken by IBM in 2005.[42]

A Hewlett-Packard Mini 1000 netbook computer, a type of

notebook computer

won its bidding war for 3PAR with a $33 a share oer
($2.07 billion) which Dell declined to match. Following
HPs acquisition of Palm, it would phase out the Compaq
brand.

HPs stock continued to drop, by about a further 40% (including 25% on one day, 19 August 2011), after the company abruptly announced a number of decisions: to discontinue its webOS device business (mobile phones and
tablet computers), the intent to sell its personal computer
division (at the time HP was the largest personal computer manufacturer in the world), and to acquire British
big data software rm Autonomy for a 79% premium,
seen externally as an absurdly high price[43] for a business with known concerns over its accounts.[44] Media
analysts described HPs actions as a botched strategy
shift and a chaotic attempt to rapidly reposition HP
and enhance earnings that ultimately cost Apotheker his
job.[43][45][46] The Autonomy acquisition had been objected to even by HPs own CFO.[47][48]:36

On September 22, 2011, the HP Board of Directors red

Apotheker as chief executive, eective immediately, and
replaced him with fellow board member and former eBay
chief Meg Whitman,[49] with Raymond J. Lane as executive chairman. Though Apotheker served barely ten
months, he received over $13 million in compensation.[50]
HP lost more than $30 billion in market capitalization
during his tenure. Weeks later, HP announced that a
review had concluded their PC division was too integrated and critical to business operations, and the company rearmed their commitment to the Personal Systems Group.[51] A year later in November 2012 wrotedown almost $9 billion related to the Autonomy acquisition (see below: Takeover of Autonomy), which became
the subject of intense litigation as HP accused Autonomys previous management of fraudulently exaggerating Autonomys nancial position and called in law enforcement and regulators in both countries, and Autonomys previous management accused HP of textbook
obfuscation and nger pointing to protect HPs executives
On September 30, 2010, Lo Apotheker was named as from criticism and conceal HP culpability, their prior
HPs new CEO and President.[37] Apothekers appoint- knowledge of Autonomys nancial position, and gross
ment sparked a strong reaction from Oracle chief exec- mismanagement of Autonomy after acquisition.[48]:6
utive Larry Ellison,[38] who complained that Apotheker
had been in charge of SAP when one of its subsidiaries On March 21, 2012, HP said its printing and PC divisions
was systematically stealing software from Oracle. SAP would become one unit headed by Todd Bradley from the
Printing chief Vyomesh Joshi is leaving the
accepted that its subsidiary, which has now closed, ille- PC division.
[52]
[39]
company.
gally accessed Oracle intellectual property. Following
Hurds departure, HP was seen by the market as problem- On May 23, 2012, HP announced plans to lay o approxiatic, with margins falling and having failed to redirect and
On August 6, 2010, CEO Mark Hurd resigned amid controversy and CFO Cathie Lesjak assumed the role of interim CEO. Hurd had turned HP around and was widely
regarded as one of Silicon Valley's star CEOs, but was accused of sexual harassment against a colleague. Although
the allegations were deemed baseless, the investigation
led to questions concerning between $1000 and $20000
of his private expenses and his lack of disclosure related
to the friendship.[31][32] Some observers have argued that
Hurd was innocent, but the board asked for his resignation to avoid negative PR.[33] Public analysis was divided
between those who saw it as a commendable tough action
by HP in handling expenses irregularities, and those who
saw it as an ill-advised, hasty and expensive reaction, in
ousting a remarkably capable leader who had turned the
business around.[31][32][34] Shares of HP dropped by 8.4%
in after-hours trading, hitting a 52-week low with $9 billion in market capitalization shaved o.[35] Larry Ellison
publicly attacked HPs board for his ousting.[36]

34.2. FACILITIES
mately 27,000 employees, after posting a prot decline of
31% in the second quarter of 2012.[53] The prot decline
is on account of the growing popularity of smart phones,
tablets, and other mobile devices, that has slowed the sale
of personal computers.[54]

347

34.2 Facilities

On May 30, 2012, HP unveiled its rst net zero energy

data center. HP data center plans to use solar energy
and other renewable sources instead of traditional power
grids.[55]
On July 10, 2012, HPs Server Monitoring Software
was discovered to have a previously unknown security
vulnerability.[56] A security warning was given to customers about two vulnerabilities, and a patch released.[57]
One month later HPs ocial site of training center was
hacked and defaced by a Pakistani hacker known to as
The research center of Hewlett-Packard in the Paris-Saclay
'Hitcher' to demonstrate a web vulnerability.[58]
cluster, France.

On September 10, 2012, HP revised their restructuring

gures; they are now cutting 29,000 jobs. HP had already HPs global operations are directed from its headquarters
cut 3,800 jobs around 7 percent of the revised 29,000 in Palo Alto, California, USA. Its U.S. operations are digure as of July 2012.[59]
rected from its facility in unincorporated Harris County,
On December 31, 2013, HP revised the amount of jobs Texas, near Houston. Its Latin America oces in uncut from 29,000 to 34,000 up to October 2014. The incorporated Miami-Dade County, Florida, U.S., near
current amount of jobs cut until the end of 2013 was Miami and in Medelln, Colombia. Its Europe oces
24,600.[60][61][62] At the end of 2013 the company had are in Meyrin, Switzerland, near Geneva, but it has also
317,500 employees. On May 22, 2014 HP announced it a research center in the Paris-Saclay cluster, 20 km in
would cut a further 11,000 to 16,000 jobs, in addition to the south of Paris, France. Its Asia-Pacic oces are in
[69][70][71][72][71][73][74]
the 34,000 announced in 2013. We are gradually shap- Singapore.
ing HP into a more nimble, lower-cost, more customer It also has large operations in Austin, Texas, Boise, Idaho;
and partner-centric company that can successfully com- Roseville, California; Fort Collins, Colorado; Vancouver,
pete across a rapidly changing IT landscape, CEO Meg Washington; San Diego; Tulsa, Oklahoma; and Plano,
Whitman said at the time.[63]
Texas (the former headquarters of EDS, which HP acIn June 2014, during the HP Discover customer event in quired). In the UK, HP is based at a large site in
Las Vegas, Meg Whitman and Martin Fink announced a Bracknell, Berkshire with oces in various UK locations,
project for a radically new computer architecture called including a landmark oce tower in London, 88 Wood
The Machine. Based on memristors and silicon photon- Street. Its recent acquisition of 3Com will expand its em[75]
ics, The Machine is supposed to come in commercializa- ployee base to Marlborough, Massachusetts. The comtion before the end of the decade, meanwhile represent- pany also has a large workforce and numerous oces at
Bangalore, India, to address their back end and IT opering 75% of the research activity in HP Labs.[64]
ations. MphasiS, which is headquartered at Bangalore,
On October 6, 2014, Hewlett Packard announced it was also enabled HP to increase their footprint in the city as
planning to break into two separate companies, separat- it was a subsidiary of EDS which the company acquired.
ing its personal-computer and printer businesses from its
technology services. The split, which was rst reported
by The Wall Street Journal and conrmed by other media, will result in two publicly traded companies: Hewlett- 34.3 Products and organizational
Packard Enterprise and HP, Inc. Meg Whitman will serve
structure
as chairman of HP, Inc. and CEO of Hewlett-Packard
Enterprise, Patricia Russo will be chairman of the enterprise business, and Dion Weisler will be CEO of HP, Inc. HP produces lines of printers, scanners, digital cameras,
The split is expected to be completed by the end of scal calculators, PDAs, servers, workstation computers, and
computers for home and small-business use; many of the
year 2015, in October 2015.[65][66][67]
computers came from the 2002 merger with Compaq.
On October 29, 2014, Hewlett-Packard announced their HP as of 2001 promotes itself as supplying not just hardnew Sprout personal computer.[68]
ware and software, but also a full range of services to design, implement, and support IT infrastructure.
HPs Imaging and Printing Group (IPG) is the leading
imaging and printing systems provider in the world for

348

CHAPTER 34. HEWLETT-PACKARD

printer hardware, printing supplies and scanning devices,

providing solutions across customer segments from individual consumers to small and medium businesses to large
enterprises.[76] Products and technology associated with
IPG include:
Inkjet and LaserJet printers
consumables and related products
Ocejet
all-in-one
printer/scanner/faxes

multifunction

Designjet and Scitex Large Format Printers

Indigo Digital Press
HP Web Jetadmin printer management software
HP Output Management suite of software
LightScribe optical recording technology
HP Photosmart digital cameras and photo printers

An HP camera with an SDIO interface, designed for use in conjunction with a Pocket PC

ProCurve) is responsible for the NW family of products.

They are a business unit of ESSN.

HP Software Division is the companys enterprise software unit. For years, HP has produced and marketed
Snapsh by HP, a photo sharing and photo products its brand of enterprise-management software, HP OpenView. From September 2005 HP purchased several softservice.
ware companies as part of a publicized, deliberate strategy to augment its software oerings for large business
On December 23, 2008, HP released iPrint Photo for
customers.[78] HP Software sells several categories of
iPhone, a free downloadable software application that alsoftware, including:
lows the printing of 4 x 6 photos.[77]
HP SPaM

HPs Personal Systems Group (PSG) claims to be one

of the leading vendors of personal computers (PCs)
in the world based on unit volume shipped and annual
revenue.[76] PSG deals with:

business service management software

application lifecycle management software
mobile apps

business PCs and accessories

big data and analytics

consumer PCs and accessories, (e.g., HP Pavilion,

Compaq Presario, VoodooPC)

service and portfolio management software

handheld computing (e.g., iPAQ Pocket PC)

enterprise security software

digital connected entertainment (e.g., HP MediaSmart TVs, HP MediaSmart Servers, HP MediaVaults, DVD+RW drives)
HP resold the Apple iPod until November 2005.[76]
HP Enterprise Business (EB) incorporates HP Technology Services, Enterprise Services (an amalgamation of
the former EDS, and what was known as HP Services),
HP Enterprise Security Services oversees professional
services such as network security, information security
and information assurance/ compliancy, HP Software Division, and Enterprise Servers, Storage and Networking Group (ESSN). The Enterprise Servers, Storage and
Networking Group (ESSN) oversees back end products like storage and servers. HP Networking (former

automation and orchestration software

ArcSight
Fortify Software
Atalla
TippingPoint
HP Software also provides software as a service (SaaS),
cloud computing solutions, and software services, including consulting, education, professional services, and support.
HPs Oce of Strategy and Technology[79] has four main
functions:
1. steering the companys $3.6 billion research and development investment

34.5. CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

2. fostering the development of the companys global
technical community

349

34.5 Corporate social responsibility

3. leading the companys strategy and corporate development eorts,[80]

In July 2007, the company announced that it had met
its target, set in 2004, to recycle one billion pounds of
4. performing worldwide corporate marketing activi- electronics, toner and ink cartridges.[85] It has set a new
ties
goal of recycling a further two billion pounds of hardware
by the end of 2010. In 2006, the company recovered 187
Under the Oce of Strategy and Technology comes HP million pounds of electronics, 73 percent more than its
Labs, the research arm of HP. Founded in 1966, HP closest competitor.[86]
Labs aims to deliver new technologies and to create busi- In 2008, HP released its supply chain emissions data
ness opportunities that go beyond HPs current strate- an industry rst.[87]
gies. Examples of recent HP Labs technology includes
the Memory spot chip of 2006. HP IdeaLab further pro- In September 2009, Newsweek ranked HP No. 1
vides a web forum on early-state innovations to encour- on its 2009 Green Rankings of Americas 500 largest
[88]
age open feedback from consumers and the development corporations. According to environmentalleader.com,
[81]
Hewlett-Packard
earned its number one position due to
community.
its greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction programs,
HP also oers managed services by which they provide and was the rst major IT company to report GHG emiscomplete IT-support solutions for other companies and sions associated with its supply chain, according to the
organizations. Some examples of these include:
ranking. In addition, HP has made an eort to remove
toxic substances from its products, though Greenpeace
oering Professional Support and desktop Pre- has targeted the company for not doing better.[89]
mier Support for Microsoft in the EMEA marHP took the top spot on Corporate Responsibility Magaketplace. This is done from the Leixlip campus
zine 's 100 Best Corporate Citizens List for 2010.[90] The
near Dublin, Soa and Israel. Support is oered on
list is cited by PR Week as one of Americas most importhe line of Microsoft operation systems, Exchange,
tant business rankings. HP beat out other Russell 1000
[82]
Sharepoint and some oce-applications.
Index companies because of its leadership in seven catcor outsourced services for companies like Bank of Ire- egories including environment, climate changes and[91]
porate
philanthropy.
In
2009,
HP
was
ranked
fth.
land, some UK banks, the U.S. defense forces.
Fortune magazine named HP one of the Worlds Most
Admired Companies in 2010, placing it No. 2 in the computer industry and No. 32 overall in its list of the top 50.
34.4 Culture
This year in the computer industry HP was ranked No.
1 in social responsibility, long-term investment, global
The founders, known to friends and employees alike as competitiveness, and use of corporate assets.[92]
Bill and Dave, developed a unique management style that
report
came to be known as The HP Way. In Bills words, In May 2011, HP released a Global Responsibility
[93]
covering
accomplishments
during
2010.
The
report,
the HP Way is a core ideology ... which includes a deep
respect for the individual, a dedication to aordable qual- the companys tenth, provides a comprehensive view of
ity and reliability, a commitment to community respon- HPs global citizenship programs, performance, and goals
sibility, and a view that the company exists to make tech- and describes how HP uses its technology, inuence, and
nical contributions for the advancement and welfare of expertise to make a positive impact on the world. The
won best corporate responsibility
humanity.[83] The following are the tenets of The HP companys 2009 report
[94]
The
2009 reports claims HP dereport
of
the
year.
[84]
Way:
creased its total energy use by 9 percent compared with
2008. HP recovered a total of 118,000 tonnes of elec1. We have trust and respect for individtronic products and supplies for recycling in 2009, includuals.
ing 61 million print cartridges.[95]
2. We focus on a high level of achievement
In an April 2010 San Francisco Chronicle article, HP was
and contribution.
one of 12 companies commended for designing prod3. We conduct our business with uncompromising integrity.
4. We achieve our common objectives
through teamwork.
5. We encourage exibility and innovation.

ucts to be safe from the start, following the principles

of green chemistry. The commendations came from Environment California, an environmental advocacy group,
who praised select companies in the Golden State and the
Bay Area for their eorts to keep our planet clean and
green.[96]

350

CHAPTER 34. HEWLETT-PACKARD

In May 2010, HP was named one of the Worlds Most

Ethical Companies by Ethisphere Institute. This is the
second year in a row HP has made the list. Ethisphere
reviewed, researched and analyzed thousands of nominations in more than 100 countries and 35 industries to
create the 2010 list. HP was one of only 100 companies to earn the distinction of top winner and was the only
computer hardware vendor to be recognized. Ethisphere
honors rms that promote ethical business standards and
practices by going beyond legal minimums, introducing
innovative ideas that benet the public.[97]
HP is listed in Greenpeace's Guide to Greener Electronics that ranks electronics manufacturers according to their A Hewlett-Packard sponsored Porsche 997 GT3 Cup
policies on sustainability, energy and climate and green
products. In November 2011, HP secured the 1st place
(out of 15) in this ranking (climbing up 3 places) with
an increased score of 5.9 (up from 5.5). It scored most
points on the new Sustainable Operations criteria, having the best program for measuring and reducing emissions of greenhouse gases from its suppliers and scoring maximum points for its thorough paper procurement
policy.[98] In the November 2012 report, HP was ranked
second, with a score of 5.7.[99]
HP does especially well for its disclosure of externally The company sponsored the HP Pavilion at San Jose (now SAP
veried greenhouse gas emissions and its setting of tar- Center at San Jose), home to the NHLs San Jose Sharks.
gets for reducing them.[100] However, Greenpeace reports
that HP risks a penalty point in future editions due to the
fact that it is a member of trade associations that have
commented against energy eciency standards.[98]
34.6 Brand
HP has earned recognition of its work in the area of
data privacy and security.[101] In 2010 the company
ranked No. 4 in the Ponemon Institutes annual study
of the most trusted companies for privacy.[102] Since
2006, HP has worked directly with the U.S. Congress,
the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), and the Department of Commerce to establish a new strategy for federal
legislation.[103] HP played a key role in work toward the
December 2010 FTC report Protecting Consumer Privacy in an Era of Rapid Change.[104]
After winning nine straight annual Most Respected
Company in China awards from the Economic Observer
and Peking University, HP China has added the 10 Year
Contribution award to its list of accolades. The award
aims to identify companies doing business in China with
outstanding and sustained performance in business operations, development and corporate social responsibility.[105]
In its 2012 rankings of consumer electronics companies on progress relating to conict minerals, the Enough
Project rated HP second out of 24 companies, calling it a
Pioneer of progress.[106]

According to a BusinessWeek Study, HP was the worlds

11th most valuable brand as of 2009.[107]
HP has many sponsorships. One well known sponsorship is of Walt Disney World's Epcot Parks Mission:
SPACE.[108] From 1995 to 1999, and again from 2013,
HP has been the shirt sponsor of [109] Premier League
club Tottenham Hotspur F.C. From 1997 to 1999 they
were sponsors of Australian Football League club North
Melbourne Football Club. They also sponsored the BMW
Williams Formula 1 team until 2005 (a sponsorship formerly held by Compaq), and as of 2010 sponsor Renault
F1. Hewlett-Packard also had the naming rights arrangement for the HP Pavilion at San Jose, home of the San
Jose Sharks NHL hockey team until 2013, in which the
arenas naming rights were acquired by SAP AG, renaming the arena to the SAP Center at San Jose.[110]
After the acquisition of Compaq in 2002, HP has maintained the Compaq Presario brand on low-end home
desktops and laptops, the HP Compaq brand on business desktops and laptops, and the "HP ProLiant" brand
on Intel-architecture servers. (The HP Pavilion brand
is used on home entertainment laptops and all home
desktops.)[111]
Tandems NonStop servers are now branded as HP Integrity NonStop.[112]

34.8. CONTROVERSIES

34.7 HP DISCOVER
event

351

customer

In 2011, HP Enterprise Business, along with participating independent user groups, combined its annual HP
Software Universe, HP Technology Forum and HP Technology@Work into a single event, HP DISCOVER.[113]
There are two HP Discover events annually, one for the
Americas and one for Europe, Middle East and Africa
(EMEA). HP DISCOVER 2011 Americas took place
June 610, in Las Vegas at the Venetian/Palazzo.[114]
The company demonstrated the webOS TouchPad, introduced July 1, 2011.[30][115]
The HP DISCOVER 2011 event in EMEA took place in
Vienna, Austria, on November 29 through December 1,
2011.[116]

34.8 Controversies
34.8.1

Restatement

In March 2003, HP restated its rst-quarter cash ow

from operations, reducing it 18 percent because of an
accounting error. Actual cash ow from operations
was $647 million, not $791 million as reported earlier.
HP shifted $144 million to net cash used in investing
activities.[117]

34.8.2

Spying scandal

Main article: Hewlett-Packard spying scandal

On September 5, 2006, Shawn Cabaln and David O'Neil
of Newsweek wrote that HPs general counsel, at the behest of chairwoman Patricia Dunn, contracted a team of
independent security experts to investigate board members and several journalists in order to identify the source
of an information leak.[118] In turn, those security experts
recruited private investigators who used a spying technique known as pretexting.[119] The pretexting involved
investigators impersonating HP board members and nine
journalists (including reporters for CNET, the New York
Times and the Wall Street Journal) in order to obtain their
phone records. The information leaked related to HPs
long-term strategy and was published as part of a CNET
article[120] in January 2006. Most HP employees accused
of criminal acts have since been acquitted.[121]

34.8.3

Hardware

In November 2007, Hewlett-Packard released a BIOS update covering a wide range of laptops with the intent to
speed up the computer fan as well as have it run con-

stantly, whether the computer was on or o.[122] The reason was to prevent the overheating of defective NVIDIA
graphics processing units (GPUs) that had been shipped
to many of the original equipment manufacturers, including Hewlett-Packard, Dell, and Apple.[123] The defect
concerned the new packaging material used by NVIDIA
from 2007 onwards in joining the graphics chip onto the
motherboard, which did not perform well under thermal
cycling and was prone to develop stress cracks eectively severing the connection between the GPU and the
motherboard, leading to a blank screen.[124] In July 2008,
HP issued an extension to the initial one-year warranty to
replace the motherboards of selected models.[125] However this option was not extended to all models with the
defective NVIDIA chipsets despite research showing that
these computers were also aected by the fault.[126] Furthermore the replacement of the motherboard was a temporary x, since the fault was inherent in all units of
the aected models from the point of manufacture, including the replacement motherboards oered by HP as
a free 'repair'.[127][128] Since this point, several websites
have been documenting the issue, most notably www.
hplies.com, nvidiasettlement.com at the Wayback Machine (archived October 1, 2010), a forum dedicated to
what they refer to as Hewlett-Packards multi-million
dollar cover up of the issue, and www.nvidiadefect.com
, which details the specics of the fault and oers advice to the owners of aected computers. There have
been several small-claims lawsuits led in several states,
as well as suits led in other countries. Hewlett-Packard
also faced a class-action lawsuit in 2009 over its i7 processor computers. The complainants stated that their systems locked up within 30 minutes of powering on, consistently. Even after being replaced with newer i7 systems,
the lockups continued.[129]

34.8.4 Lawsuit against Oracle

On June 15, 2011, HP led a lawsuit in California
Superior Court in Santa Clara, claiming that Oracle
Corporation had breached an agreement to support the
Itanium microprocessor used in HPs high-end enterprise
servers.[130] On June 15, 2011, HP sent a formal legal demand letter to Oracle in an attempt to force the
worlds No. 3 software maker to reverse its decision
to discontinue software development on Intel Itanium
microprocessor.[131]
On August 1, 2012, HP released the following statement
after winning the court ruling in Itanium Litigation:
The Court ordered and declared as follows:
1. In this action for declaratory relief, the Court nds
in favor of HP and against Oracle on both the breach
of contract and promissory estoppel causes of action
brought by HP.
2. The Settlement and Release Agreement entered into

352

CHAPTER 34. HEWLETT-PACKARD

by HP, Oracle and Mark Hurd on September 20,
2010, requires Oracle to continue to oer its product
suite on HPs Itanium-based server platforms and
does not confer on Oracle the discretion to decide
whether to do so or not.

3. The terms product suite means Oracle software

products that were oered on HPs Itanium-based
servers at the time Oracle signed the September 20,
2010 Settlement and Release Agreement, including
any new releases, versions or updates of those products.

culture clashes became apparent and HP had written o

$8.8 billion of Autonomys value.[47]
HP claim this resulted from "accounting improprieties,
misrepresentations and disclosure failures by the previous management, who in turn accuse HP of a textbook
example of defensive stalling" [48]:6 to conceal evidence of
its own prior knowledge and gross mismanagement and
undermining of the company, noting public awareness
since 2009 of its nancial reporting issues[48]:3 and that
even HPs CFO disagreed with the price paid.[47][48]:36
External observers generally state that only a small part
of the write-o appears to be due to accounting misstatements, and that HP had overpaid for businesses
previously.[47][132]

4. Oracles obligation to continue to oer its products on HPs Itanium-based server platforms lasts
until such time as HP discontinues the sales of its The Serious Fraud Oce (United Kingdom), and the
U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission joined the
Itanium-based servers.
FBI in investigating the potential anomalies. HP in5. Oracle is required to port its products to HPs curred much damage with its stock falling to decades
Itanium-based servers without charge to HP.
low.[133][134][135] Three lawsuits were brought by shareholders against HP, for the fall in value of HP shares. In
August 2014 a United States district court judge threw
out a proposed settlement, which Autonomys previous
34.8.5 Takeover of Autonomy
management had argued would be collusive and intended
to divert scrutiny of HPs own responsibility and knowlSee also: Autonomy Corporation Hewlett Packard
edge, by essentially engaging the plaintis attorneys from
the existing cases and redirecting them against the preIn November 2012, HP recorded a writedown of around
vious Autonomy vendors and management, for a fee of
$8.8 billion related to its acquisition a year earlier of the
up to $48 million, with plaintis agreeing to end any
UK based Autonomy Corporation PLC. HP accused Auclaims against HPs management and similarly redirect
tonomy of deliberately inating the value of the company
those claims against the previous Autonomy vendors and
prior to its takeover. The former management team of
management.[136][137] In January 2015 the SFO closed its
Autonomy atly rejected the charge.
investigation as the likelihood of a successful prosecution
Autonomy specialized in analysis of large scale unstruc- was low. [138] The dispute is still being litigated in the US,
tured "big data", and by 2010 also the UKs largest and is being investigated by the UK and Ireland Financial
and most successful[45] software business. It maintained Reporting Council.
an aggressively entrepreneurial marketing approach, and
controls described as a rod of iron, which was said to
include zero tolerance and ring the weakest 5% of its 34.8.6 Bribery
sales force each quarter, while cosetting the best sales
sta like rock stars.[47]
On April 9, 2014, an administrative proceeding before
At the time, HP had red its previous CEO for expenses
irregularities a year ago, and appointed Lo Apotheker as
CEO and President. HP was seen as problematic by the
market, with margins falling and having failed to redirect
and establish itself in major new markets such as cloud
and mobile services. Apothekers strategy was to aim at
disposing of hardware and moving into the more profitable software services sector.
As part of this strategy, Autonomy was acquired by HP
in October 2011. HP paid $10.3 billion for 87.3% of the
shares, valuing Autonomy at around $11.7 billion (7.4
billion) overall, a premium of around 79% over market
price. The deal was widely criticized as absurdly high,
a botched strategy shift and a chaotic attempt to
rapidly reposition HP and enhance earnings,[43][45][46] and
had been objected to even by HPs own CFO.[47][48]:36
Within a year, Apotheker himself had been red, major

Securities and Exchange Commission was settled by HP

consenting to an order acknowledging that HP had violated the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) when
HP subsidiaries in Russia, Poland, and Mexico made improper payments to government ocials to obtain or retain lucrative public contracts.[139]
The SECs order nds that HPs subsidiary in Russia paid
more than $2 million through agents and various shell
companies to a Russian government ocial to retain a
multi-million dollar contract with the federal prosecutors oce. In Poland, HPs subsidiary provided gifts and
cash bribes worth more than $600,000 to a Polish government ocial to obtain contracts with the national police agency. And as part of its bid to win a software sale
to Mexicos state-owned petroleum company, HPs subsidiary in Mexico paid more than $1 million in inated
commissions to a consultant with close ties to company

34.11. REFERENCES
ocials, and money was funneled to one of those ocials. HP agreed to pay $108 million to settle the SEC
charges and a parallel criminal case.[140][141][142]

34.8.7

Divestment from HP regarding involvement in Israeli occupation and

blockade of Palestinian territories

On June 20, 2014, the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)

voted to divest from Hewlett-Packard and two other
American companies, Caterpillar and Motorola Solutions.[143][144][145][146]
The advisory opinion of the Presbyterian Peace Fellowship, which recommended divestment, cited HPs
involvement in assisting Israel in maintaining the
occupation of the Palestinian West Bank and human
rights abuses of the Palestinians in the West Bank and the
Gaza strip through its hardware and information technology support to the Israeli military and settlements.[147]

34.9 Notable people

353

34.11 References
[1] Hewlett-Packard Company Financial Statements.
United States Securities and Exchange Commission.
[2] HP regains PC lead over Lenovo | News. PC Pro. 201301-14. Retrieved 2013-04-27.
[3] Gartner Says Worldwide PC Shipments Declined 6.9
Percent in Fourth Quarter of 2013. Gartner.com. 201401-09. Retrieved 2014-02-03.
[4] San Jose Mercury News: HPs acquisitions cement
companys No. 1 status. Chris O'Brien. April 2010.
Mercurynews.com. Retrieved 2011-11-30.
[5] HP Completes Acquisition of 3Com Corporation, Accelerates Converged Infrastructure Strategy. Hewlett
Packard. Retrieved July 7, 2011.
[6] Vance, Ashlee; Wortham, Jenna (April 28, 2010). H.P.
to Pay $1.2 billion for Palm. New York Times.
[7] Dell gives up bidding war for 3Par Inc.. Winston-Salem
Journal. Associated Press. September 3, 2010. Archived
from the original on January 26, 2012. Retrieved September 3, 2010.

Michael Capellas (Compaq CEO/Chairman HP

President)[148]

[8] Hewlett-Packard to split into two public companies.

Reuters. October 6, 2014. Retrieved October 6, 2014.

Steve Jobs (Apple Inc. founder, CEO until his death

in 2011)[149]

[9] HP Retiree: Quotes and anecdotes About Bill Hewlett.

Hp.com. Retrieved 2013-06-13.

Steve Wozniak [150]

Tom Perkins

[10] Malone, Michael (2007). Bill & Dave: How Hewlett and
Packard Built the Worlds Greatest Company. Portfolio
Hardcover. pp. 3941. ISBN 1-59184-152-6.

Matt Shaheen, management consultant executive at

HP Enterprise Services in Plano, Texas; Republican
member of the Texas House of Representatives

[11] HP History: HPs Garage. Hewlett Packard. December

6, 2005. Retrieved July 7, 2011.

List of HP Chairmen and CEOs

[12] HP Company Information. HP Interactive Timeline.

Hewlett Packard. Retrieved July 7, 2011.

34.10 See also

HP calculators
HP Linux Imaging and Printing
HP Software & Solutions
ArcSight
TippingPoint
Fortify
HP User Group
List of acquisitions by Hewlett-Packard

[13] Mark Hall. Hewlett-Packard Company. Encyclopedia

Britannica.
[14] HP History : 1960s. Hewlett Packard. March 17, 1961.
Retrieved July 7, 2011.
[15] Yokogawa Electric Corporation (July 7, 1999).
Yokogawa Electric Corporation and Hewlett-Packard
Company Announce Hewlett-Packard Japan to become
Wholly Owned HP Subsidiary HP and Yokogawa Sign
Agreement. Yokogawa.com. Retrieved July 7, 2011.
[16] Dynac DY-2500 at HP Virtual Museum.
Packard. Retrieved July 7, 2011.

Hewlett

[17] HP1000 F-Series. HP Museum. Retrieved July 7,

2011.

List of Hewlett-Packard products

[18] Global 500 2009: Global 500 1-100 FORTUNE on

CNNMoney.com. CNN. July 20, 2009. Retrieved May
9, 2010.

Shortest Path Bridging

[19] Wired 8.12. Wired.com. Retrieved July 7, 2011.

List of computer system manufacturers

354

CHAPTER 34. HEWLETT-PACKARD

[20] HP Computer Museum. HP Museum. Retrieved May

9, 2010.

[39] SAP accepts some liability in Oracle lawsuit. ComputerworldUK.com. Retrieved July 7, 2011.

[21] Arensman, Russ. Unnished business: managing one of

the biggest spin-os in corporate history would be a challenge even in the best of times. But what Agilents Ned
Barnholt got was the worst of times. (Cover Story). Electronic Business 28.10 (October 2002): 36(6).

[40] P Reports Third Quarter 2011 Results and Initiates Company Transformation. HP.com. Retrieved August 18,
2011.

[22] HPs share price moved from 45.36 to 20.14 during Fiorinas leadership, a performance of 56% (share price data
from Bloomberg); the market as a whole, as measured by
the benchmark Dow Jones U.S. Large Cap Technology Index, fell by 51% between July 19, 1999 and February 9,
2005.
[23] HP Press Release: Hewlett-Packard and Compaq Agree
to Merge, Creating $87 billion Global Technology
Leader. Hewlett Packard. Retrieved May 9, 2010.
[24] HP Closes Compaq Merger (Press release). Hewlett
Packard. Retrieved May 9, 2010.
[25] press release. Hewlett Packard. Retrieved July 7, 2011.
[26] HP Announces Expiration of Waiting Period Under HSR
Act (Press release). Hewlett Packard. Retrieved July 7,
2011.
[27] HP to Acquire 3Com for $2.7 billion (Press release).
Hewlett Packard. Retrieved May 9, 2010.
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Apotheker believed that HPs platform was sinking...[and] appeared to be in a hurry to transform the
company... In a rapid series of moves announced in August 2011, Apotheker killed HPs six-week-old TouchPad
tablet, explored plans for a spin-out of its PC business, and
championed the $10.3 billion acquisition of [] Autonomy.
One former HP executive who worked there at the time
says it appeared that Apotheker and the board didn't know
what to do, and were trying anything they could think of.
It wasn't a strategy, he says. It was chaos... Oracle CEO
Larry Ellison called Autonomys asking price 'absurdly
high'.
[44] HPQ stock since naming Leo Apotheker CEO..
[45] Autonomy board backs 7bn Hewlett-Packard oer, The
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rm Autonomy on Monday, the centerpiece of a botched
strategy shift that cost ex-chief executive Leo Apotheker his
job last month. HP said its 25.50 pounds-per-share cash
oer -- representing a 79 percent premium that many HP
shareholders found excessive -- had been accepted by investors.
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November 25, 2012
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[49] HP names Meg Whitman as CEO.

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[51] HP to Keep PC Division. October 27, 2011.

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[36] Vance, Ashlee (August 9, 2010). Oracle Chief Faults

H.P. Board for Forcing Hurds Resignation. The New
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[37] Lo Apotheker Named CEO and President of HP.

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[38] Larry Ellison outraged as HP hands top job to ex -SAP

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[139] <Business Insider

[140] SEC Press Release
[141] Business Insider
[142] Fox Business
[143] Goodstein, Laurie (June 20, 2014). Presbyterians Vote
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[149] HP Retiree: Quotes and anecdotes About Bill Hewlett.
Hp.com. Retrieved 2011-11-30.
[150] hpandwoz (2010-04-23). Steve Wozniak Talks About
HP. YouTube. Retrieved 2011-11-30.

34.12 External links

Ocial website
HP Printing and The Science Museum of Minnesota
The Museum of HP Calculators
HP History Links
ArcSight
Fortify
TippingPoint
Atalla
Protect 724 Community
HP Photo

Business data for Hewlett-Packard Company:

Hoovers
Reuters
SEC lings

The template Electronics industry in the United States is

being considered for deletion.

357

Chapter 35

Mainframe computer
For other uses, see Mainframe.
Mainframe computers (colloquially referred to as "big

35.1 Description
Modern mainframe design is generally less dened by
single-task computational speed (typically dened as
MIPS rate or FLOPS in the case of oating point calculations), and more by:
Redundant internal engineering resulting in high reliability and security
Extensive input-output facilities with the ability to
ooad to separate engines
Strict backward compatibility with older software
High hardware and computational utilization rates
through virtualization to support massive throughput.
Their high stability and reliability enables these machines
to run uninterrupted for decades.

An IBM System z9 mainframe

iron"[1] ) are computers used primarily by corporate and

governmental organizations for critical applications, bulk
data processing such as census, industry and consumer
statistics, enterprise resource planning and transaction
processing.

Software upgrades usually require setting up the

operating system or portions thereof, and are nondisruptive only when using virtualizing facilities such
as IBMs z/OS and Parallel Sysplex, or Unisyss XPCL,
which support workload sharing so that one system can
take over anothers application while it is being refreshed.
Mainframes are dened by high availability, one of the
main reasons for their longevity, since they are typically
used in applications where downtime would be costly
or catastrophic. The term reliability, availability and
serviceability (RAS) is a dening characteristic of mainframe computers. Proper planning and implementation
is required to exploit these features, and if improperly
implemented, may serve to inhibit the benets provided.
In addition, mainframes are more secure than other
computer types: the NIST vulnerabilities database,
US-CERT, rates traditional mainframes such as IBM
zSeries, Unisys Dorado and Unisys Libra as among the
most secure with vulnerabilities in the low single digits
as compared with thousands for Windows, Unix, and
Linux.[5]

The term originally referred to the large cabinets called

main frames that housed the central processing unit and
main memory of early computers.[2][3] Later, the term
was used to distinguish high-end commercial machines
from less powerful units.[4] Most large-scale computer In the late 1950s, most mainframes had no explicitly
system architectures were established in the 1960s, but interactive interface. They accepted sets of punched
cards, paper tape, or magnetic tape to transfer data and
continue to evolve.
358

35.2. CHARACTERISTICS
programs. They operated in batch mode to support
back oce functions, such as customer billing, and supported interactive terminals almost exclusively for applications rather than program development. Typewriter
and Teletype devices were also common control consoles for system operators through the 1970s, although
ultimately supplanted by keyboard/display devices. By
the early 1970s, many mainframes acquired interactive
user interfaces[NB 1] and operated as timesharing computers, supporting hundreds of users simultaneously along
with batch processing. Users gained access through
specialized terminals or, later, from personal computers equipped with terminal emulation software. By the
1980s, many mainframes supported graphical terminals,
and terminal emulation, but not graphical user interfaces.
This format of end-user computing reached mainstream
obsolescence in the 1990s due to the advent of personal
computers provided with GUIs. After 2000, most modern mainframes have partially or entirely phased out classic "green screen" terminal access for end-users in favour
of Web-style user interfaces.
The infrastructure requirements were drastically reduced
during the mid-1990s when CMOS mainframe designs
replaced the older bipolar technology. IBM claimed that
its newer mainframes could reduce data center energy
costs for power and cooling, and that they could reduce
physical space requirements compared to server farms.[6]

35.2 Characteristics

359
of operating systems at the same time. This technique
of virtual machines allows applications to run as if they
were on physically distinct computers. In this role, a single mainframe can replace higher-functioning hardware
services available to conventional servers. While mainframes pioneered this capability, virtualization is now
available on most families of computer systems, though
not always to the same degree or level of sophistication.
Mainframes can add or hot swap system capacity without
disrupting system function, with specicity and granularity to a level of sophistication not usually available with
most server solutions. Modern mainframes, notably the
IBM zSeries, System z9 and System z10 servers, oer
two levels of virtualization: logical partitions (LPARs,
via the PR/SM facility) and virtual machines (via the
z/VM operating system). Many mainframe customers
run two machines: one in their primary data center, and
one in their backup data centerfully active, partially active, or on standbyin case there is a catastrophe aecting the rst building. Test, development, training, and
production workload for applications and databases can
run on a single machine, except for extremely large demands where the capacity of one machine might be limiting. Such a two-mainframe installation can support continuous business service, avoiding both planned and unplanned outages. In practice many customers use multiple mainframes linked either by Parallel Sysplex and
shared DASD (in IBMs case), or with shared, geographically dispersed storage provided by EMC or Hitachi.
Mainframes are designed to handle very high volume
input and output (I/O) and emphasize throughput computing. Since the late-1950s,[NB 2] mainframe designs
have included subsidiary hardware[NB 3] (called channels
or peripheral processors) which manage the I/O devices,
leaving the CPU free to deal only with high-speed memory. It is common in mainframe shops to deal with massive databases and les. Gigabyte to terabyte-size record
les are not unusual.[7] Compared to a typical PC, mainframes commonly have hundreds to thousands of times as
much data storage online, and can access it much faster.
Other server families also ooad I/O processing and emphasize throughput computing.
Mainframe return on investment (ROI), like any other
computing platform, is dependent on its ability to scale,
support mixed workloads, reduce labor costs, deliver uninterrupted service for critical business applications, and
several other risk-adjusted cost factors.

Inside an IBM System z9 mainframe

Modern mainframes can run multiple dierent instances

Mainframes also have execution integrity characteristics

for fault tolerant computing. For example, z900, z990,
System z9, and System z10 servers eectively execute
result-oriented instructions twice, compare results, arbitrate between any dierences (through instruction retry
and failure isolation), then shift workloads in ight to
functioning processors, including spares, without any impact to operating systems, applications, or users. This
hardware-level feature, also found in HPs NonStop sys-

360

CHAPTER 35. MAINFRAME COMPUTER

tems, is known as lock-stepping, because both processors

take their steps (i.e. instructions) together. Not all applications absolutely need the assured integrity that these
systems provide, but many do, such as nancial transaction processing.

35.3 Market
IBM mainframes dominate the mainframe market at
well over 90% market share.[8] Unisys manufactures
ClearPath Libra mainframes, based on earlier Burroughs
products and ClearPath Dorado mainframes based on
Sperry Univac OS 1100 product lines. In 2002, Hitachi
co-developed the zSeries z800 with IBM to share expenses, but subsequently the two companies have not
collaborated on new Hitachi models. Hewlett-Packard
sells its unique NonStop systems, which it acquired with
Tandem Computers and which some analysts classify
as mainframes. Groupe Bull's DPS, Fujitsu (formerly
Siemens) BS2000, and Fujitsu-ICL VME mainframes are
still available in Europe. Fujitsu, Hitachi, and NEC (the
JCMs) still maintain mainframe hardware businesses in
the Japanese market.[9][10]
The amount of vendor investment in mainframe development varies with market share. Fujitsu and Hitachi both
continue to use custom S/390-compatible processors, as
well as other CPUs (including POWER and Xeon) for
lower-end systems. Bull uses a mixture of Itanium and
Xeon processors. NEC uses Xeon processors for its lowend ACOS-2 line, but develops the custom NOAH-6
processor for its high-end ACOS-4 series. IBM continues to pursue a dierent business strategy of mainframe investment and growth. IBM has its own large
research and development organization designing new,
homegrown CPUs, including mainframe processors such
as 2012s 5.5 GHz six-core zEC12 mainframe microprocessor. Unisys produces code compatible mainframe systems that range from laptops to cabinet sized mainframes
that utilize homegrown CPUs as well as Xeon processors.
IBM is rapidly expanding its software business, including
its mainframe software portfolio, to seek additional revenue and prots.[11]

An IBM 704 mainframe (1964)

Control Data, Honeywell, General Electric and RCA, although some lists varied. Later, with the departure of
General Electric and RCA, it was referred to as IBM
and the BUNCH. IBMs dominance grew out of their
700/7000 series and, later, the development of the 360
series mainframes. The latter architecture has continued
to evolve into their current zSeries mainframes which,
along with the then Burroughs and Sperry (now Unisys)
MCP-based and OS1100 mainframes, are among the few
mainframe architectures still extant that can trace their
roots to this early period. While IBMs zSeries can still
run 24-bit System/360 code, the 64-bit zSeries and System z9 CMOS servers have nothing physically in common with the older systems. Notable manufacturers outside the USA were Siemens and Telefunken in Germany,
ICL in the United Kingdom, Olivetti in Italy, and Fujitsu,
Hitachi, Oki, and NEC in Japan. The Soviet Union and
Warsaw Pact countries manufactured close copies of IBM
mainframes during the Cold War; the BESM series and
Strela are examples of an independently designed Soviet
computer.
Shrinking demand and tough competition started a
shakeout in the market in the early 1970s RCA sold
out to UNIVAC and GE sold its business to Honeywell;
in the 1980s Honeywell was bought out by Bull; UNIVAC became a division of Sperry, which later merged
with Burroughs to form Unisys Corporation in 1986.

During the 1980s, minicomputer-based systems grew

more sophisticated and were able to displace the lowerFurthermore, there exists a market for software applicaend of the mainframes. These computers, sometimes
tions to manage the performance of mainframe implecalled departmental computers were typied by the DEC
mentations. In addition to IBM, signicant players in
VAX.
this market include BMC,[12] Compuware,[13][14] and CA
In 1991, AT&T Corporation briey owned NCR. DurTechnologies.[15]
ing the same period, companies found that servers based
on microcomputer designs could be deployed at a fraction of the acquisition price and oer local users much
35.4 History
greater control over their own systems given the IT policies and practices at that time. Terminals used for interSeveral manufacturers produced mainframe computers acting with mainframe systems were gradually replaced
from the late 1950s through the 1970s. The group of by personal computers. Consequently, demand plummanufacturers was rst known as "IBM and the Seven meted and new mainframe installations were restricted
Dwarfs":[16]:p.83 usually Burroughs, UNIVAC, NCR, mainly to nancial services and government. In the early

35.5. DIFFERENCES FROM SUPERCOMPUTERS

361

1990s, there was a rough consensus among industry an- Blues results.[22]
alysts that the mainframe was a dying market as mainframe platforms were increasingly replaced by personal
computer networks. InfoWorld's Stewart Alsop famously 35.5 Dierences from supercompredicted that the last mainframe would be unplugged in
puters
1996; in 1993, he cited Cheryl Currid, a computer industry analyst as saying that the last mainframe will stop
working on December 31, 1999,[17] a reference to the A supercomputer is a computer that is at the frontline of
current processing capacity, particularly speed of calcuanticipated Year 2000 problem (Y2K).
lation. Supercomputers are used for scientic and engiThat trend started to turn around in the late 1990s as corneering problems (high-performance computing) which
porations found new uses for their existing mainframes
are data crunching and number crunching,[23] while mainand as the price of data networking collapsed in most
frames are used for transaction processing. The dierparts of the world, encouraging trends toward more cenences are as follows:
tralized computing. The growth of e-business also dramatically increased the number of back-end transactions
Mainframes are often approximately measured in
processed by mainframe software as well as the size
millions of instructions per second (MIPS),[24] but
and throughput of databases. Batch processing, such as
supercomputers are measured in oating point opbilling, became even more important (and larger) with
erations per second (FLOPS) and more recently by
the growth of e-business, and mainframes are particutraversed edges per second or TEPS.[25] Examples
larly adept at large scale batch computing. Another factor
of integer operations include moving data around in
currently increasing mainframe use is the development
memory or checking values. Floating point operof the Linux operating system, which arrived on IBM
ations are mostly addition, subtraction, and multimainframe systems in 1999 and is typically run in scores
plication with enough digits of precision to model
or hundreds of virtual machines on a single mainframe.
continuous phenomena such as weather prediction
Linux allows users to take advantage of open source softand nuclear simulations. In terms of computational
ware combined with mainframe hardware RAS. Rapid
ability, supercomputers are more powerful.[26]
expansion and development in emerging markets, partic Mainframes are built to be reliable for transaction
ularly Peoples Republic of China, is also spurring maprocessing as it is commonly understood in the busijor mainframe investments to solve exceptionally dicult
ness world: a commercial exchange of goods, sercomputing problems, e.g. providing unied, extremely
vices, or money. A typical transaction, as dened
high volume online transaction processing databases for
by the Transaction Processing Performance Coun1 billion consumers across multiple industries (banking,
cil,[27] would include the updating to a database sysinsurance, credit reporting, government services, etc.) In
tem for such things as inventory control (goods), airlate 2000 IBM introduced 64-bit z/Architecture, acquired
line reservations (services), or banking (money). A
numerous software companies such as Cognos and introtransaction could refer to a set of operations includduced those software products to the mainframe. IBMs
ing disk read/writes, operating system calls, or some
quarterly and annual reports in the 2000s usually reported
form of data transfer from one subsystem to another.
increasing mainframe revenues and capacity shipments.
This operation doesn't count toward the processing
However, IBMs mainframe hardware business has not
power of a computer. Transaction processing is not
been immune to the recent overall downturn in the server
exclusive to mainframes but also used in the perforhardware market or to model cycle eects. For exammance of microprocessor-based servers and online
ple, in the 4th quarter of 2009, IBMs System z hardware
networks.
revenues decreased by 27% year over year. But MIPS
shipments (a measure of mainframe capacity) increased
[28]
4% per year over the past two years.[18] Alsop had him- In 2007, an amalgamation of the dierent technologies
self photographed in 2000, symbolically eating his own and architectures for supercomputers and mainframes has
led to the so-called gameframe.
words (death of the mainframe).[19]
In 2012, NASA powered down its last mainframe, an
IBM System z9.[20] However, IBMs successor to the z9,
the z10, led a New York Times reporter to state four
years earlier that mainframe technology hardware,
software and services remains a large and lucrative
business for I.B.M., and mainframes are still the backoce engines behind the worlds nancial markets and
much of global commerce.[21] As of 2010, while mainframe technology represented less than 3% of IBMs revenues, it continue[d] to play an outsized role in Big

35.6 See also

Computer types
Failover
Gameframe
Channel I/O
Cloud computing

362

CHAPTER 35. MAINFRAME COMPUTER

35.7 Notes

[18] IBM 4Q2009 Financial Report: CFOs Prepared Remarks. IBM. January 19, 2010.

[1] In some cases the interfaces were introduced in the 1960s

but their deployment became more common in the 1970s

[19] Stewart Alsop eating his words. Computer History Museum. Retrieved Dec 26, 2013.

[2] E.g., the IBM 709 had channels in 1958

[20] Cureton, Linda (11 February 2012). The End of the Mainframe Era at NASA. NASA. Retrieved 31 January 2014.

[3] sometimes computers, sometimes more limited

[21] Lohr, Steve (March 23, 2008). Why Old Technologies

Are Still Kicking. The New York Times. Retrieved Dec
25, 2013.

35.8 References
[1] IBM preps big iron esta. The Register. July 20, 2005.

[22] Ante, Spencer E. (July 22, 2010). IBM Calculates New

Mainframes Into Its Future Sales Growth. The Wall
Street Journal. Retrieved Dec 25, 2013.

[2] mainframe, n. Oxford English Dictionary (on-line ed.).

[3] Ebbers, Mike; OBrien, W.; Ogden, B. (2006).
Introduction to the New Mainframe: z/OS Basics
(PDF). IBM International Technical Support Organization. Retrieved 2007-06-01.
[4] Beach, Thomas E. Computer Concepts and Terminology: Types of Computers. Retrieved November 17,
2012.
[5] National Vulnerability Database. Retrieved September
20, 2011.
[6] Get the facts on IBM vs the Competition- The facts about
IBM System z mainframe"". IBM. Retrieved December
28, 2009.
[7] Largest Commercial Database in Winter Corp. TopTen
Survey Tops One Hundred Terabytes. Press release. Retrieved 2008-05-16.
[8] IBM Tightens Stranglehold Over Mainframe Market;
Gets Hit with Antitrust Complaint in Europe. CCIA.
2008-07-02. Retrieved 2008-07-09.
[9] GlobalServer : Fujitsu Global. Fujitsu.com. Retrieved on
2013-07-17.
[10]

AP8800E:

[23] High-Performance Graph Analysis Retrieved on February

15, 2012
[24] Resource consumption for billing and performance purposes is measured in units of a Million service units
(MSU), but the denition of MSU varies from processor
to processor in such a fashion as to make MSUs/s useless
for comparing processor performance.
[25] The Graph 500 Retrieved on February 19, 2012
[26] Worlds Top Supercomputer Retrieved on December 25,
2009
[27] Transaction Processing Performance Council Retrieved
on December 25, 2009.
[28] Cell Broadband Engine Project Aims to Supercharge IBM
Mainframe for Virtual Worlds

35.9 External links

IBM Systems Mainframe Magazine
IBM eServer zSeries mainframe servers

. Hitachi.co.jp. Retrieved

Univac 9400, a mainframe from the 1960s, still in

use in a German computer museum

[11] IBM Opens Latin Americas First Mainframe Software

Center. Enterprise Networks and Servers. August 2007.

Lectures in the History of Computing: Mainframes

(archived copy from the Internet Archive)

[12] Mainframe Automation Management.

October 2012.

Articles and Tutorials at Mainframes360.com:

Mainframes

on 2013-07-17.

Retrieved 26

[13] Mainframe Modernization. Retrieved 26 October 2012.

[14] Automated Mainframe Testing & Auditing. Retrieved
26 October 2012.
[15] CA Technologies.
[16] Bergin, Thomas J (ed.) (2000). 50 Years of Army Computing: From ENIAC to MSRC. DIANE Publishing. ISBN
0-9702316-1-X.
[17] Alsop, Stewart (Mar 8, 1993). IBM still has brains to be
player in client/server platforms. InfoWorld. Retrieved
Dec 26, 2013.

Mainframe Tutorials and Forum at mainframewizard.com: Mainframes

Chapter 36

Macintosh
This article is about the line of personal computers. For
the waterproof coat, see Mackintosh. For other uses, see
McIntosh (disambiguation).
The Macintosh (/mknt/ MAK-in-tosh), or Mac,

Steve Jobs introduced the original Macintosh computer

on January 24, 1984. This was the rst mass-market personal computer featuring an integral graphical user interface and mouse.[1] This rst model was later renamed
to Macintosh 128k for uniqueness amongst a populous family of subsequently updated models which are
also based on Apples same proprietary architecture. The
Macintosh product family has been collectively and singularly nicknamed Mac or the Mac since the development of the rst model.
The Macintosh, however, was expensive, which caused it
to be overtaken in sales by the aggressively priced IBM
Personal Computer and its accompanying clone market.
Macintosh systems still found success in education and
desktop publishing and kept Apple as the second-largest
PC manufacturer for the next decade. In the 1990s, improvements in the rival Wintel platform, notably with
the introduction of Windows 3.0, gradually took market
share from the more expensive Macintosh systems. The
performance advantage of 68000-based Macintosh systems was eroded by Intel's Pentium, and in 1994 Apple
was relegated to third place as Compaq became the top
PC manufacturer. Even after a transition to the superior PowerPC-based Power Macintosh line in 1994, the
falling prices of commodity PC components and the release of Windows 95 saw the Macintosh user base decline.

The original Macintosh, released in January 1984.

In 1998, after the return of Steve Jobs, Apple consolidated its multiple consumer-level desktop models into
the all-in-one iMac G3, which became a commercial
success and revitalized the brand. Since their transition
to Intel processors in 2006, the complete lineup is entirely based on said processors and associated systems.
Its current lineup comprises three desktops (the all-inone iMac, entry-level Mac mini, and the Mac Pro tower
graphics workstation), and three laptops (the MacBook
Air, MacBook Pro, and MacBook Pro with Retina display). Its Xserve server was discontinued in 2011 in favor
of the Mac Mini and Mac Pro.
Production of the Mac is based on a vertical integration
model. Apple facilitates all aspects of its hardware and
creates its own operating system that is pre-installed on
is a series of personal computers (PCs) designed, devel- all Mac computers, unlike most IBM PC compatibles,
where multiple sellers create and integrate hardware inoped, and marketed by Apple Inc.
Signature of Steve Jobs engraved in the case of the rst Apple
Macintosh computer

363

364

CHAPTER 36. MACINTOSH

tended to run another companys operating system. Apple exclusively produces Mac hardware, choosing internal
systems, designs, and prices. Apple also develops the
operating system for the Mac, currently OS X version
10.10 Yosemite. Macs are currently capable of running
non-Apple operating systems such as Linux, OpenBSD,
and Microsoft Windows with the aid of Boot Camp or
third-party software. Apple does not license OS X for
use on non-Apple computers, though it did license previous versions of Mac OS through their Macintosh clone
program from 1995 to 1997.

36.1 History
See also: History of Apple Inc.

36.1.1

Development and introduction

The original 1984 Mac OS desktop featured a radically new

graphical user interface. Users communicated with the computer,
using a metaphorical desktop that included icons of real life items,
instead of abstract textual commands.

that used by McIntosh Laboratory, Inc., the audio equipment manufacturer.[3] Steve Jobs requested that McIntosh Laboratory give Apple a release for the name with
its changed spelling so that Apple could use it, but the
request was denied, forcing Apple to eventually buy the
rights to use the name.[4] (A 1984 Byte Magazine article
suggested Apple changed the spelling only after early
users misspelled McIntosh.[5] However, Jef Raskin
had adopted the Macintosh spelling by 1981,[6] when the
Macintosh computer was still a single prototype machine
in the lab. This explanation further clashes with the rst
explanation given above that the change was made for legal reasons.)

36.1.3 Team members

Raskin was authorized to start hiring for the project in
September 1979,[7] and he immediately asked his longtime colleague, Brian Howard, to join him.[8] His initial team would eventually consist of himself, Howard,
Joanna Homan, Burrell Smith, and Bud Tribble.[9] The
rest of the original MAC team would include Bill Atkinson, Bob Belleville, Steve Capps, George Crow, Donn
Denman, Chris Espinosa, Andy Hertzfeld, Bruce Horn,
Susan Kare, Larry Kenyon, and Caroline Rose with Steve
Jobs leading the project. [10]
A prototype of the Macintosh from 1981 (at the Computer History
Museum)

36.1.2

Inital phase

The Macintosh project was begun in 1979 by Jef Raskin,

an Apple employee who envisioned an easy-to-use, lowcost computer for the average consumer. He wanted to
name the computer after his favorite type of apple, the
McIntosh,[2] but the spelling was changed to Macintosh
for legal reasons as the original was the same spelling as

36.1.4 Production
Smiths rst Macintosh board was built to Raskins design
specications: it had 64 kilobytes (kB) of RAM, used
the Motorola 6809E microprocessor, and was capable of
supporting a 256256-pixel black-and-white bitmap display. Bud Tribble, a member of the Mac team, was interested in running the Lisas graphical programs on the
Macintosh, and asked Smith whether he could incorporate the Lisas Motorola 68000 microprocessor into the
Mac while still keeping the production cost down. By December 1980, Smith had succeeded in designing a board

36.1. HISTORY
that not only used the 68000, but increased its speed from
5 MHz to 8 MHz; this board also had the capacity to support a 384256-pixel display. Smiths design used fewer
RAM chips than the Lisa, which made production of the
board signicantly more cost-ecient. The nal Mac design was self-contained and had the complete QuickDraw
picture language and interpreter in 64 kB of ROM far
more than most other computers; it had 128 kB of RAM,
in the form of sixteen 64 kilobit (kb) RAM chips soldered
to the logicboard. Though there were no memory slots,
its RAM was expandable to 512 kB by means of soldering sixteen IC sockets to accept 256 kb RAM chips in
place of the factory-installed chips. The nal products
screen was a 9-inch, 512x342 pixel monochrome display,
exceeding the size of the planned screen.[11]

365
the Macintosh line, resulting in the Snow White design
language; although it came too late for the earliest Macs,
it was implemented in most other mid- to late-1980s Apple computers.[14] However, Jobs leadership at the Macintosh project did not last; after an internal power struggle
with new CEO John Sculley, Jobs resigned from Apple in
1985.[15] He went on to found NeXT, another computer
company targeting the education market,[16] and did not
return until 1997, when Apple acquired NeXT.[17]

36.1.5 Debut
After the Lisas announcement, John Dvorak discussed
rumors of a mysterious MacIntosh project at Apple in February 1983.[18] The company announced the
Macintosh 128Kmanufactured at an Apple factory
in Fremont, Californiain October 1983, followed
by an 18-page brochure included with various magazines in December.[19][20] The Macintosh was introduced
by a US$1.5 million Ridley Scott television commercial, "1984".[21] It most notably aired during the third
quarter of Super Bowl XVIII on January 22, 1984,
and is now considered a watershed event[22] and a
masterpiece.[23] 1984 used an unnamed heroine to
represent the coming of the Macintosh (indicated by a
Picasso-style picture of the computer on her white tank
top) as a means of saving humanity from the conformity of IBMs attempts to dominate the computer industry. The ad alludes to George Orwell's novel, Nineteen
Eighty-Four, which described a dystopian future ruled by
a televised "Big Brother.[24][25]

The Apple Macintosh Plus at the Design Museum in Gothenburg,

Sweden.

Burrels innovative design, which combined the low production cost of an Apple II with the computing power
of Lisas CPU, the Motorola 68K, received the attention
of Steve Jobs,[12] co-founder of Apple. Realizing that
the Macintosh was more marketable than the Lisa, he
began to focus his attention on the project. Raskin left
the team in 1981 over a personality conict with Jobs.
Team member Andy Hertzfeld said that the nal Macintosh design is closer to Jobs ideas than Raskins.[7] After hearing of the pioneering GUI technology being developed at Xerox PARC, Jobs had negotiated a visit to
see the Xerox Alto computer and its Smalltalk development tools in exchange for Apple stock options. The Lisa
and Macintosh user interfaces were inuenced by technology seen at Xerox PARC and were combined with
the Macintosh groups own ideas.[13] Jobs also commissioned industrial designer Hartmut Esslinger to work on

This television commercial, rst aired during Super Bowl XVIII,

launched the original Macintosh.

Two days after 1984 aired, the Macintosh went on

sale, and came bundled with two applications designed
to show o its interface: MacWrite and MacPaint. It
was rst demonstrated by Steve Jobs in the rst of his
famous Mac keynote speeches, and though the Mac garnered an immediate, enthusiastic following, some labeled it a mere toy.[26] Because the operating system
was designed largely around the GUI, existing text-mode
and command-driven applications had to be redesigned

366

CHAPTER 36. MACINTOSH

and the programming code rewritten. This was a timeconsuming task that many software developers chose not
to undertake, and could be regarded as a reason for an
initial lack of software for the new system. In April
1984, Microsoft's MultiPlan migrated over from MSDOS, with Microsoft Word following in January 1985.[27]
In 1985, Lotus Software introduced Lotus Jazz for the
Macintosh platform after the success of Lotus 1-2-3 for
the IBM PC, although it was largely a op.[28] Apple introduced the Macintosh Oce suite the same year with
the Lemmings ad. Infamous for insulting its own potential customers, the ad was not successful.[29]
Apple spent $2.5 million purchasing all 39 advertising
pages in a special, post-election issue of Newsweek,[30]
and ran a Test Drive a Macintosh promotion, in which
potential buyers with a credit card could take home a
Macintosh for 24 hours and return it to a dealer afterwards. While 200,000 people participated, dealers disliked the promotion, the supply of computers was insufcient for demand, and many were returned in such a
bad condition that they could no longer be sold. This
marketing campaign caused CEO John Sculley to raise
the price from US$1,995 to US$2,495 (about $5,200
when adjusted for ination in 2010).[29][31] The computer
sold well, nonetheless, reportedly outselling the IBM PCjr
which also began shipping early that year.[32] By April
1984 the company sold 50,000 Macintoshes, and hoped
for 70,000 by early May and almost 250,000 by the end
of the year.[33]

36.1.6

Desktop publishing

Jobs stated during the Macintoshs introduction we expect Macintosh to become the third industry standard,
after the Apple II and IBM PC. Although outselling every other computer, it did not meet expectations during
the rst year, especially among business customers. Only
about ten applications including MacWrite and MacPaint
were widely available,[34] although many non-Apple software developers participated in the introduction and Apple promised that 79 companies including Lotus, Digital
Research, and Ashton-Tate were creating products for
the new computer. After one year, it had less than one
quarter of the software selection available compared to
the IBM PCincluding only one word processor, two
databases, and one spreadsheetalthough Apple had sold
280,000 Macintoshes compared to IBMs sales of fewer
than 100,000 PCs. Developers were required to learn
how to write software that used the Macintoshs graphic
user interface.[35]
In 1985, the combination of the Mac, Apples
LaserWriter printer, and Mac-specic software like
Boston Softwares MacPublisher and Aldus PageMaker
enabled users to design, preview, and print page layouts
complete with text and graphicsan activity to become
known as desktop publishing. Initially, desktop publishing was unique to the Macintosh, but eventually became

available for other platforms.[36] Later, applications

such as Macromedia FreeHand, QuarkXPress, and
Adobe's Photoshop and Illustrator strengthened the
Macs position as a graphics computer and helped to
expand the emerging desktop publishing market.
The Macintoshs minimal memory became apparent,
even compared with other personal computers in 1984,
and could not be expanded easily. It also lacked a hard
disk drive or the means to easily attach one. Many small
companies sprang up to address the memory issue. Suggestions revolved around either upgrading the memory to
512 KB or removing the computers 16 memory chips and
replacing them with larger-capacity chips, a tedious operation that was not always successful. In October 1984,
Apple introduced the Macintosh 512K, with quadruple
the memory of the original, at a price of US$3,195.[37] It
also oered an upgrade for 128k Macs that involved replacing the logicboard. In an attempt to improve connectivity, Apple released the Macintosh Plus on January 10,
1986, for a price of US$2,600. It oered one megabyte
of RAM, easily expandable to four megabytes by the use
of socketed RAM boards. It also featured a SCSI parallel interface, allowing up to seven peripheralssuch as
hard drives and scannersto be attached to the machine.
Its oppy drive was increased to an 800 kB capacity.
The Mac Plus was an immediate success and remained
in production, unchanged, until October 15, 1990; on
sale for just over four years and ten months, it was the
longest-lived Macintosh in Apples history.[38] In September 1986, Apple introduced the Macintosh Programmers
Workshop, or MPW, an application that allowed software
developers to create software for Macintosh on Macintosh, rather than cross compiling from a Lisa. In August 1987, Apple unveiled HyperCard and MultiFinder,
which added cooperative multitasking to the Macintosh.
Apple began bundling both with every Macintosh.

The Macintosh II, one of the rst expandable Macintosh models.

Updated Motorola CPUs made a faster machine possible,

and in 1987 Apple took advantage of the new Motorola
technology and introduced the Macintosh II at $5500,
powered by a 16 MHz Motorola 68020 processor.[39]

36.1. HISTORY

367
ce suite, Claris purchased the rights to the Informix
Wingz spreadsheet program on the Mac, renaming it
Claris Resolve, and added the new presentation software
Claris Impact. By the early 1990s, Claris applications
were shipping with the majority of consumer-level Macintoshes and were extremely popular. In 1991, Claris
released ClarisWorks, which soon became their second
best-selling application. When Claris was reincorporated
back into Apple in 1998, ClarisWorks was renamed AppleWorks beginning with version 5.0.[44]

The Macintosh SE, updated Compact Macintosh design using

Snow White design language.

The primary improvement in the Macintosh II was Color

QuickDraw in ROM, a color version of the graphics language which was the heart of the machine. Among the
many innovations in Color QuickDraw were the ability
to handle any display size, any color depth, and multiple
monitors. The Macintosh II marked the start of a new
direction for the Macintosh, as now for the rst time it
had an open architecture with several NuBus expansion
slots, support for color graphics and external monitors,
and a modular design similar to that of the IBM PC. It
had an internal hard drive and a power supply with a fan,
which was initially fairly loud.[40] One third-party developer sold a device to regulate fan speed based on a heat
sensor, but it voided the warranty.[41] Later Macintosh
computers had quieter power supplies and hard drives.
The Macintosh SE was released at the same time as the
Macintosh II for $2900 (or $3900 with hard drive), as the
rst compact Mac with a 20 MB internal hard drive and
an expansion slot.[42] The SEs expansion slot was located
inside the case along with the CRT, potentially exposing an upgrader to high voltage. For this reason, Apple
recommended users bring their SE to an authorized Apple dealer to have upgrades performed.[43] The SE also
updated Jerry Manock and Terry Oyamas original design and shared the Macintosh IIs Snow White design
language, as well as the new Apple Desktop Bus (ADB)
mouse and keyboard that had rst appeared on the Apple
IIGS some months earlier.
In 1987, Apple spun o its software business as Claris. It
was given the code and rights to several applications that
had been written within Apple, most notably MacWrite,
MacPaint, and MacProject. In the late 1980s, Claris released a number of revamped software titles; the result
was the Pro series, including MacDraw Pro, MacWrite
Pro, and FileMaker Pro. To provide a complete of-

The Macintosh Portable was Apples rst battery-powered Macintosh. It was available from 1989 to 1991 and could run System
6 and System 7.

In 1988, Apple sued Microsoft and Hewlett-Packard on

the grounds that they infringed Apples copyrighted GUI,
citing (among other things) the use of rectangular, overlapping, and resizable windows. After four years, the case
was decided against Apple, as were later appeals. Apples
actions were criticized by some in the software community, including the Free Software Foundation (FSF), who
felt Apple was trying to monopolize on GUIs in general,
and boycotted GNU software for the Macintosh platform
for seven years.[45][46]
With the new Motorola 68030 processor came the
Macintosh IIx in 1988, which had beneted from internal
improvements, including an on-board MMU.[47] It was
followed in 1989 by the Macintosh IIcx, a more compact
version with fewer slots [48] and a version of the Mac SE
powered by the 16 MHz 68030, the Macintosh SE/30.[49]
Later that year, the Macintosh IIci, running at 25 MHz,
was the rst Mac to be "32-bit clean. This allowed it to
natively support more than 8 MB of RAM,[50] unlike its
predecessors, which had 32-bit dirty ROMs (8 of the
32 bits available for addressing were used for OS-level
ags). System 7 was the rst Macintosh operating system to support 32-bit addressing.[51] The following year,
the Macintosh IIfx, starting at US$9,900, was unveiled.
Apart from its fast 40 MHz 68030 processor, it had signicant internal architectural improvements, including
faster memory and two Apple II CPUs (6502s) dedicated
to I/O processing.[52]

368

36.1.7

CHAPTER 36. MACINTOSH

Decline

Microsoft Windows 3.0 was released in May 1990, and

according to a common saying at the time Windows was
not as good as Macintosh, but it was good enough for the
average user. Though still a graphical wrapper that relied upon MS-DOS, 3.0 was the rst iteration of Windows
which had a feature set and performance comparable to
the much more expensive Macintosh platform. It also did
not help matters that during the previous year Jean-Louis
Gasse had steadfastly refused to lower the prot margins on Mac computers. Finally, there was a component
shortage that rocked the exponentially-expanding PC industry in 1989, forcing Apple USA head Allan Loren to
cut prices which dropped Apples margins.[53]

The PowerBook 100.

25 MHz 68030 PowerBook 170.[62] They were the rst

portable computers with the keyboard behind a palm rest
and a built-in pointing device (a trackball) in front of
the keyboard.[63] The 1993 PowerBook 165c was Apples
rst portable computer to feature a color screen, displaying 256 colors with 640 x 400-pixel resolution.[64] The
second generation of PowerBooks, the 68040-equipped
500 series, introduced trackpads, integrated stereo speakers, and built-in Ethernet to the laptop form factor in
1994.[65]

The Macintosh Classic.

In response, Apple introduced a range of relatively inexpensive Macs in October 1990. The Macintosh Classic,
essentially a less expensive version of the Macintosh SE,
was the least expensive Mac oered until early 2001.[54]
The 68020-powered Macintosh LC, in its distinctive
"pizza box" case, oered color graphics and was accompanied by a new, low-cost 512384 pixel monitor.[55] The
Macintosh IIsi was essentially a 20 MHz IIci with only
one expansion slot.[56] All three machines sold well,[57]
although Apples prot margin on them was considerably
lower than that on earlier models.[54]
Apple improved Macintosh computers by introducing
models equipped with newly available processors from
the 68k lineup. The Macintosh Classic II[58] and
Macintosh LC II, which used a 16 MHz 68030 CPU,[59]
were joined in 1991 by the Macintosh Quadra 700[60]
and 900,[61] the rst Macs to employ the faster Motorola
68040 processor.
It wasn't long until Apple released their rst portable
computers, beginning with the Macintosh Portable released in 1989. Although due to considerable design issues, it was soon replaced in 1991 with the rst of the
PowerBook line: the PowerBook 100, a miniaturized
Portable; the 16 MHz 68030 PowerBook 140; and the

System 7, the rst major upgrade to the Macintosh operating system.

As for Mac OS, System 7 was a 32-bit rewrite from Pascal

to C++ that introduced virtual memory and improved the
handling of color graphics, as well as memory addressing,
networking, and co-operative multitasking. Also during
this time, the Macintosh began to shed the Snow White
design language, along with the expensive consulting fees
they were paying to Frogdesign. Apple instead brought
the design work in-house by establishing the Apple Industrial Design Group, becoming responsible for crafting
a new look for all Apple products.[66]

36.1. HISTORY

36.1.8

369

Transition to PowerPC

existing Apple customers began to buy cheaper clones

which cannibalized the sales of Apples higher-margin
Macintosh systems, yet Apple still shouldered the burden
Intel had tried unsuccessfully to push Apple to migrate of developing the Mac OS platform.
the Macintosh platform to Intel chips. Apple concluded that Intels CISC (Complex Instruction Set Com- Apples market share further struggled due to the release
puter) architecture ultimately would not be able to com- of the Windows 95 operating system, which unied Mipete against RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) crosofts formerly separate MS-DOS and Windows prodprocessors.[67] While the Motorola 68040 oered the ucts. Windows 95 signicantly enhanced the multimedia
same features as the Intel 80486 and could on a clock- capability and performance of IBM PC compatible comfor-clock basis signicantly outperform the Intel chip, puters, and brought the capabilities of Windows to parity
the 486 had the ability to be clocked signicantly faster with the Mac OS GUI.
without suering from overheating problems, especially When Steve Jobs returned to Apple in 1997 following the
the clock-doubled i486DX2 which ran the CPU logic at companys purchase of NeXT, he ordered that the OS that
twice the external bus speed, giving such equipped IBM had been previewed as version 7.7 be branded Mac OS 8
compatible systems a signicant performance lead over (in place of the never-to-appear Copland OS). Since Aptheir Macintosh equivalents.[68][69] Apples product de- ple had licensed only System 7 to third parties, this move
sign and engineering didn't help matters as they restricted eectively ended the clone line. The decision caused
the use of the '040 to their expensive Quadras for a time signicant nancial losses for companies like Motorola,
while the 486 was readily available to OEMs as well as who produced the StarMax; Umax, who produced the
enthusiasts who put together their own machines. In SuperMac;[76] and Power Computing, who oered sevlate 1991, as the higher-end Macintosh desktop lineup eral lines of Mac clones, including the PowerWave, Powtransitioned to the '040, Apple was unable to oer the erTower, and PowerTower Pro.[77] These companies had
'040 in their top-of-the-line PowerBooks until early 1994 invested substantial resources in creating their own Macwith the PowerBook 500 series, several years after the compatible hardware.[78] Apple bought out Power Comrst 486-powered IBM compatible laptops hit the market putings license, but allowed Umax to continue selling
which cost Apple considerable sales. In 1993 Intel rolled Mac clones until their license expired, as they had a sizeout the Pentium processors as the successor to the 486, able presence in the lower-end segment that Apple did
while the Motorola 68050 was never released, leaving not.
the Macintosh platform a generation behind IBM compatibles in the latest CPU technology. In 1994, Apple
abandoned Motorola CPUs for the RISC PowerPC ar- 36.1.9 Revival
chitecture developed by the AIM alliance of Apple Computer, IBM, and Motorola.[70] The Power Macintosh line,
the rst to use the new chips, proved to be highly successful, with over a million PowerPC units sold in nine
months.[71] However in the long run, spurning Intel for
the PowerPC was a mistake as the commoditization of
Intel-architecture chips meant Apple couldn't compete on
price against the Dells of the world.[67]
Notwithstanding these technical and commercial successes on the Macintosh, the falling costs of components
made IBM PC compatibles cheaper and accelerated their
adoption, over Macintosh systems that remained fairly
expensive. A successful price war initiated by Compaq
vaulted them from third place to rst among PC manufacturers in 1994, overtaking a struggling IBM and relegating Apple to third place.[72][73][74]
Furthermore, Apple had created too many similar models that confused potential buyers. At one point, its
product lineup was subdivided into Classic, LC, II,
Quadra, Performa, and Centris models, with essentially
the same computer being sold under a number of dierent names.[75] These models competed against Macintosh
clones, hardware manufactured by third parties that ran
Apples System 7. This succeeded in increasing the Macintoshs market share somewhat, and provided cheaper
hardware for consumers, but hurt Apple nancially as

The iMac G3, introduced in 1998. While it led Apples return

to protability, its associated mouse was one of consumers least
favorite products.[79]

In 1998, Apple introduced its new iMac which, like the

370
original 128K Mac, was an all-in-one computer. Its
translucent plastic case, originally Bondi blue and later
various additional colors, is considered an industrial design landmark of the late 1990s. The iMac did away
with most of Apples standard (and usually proprietary)
connections, such as SCSI and ADB, in favor of two
USB ports.[80] It replaced a oppy disk drive with a CDROM drive for installing software,[81][82] but was incapable of writing to CDs or other media without external
third-party hardware. The iMac proved to be phenomenally successful, with 800,000 units sold in 139 days.[83]
It made the company an annual prot of US$309 million, Apples rst protable year since Michael Spindler
took over as CEO in 1995.[84] This aesthetic was applied to the Power Macintosh and later the iBook, Apples
rst consumer-level laptop computer, lling the missing
quadrant of Apples four-square product matrix (desktop and portable products for both consumers and professionals).[85] More than 140,000 pre-orders were placed
before it started shipping in September,[86] and by October proved to be a large success.[87]

CHAPTER 36. MACINTOSH

hauled Unix-based successor to Mac OS 9. OS X uses
Darwin, XNU, and Mach as foundations, and is based on
NeXTSTEP. It was released to the public in September
2000, as the Mac OS X Public Beta, featuring a revamped
user interface called "Aqua". At US$29.99, it allowed
adventurous Mac users to sample Apples new operating
system and provide feedback for the actual release.[96]
The initial version of Mac OS X, 10.0 Cheetah, was
released on March 24, 2001. Older Mac OS applications could still run under early Mac OS X versions, using
an environment called "Classic". Subsequent releases of
Mac OS X included 10.1 Puma (September 25, 2001),
10.2 Jaguar (August 24, 2002), 10.3 Panther (October 24, 2003) and 10.4 Tiger (April 29, 2005).

36.1.10 Transition to Intel x86

In early 2001, Apple began shipping computers with

CD-RW drives and emphasized the Macs ability to play
DVDs by including DVD-ROM and DVD-RAM drives
as standard.[88] Steve Jobs admitted that Apple had been
late to the party on writable CD technology, but felt
that Macs could become a digital hub that linked and
enabled an emerging digital lifestyle.[89] Apple would
later introduce an update to its iTunes music player software that enabled it to burn CDs, along with a controversial Rip, Mix, Burn advertising campaign that
some[90] felt encouraged media piracy.[91] This accompanied the release of the iPod, Apples rst successful
handheld device. Apple continued to launch products,
such as the unsuccessful Power Mac G4 Cube,[92] the The MacBook Pro, the rst Mac notebook to use an Intel proceseducation-oriented eMac, and the titanium (and later alu- sor, released in 2006.[97]
minium) PowerBook G4 laptop for professionals.
The original iMac used a PowerPC G3 processor, but Apple discontinued the use of PowerPC microprocessors
G4 and G5 chips were soon added, both accompanied by in 2006. At WWDC 2005, Steve Jobs announced this
complete case redesigns that dropped the array of colors transition, revealing that Mac OS X was always developed
[98]
in favor of white plastic. As of 2007, all iMacs use alu- to run on both the Intel and PowerPC architectures.
made by Intel, and
minium cases. On January 11, 2005, Apple announced All new Macs now use x86 processors
[99]
Intel-based
Macs runsome
were
renamed
as
a
result.
the Mac Mini, priced at US$499, making it the cheapest
[93][94]
ning
OS
X
10.6
and
below
(support
has
been
discontinued
Mac.
since 10.7) can run pre-existing software developed for
Mac OS continued to evolve up to version 9.2.2, including PowerPC using an emulator called Rosetta,[100] although
retrots such as the addition of a nanokernel and support at noticeably slower speeds than native programs. Howfor Multiprocessing Services 2.0 in Mac OS 8.6, though ever, the Classic environment is unavailable on the Intel
its dated architecture made replacement necessary.[95] architecture. Intel chips introduced the potential to run
Initially developed in the Pascal programming language, the Microsoft Windows operating system natively on Apit was substantially rewritten in C++ for System 7. From ple hardware, without emulation software such as Virtual
its beginnings on an 8 MHz machine with 128 KB of PC. In March 2006, a group of hackers announced that
RAM, it had grown to support Apples latest 1 GHz G4- they were able to run Windows XP on an Intel-based
equipped Macs. Since its architecture was laid down, fea- Mac. The group released their software as open source
tures that were already common on Apples competition, and has posted it for download on their website.[101] On
like preemptive multitasking and protected memory, had April 5, 2006, Apple announced the availability of the
become feasible on the kind of hardware Apple manufac- public beta of Boot Camp, software that allows owners
tured. As such, Apple introduced Mac OS X, a fully over- of Intel-based Macs to install Windows XP on their ma-

36.4. HARDWARE

371

chines; later versions added support for Windows Vista

and Windows 7. Classic was discontinued in Mac OS X
10.5, and Boot Camp became a standard feature on Intelbased Macs.[102][103]
Starting in 2006, Apples industrial design shifted to favor aluminum, which was used in the construction of the
rst MacBook Pro. Glass was added in 2008 with the introduction of the unibody MacBook Pro. These materials are billed as environmentally friendly.[104] The iMac,
MacBook Pro, MacBook Air, and Mac Mini lines currently all use aluminum enclosures, and are now made
of a single unibody.[105][106][107] Chief designer Jonathan
Ive continues to guide products towards a minimalist and
simple feel,[108][109] including eliminating of replaceable
batteries in notebooks.[110] Multi-touch gestures from the An iMac G5 with its back panel removed
iPhone's interface have been applied to the Mac line in the
form of touch pads on notebooks and the Magic Mouse
and Magic Trackpad for desktops.
transition from PowerPC chips (called Rosetta), much
On February 24, 2011, Apple became the rst company as it did during the transition from Motorola 68000 arto bring to market a computer that utilized Intels new chitecture a decade earlier. The Macintosh is the only
Thunderbolt (codename Light Peak) I/O interface. Us- mainstream computer platform to have successfully traning the same physical interface as a Mini DisplayPort, sitioned to a new CPU architecture,[113] and has done so
and backwards compatible with that standard, Thunder- twice. All current Mac models ship with at least 4 GB
bolt boasts two-way transfer speeds of 10 Gbit/s.[111]
of RAM as standard. Current Mac computers use ATI
Radeon or nVidia GeForce graphics cards as well as Intel graphics built into the main CPU. All current Macs
36.2 Timeline of Macintosh models (except for the MacBook Air, Mac Mini, and MacBook
Pro with Retina Display) ship with an optical media drive
that includes a dual-function DVD/CD burner. Apple
Main article: Timeline of Macintosh models
See also: Timeline of Apple II Family and Timeline of refers to this as a SuperDrive. Current Macs include two
standard data transfer ports: USB and FireWire (except
Apple Inc. products
for the MacBook Air, which does not include FireWire).
MacBook Pro, iMac, MacBook Air, and Mac Mini computers now also feature the Thunderbolt port, which
Apple says can transfer data at speeds up to 10 gigabits
36.3 Product line
per second.[114] USB was introduced in the 1998 iMac G3
and is ubiquitous today,[81] while FireWire is mainly reMain article: Comparison of Macintosh models
served for high-performance devices such as hard drives
or video cameras. Starting with the then-new iMac G5,
released in October 2005, Apple started to include builtin iSight cameras on appropriate models, and a media
center
interface called Front Row that can be operated by
36.4 Hardware
an Apple Remote or keyboard for accessing media stored
on the computer. Front Row has been discontinued as of
Main article: Macintosh hardware
2011, however, and the Apple Remote is no longer bundled with new Macs.[115][116]
Apple directly sub-contracts hardware production to Apple was initially reluctant to embrace mice with multiAsian original equipment manufacturers such as Asus, ple buttons and scroll wheels. Macs did not natively supmaintaining a high degree of control over the end product. port pointing devices that featured multiple buttons, even
By contrast, most other companies (including Microsoft) from third parties, until Mac OS X arrived in 2001.[117]
create software that can be run on hardware produced by Apple continued to oer only single button mice, in both
a variety of third parties such as Dell, HP/Compaq, and wired and Bluetooth wireless versions, until August 2005,
Lenovo. Consequently, the Macintosh buyer has com- when it introduced the Mighty Mouse. While it looked
parably fewer options, but superior integration on those like a traditional one-button mouse, it actually had four
options.
buttons and a scroll ball, capable of independent x- and yThe current Mac product family uses Intel x86-64 axis movement.[118] A Bluetooth version followed in July
processors. Apple introduced an emulator during the 2006.[119] In October 2009, Apple introduced the Magic

372
Mouse, which uses multi-touch gesture recognition (similar to that of the iPhone) instead of a physical scroll wheel
or ball.[120] It is available only in a wireless conguration, but the wired Mighty Mouse (re-branded as Apple
Mouse) is still available as an alternative. Since 2010,
Apple has also oered the Magic Trackpad as a means to
control Macintosh desktop computers in a way similar to
laptops.

36.5 Software
Main articles: Mac OS, History of Mac OS and OS X
The original Macintosh was the rst successful personal
computer to use a graphical user interface devoid of a
command line. It uses a desktop metaphor, depicting
real-world objects like documents and a trashcan as icons
onscreen. The System software was introduced in 1984
with the rst Macintosh, renamed Mac OS in 1997, and
continued to evolve until version 9.2.2.
In 2001, Apple introduced Mac OS X, based on Darwin
and NEXTSTEP; its new features included the Dock and
the Aqua user interface. During the transition, Apple included a virtual machine subsystem known as Classic, allowing users to run Mac OS 9 applications under Mac
OS X 10.4 and earlier on PowerPC machines. Apple introduced Mac OS X 10.8 in February, and it was made
available in the summer of 2012. Mountain Lion includes
many new features, such as Mission Control, the Mac
App Store (available to Mac OS X v10.6.6 Snow Leopard. users by software update), Launchpad, an application viewer and launcher akin to the iOS Home Screen,
and Resume, a feature similar to the hibernate function
found in Microsoft Windows. The most recent version is
Mac OS X v10.10 Yosemite. In addition to Mavericks,
all new Macs are bundled with assorted Apple-produced
applications, including iLife, the Safari web browser and
the iTunes media player. Apple introduced Mavericks at
WWDC 2013 in June, and released it on October 15 of
that year. It is free of charge to everyone running Snow
Leopard or later and is compatible with most Macs from
2007 and later. Mavericks brought a lot of the iOS apps,
functions, and feel to the Mac as well as better multi display support, iBooks, Maps, app nap, and other upgrades
to improve performance and battery life.
Historically, Mac OS X enjoyed a near-absence of the
types of malware and spyware that aect Microsoft
Windows users.[121][122][123] Mac OS X has a smaller
usage share compared to Microsoft Windows (roughly
5% and 92%, respectively),[124] but it also has traditionally more secure UNIX roots. Worms, as well as
potential vulnerabilities, were noted in February 2006,
which led some industry analysts and anti-virus companies to issue warnings that Apples Mac OS X is not immune to malware.[125] Increasing market share coincided

CHAPTER 36. MACINTOSH

with additional reports of a variety of attacks.[126] Apple releases security updates for its software.[127] In early
2011, Mac OS X experienced a large increase in malware attacks,[128] and malware such as Mac Defender,
MacProtector, and MacGuard were seen as an increasing
problem for Mac users. At rst, the malware installer required the user to enter the administrative password, but
later versions were able to install without user input.[129]
Initially, Apple support sta were instructed not to assist in the removal of the malware or admit the existence
of the malware issue, but as the malware spread, a support document was issued. Apple announced an OS X
update to x the problem. An estimated 100,000 users
were aected.[130][131]
Originally, the hardware architecture was so closely tied
to the Mac OS operating system that it was impossible
to boot an alternative operating system. The most common workaround, is to boot into Mac OS and then to
hand over control to a Mac OS-based bootloader application. Used even by Apple for A/UX and MkLinux, this
technique is no longer necessary since the introduction of
Open Firmware-based PCI Macs, though it was formerly
used for convenience on many Old World ROM systems
due to bugs in the rmware implementation. Now, Mac
hardware boots directly from Open Firmware in most
PowerPC-based Macs or EFI in all Intel-based Macs.
Following the release of Intel-based Macs, third-party
platform virtualization software such as Parallels Desktop, VMware Fusion, and VirtualBox began to emerge.
These programs allow users to run Microsoft Windows or
previously Windows-only software on Macs at near native
speed. Apple also released Boot Camp and Mac-specic
Windows drivers that help users to install Windows XP
or Vista and natively dual boot between Mac OS X and
Windows. Though not condoned by Apple, it is possible
to run the Linux operating system using Boot camp or
other virtualization workarounds.[132][133]
Because Mac OS X is a UNIX operating system, borrowing heavily from FreeBSD, many applications written for
Linux or BSD run on Mac OS X, often using X11. Many
popular commercial software applications from large developers, such as Microsofts Oce and Adobes Photoshop are ported to both Mac OS and Windows. A
large amount of open-source software applications, like
the Firefox web browser and the Libreoce oce suite,
are cross-platform, and thereby also run natively on Mac
OS.

36.6 Advertising
Main article: Apple Inc. advertising
Apple hyped the introduction of the original Mac with
their "1984" commercial that aired during that years
Super Bowl.[134] It was supplemented by a number of

36.7. MARKET SHARE AND USER DEMOGRAPHICS

373

printed pamphlets and other TV ads demonstrating the

new interface and emphasizing the mouse. Many more
brochures for new models like the Macintosh Plus and
the Performa followed. In the 1990s, Apple started the
Whats on your PowerBook?" campaign, with print ads
and television commercials featuring celebrities describing how the PowerBook helps them in their businesses
and everyday lives. In 1995, Apple responded to the
introduction of Windows 95 with several print ads and
a television commercial demonstrating its disadvantages
and lack of innovation.

patibles cheaper and accelerated their adoption. In 1989,

Jean-Louis Gasse had steadfastly refused to lower the
prot margins on Mac computers, then there was a component shortage that rocked the exponentially-expanding
PC industry that year, forcing Apple USA head Allan Loren to cut prices which dropped Apples margins. Microsoft Windows 3.0 was released in May 1990,
the rst iteration of Windows which had a feature set
and performance comparable to the signicantly costlier
Macintosh.[53] Furthermore, Apple had created too many
similar models that confused potential buyers; at one
In 1997 with the return of Steve Jobs to Apple, the Think point the product lineup was subdivided into Classic, LC,
II, Quadra, Performa, and Centris models, with essenDierent campaign introduced the companys new slotially
the same computer being sold under a number of
gan, and in 2002 the Switch campaign followed. The
dierent names.[75]
most recent advertising strategy for the Macintosh by Apple is the Get a Mac campaign, with North American, Compaq, who had previously held the third place spot
UK, and Japanese variants.[135][136] Since 2011, while among PC manufacturers during the 1980s and early
Apple has concentrated its advertising on the iPhone 1990s, initiated a successful price war in 1994 that
and iPad, many of these ads show how users can seam- vaulted them to the biggest by the year end, overlessly sync data between these devices and Macs through taking a struggling IBM and relegating Apple to third
place.[72][73][74] Apples market share further struggled
iCloud.[137]
Apple introduces new products at special events hosted due to the release of the Windows 95 operating sysat the Apple Town Hall auditorium, and at keynotes at tem, which unied Microsofts formerly separate MSthe Apple Worldwide Developers Conference. Formerly, DOS and Windows products. Windows 95 signicantly
it also announced new products at trade shows like the enhanced the multimedia capability and performance of
Apple Expo and the Macworld Expo. The events typi- IBM PC compatible computers, and brought the capabilcally draw a large gathering of media representatives and ities of Windows to parity with the Mac OS GUI.
spectators, and are preceded by speculation about possible new products. In the past, special events have been
used to unveil Apples desktop and notebook computers,
such as the iMac and MacBook, and other consumer electronic devices like the iPod, Apple TV, and iPhone. The
keynotes as well as provide updates on sales and market
share statistics. Apple has begun to focus its advertising
on its retail stores instead of these trade shows; the companys last Macworld keynote was in 2009.[138]

36.7 Market share and user demographics

36.7.1

1980s and early 1990s

Since the introduction of the Macintosh, Apple has struggled to gain a signicant share of the personal computer market. At rst, the Macintosh 128K suered
from a dearth of available software compared to IBMs
PC, resulting in disappointing sales in 1984 and 1985.
It took 74 days for 50,000 units to sell.[139] Although
the aggressively priced IBM PC soon overtook Apple in
sales,[140][141][142][143][143] Macintosh systems found success in education and desktop publishing.
Notwithstanding these technical and commercial successes on the Macintosh platform, their systems remained
fairly expensive, making them less competitive in light of
the falling costs of components that made IBM PC com-

36.7.2 Late 1990s and early 2000s

Steve Jobs returned as interim CEO in 1997 and terminated the Macintosh clone program, while simplifying
the computer product lines. In 1998 the release of the
iMac G3 all-in-one was a great success, selling 800,000
units in 139 days, providing a much needed boost to
the ailing Macintosh platform.[83][84] The introduction of
the Power Macintosh and iBook laptop completed foursquare product matrix (desktop and portable products for
both consumers and professionals), with the iBook ranking as the most popular laptop in the U.S. market for the
1999 year.[85][86][87]
In 2000, Apple released the Power Mac G4 Cube, their
rst desktop since the discontinued Power Macintosh G3,
to slot between the iMac G3 and the Power Mac G4.
Even with its innovative design, it was initially priced
US$200 higher than the comparably-equipped and moreexpandable base Power Mac G4, while also not including a monitor, making it too expensive and resulting in
slow sales.[144] Apple sold just 29,000 Cubes in Q4 of
2000 which was one third of expectations, compared to
308,000 Macs during that same quarter, and Cube sales
dropped to 12,000 units in Q1 of 2001.[145] A price drop
and hardware upgrades could not oset the earlier perception of the Cubes reduced value compared to the
iMac and Power Mac G4 lineup, and it was discontinued
in July 2001.[146]

374

CHAPTER 36. MACINTOSH

Starting in 2002, Apple moved to eliminate CRT displays from its product line as part of aesthetic design and
space-saving measures with the iMac G4. However, the
new iMac with its exible LCD at-panel monitor was
considerably more expensive on its debut than the preceding iMac G3, largely due to the higher cost of the
LCD technology at the time. In order to keep the Macintosh aordable for the education market and due to obselescene of the iMac G3, Apple created the eMac in April
2002 as the intended successor; however the eMacs CRT
made it relatively bulky and somewhat outdated, while
its all-in-one construction meant it could not expanded to
meet consumer demand for larger monitors. The iMac
G4s relatively high prices were approaching that of laptops which were portable and had higher resolution LCD
screens. Meanwhile, Windows PC manufacturers could
oer desktop congurations with LCD at panel monitors at prices comparable to the eMac and at much lower
cost than the iMac G4.[147] The op of the Power Mac G4
Cube, along with the more expensive iMac G4 and heavy
eMac, meant that Macintosh desktop sales never reached
the market share attained by the previous iMac G3. For
the next half-decade while Macintosh sales held steady,
it would instead be the iPod portable music player and
iTunes music download service that would drive Apples
sales growth.

36.7.3

Late 2000s

In recent years, market share of the personal computer

market is measured by browser hits, sales and installed
base. If using the browser metric, Mac market share has
increased substantially in 2007.[148] If measuring market
share by installed base, there were more than 20 million Mac users by 1997, compared to an installed base
of around 340 million Windows PCs.[149][150] Statistics
from late 2003 indicate that Apple had 2.06 percent of
the desktop share in the United States that had increased
to 2.88 percent by Q4 2004.[151] As of October 2006, research rms IDC and Gartner reported that Apples market share in the U.S. had increased to about 6 percent.[152]
Figures from December 2006, showing a market share
around 6 percent (IDC) and 6.1 percent (Gartner) are
based on a more than 30 percent increase in unit sale from
2005 to 2006. The installed base of Mac computers is
hard to determine, with numbers ranging from 5% (estimated in 2009)[153] to 16% (estimated in 2005).[154] Mac
OS Xs share of the OS market increased from 7.31% in
December 2007 to 9.63% in December 2008, which is
a 32% increase in market share during 2008, compared
with a 22% increase during 2007.
From 2001 to 2008, Mac sales increased continuously on
an annual basis. Apple reported worldwide sales of 3.36
million Macs during the 2009 holiday season.[155] As of
Mid-2011, the Macintosh continues to enjoy rapid market share increase in the US, growing from 7.3% of all
computer shipments in 2010 to 9.3% in 2011.[156] Ac-

cording to IDCs quarterly PC tracker, globally, in 3rd

quarter of 2014, Apples PC market share increased 5.7
percent year over year, with record sales of 5.5 million
units. Apple now sits in the number ve spot, with a gobal
market share of about 6% during 2014, behind Lenovo,
HP, Dell and Acer.[157]
By March 2011, the market share of OS X in North
America had increased to slightly over 14%.[158] Whether
the size of the Macs market share and installed base is
relevant, and to whom, is a hotly debated issue. Industry
pundits have often called attention to the Macs relatively
small market share to predict Apples impending doom,
particularly in the early and mid-1990s when the companys future seemed bleakest. Others argue that market share is the wrong way to judge the Macs success.
Apple has positioned the Mac as a higher-end personal
computer, and so it may be misleading to compare it to
a budget PC.[159] Because the overall market for personal
computers has grown rapidly, the Macs increasing sales
numbers are eectively swamped by the industrys expanding sales volume as a whole. Apples small market
share, then, gives the impression that fewer people are using Macs than did ten years ago, when exactly the opposite is true.[160] Soaring sales of the iPhone and iPad mean
that the portion of Apples prots represented by the
Macintosh has declined in 2010, dropping to 24% from
46% two years earlier.[161] Others try to de-emphasize
market share, citing that it is rarely brought up in other
industries.[162] Regardless of the Macs market share, Apple has remained protable since Steve Jobs return and
the companys subsequent reorganization.[163] Notably, a
report published in the rst quarter of 2008 found that
Apple had a 14% market share in the personal computer
market in the US, including 66% of all computers over
$1,000.[164] Market research indicates that Apple draws
its customer base from a higher-income demographic
than the mainstream personal computer market.[165]
The sales breakdown of the Macintosh have seen sales
of desktop Macs stayed mostly constant while being surpassed by that of Mac notebooks whose sales rate has
grown considerably; seven out of ten Macs sold were laptops in 2009, a ratio projected to rise to three out of four
by 2010.[166] The change in sales of form factors is due
to the desktop iMac moving from aordable (iMac G3)
to upscale (iMac G4) and subsequent releases are considered premium all-in-ones. By contrast the MSRP of the
MacBook laptop lines have dropped through successive
generations such that the MacBook Air and MacBook Pro
constitute the lowest price of entry to a Mac, with the exception of the even more inexpensive Mac Mini (the only
sub-$1000 oering from Apple, albeit without a monitor and keyboard), not surprisingly the MacBooks are
the top-selling form factors of the Macintosh platform
today.[167] The use of Intel microprocessors has helped
Macs more directly compete with their Windows counterparts on price and performance, and by the 2010s Apple was receiving Intels latest CPUs rst before other PC

36.8. SEE ALSO

manufacturers.[168][169][170]

36.7.4

Post-PC era

In recent years, Apple has seen a signicant boost in sales

of Macs.[171] This has been attributed, in part, to the success of the iPod and the iPhone, a halo eect whereby
satised iPod or iPhone owners purchase more Apple
products, and Apple has since capitalized on that with the
iCloud cloud service that allows users to seamlessly sync
data between these devices and Macs.[172] Nonetheless,
like other personal computer manufacturers, the Macintosh lines have been hurt by consumer trend towards
smartphones and tablet computers (particularly Apples
own iPhone and iPad, respectively) as the computing devices of choice among consumers.[173]
Although the PC market declined, Apple still managed to
ship 2.8 million MacBooks in Q2 2012 (the majority of
which are the MacBook Air) compared to 500,000 total
Ultrabooks,[174][175] although there was dozens of Ultrabooks from various manufacturers on the market while
Apple only oered 11-inch and 13-inch models of the
Macbook Air.[176] The Air has been the best-selling ultraportable in certain countries over Windows Ultrabooks,
particularly the United States.[177] While several Ultrabooks were able to claim individual distinctions such as
being the lightest or thinnest, the Air was regarded by reviewers as the best all-around subnotebook/ultraportable
in regard to OS X experience, full keyboard, superior
trackpad, Thunderbolt connector and the higher-quality,
all-aluminum unibody construction.[178] The Air was
among the rst to receive Intels latest CPUs before other
PC manufacturers, and Apple Mac OS X has gained market share on Windows in recent years.[168][169] Through
July 1, 2013, the MacBook Air took in 56 percent of all
Ultrabook sales in the United States, although being one
of the higher-priced competitors,[179] though several Ultrabooks with better features were often more expensive
than the MacBook Air.[177] The competitive pricing of
MacBooks was particularly eective when rivals charged
more for seemingly equivalent UltraBooks, as this contradicted the established elitist aura perception that Apple products cost more but were higher quality, which
made these most expensive UltraBooks seem exorbitant
no matter how valid their higher prices were.[180]
Apple has generally dominated the premium PC market,
in 2009 having a 91 percent market share for PCs priced
at more than $1,000, according to NPD.[181] The Apple Macintosh took 45 percent of operating prots in the
PC industry during Q4 2012, compared to 13 percent for
Dell Inc., seven percent at Hewlett Packard, six percent
at Lenovo and Asus, and one percent for Acer.[166][182]
While sales of Macintosh have largely held steady, in
comparison to Apples sales of the iPhone and iPad which
increased signicantly during the 2010s, Macintosh computers still enjoy high margins on a per unit basis, with the
majority being their MacBooks that are focused on the

375
ultraportable niche that is the most protable and only
growing segment of PCs.[166] It also helped that the Macintosh lineup is simple, updated on a yearly schedule, and
consistent across both Apple Retail Stores, and authorized resellers where they have a special store within a
store section to distinguish them from Windows PCs.
In contrast, Windows PC manufacturers generally have a
wide range of oerings, selling only a portion through
retail with full selection on the web, and often with
limited-time or region-specic models. Apples Macintosh ranked third on the list of intended brands for desktop purchases for the 2011 holiday season, then moved
up to second in 2012 by displacing Hewlett Packard, and
in 2013 took the top spot ahead of Dell.[183]

36.8 See also

Apple Inc. litigation
Apple community
History of computing hardware (1960s-present)
Lilith (computer)
List of Macintosh models by case type
List of Macintosh models grouped by CPU type
List of Macintosh software
List of Macintosh software published by Microsoft
Macintosh XL
Reality distortion eld

36.9 References
[1] Polsson, Ken (July 29, 2009). Chronology of Apple
Computer Personal Computers. Retrieved August 27,
2009. See May 3, 1984.
[2] Raskin, Jef (1996). Recollections of the Macintosh
project. Articles from Jef Raskin about the history of the
Macintosh. Retrieved November 27, 2008.
[3] Raskin, Jef (May 1984). More Mac Reactions. BYTE
(letter). p. 20. Retrieved October 23, 2013.
[4] Apple condential 2.0: the denitive history of the worlds
most colorful company, Owen W. Linzmayer, ISBN 9781-59327-010-0
[5] Williams, Gregg (February 1984). The Apple Macintosh
Computer. BYTE. p. 30. Retrieved October 22, 2013.
[6] Raskin, Jef. Working with/for Steve Jobs, February 19,
1981, pp. 1, 3 &5
[7] Hertzfeld, Andy. The father of the Macintosh. Folklore.org. Retrieved April 24, 2006.

376

[8] Hertzfeld, Andy. Eulogy for Brian. Folklore.org. Retrieved April 5, 2014.
[9] Hertzfeld, Andy (2005). Revolution in the Valley: The Insanely Great Story of How the MAC was Made. Oreilly. p.
xxiii.

CHAPTER 36. MACINTOSH

[29] Hormby, Thomas (October 2, 2006). Apples Worst

Business Decisions. OS News. Retrieved December 24,
2007.
[30] 1984 Newsweek Macintosh ads.
Newsweek. Retrieved April 24, 2006.

GUIdebook,

[10] Hertzfeld, Andy (2005). Revolution in the Valley: The Insanely Great Story of How the MAC was Made. Oreilly. p.
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[111] Thunderbolt Technology: The Fastest Data Connection

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[125] Roberts, Paul (February 21, 2006). New Safari Flaw, [145] Benj Edwards (August 12, 2010). The Cube at 10: Why
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[165] Fried, Ian (July 12, 2002). Are Mac users smarter?".
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[166] How Apple took over the only segment of the PC market
that still matters. ZDNet. August 20, 2014. Retrieved
October 2, 2014.
[167] Decline of the Desktop Mac. Retrieved October 2,
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VentureBeat (review), July 16, 2012.
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[172] Marko, John. Apple Aims for the Masses With a
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[173] Apples Holiday MacBook Sales Down 6% in 2012, PCs
down 11%", The Mac Observer.

CHAPTER 36. MACINTOSH

36.10 Further reading

Adams, Noah (January 24, 2014 [January 25,
1984]). The MacIntosh Computer Is a Calculated
Risk. All Things Considered. NPR. Retrieved January 30, 2014. Check date values in: |date= (help)
Period interview about the introduction of the Macintosh.
Apple & Raskin, Jef (1992). Macintosh Human
Interface Guidelines. Addison-Wesley Professional.
ISBN 0-201-62216-5.
Apple. Press release Library. Retrieved November 18, 2007.
Deutschman, Alan (2001). The Second Coming of
Steve Jobs. Broadway. ISBN 0-7679-0433-8.
Herrick, Dennis (2012). Technological milestones
of the electronic age. ISBN 9780826351630. Retrieved March 11, 2014.
Hertzfeld, Andy. folklore.org: Macintosh stories.
Retrieved April 24, 2006.

[174] MacBook Air Continues to Trounce Ultrabooks,

Trusted Reviews.

Hertzfeld, Andy (2005). Revolution in the Valley:

The Insanely Great Story of How the MAC was made.
O'Reilly Books. ISBN 0-596-00719-1.

[175] MacBook Air continues to dominate Ultrabook market,

while competition awaits Windows 8, Macworld (UK).

Kahney, Leander (2004). The Cult of Mac. No

Starch Press. ISBN 1-886411-83-2.

[176] The MacBook Air Is Killing Ultrabook Sales, Cult of

Mac.

Kawasaki, Guy (1989). The Macintosh Way. Scott

Foresman Trade. ISBN 0-673-46175-0.

[177] Ultrabooks vs MacBook Air 2013 comparison: features,

battery and more. UltraBook Review.com. November
26, 2013. Retrieved January 24, 2014.

Kelby, Scott (2002). Macintosh... The Naked Truth.

New Riders Press. ISBN 0-7357-1284-0.

[178] author. NPD: MacBook Air owns 56 percent of the US

ultrabook market. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
[179] author. NPD: MacBook Air owns 56 percent of the US
ultrabook market. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
[180] Three Reasons The Surface Pro 3 Is Struggling. Forbes.
August 11, 2014. Retrieved October 2, 2014.

Knight, Dan (2005). Macintosh History: 1984.

Retrieved April 24, 2006.
Levy, Steven (2000). Insanely Great: The Life and
Times of Macintosh, the Computer That Changed Everything. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-029177-6.
Linzmayer, Owen (2004). Apple Condential 2.0.
No Starch Press. ISBN 1-59327-010-0.

[181] Jared Newman (July 12, 2012). Why Ultrabook Sales

Have Flopped So Far. PCWorld. Retrieved October 2,
2014.

Page, Ian (2007). MacTracker Macintosh model

database 4.3.1. Retrieved November 30, 2007.

[182] ""PC oggers scavenge for crumbs as Apple hoovers up

prots."". Retrieved October 2, 2014.

Sanford, Glen (2006). Apple History. Retrieved

April 24, 2006.

[183] Apple desktops overtake Dell on shoppers holiday wish

lists. CNET. Retrieved October 2, 2014.

Singh, Amit (2005). A History of Apples Operating Systems. Retrieved April 24, 2006.

36.11. EXTERNAL LINKS

36.11 External links

Ocial website
Making the Macintosh: Technology and Culture in
Silicon Valley
Overview of Macintosh Opposite to PC

381

Chapter 37

IBM PC compatible
IBM PC compatible computers are those similar to the
original IBM PC, XT, and AT and able to run the same
software as those. Such computers used to be referred
to as PC clones, or IBM clones. They duplicate almost
exactly all the signicant features of the PC architecture,
facilitated by IBMs choice of commodity hardware components and various manufacturers ability to reverse engineer the BIOS rmware using a "clean room design"
technique. Columbia Data Products built the rst clone
of the IBM personal computer by a clean room implementation of its BIOS.

IBM decided in 1980 to market a low-cost single-user

computer as quickly as possible in response to Apple
Computers success in the burgeoning microcomputer
market. On 12 August 1981, the rst IBM PC went on
sale. There were three operating systems (OS) available
for it. The least expensive and most popular was PC DOS
made by Microsoft. In a crucial concession, IBMs agreement allowed Microsoft to sell its own version, MS-DOS,
for non-IBM computers. The only proprietary component of the original PC architecture was the BIOS (Basic
Input/Output System).

Most early IBM PC compatibles used the same computer

bus as the original PC and AT models. The IBM AT compatible bus was later named the Industry Standard Architecture bus by manufacturers of compatible computers.
The term IBM PC compatible is now a historical description only, since IBM has ended its personal computer
sales.

IBM at rst asked developers to avoid writing software

that addressed the computers hardware directly, and
to instead use the BIOS.[1] Software which directly addressed the hardware instead of making standard calls
was faster, however. This was particularly relevant to
games. The IBM PC was sold in high enough volumes
to justify writing software specically for it, and this
encouraged other manufacturers to produce machines
which could use the same programs, expansion cards, and
peripherals as the PC. The 808x computer marketplace
rapidly excluded all machines which were not functionally
very similar to the PC. The 640 kB barrier on conventional system memory available to MS-DOS is a legacy
of that period; other non-clone machines did not have this
limit.

Descendants of the IBM PC compatibles comprise the

majority of personal computers on the market presently,
although interoperability with the bus structure and peripherals of the original PC architecture may be limited
or non-existent.

37.1 Origins

The original IBM PC (Model 5150) motivated the production of

clones during the early 1980s.

Rumors of lookalike, compatible computers, created

without IBMs approval, began almost immediately after
the IBM PCs release.[2][3] By June 1983 PC Magazine
dened PC 'clone'" as a computer [that can] accommodate the user who takes a disk home from an IBM
PC, walks across the room, and plugs it into the 'foreign' machine.[4] Because of a shortage of IBM PCs
that year, many customers purchased clones instead.[5]
Columbia Data Products produced the rst computer
more or less compatible to the IBM PC standard during
June 1982, soon followed by Eagle Computer. Compaq
announced its rst IBM PC compatible in November
1982, the Compaq Portable. The Compaq was the rst
sewing machine-sized portable computer that was essentially 100% PC-compatible. The company could not copy
the BIOS directly as a result of the court decision in Apple
v. Franklin, but it could reverse-engineer the IBM BIOS
and then write its own BIOS using clean room design.

382

37.2. COMPATIBILITY ISSUES

37.2 Compatibility issues

383
written for MS-DOS would operate on any MS-DOS
computer, despite variations in hardware design.

See also: Inuence of the IBM PC on the personal com- This expectation seemed reasonable in the computer marputer market
ketplace of the time. Until then Microsoft was based priAt the same time, many manufacturers such as Xerox, marily on computer languages such as BASIC. The established small system operating software was CP/M from
Digital Research which was in use both at the hobbyist
level and by the more professional of those using microcomputers. To achieve such widespread use, and thus
make the product viable economically, the OS had to operate across a range of machines from dierent vendors
that had widely varying hardware. Those customers who
needed other applications than the starter programs could
reasonably expect publishers to oer their products for a
variety of computers, on suitable media for each.

The Compaq Portable was the rst 100% IBM-compatible PC,

and the rst portable one.

MS-DOS version 1.12 for Compaq Personal Computers

Hewlett-Packard, Digital Equipment Corporation, Sanyo,

Texas Instruments, Tulip, Wang and Olivetti introduced
personal computers that were MS DOS compatible, but
not completely software- or hardware-compatible with
the IBM PC.
Like IBM, Microsofts intention was that application
writers would write to the application programming interfaces in MS-DOS or the rmware BIOS, and that
this would form what would now be termed a hardware
abstraction layer. Each computer would have its own
Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) version of
MS-DOS, customized to its hardware. Any software

Microsofts competing OS was intended initially to operate on a similar varied spectrum of hardware, although
all based on the 8086 processor. Thus, MS-DOS was for
several years sold only as an OEM product. There was no
Microsoft-branded MS-DOS: MS-DOS could not be purchased directly from Microsoft, and each OEM release
was packaged with the trade dress of the given PC vendor.
Malfunctions were to be reported to the OEM, not to Microsoft. However, as compatibles became widespread,
it soon became clear that the OEM versions of MS-DOS
were virtually identical, except perhaps for the provision
of a few utility programs.
MS-DOS provided adequate functionality for characteroriented applications such as those that could have been
implemented on a text-only terminal. Had the bulk of
commercially important software been of this nature,
low-level hardware compatibility might not have mattered. However, in order to provide maximum performance and leverage hardware features (or work around
hardware bugs), PC applications quickly developed beyond the simple terminal applications that MS-DOS supported directly. Spreadsheets, WYSIWYG word processors, presentation software and remote communication
software established new markets that exploited the PCs
strengths, but required capabilities beyond what MSDOS provided. Thus, from very early in the development
of the MS-DOS software environment, many signicant
commercial software products were written directly to the
hardware, for a variety of reasons:
MS-DOS itself did not provide any way to position
the text cursor (except to advance it after printing
each letter). While the BIOS video interface routines were adequate for rudimentary output, they
were inecient; they did not have string output
(only output by individual character) and they inserted delay periods to compensate for CGA hardware snow (a display artifact of CGA cards produced when writing directly to screen memory)-an especially bad artifact since they were called by
IRQs, thus making multitasking very dicult. A
program that wrote directly to video memory could

384

CHAPTER 37. IBM PC COMPATIBLE

achieve output rates 5 to 20 times faster than making standard calls to the BIOS and MS-DOS. Turbo
Pascal used this technique from its earliest versions.

Graphics capability was not taken seriously in the

original IBM design brief; graphics were considered only from the perspective of generating static
business graphics such as charts and graphs. MSDOS did not have an API for graphics, and the
BIOS only included the most rudimentary of graphics functions (such as changing screen modes and
plotting single points). To make a BIOS call for
every point drawn or modied also increased overhead considerably, making the BIOS interface notoriously slow. Because of this, line-drawing, arcdrawing, and blitting had to be performed by the
application to achieve acceptable speed, which was
usually done by bypassing the BIOS and accessing
video memory directly.

PC compatibility was an important concern.

Even the
Commodore Amiga 1000 had a PC compatible add-on module,
the Sidecar.

subLOGIC's Bruce Artwick described as a bug in one of

Intels chips, forcing them to make their new computer
bug compatible with the IBM PC.[7] At rst, few clones
other than Compaqs oered truly full compatibility;[8]
when PC Magazine requested samples from computer
manufacturers that claimed to produce PC compatibles
for an April 1984 review, 14 of 31 declined.[9][10] Corona
Data Systems claimed Our systems run all software that
conforms to IBM PC programming standards. And the
most popular software does.[11]

Videogames, even early ones, mostly required a true

graphics mode. They also performed any machinedependent trick the programmers could think of in
order to gain speed. Though initially the major market for the PC was for business applications, games
capability became an important factor motivating
PC purchases as prices decreased. The availability
and quality of games could mean the dierence between the purchase of a PC compatible or a dierent Creative Computing in 1984 stated, we reiterate our
platform like the Amiga.
standard line regarding the IBM PC compatibles: try
you want to use before you buy the
Communications software directly accessed the the package
[12]
computer.
Companies modied their computers
UART serial port chip, because the MS-DOS API
BIOS
to
work
with newly discovered incompatible
and the BIOS did not provide full support and was
[6]
applications,
and
reviewers and users developed stress
too slow to keep up with hardware which could
tests
to
measure
compatibility;
by 1984 the ability to
transfer data at 19200-bit/s.
operate Lotus 1-2-3 and Flight Simulator became the
Even for standard business applications, speed of standard.[13][6][12][14][15][7]
execution was a signicant competitive advantage. IBM believed that some companies such as Eagle,
Integrated software Context MBA preceded Lotus Corona, and Handwell infringed on its copyright, and af1-2-3 to market and included more functions. Con- ter Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corp.
text MBA was written in UCSD p-System, making successfully forced the clone makers to stop using the
it very portable but too slow to be truly usable on BIOS. The Phoenix BIOS in 1984, however, and sima PC. 1-2-3 was written in x86 assembly language ilar products such as AMI BIOS, permitted computer
and performed some machine-dependent tricks. It makers to legally build essentially 100%-compatible
was so much faster that it quickly surpassed Context clones without having to reverse-engineer the PC BIOS
MBAs sales.
themselves.[16][17] <ref name="schmidt199407>Schmidt,
Disk copy-protection schemes, in common use at the Robert (July 1994). What Is The BIOS?". Computing
time, worked by reading nonstandard data patterns Basics. Archived from the original on 2012-03-12. Reon the diskette to verify originality. These patterns trieved 2011-09-19.</ref>
were impossible to detect using standard DOS or
BIOS calls, so direct access to the disk controller
hardware was necessary for the protection to work. 37.3 The decreasing inuence of
Some software checked for evidence of a genuine
IBM BIOS, such as an IBM copyright notice.[6]

IBM

As the IBM PC market grew IBMs inuence diminDuring development, Compaq engineers found that ished. In November 1985 PC Magazine stated Now that
Microsoft Flight Simulator would not run because of what it has created the [PC] market, the market doesn't nec-

37.4. EXPANDABILITY
essarily need IBM for the machines. It may depend on
IBM to set standards and to develop higher-performance
machines, but IBM had better conform to existing standards so as to not hurt users.[18] In January 1987 BYTE
wrote of rumors that IBM would introduce proprietary
personal computers with a proprietary operating system:
Who cares? If IBM does it, they will most likely
just isolate themselves from the largest marketplace, in
which they really can't compete anymore anyway. The
magazine predicted that in 1987 the market will complete its transition from an IBM standard to an Intel/MSDOS/expansion bus standard ... Folks aren't so much
concerned about IBM compatibility as they are about Lotus 1-2-3 compatibility.[19] By 1988 Gartner Group estimated that the public purchased 1.5 clones for every IBM
PC.[20]

385
The duelling Expanded memory and Extended
memory standards of the late 1980s, both developed
without input from IBM.
Despite popularity of its ThinkPad set of laptop PCs,
IBM nally relinquished its role as a PC manufacturer
during April 2005, when it sold its consumer PC division
to Lenovo for $1.75 billion.
As of October 2007, Hewlett-Packard and Dell have
the largest shares of the PC market in North America.
They are also successful overseas, with Acer, Lenovo, and
Toshiba also notable. Worldwide, a huge number of PCs
are "white box" systems assembled by myriad local systems builders. Despite advances of computer technology,
all current IBM PC compatibles remain very much compatible with the original IBM PC computers, although
most of the components implement the compatibility in
special backward compatibility modes used only during a
system boot. It is often more practical to run old software
on a modern system using an emulator rather than relying
on these features.

After 1987, IBM PC compatibles dominated both the

home and business markets of commodity computers,[21]
with other notable alternative architectures being used in
niche markets, like the Macintosh computers oered by
Apple Inc. and used mainly for desktop publishing at the
time, the aging 8-bit Commodore 64 which was selling
for $150 by this time and became the worlds best-selling
computer, the 16-bit Commodore Amiga line used for
television and video production and the 16-bit Atari ST 37.4 Expandability
used by the music industry. However, IBM itself lost the
main role in the market for IBM PC compatibles by 1990. One of the strengths of the PC compatible design is its
modular hardware design. End-users could readily upA few events in retrospect are important:
grade peripherals and, to some degree, processor and
memory without modifying the computers motherboard
The 1982 introduction of the Compaq Portable, the
or replacing the whole computer, as was the case with
rst 100% IBM PC compatible computer, providing
many of the microcomputers of the time. However, as
portability unavailable from IBM at the time.
processor speed and memory width increased, the lim An Independent Business Unit (IBU) within IBM its of the original XT/AT bus design were soon reached,
developed the IBM PC and XT. IBUs did not share particularly when driving graphics video cards. IBM did
in corporate R&D expense. After the IBU be- introduce an upgraded bus in the IBM PS/2 computer that
came the Entry Systems Division it lost this benet, overcame many of the technical limits of the XT/AT bus,
but this was rarely used as the basis for IBM compatigreatly decreasing margins.[22]
ble computers since it required licence payments to IBM
The availability by 1986 of sub-$1000 Turbo both for the PS/2 bus and any prior AT-bus designs proXT PC XT compatibles, including early oerings duced by the company seeking a license. This was unpopfrom Dell Computer, reducing demand for IBMs ular with hardware manufacturers and several competing
models.[23][24] It was possible to buy two of these bus standards were developed by consortiums, with more
generic systems for less than the cost of one IBM- agreeable license terms. Various attempts to standardize
branded PC AT, and many companies did just that. the interfaces were made, but in practice, many of these
attempts were either awed or ignored. Even so, there
Compaq beating IBM to market during 1986 with were many expansion options, and despite the confusion
of its users, the PC compatible design advanced much
Compaq Deskpro 386, the rst 80386-based PC.
faster than other competing designs of the time, even if
IBMs 1987 introduction of the incompatible and only because of its market dominance.
proprietary MicroChannel Architecture (MCA)
computer bus, for its Personal System/2 (PS/2)
line.[20]
37.5 IBM PC compatible be-

comes Wintel
The 1988 introduction by the "Gang of Nine" companies of a rival bus, Extended Industry Standard
Architecture, intended to compete with, rather than During the 1990s, IBMs inuence on PC architecture
copy, MCA.[20]
started to decline. An IBM-brand PC became the excep-

386
tion rather than the rule. Instead of placing importance on
compatibility with the IBM PC, vendors began to emphasize compatibility with Windows. In 1993, a version of
Windows NT was released that could operate on processors other than the x86 set. While it required that applications be recompiled, which most developers did not do,
its hardware independence was used for Silicon Graphics (SGI) x86 workstationsthanks to NTs Hardware abstraction layer (HAL), they could operate NT (and its vast
application library).

CHAPTER 37. IBM PC COMPATIBLE

routines intended to ensure compatibility, but also that
most BIOS requests were made by the rst 32 interrupt
vectors, which were marked as reserved for protected
mode processor exceptions by Intel.
Video cards suered from their own incompatibilities.
Once video cards advanced to SVGA the standard for
accessing them was no longer clear. At the time, PC
programming used a memory model that had 64 KB
memory segments. The most common VGA graphics
modes screen memory t into a single memory segment.
SVGA modes required more memory, so accessing the
full screen memory was tricky. Each manufacturer developed their own methods of accessing the screen memory,
even going so far as not to number the modes consistently.
An attempt at creating a standard named VESA BIOS Extensions (VBE) was made, but not all manufacturers used
it.

No mass-market personal computer hardware vendor

dared to be incompatible with the latest version of Windows, and Microsofts annual WinHEC conferences provided a setting in which Microsoft could lobby forand
in some cases dictatethe pace and direction of the hardware of the PC industry. Microsoft and Intel had become
so important to the ongoing development of PC hardware
that industry writers began using the portmanteau word When the 386 was introduced, again a protected mode
Wintel to refer to the combined hardware-software sys- OS could be written for it. This time, DOS compatibility
tem.
was much easier because of virtual 8086 mode. UnfortuThis terminology itself is becoming a misnomer, as In- nately programs could not switch directly between them,
tel has lost absolute control over the direction of x86 so eventually, some new memory-model APIs were dehardware development with AMD's AMD64. Also, non- veloped, VCPI and DPMI, the latter becoming the most
Windows operating systems like Mac OS X and Linux popular.
have established a presence on the x86 architecture.
Because of the great number of third-party adapters and

37.6 Design limitations and more

compatibility issues
Although the IBM PC was designed for expandability,
the designers could not anticipate the hardware developments of the 1980s, nor the size of the industry they
would engender. To make things worse, IBMs choice
of the Intel 8088 for the CPU introduced several limitations for developing software for the PC compatible
platform. For example, the 8088 processor only had a
20-bit memory addressing space. To expand PCs beyond
one megabyte, Lotus, Intel, and Microsoft jointly created
expanded memory (EMS), a bank-switching scheme to
allow more memory provided by add-in hardware, and
accessed by a set of four 16-Kilobyte windows inside
the 20-bit addressing. Later, Intel CPUs had larger address spaces and could directly address 16- Megabytes
(MiBs) (80286) or more, causing Microsoft to develop
extended memory (XMS) which did not require additional hardware.
Expanded and extended memory have incompatible
interfaces, so anyone writing software that used more
than one megabyte had to provide for both systems for
the greatest compatibility until MS-DOS began including
EMM386, which simulated EMS memory using XMS
memory. A protected mode OS can also be written for
the 80286, but DOS application compatibility was more
dicult than expected, not only because most DOS applications accessed the hardware directly, bypassing BIOS

no standard for them, programming the PC could be difcult. Professional developers would operate a large testsuite of various known-to-be-popular hardware combinations.
Meanwhile, consumers were overwhelmed by the competing, incompatible standards and many dierent combinations of hardware on oer. To give them some idea
of what sort of PC they would need to operate their software, the Multimedia PC (MPC) standard was set during 1990. A PC that met the minimum MPC standard
could be marketed with the MPC logo, giving consumers
an easy-to-understand specication to look for. Software
that could operate on the most minimally MPC-compliant
PC would be guaranteed to operate on any MPC. The
MPC level 2 and MPC level 3 standards were set later,
but the term MPC compliant never became popular.
After MPC level 3 during 1996, no further MPC standards were established.

37.7 Challenges to Wintel domination

By the late 1990s, the success of Microsoft Windows
had driven rival commercial operating systems into nearextinction, and had ensured that the IBM PC compatible computer was the dominant computing platform.
This meant that if a developer made their software only
for the Wintel platform, they would still be able to reach
the vast majority of computer users. By the late 1980s,

37.8. THE IBM PC COMPATIBLE TODAY

the only major competitor to Windows with more than a
few percentage points of market share was Apple Inc.'s
Macintosh. The Mac started out billed as the computer for the rest of us but the Macs high prices and
closed architecture meant the DOS/Windows/Intel onslaught quickly drove the Macintosh into an education and
desktop publishing niche, from which it only emerged in
the mid-2000s. By the mid-1990s the Macs market share
had dwindled to around 5% and introducing a new rival operating system had become too risky a commercial
venture. Experience had shown that even if an operating
system was technically superior to Windows, it would be
a failure in the market (BeOS and OS/2 for example). In
1989 Steve Jobs said of his new NeXT system, It will either be the last new hardware platform to succeed, or the
rst to fail. Four years later in 1993 NeXT announced
it was ending production of the NeXTcube and porting
NeXTSTEP to Intel processors.
Very early on in PC history, some companies introduced
their own XT-compatible chipsets. For example, Chips
and Technologies introduced their 82C100 XT Controller
which integrated and replaced six of the original XT circuits: one 8237 DMA controller, one 8253 interrupt
timer, one 8255 parallel interface controller, one 8259
interrupt controller, one 8284 clock generator, and one
8288 bus controller. Similar non-Intel chipsets appeared
for the AT-compatibles, for example OPTi's 82C206 or
82C495XLC which were found in many 486 and early
Pentium systems.[25] The x86 chipset market was very
volatile though. In 1993, VLSI Technology had become
the dominant market player only to be virtually wiped out
by Intel a year later. Intel has been the uncontested leader
ever since.[26] As the Wintel platform gained dominance Intel gradually abandoned the practice of licensing its technologies to other chipset makers; in 2010 Intel
was involved in litigation related to their refusal to license
their processor bus and related technologies to other companies like Nvidia.[27]

387

37.8 The IBM PC compatible today

The term IBM PC compatible is not commonly used
presently because all current mainstream desktop and laptop computers are based on the PC architecture, and
IBM no longer makes PCs. The competing hardware
architectures have either been discontinued or, like the
Amiga, have been relegated to niche, enthusiast markets. In the past, the most successful exception was Apple
Inc.'s Macintosh platform, which used non-Intel processors from its inception. Although Macintosh was initially based on the Motorola 68000 family, then transitioned to the PowerPC architecture, Macintosh computers transitioned to Intel processors beginning in 2006.
Todays Macintosh computers share the same system architecture as their Wintel counterparts and can boot Microsoft Windows.
The processor speed and memory capacity of modern
PCs are many orders of magnitude greater than they were
for the original IBM PC and yet backwards compatibility
has been largely maintained a 32-bit operating system
published during the 2000s can still operate many of the
simpler programs written for the OS of the early 1980s
without needing an emulator, though an emulator like
DOSBox now has near-native functionality at full speed.
Additionally, many modern PCs can still run DOS directly, although special options such as USB legacy mode
and SATA-to-PATA emulation may need to be set in
the BIOS setup utility. Computers using the Extensible
Firmware Interface might need to be set at legacy BIOS
mode to be able to boot DOS. However, the BIOS/EFI
options in most mass-produced consumer-grade computers are very limited and cannot be congured to truly handle OSs such as the original variants of DOS.

The recent spread of the x86-64 architecture has further

distanced current computers and operating systems internal similarity with the original IBM PC by introducing
yet another processor mode with an instruction set modiCompanies such as AMD and Cyrix developed alterna- ed for 64-bit addressing, but x86-64 capable processors
tive CPUs that were functionally compatible with Intels. also retain standard x86 compatibility.
Towards the end of the 1990s, AMD was taking an increasing share of the CPU market for PCs. AMD even
ended up playing a signicant role in directing the de37.9 See also
velop of the x86 platform when its Athlon line of processors continued to develop the classic x86 architecture as
AT (form factor)
Intel deviated with its Netburst architecture for the Pentium 4 CPUs and the IA-64 architecture for the Itanium
ATX form factor
set of server CPUs. AMD developed AMD64, the rst
major extension not created by Intel, which Intel later
Baby AT form factor
adopted as x86-64. During 2006 Intel began abandoning
Computer hardware
Netburst with the release of their set of Core processors
that represented an develop of the earlier Pentium III.
Computer software
Computing platform
Custom built PC
History of computing hardware (1960spresent)

388
Homebuilt computer
IBM Personal Computer
Inuence of the IBM PC on the personal computer
market
PC speaker
Personal computer
x86 architecture
MS-DOS
CP/M

37.10 References
[1] Norton, Peter (5 February 1985). Software for Once and
All. PC Magazine. p. 103. Retrieved 28 October 2013.
[2] Libes, Sol (December 1981). Bytelines. BYTE. pp.
314318. Retrieved 29 January 2015.
[3] Lookalikes From Home & Abroad. PC Magazine.
FebruaryMarch 1982. p. 5. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
[4] Sandler, Corey (June 1983). Getting To Know You. PC
Magazine. p. 31. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
[5] Cook, Karen; Langdell, James (24 January 1984). PCCompatible Portables. PC Magazine. p. 39. Retrieved
23 October 2013.
[6] Pournelle, Jerry (November 1984). NCC Reections.
BYTE. p. 361. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
[7] Yakal, Kathy (1985-01). Bruce Artwick / The Designer
Behind Flight Simulator II. Compute!'s Gazette. p. 32.
Retrieved 6 July 2014. Check date values in: |date= (help)
[8] Alsop, Stewart (31 January 1994). A public Windows
pane to make compatibility clearer. InfoWorld. p. 102.
Retrieved 28 February 2011.
[9] Krasno, Barbara (20 March 1984). No Matter Whos
Invited, Some Will Turn Out To Be Incompatible. PC
Magazine. p. 57. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
[10] Krasno, Barbara (3 April 1984). Putting PC Compatibles To the Test. PC Magazine. pp. 110144. Retrieved
24 October 2013.
[11] Pick Up Where IBM Leaves O.. InfoWorld (advertisement). 1984-02-27. p. 41. Retrieved 18 January
2015.
[12] Lockwood, Russ (December 1984). Zenith Z-151;
choice of U.S. Air Force and Navy. Creative Computing.
p. 50. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
[13] Poor, Alfred (2 October 1984). Zenith Strikes Twice.
PC Magazine. p. 206. Retrieved 25 October 2013.

CHAPTER 37. IBM PC COMPATIBLE

[14] Callamaras, Peter V. (November 1984). The Columbia

Multipersonal Computer-VP. BYTE. p. 276. Retrieved
23 October 2013.
[15] Mace, Scott; Karen Sorensen (5 May 1986). Amiga,
Atari Ready PC Emulators. InfoWorld. p. 5. Retrieved
28 February 2011.
[16] Caruso, Denise (1984-02-27). IBM wins disputes over
PC copyrights. InfoWorld. p. 15. Retrieved 18 January
2015.
[17] Langdell, James (1984-07-10). Phoenix Says Its BIOS
May Foil IBMs Lawsuits. PC Magazine. p. 56. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
[18] Machrone, Bill (26 November 1985). Compatibility
WarsHere and Abroad. PC Magazine. p. 59. Retrieved 29 October 2013.
[19] Webster, Bruce (January 1987). View and Reviews.
BYTE. p. 367. Retrieved 4 November 2013.
[20] Scisco, Peter (December 1988). Bus, Bus, Magic Bus.
Compute!. p. 10. Retrieved 10 November 2013.
[21] Reimer, Jeremy. Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share gures. Ars Technica. Retrieved 13
September 2008.
[22] Killen, Michael (1984 Guide to the IBM PC). IBM Forecast / Market Dominance. BYTE. p. 32. Retrieved 23
October 2013. Check date values in: |date= (help)
[23] InfoWorld July 1986 ad: Career Starter Kit: Everything
you need to begin serious computing immediately.
[24] InfoWorld July 1986.
[25] Mike Tooley (2005). PC Based Instrumentation and Control (3rd ed.). Newness. p. 32. ISBN 978-1-136-374494.
[26] Scott M. Mueller (2011). Upgrading and Repairing PCs
(20th ed.). Que Publishing. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-13268218-3.
[27] Intel vs. Nvidia: The tech behind the legal case

37.11 External links

http://oldcomputers.net/compaqi.html

Chapter 38

X86
This article is about Intel microprocessor architecture in
general. For the 32-bit generation of this architecture
that is also referred to as x86, see IA-32.

AMD Athlon (early version) a technically dierent but fully

compatible x86 implementation

sors to the Intels 8086 processor ended in 86, including

80186, 80286, 80386 and 80486 processors.
Intel 8086

Many additions and extensions have been added to the

x86 instruction set over the years, almost consistently
with full backward compatibility.[lower-alpha 2] The architecture has been implemented in processors from Intel,
Cyrix, AMD, VIA and many other companies; there
are also open implementations, such as the Zet SoC
platform.[2]
The term is not synonymous with IBM PC compatibility as this implies a multitude of other computer hardware; embedded systems as well as general-purpose computers used x86 chips before the PC-compatible market
started,[lower-alpha 3] some of them before the IBM PC itself.

38.1 Overview
In the 1980s and early 1990s when the 8088 and 80286
were still in common use, the term x86 usually repreIntel Core 2 Duo an example of an x86-compatible, 64-bit mul- sented any 8086 compatible CPU. Today, however, x86
usually implies a binary compatibility also with the 32ticore processor
bit instruction set of the 80386. This is due to the fact
x86 is a family of backward compatible instruction set ar- that this instruction set has become something of a lowest
chitectures[lower-alpha 1] based on the Intel 8086 CPU. The common denominator for many modern operating sys8086 was introduced in 1978 as a fully 16-bit extension tems and probably also because the term became comof Intels 8-bit based 8080 microprocessor, with memory mon after the introduction of the 80386 in 1985.
segmentation as a solution for addressing more memory A few years after the introduction of the 8086 and 8088,
than can be covered by a plain 16-bit address. The term Intel added some complexity to its naming scheme and
x86 came to being because the names of several succes- terminology as the iAPX of the ambitious but ill389

390
fated Intel iAPX 432 processor was tried on the more
successful 8086 family of chips,[lower-alpha 4] applied as a
kind of system-level prex. An 8086 system, including
coprocessors such as 8087 and/or 8089, as well as simpler Intel-specic system chips,[lower-alpha 5] was thereby
described as an iAPX 86 system.[3][lower-alpha 6] There
were also terms iRMX (for operating systems), iSBC
(for single-board computers), and iSBX (for multimodule
boards based on the 8086-architecture) all together under the heading Microsystem 80.[4][5] However, this naming scheme was quite temporary, lasting for a few years
during the early 1980s.[6]
Although the 8086 was primarily developed for
embedded systems and small multi-user or single-user
computers, largely as a response to the successful
8080-compatible Zilog Z80,[7] the x86 line soon grew in
features and processing power. Today, x86 is ubiquitous
in both stationary and portable personal computers, and
is also used in midrange computers, workstations, servers
and most new supercomputer clusters of TOP500 list. A
large amount of software, including operating systems
(OSs) such as DOS, Windows, Linux, BSD, Solaris and
Mac OS X, functions with x86-based hardware.
Modern x86 is relatively uncommon in embedded systems, however, and small low power applications (using
tiny batteries) as well as low-cost microprocessor markets, such as home appliances and toys, lack any significant x86 presence.[lower-alpha 7] Simple 8-bit and 16-bit
based architectures are common here, although the x86compatible VIA C7, VIA Nano, AMD's Geode, Athlon
Neo and Intel Atom are examples of 32- and 64-bit designs used in some relatively low power and low cost segments.
There have been several attempts, including by Intel itself, to end the market dominance of the inelegant x86
architecture designed directly from the rst simple 8-bit
microprocessors. Examples of this are the iAPX 432
(a project originally named the Intel 8800[8] ), the Intel
960, Intel 860 and the Intel/Hewlett-Packard Itanium architecture. However, the continuous renement of x86
microarchitectures, circuitry and semiconductor manufacturing would make it hard to replace x86 in many segments. AMDs 64-bit extension of x86 (which Intel eventually responded to with a compatible design)[9] and the
scalability of x86 chips such as the eight-core Intel Xeon
and 12-core AMD Opteron is underlining x86 as an example of how continuous renement of established industry standards can resist the competition from completely
new architectures.[10]

CHAPTER 38. X86

events of x86 history. Note: CPU generations are
not strict - each generation is characterized by significantly improved or commercially successful processor
microarchitecture designs.

38.3 History
38.3.1 Background
The x86 architecture was rst used for the Intel 8086 central processing unit (CPU) released during 1978, a fully
16-bit design based on the earlier 8-bit based 8008 and
8080. Although not binary compatible, it was designed
to allow assembly language programs written for these
processors (as well as the contemporary 8085) to be mechanically translated into equivalent 8086 assembly. This
made the new processor a tempting software migration
route for many customers.
However, the 16-bit external data bus of the 8086 implied fairly signicant hardware redesign, as well as other
complications and expenses. To address this obstacle,
Intel introduced the almost identical 8088, basically an
8086 with an 8-bit external databus that permitted simpler printed circuit boards and demanded fewer (1-bit
wide) DRAM chips; it was also more easily interfaced
to already established (i.e. low-cost) 8-bit system and peripheral chips. Among other, non-technical factors, this
contributed to IBMs decision to design a personal computer based on the 8088, despite the presence of 16-bit
microprocessors from Motorola, Zilog, National Semiconductor and others, as well as several established 8-bit
processors that were also considered. Largely as a result
of IBMs position and historical reputation as a strong and
dominant computer company, the resulting IBM PC subsequently became preferred to Z80-based CP/M systems,
Apple IIs, and other popular computers as the de facto
standard for personal computers, thus enabling the 8088
and its successors to dominate this large part of the microprocessor market.

iAPX 432 and the 80286

Another factor was that the advanced but non-compatible

32-bit Intel 8800 (alias iAPX 432) failed in the market
around the time the original IBM-PC was initiated; the
new and fast 80286 actually contributed to the disappointment in the performance of the semi-contemporary 8800
during early 1982. (The 80186, initiated simultaneously
with the 80286, was intended for embedded systems, and
38.2 Chronology
would therefore have had a large market anyway.) The
market failure of the 32-bit 8800 was a signicant impeThe table below lists brands of common[11] consumer tus for Intel to continue to develop more advanced 8086targeted processors implementing the x86 instruction compatible processors instead, such as the 80386 (a 32set, grouped by generations that emphasize important bit extension of the well performing 80286).

38.4. OVERVIEW

38.3.2

Other manufacturers

391
stages decode x86 instructions into uniform and easily
handled micro-operations, a method that has remained
the basis for most x86 designs to this day.

Some early versions of these microprocessors had heat

dissipation problems. The 6x86 was also aected by
a few minor compatibility problems, the Nx586 lacked
a oating point unit (FPU) and (the then crucial) pincompatibility, while the K5 had somewhat disappointing
performance when it was (eventually) introduced. Customer ignorance of alternatives to the Pentium series further contributed to these designs being comparatively unsuccessful, despite the fact that the K5 had very good Pentium compatibility and the 6x86 was signicantly faster
than the Pentium on integer code.[lower-alpha 10] AMD later
managed to establish itself as a serious contender with
the K6 set of processors, which gave way to the very
successful Athlon and Opteron. There were also other
contenders, such as Centaur Technology (formerly IDT),
Rise Technology, and Transmeta. VIA Technologies' energy ecient C3 and C7 processors, which were designed
by the Centaur company, have been sold for many years.
Am386, released by AMD in 1991
Centaurs newest design, the VIA Nano, is their rst proFurther information: List of former IA-32 compatible cessor with superscalar and speculative execution. It was,
perhaps interestingly, introduced at about the same time
processor manufacturers
as Intels rst in-order processor since the P5 Pentium,
the Intel Atom.
At various times, companies such as IBM,
NEC,[lower-alpha 8] AMD, TI, STM, Fujitsu, OKI,
Siemens, Cyrix, Intersil, C&T, NexGen, UMC, and
DM&P started to design or manufacture[lower-alpha 9] x86
processors (CPUs) intended for personal computers as 38.3.3 Extensions of word size
well as embedded systems. Such x86 implementations
are seldom simple copies but often employ dierent The instruction set architecture has twice been extended
internal microarchitectures as well as dierent solutions to a larger word size. In 1985, Intel released the 32-bit
at the electronic and physical levels. Quite naturally, 80386 (later known as i386) which gradually replaced the
early compatible microprocessors were 16-bit, while earlier 16-bit chips in computers (although typically not
32-bit designs were developed much later. For the in embedded systems) during the following years; this expersonal computer market, real quantities started to tended programming model was originally referred to as
appear around 1990 with i386 and i486 compatible pro- the i386 architecture (like its rst implementation) but Incessors, often named similarly to Intels original chips. tel later dubbed it IA-32 when introducing its (unrelated)
Other companies, which designed or manufactured x86 IA-64 architecture.
or x87 processors, include ITT Corporation, National In 1999-2003, AMD extended this 32-bit architecture to
Semiconductor, ULSI System Technology, and Weitek. 64 bits and referred to it as x86-64 in early documents and
Following the fully pipelined i486, Intel introduced the
Pentium brand name (which, unlike numbers, could be
trademarked) for their new set of superscalar x86 designs;
with the x86 naming scheme now legally cleared, other
x86 vendors had to choose dierent names for their x86compatible products, and initially some chose to continue
with variations of the numbering scheme: IBM partnered
with Cyrix to produce the 5x86 and then the very ecient
6x86 (M1) and 6x86MX (MII) lines of Cyrix designs,
which were the rst x86 microprocessors implementing
register renaming to enable speculative execution. AMD
meanwhile designed and manufactured the advanced but
delayed 5k86 (K5), which, internally, was closely based
on AMDs earlier 29K RISC design; similar to NexGen's
Nx586, it used a strategy such that dedicated pipeline

later as AMD64. Intel soon adopted AMDs architectural

extensions under the name IA-32e, later using the name
EM64T and nally using Intel 64. Microsoft and Sun Microsystems also use term x64, while many Linux distributions also use the amd64 term. Microsoft Windows,
for example, designates its 32-bit versions as x86 and
64-bit versions as x64, while installation les of 64-bit
Windows versions are required to be placed into a directory called AMD64.[12]

38.4 Overview

392

38.4.1

CHAPTER 38. X86

Basic properties of the architecture erations (although not integer arithmetic[lower-alpha 13] ) on

The x86 architecture is a variable instruction length, primarily "CISC" design with emphasis on backward compatibility. The instruction set is not typical CISC, however, but basically an extended version of the simple
eight-bit 8008 and 8080 architectures. Byte-addressing
is enabled and words are stored in memory with littleendian byte order. Memory access to unaligned addresses
is allowed for all valid word sizes. The largest native size
for integer arithmetic and memory addresses (or osets)
is 16, 32 or 64 bits depending on architecture generation (newer processors include direct support for smaller
integers as well). Multiple scalar values can be handled
simultaneously via the SIMD unit present in later generations, as described below.[lower-alpha 11] Immediate addressing osets and immediate data may be expressed as
8-bit quantities for the frequently occurring cases or contexts where a 128..127 range is enough. Typical instructions are therefore 2 or 3 bytes in length (although
some are much longer, and some are single-byte).

full 128-bits quantities in parallel. Intels Sandy Bridge

processors added the AVX (Advanced Vector Extensions) instructions. widening the SIMD registers to 256
bits. Knights Corner, the architecture used by Intel on
their Xeon Phi co-processors, uses 512-bit wide SIMD
registers.

38.4.2 Current implementations

During execution, current x86 processors employ a few

extra decoding steps to split most instructions into smaller
pieces (micro-operations). These are then handed to a
control unit that buers and schedules them in compliance with x86-semantics so that they can be executed,
partly in parallel, by one of several (more or less specialized) execution units. These modern x86 designs
are thus superscalar, and also capable of out of order
and speculative execution (via register renaming), which
means they may execute multiple (partial or complete)
x86 instructions simultaneously, and not necessarily in
To further conserve encoding space, most registers are
the same order as given in the instruction stream.[13]
expressed in opcodes using three or four bits, the latter via an opcode prex in 64-bit mode, while at When introduced, in the mid-1990s, this method was
most one operand to an instruction can be a memory sometimes referred to as a RISC core or as RISC
location.[lower-alpha 12] However, this memory operand may translation, partly for marketing reasons, but also bealso be the destination (or a combined source and desti- cause these micro-operations share some properties with
nation), while the other operand, the source, can be ei- certain types of RISC instructions. However, traditional
ther register or immediate. Among other factors, this con- microcode (used since the 1950s) also inherently shares
tributes to a code size that rivals eight-bit machines and many of the same properties; the new method diers
enables ecient use of instruction cache memory. The mainly in that the translation to micro-operations now ocrelatively small number of general registers (also inher- curs asynchronously. Not having to synchronize the exited from its 8-bit ancestors) has made register-relative ecution units with the decode steps opens up possibiliaddressing (using small immediate osets) an important ties for more analysis of the (buered) code stream, and
method of accessing operands, especially on the stack. therefore permits detection of operations that can be perMuch work has therefore been invested in making such formed in parallel, simultaneously feeding more than one
accesses as fast as register accesses, i.e. a one cycle in- execution unit.
struction throughput, in most circumstances where the ac- The latest processors also do the opposite when appropricessed data is available in the top-level cache.
ate; they combine certain x86 sequences (such as a comFloating point and SIMD
A dedicated oating point processor with 80-bit internal registers, the 8087, was developed for the original
8086. This microprocessor subsequently developed into
the extended 80387, and later processors incorporated a
backward compatible version of this functionality on the
same microprocessor as the main processor. In addition
to this, modern x86 designs also contain a SIMD-unit (see
SSE below) where instructions can work in parallel on
(one or two) 128-bit words, each containing 2 or 4 oating
point numbers (each 64 or 32 bits wide respectively), or
alternatively, 2, 4, 8 or 16 integers (each 64, 32, 16 or 8
bits wide respectively).

pare followed by a conditional jump) into a more complex

micro-op which ts the execution model better and thus
can be executed faster or with less machine resources involved.
Another way to try to improve performance is to cache
the decoded micro-operations, so the processor can directly access the decoded micro-operations from a special cache, instead of decoding them again. Intel followed
this approach with the Execution Trace Cache feature in
their NetBurst Microarchitecture (for Pentium 4 processors) and later in the Decoded Stream Buer (for Corebranded processors since Sandy Bridge).[14]

Transmeta used a completely dierent method in their

x86 compatible CPUs. They used just-in-time translation
to convert x86 instructions to the CPUs native VLIW inThe presence of wide SIMD registers means that existing struction set. Transmeta argued that their approach alx86 processors can load or store up to 128 bits of memory lows for more power ecient designs since the CPU can
data in a single instruction and also perform bitwise op- forgo the complicated decode step of more traditional

38.6. ADDRESSING MODES

x86 implementations.

38.5 Segmentation
Further information: x86 memory segmentation
Minicomputers during the late 1970s were running up
against the 16-bit 64-KB address limit, as memory had
become cheaper. Some minicomputers like the PDP-11
used complex bank-switching schemes, or, in the case of
Digitals VAX, redesigned much more expensive processors which could directly handle 32-bit addressing and
data. The original 8086, developed from the simple 8080
microprocessor and primarily aiming at very small and
inexpensive computers and other specialized devices, instead adopted simple segment registers which increased
the memory address width by only 4 bits. By multiplying a 64-KB address by 16, the 20-bit address could address a total of one megabyte (1,048,576 bytes) which
was quite a large amount for a small computer at the
time. The concept of segment registers was not new to
many mainframes which used segment registers to swap
quickly to dierent tasks. In practice, on the x86 it was
(is) a much-criticized implementation which greatly complicated many common programming tasks and compilers. However, the architecture soon allowed linear 32-bit
addressing (starting with the 80386 in late 1985) but major actors (such as Microsoft) took several years to convert their 16-bit based systems. The 80386 (and 80486)
was therefore largely used as a fast (but still 16-bit based)
8086 for many years.
Data and code could be managed within near 16-bit
segments within 64 KB portions of the total 1 MB address space, or a compiler could operate in a far mode
using 32-bit segment:offset pairs reaching (only) 1 MB.
While that would also prove to be quite limiting by the
mid-1980s, it was working for the emerging PC market,
and made it very simple to translate software from the
older 8008, 8080, 8085, and Z80 to the newer processor. During 1985, the 16-bit segment addressing model
was eectively factored out by the introduction of 32-bit
oset registers, in the 386 design.
In real mode, segmentation is achieved by shifting the
segment address left by 4 bits and adding an oset in order to receive a nal 20-bit address. For example, if DS
is A000h and SI is 5677h, DS:SI will point at the absolute
address DS 10h + SI = A5677h. Thus the total address
space in real mode is 220 bytes, or 1 MB, quite an impressive gure for 1978. All memory addresses consist
of both a segment and oset; every type of access (code,
data, or stack) has a default segment register associated
with it (for data the register is usually DS, for code it is
CS, and for stack it is SS). For data accesses, the segment
register can be explicitly specied (using a segment override prex) to use any of the four segment registers.

393
In this scheme, two dierent segment/oset pairs can
point at a single absolute location. Thus, if DS is A111h
and SI is 4567h, DS:SI will point at the same A5677h as
above. This scheme makes it impossible to use more than
four segments at once. CS and SS are vital for the correct
functioning of the program, so that only DS and ES can
be used to point to data segments outside the program (or,
more precisely, outside the currently executing segment
of the program) or the stack.
In protected mode, a segment register no longer contains
the physical address of the beginning of a segment, but
contain a selector that points to a system-level structure called a segment descriptor. A segment descriptor
contains the physical address of the beginning of the segment, the length of the segment, and access permissions
to that segment. The oset is checked against the length
of the segment, with osets referring to locations outside
the segment causing an exception. Osets referring to
locations inside the segment are combined with the physical address of the beginning of the segment to get the
physical address corresponding to that oset.
The segmented nature can make programming and compiler design dicult because the use of near and far pointers aects performance.

38.6 Addressing modes

Addressing modes for 16-bit x86 processors can be summarized by this formula:

CS :

}] [{ }]

[{
DS :
BX
SI
+
+ [displacement]
SS
:
BP
DI

ES :
Addressing modes for 32-bit address size on 32-bit or 64bit x86 processors can be summarized by this formula:[15]

EAX

EAX

CS
:
EBX

EBX

DS :
ECX

ECX

SS :
EDX
2

ESP +EDX 4+[displacement]

ES
:

EBP

F S :
EBP
8

ESI

GS :
ESI

EDI

EDI
Addressing modes for 64-bit code on 64-bit x86 processors can be summarized by this formula:

394

CHAPTER 38. X86

The 8086, 8088, 80186, and 80188 can use an optional

oating-point

coprocessor, the 8087. The 8087 appears

to
the
programmer
as part of the CPU and adds eight 80{
}

]
FS : [
2 bit

wide
registers,
st(0)
to st(7), each of which can hold
general register + general register

GS :
4

numeric
data
in
one
of
seven formats: 32-, 64-, or 80+[displacement]

8 bit

oating
point,
16-,
32-,
or 64-bit (binary) integer, and

[17]

80-bit
packed
decimal
integer.

RIP
In the Intel 80286, to support Protected Mode, three
Instruction relative addressing in 64-bit code (RIP + dis- special registers hold descriptor table addresses (GDTR,
placement, where RIP is the instruction pointer register) LDTR, IDTR), and a fourth task register (TR) is used for
simplies the implementation of position-independent task switching. The 80287 is the oating-point coprocescode (as used in shared libraries in some operating sys- sor for the 80286 and has the same registers as the 8087
with the same data formats.
tems).
The 8086 had 64 KB of 8-bit (or alternatively 32 K-word
of 16-bit) I/O space, and a 64 KB (one segment) stack in
memory supported by computer hardware. Only words (2
bytes) can be pushed to the stack. The stack grows downwards (toward numerically lower addresses), its bottom
being pointed by SS:SP. There are 256 interrupts, which
can be invoked by both hardware and software. The interrupts can cascade, using the stack to store the return
address.

38.7.2 32-bit

With the advent of the 32-bit 80386 processor, the 16-bit

general-purpose registers, base registers, index registers,
instruction pointer, and FLAGS register, but not the segment registers, were expanded to 32 bits. This is represented by prexing an "E" (for Extended) to the register
names in x86 assembly language. Thus, the AX register corresponds to the lowest 16 bits of the new 32-bit
EAX register, SI corresponds to the lowest 16 bits of ESI,
38.7 x86 registers
and so on. The general-purpose registers, base registers,
and index registers can all be used as the base in addressFor a description of the general notion of a CPU register, ing modes, and all of those registers except for the stack
pointer can be used as the index in addressing modes.
see Processor register.
Two new segment registers (FS and GS) were added.
With a greater number of registers, instructions and
38.7.1 16-bit
operands, the machine code format was expanded. To
provide backward compatibility, segments with exeThe original Intel 8086 and 8088 have fourteen 16-bit cutable code can be marked as containing either 16-bit
registers. Four of them (AX, BX, CX, DX) are general- or 32-bit instructions. Special prexes allow inclusion of
purpose registers (GPRs), although each may have an ad- 32-bit instructions in a 16-bit segment or vice versa.
ditional purpose; for example, only CX can be used as a
counter with the loop instruction. Each can be accessed as
two separate bytes (thus BXs high byte can be accessed
as BH and low byte as BL). Two pointer registers have
special roles: SP points to the top of the stack, and BP
(base pointer) is often used to point at some other place
in the stack, typically above the local variables (see frame
pointer). The registers SI, DI, BX and BP are address
registers, and may also be used for array indexing.
Registers available in the x86 instruction set
Four segment registers (CS, DS, SS and ES) are used to
form a memory address. The FLAGS register contains
ags such as carry ag, overow ag and zero ag. Finally, the instruction pointer (IP) points to the next instruction that will be fetched from memory and then executed; this register cannot be directly accessed (read or
written) by a program.[16]

The 80386 had an optional oating-point coprocessor, the

80387; it had eight 80-bit wide registers: st(0) to st(7),[18]
like the 8087 and 80287. (The 80386 could also use an
80287 coprocessor.) With the 80486 and all subsequent
x86 models, the oating-point processing unit (FPU) was
integrated on-chip.

The Intel 80186 and 80188 are essentially an upgraded

8086 or 8088 CPU, respectively, with on-chip peripherals added, and they have the same CPU registers as the
8086 and 8088 (in addition to interface registers for the
peripherals).

With the Pentium MMX, eight 64-bit MMX integer

registers were added (MMX0 to MMX7, which share
lower bits with the 80-bit-wide FPU stack).[19] With
the Pentium III, a 32-bit Streaming SIMD Extensions
(SSE) control/status register (MXCSR) and eight 128-

38.7. X86 REGISTERS

395

bit SSE oating point registers (XMM0 to XMM7) were debug registers (DR0 through 3, plus 6 and 7), test regisadded.[20]
ters (TR3 through 7; 80486 only), and model-specic registers (MSRs, appearing with the Pentium[lower-alpha 14] ).

38.7.3

64-bit

Starting with the AMD Opteron processor, the x86 architecture extended the 32-bit registers into 64-bit registers in a way similar to how the 16 to 32-bit extension took place. An R-prex identies the 64-bit registers (RAX, RBX, RCX, RDX, RSI, RDI, RBP, RSP,
RFLAGS, RIP), and eight additional 64-bit general registers (R8-R15) were also introduced in the creation of
x86-64. However, these extensions are only usable in
64-bit mode, which is one of the two modes only available in long mode. The addressing modes were not dramatically changed from 32-bit mode, except that addressing was extended to 64 bits, virtual addresses are
now sign extended to 64 bits (in order to disallow mode
bits in virtual addresses), and other selector details were
dramatically reduced. In addition, an addressing mode
was added to allow memory references relative to RIP
(the instruction pointer), to ease the implementation of
position-independent code, used in shared libraries in
some operating systems.

38.7.4

128-bit

38.7.8 Purpose
Although the main registers (with the exception of the
instruction pointer) are general-purpose in the 32-bit
and 64-bit versions of the instruction set and can be used
for anything, it was originally envisioned that they be used
for the following purposes:
AL/AH/AX/EAX/RAX: Accumulator
BL/BH/BX/EBX/RBX: Base index (for use with arrays)
CL/CH/CX/ECX/RCX: Counter (for use with loops
and strings)
DL/DH/DX/EDX/RDX: Extend the precision of
the accumulator (e.g. combine 32-bit EAX and
EDX for 64-bit integer operations in 32-bit code)
SI/ESI/RSI: Source index for string operations.
DI/EDI/RDI: Destination index for string operations.

See also: Streaming SIMD Extensions Registers

SP/ESP/RSP: Stack pointer for top address of the

stack.

SIMD registers XMM0XMM15.

BP/EBP/RBP: Stack base pointer for holding the

address of the current stack frame.

38.7.5

IP/EIP/RIP: Instruction pointer. Holds the program

counter, the current instruction address.

256-bit

See also: Advanced Vector Extensions New features

SIMD registers YMM0YMM15.

38.7.6

512-bit

Segment registers:
CS: Code
DS: Data
SS: Stack

See also: Advanced Vector Extensions AVX-512

SIMD registers ZMM0ZMM31.

ES: Extra data

FS: Extra data #2
GS: Extra data #3

38.7.7

Miscellaneous/special purpose

No particular purposes were envisioned for the other 8

x86 processors that have a Protected Mode, i.e. the registers available only in 64-bit mode.
80286 and later processors, also have three descriptor Some instructions compile and execute more eciently
registers (GDTR, LDTR, IDTR) and a task register (TR). when using these registers for their designed purpose. For
32-bit x86 processors (starting with the 80386) also example, using AL as an accumulator and adding an iminclude various special/miscellaneous registers such as mediate byte value to it produces the ecient add to AL
control registers (CR0 through 4, CR8 for 64-bit only), opcode of 04h, whilst using the BL register produces the

396

CHAPTER 38. X86

generic and longer add to register opcode of 80C3h. Another example is double precision division and multiplication that works specically with the AX and DX registers.

ment registers once and then only using 16-bit osets (optionally with default-segment override prexes) to address
memory, but this puts substantial restrictions on the way
data can be addressed and memory operands can be combined, and it violates the architectural intent of the Intel
designers, which is for separate data items (e.g. arrays,
structures, code units) to be contained in separate segments and addressed by their own segment addresses, in
new programs that are not ported from earlier 8-bit processors with 16-bit address spaces.

Modern compilers beneted from the introduction of the

sib byte (scale-index-base byte) that allows registers to be
treated uniformly (minicomputer-like). However, using
the sib byte universally is inoptimal, as it produces longer
encodings than only using it selectively when necessary.
(The main benet of the sib byte is the orthogonality and
more powerful addressing modes it provides, which make
it possible to save instructions and the use of registers for
address calculations such as scaling an index.) Some spe- 38.8.2 Protected mode
cial instructions lost priority in the hardware design and
became slower than equivalent small code sequences. A Main article: Protected mode
notable example is the LODSW instruction.

38.7.9

Structure

Note: The ?PL registers are only available in 64-bit

mode.
Note: The ?IL registers are only available in 64-bit mode.

38.8 Operating modes

38.8.1

Real mode

Main article: Real mode

Real Address mode,[21] commonly called Real mode, is
an operating mode of 8086 and later x86-compatible
CPUs. Real mode is characterized by a 20-bit segmented memory address space (meaning that only 1
MiB of memory can be addressedactually, slightly
more[lower-alpha 15] ), direct software access to peripheral
hardware, and no concept of memory protection or
multitasking at the hardware level. All x86 CPUs in the
80286 series and later start up in real mode at poweron; 80186 CPUs and earlier had only one operational
mode, which is equivalent to real mode in later chips. (On
the IBM PC platform, direct software access to the IBM
BIOS routines is available only in real mode, since BIOS
is written for real mode. However, this is not a characteristic of the x86 CPU but of the IBM BIOS design.)

In addition to real mode, the Intel 80286 supports protected mode, expanding addressable physical memory to
16 MB and addressable virtual memory to 1 GB, and providing protected memory, which prevents programs from
corrupting one another. This is done by using the segment registers only for storing an index into a descriptor
table that is stored in memory. There are two such tables, the Global Descriptor Table (GDT) and the Local
Descriptor Table (LDT), each holding up to 8192 segment descriptors, each segment giving access to 64 KB
of memory. In the 80286, a segment descriptor provides
a 24-bit base address, and this base address is added to a
16-bit oset to create an absolute address. The base address from the table fullls the same role that the literal
value of the segment register fullls in real mode; the segment registers have been converted from direct registers
to indirect registers. Each segment can be assigned one
of four ring levels used for hardware-based computer security. Each segment descriptor also contains a segment
limit eld which species the maximum oset that may
be used with the segment. Because osets are 16 bits,
segments are still limited to 64 KB each in 80286 protected mode.[22]

Each time a segment register is loaded in protected mode,

the 80286 must read a 6-byte segment descriptor from
memory into an a set of hidden internal registers. Therefore, loading segment registers is much slower in protected mode than in real mode, and changing segments
very frequently is to be avoided. Actual memory operations using protected mode segments are not slowed much
because the 80286 and later have hardware to check the
In order to use more than 64 KB of memory, the segment oset against the segment limit in parallel with instruction
registers must be used. This created great complications execution.
for compiler implementors who introduced odd pointer The Intel 80386 extended osets and also the segment
modes such as near, far and huge to leverage the limit eld in each segment descriptor to 32 bits, enabling
implicit nature of segmented architecture to dierent de- a segment to span the entire memory space. It also ingrees, with some pointers containing 16-bit osets within troduced support in protected mode for paging, a mechimplied segments and other pointers containing segment anism making it possible to use paged virtual memory
addresses and osets within segments. It is technically (with 4 KB page size). Paging allows the CPU to map any
possible to use up to 256 KB of memory for code and page of the virtual memory space to any page of the physdata, with up to 64 KB for code, by setting all four seg- ical memory space. To do this, it uses additional mapping

38.9. EXTENSIONS
tables in memory called page tables. Protected Mode
on the 80386 can operate with paging either enabled or
disabled; the segmentation mechanism is always active
and generates virtual addresses that are then mapped by
the paging mechanism if it is enabled. The segmentation mechanism can also be eectively disabled by setting all segments to have a base address of 0 and size
limit equal to the whole address space; this also requires
a minimally-sized segment descriptor table of only four
descriptors (since the FS and GS segments need not be
used).[lower-alpha 16]
Paging is used extensively by modern multitasking operating systems. Linux, 386BSD and Windows NT were
developed for the 386 because it was the rst Intel architecture CPU to support paging and 32-bit segment osets. The 386 architecture became the basis of all further
development in the x86 series.
x86 processors that support protected mode boot into real
mode for backward compatibility with the older 8086
class of processors. Upon power-on (a.k.a. booting), the
processor initializes in real mode, and then begins executing instructions. Operating system boot code, which
might be stored in ROM, may place the processor into
the protected mode to enable paging and other features.
The instruction set in protected mode is backward compatible with the one used in real mode.

397
64-bit address space; for example, AMD64 supports only
48 bits from a 64-bit address, split into four paging levels.
In 1999, AMD published a (nearly) complete specication for a 64-bit extension of the x86 architecture which
they called x86-64 with claimed intentions to produce.
That design is currently used in almost all x86 processors,
with some exceptions intended for embedded systems.
Mass-produced x86-64 chips for the general market were
available four years later, in 2003, after the time was spent
for working prototypes to be tested and rened; about
the same time, the initial name x86-64 was changed to
AMD64. The success of the AMD64 line of processors
coupled with lukewarm reception of the IA-64 architecture forced Intel to release its own implementation of
the AMD64 instruction set. Intel had previously implemented support for AMD64[23] but opted not to enable
it in hopes that AMD would not bring AMD64 to market before Itaniums new IA-64 instruction set was widely
adopted. It branded its implementation of AMD64 as
EM64T, and later re-branded it Intel 64.
In its literature and product version names, Microsoft
and Sun refer to AMD64/Intel 64 collectively as x64 in
the Windows and Solaris operating systems respectively.
Linux distributions refer to it either as x86-64, its variant x86_64, or amd64. BSD systems use amd64
while Mac OS X uses x86_64.

Long mode is mostly an extension of the 32-bit instruction set, but unlike the 16to32-bit transition, many instructions were dropped in the 64-bit mode. This does
not aect actual binary backward compatibility (which
Main article: Virtual 8086 mode
would execute legacy code in other modes that retain support for those instructions), but it changes the way assemThere is also a sub-mode of operation in 32-bit protected
bler and compilers for new code have to work.
mode (a.k.a. 80386 protected mode) called virtual 8086
mode, also known as V86 mode. This is basically a special This was the rst time that a major extension of the x86
hybrid operating mode that allows real mode programs architecture was initiated and originated by a manufacand operating systems to run while under the control of a turer other than Intel. It was also the rst time that Inprotected mode supervisor operating system. This allows tel accepted technology of this nature from an outside
for a great deal of exibility in running both protected source.
mode programs and real mode programs simultaneously.
This mode is exclusively available for the 32-bit version
of protected mode; it does not exist in the 16-bit version
38.9 Extensions
of protected mode, or in long mode.
Virtual 8086 mode

38.9.1 Floating point unit

38.8.3

Long mode

Main article: Long mode

Main article: x87

Further information: Floating point unit

In the mid 1990s, it was obvious that the 32-bit address

space of the x86 architecture was limiting its performance
in applications requiring large data sets. A 32-bit address
space would allow the processor to directly address only 4
GB of data, a size surpassed by applications such as video
processing and database engines. Using 64-bit addresses,
it is possible to directly address 16 EiB of data, although
most 64-bit architectures do not support access to the full

Early x86 processors could be extended with oatingpoint hardware in the form of a series of oating point
numerical co-processors with names like 8087, 80287
and 80387, abbreviated x87. This was also known as the
NPX (Numeric Processor eXtension), an apt name since
the coprocessors, while used mainly for oating-point calculations, also performed integer operations on both binary and decimal formats. With very few exceptions, the

398

CHAPTER 38. X86

80486 and subsequent x86 processors then integrated this set is the concept of packed data types, which means inx87 functionality on chip which made the x87 instruc- stead of using the whole register for a single 64-bit integer
tions a de facto integral part of the x86 instruction set.
(quadword), one may use it to contain two 32-bit integers
Each x87 register, known as ST(0) through ST(7), is 80 (doubleword), four 16-bit integers (word) or eight 8-bit
bits wide and stores numbers in the IEEE oating-point integers (byte). Given that the MMXs 64-bit MMn regstandard double extended precision format. These regis- isters are aliased to the FPU stack and each of the oating
ters are organized as a stack with ST(0) as the top. This point registers are 80 bits wide, the upper 16 bits of the
was done in order to conserve opcode space, and the reg- oating point registers are unused in MMX. These bits
are set to all ones by any MMX instruction, which coristers are therefore randomly accessible only for either
operand in a register-to-register instruction; ST0 must al- respond to the oating point representation of NaNs or
innities.
ways be one of the two operands, either the source or the
destination, regardless of whether the other operand is
ST(x) or a memory operand. However, random access to
the stack registers can be obtained through an instruction 38.9.3 3DNow!
which exchanges any specied ST(x) with ST(0).
Main article: 3DNow!
The operations include arithmetic and transcendental
functions, including trigonometric and exponential functions, as well as instructions that load common con- In 1997 AMD introduced 3DNow!. The introduction of
stants (such as 0; 1; e, the base of the natural logarithm; this technology coincided with the rise of 3D entertainlog2(10); and log10(2)) into one of the stack registers. ment applications and was designed to improve the CPUs
While the integer capability is often overlooked, the x87 vector processing performance of graphic-intensive apcan operate on larger integers with a single instruction plications. 3D video game developers and 3D graphics
than the 8086, 80286, 80386, or any x86 CPU without hardware vendors use 3DNow! to enhance their perforto 64-bit extensions can, and repeated integer calculations mance on AMDs K6 and Athlon series of processors.
even on small values (e.g. 16-bit) can be accelerated by 3DNow! was designed to be the natural evolution of
executing integer instructions on the x86 CPU and the MMX from integers to oating point. As such, it uses
x87 in parallel. (The x86 CPU keeps running while the exactly the same register naming convention as MMX,
x87 coprocessor calculates, and the x87 sets a signal to that is MM0 through MM7. The only dierence is that
the x86 when it is nished or interrupts the x86 if it needs instead of packing integers into these registers, two single
attention because of an error.)
precision oating point numbers are packed into each
register. The advantage of aliasing the FPU registers is
that the same instruction and data structures used to save
the state of the FPU registers can also be used to save
38.9.2 MMX
3DNow! register states. Thus no special modications
are required to be made to operating systems which would
Main article: MMX (instruction set)
otherwise not know about them.
MMX is a SIMD instruction set designed by Intel and introduced in 1997 for the Pentium MMX microprocessor. 38.9.4 SSE
The MMX instruction set was developed from a similar concept rst used on the Intel i860. It is supported
Main articles: Streaming SIMD Extensions, SSE2,
on most subsequent IA-32 processors by Intel and other SSE3, SSSE3, SSE4 and SSE5
vendors. MMX is typically used for video processing (in
multimedia applications, for instance).
In 1999, Intel introduced the Streaming SIMD ExtenMMX added 8 new registers to the architecture, known sions (SSE) instruction set, following in 2000 with SSE2.
as MM0 through MM7 (henceforth referred to as MMn). The rst addition allowed ooading of basic oatingIn reality, these new registers were just aliases for the point operations from the x87 stack and the second made
existing x87 FPU stack registers. Hence, anything that MMX almost obsolete and allowed the instructions to
was done to the oating point stack would also aect the be realistically targeted by conventional compilers. InMMX registers. Unlike the FP stack, these MMn reg- troduced in 2004 along with the Prescott revision of the
isters were xed, not relative, and therefore they were Pentium 4 processor, SSE3 added specic memory and
randomly accessible. The instruction set did not adopt thread-handling instructions to boost the performance of
the stack-like semantics so that existing operating sys- Intels HyperThreading technology. AMD licensed the
tems could still correctly save and restore the register state SSE3 instruction set and implemented most of the SSE3
when multitasking without modications.
instructions for its revision E and later Athlon 64 procesEach of the MMn registers are 64-bit integers. How- sors. The Athlon 64 does not support HyperThreading
ever, one of the main concepts of the MMX instruction and lacks those SSE3 instructions used only for Hyper-

38.9. EXTENSIONS

399

Threading.
SSE discarded all legacy connections to the FPU stack.
This also meant that this instruction set discarded all
legacy connections to previous generations of SIMD instruction sets like MMX. But it freed the designers up,
allowing them to use larger registers, not limited by the
size of the FPU registers. The designers created eight
128-bit registers, named XMM0 through XMM7. (Note:
in AMD64, the number of SSE XMM registers has been
increased from 8 to 16.) However, the downside was that
operating systems had to have an awareness of this new
set of instructions in order to be able to save their register
states. So Intel created a slightly modied version of Protected mode, called Enhanced mode which enables the
usage of SSE instructions, whereas they stay disabled in
regular Protected mode. An OS that is aware of SSE will
activate Enhanced mode, whereas an unaware OS will
only enter into traditional Protected mode.
SSE is a SIMD instruction set that works only on oating
point values, like 3DNow!. However, unlike 3DNow! it
severs all legacy connection to the FPU stack. Because it
has larger registers than 3DNow!, SSE can pack twice the
number of single precision oats into its registers. The
original SSE was limited to only single-precision numbers, like 3DNow!. The SSE2 introduced the capability
to pack double precision numbers too, which 3DNow!
had no possibility of doing since a double precision number is 64-bit in size which would be the full size of a single 3DNow! MMn register. At 128 bits, the SSE XMMn
registers could pack two double precision oats into one
register. Thus SSE2 is much more suitable for scientic
calculations than either SSE1 or 3DNow!, which were
limited to only single precision. SSE3 does not introduce
any additional registers.

38.9.5

Physical Address Extension (PAE)

Main article: Physical Address Extension

Physical Address Extension or PAE was rst added in the
Intel Pentium Pro, to allow an additional 4 bits of physical
addressing in 32-bit protected mode. The size of memory in Protected mode is usually limited to 4 GB. Through
tricks in the processors page and segment memory management systems, x86 operating systems may be able to
access more than 32-bits of address space, even without
the switchover to the 64-bit paradigm. This mode does
not change the length of segment osets or linear addresses; those are still only 32 bits.

38.9.6

x86-64

In supercomputer clusters (as tracked by TOP 500 data and visualized on the diagram above, last updated 2013), the appearance
of 64-bit extensions for the x86 architecture enabled 64-bit x86
processors by AMD and Intel (orange and blue on the diagram,
respectively) to replace most RISC processor architectures previously used in such systems (including PA-RISC, SPARC, Alpha
and others), as well as 32-bit x86 (green on the diagram), even
though Intel itself initially tried unsuccessfully to replace x86 with
a new incompatible 64-bit architecture in the Itanium processor.
The main non-x86 architecture which is still used, as of 2014, in
supercomputing clusters is the Power Architecture used by IBM
POWER microprocessors (red on the diagram), with SPARC as a
distant second.

cessors limitations in memory addressing were an obstacle to their utilization in high-performance computing clusters and powerful desktop workstations. The aged
32-bit x86 was competing with much more advanced 64bit RISC architectures which could address much more
memory. Intel and the whole x86 ecosystem needed 64bit memory addressing if x86 was to survive the 64-bit
computing era, as workstation and desktop software applications were soon to start hitting the limitations present
in 32-bit memory addressing. However, Intel felt that
it was the right time to make a bold step and use the
transition to 64-bit desktop computers for a transition
away from the x86 architecture in general, an experiment
which ultimately failed.
In 2001, Intel attempted to introduce a non-x86 64-bit architecture named IA-64 in its Itanium processor, initially
aiming for the high-performance computing market, hoping that it would eventually replace the 32-bit x86.[24]
While IA-64 was incompatible with x86, the Itanium processor did provide emulation capabilities for translating
x86 instructions into IA-64, but this aected the performance of x86 programs so badly that it was rarely, if ever,
actually useful to the users: programmers should rewrite
x86 programs for the IA-64 architecture or their performance on Itanium would be orders of magnitude worse
than on a true x86 processor. The market rejected the
Itanium processor since it broke backward compatibility
and preferred to continue using x86 chips, and very few
programs were rewritten for IA-64.

Main article: x86-64

AMD decided to take another path toward 64-bit memory
See also: Itanium
addressing, making sure backward compatibility would
By the 2000s it had become obvious that 32-bit x86 pro- not suer. In April 2003, AMD released the rst x86

400

CHAPTER 38. X86

processor with 64-bit physical memory address registers,

capable of addressing much more than 4 GB of memory
using the new x86-64 extension (also known as AMD64
or x64) which introduced the long mode. The 64-bit
extensions to the x86 architecture were enabled only in
long mode, therefore 32-bit and 16-bit applications could
simply continue using an AMD64 processor in protected
or other modes, without even the slightest sacrice of
performance[25] and with full compatibility back to the
original instructions of the 16-bit Intel 8086.[26](p1314)
The market responded positively, adopting the 64-bit
AMD processors for both high-performance applications
and business or home computers.
Seeing the market rejecting the incompatible Itanium
processor and Microsoft supporting AMD64, Intel had to
respond and introduced its own x86-64 processor in July
2004.[27] As a result, the Itanium processor with its IA64 instruction set is rarely used today and x86, through
its x86-64 incarnation, is still the dominant CPU architecture in non-embedded computers.
x86-64 also introduced the NX bit, which oers some
protection against security bugs caused by buer overruns.
As a result of AMDs 64-bit contribution to the x86
lineage and its subsequent acceptance by Intel, the 64bit RISC architectures ceased to be a threat to the x86
ecosystem and almost disappeared from the workstation market. x86-64 began to be utilized in powerful
supercomputers (in its AMD Opteron and Intel Xeon
incarnations), a market which was previously the natural habitat for 64-bit RISC designs (such as the IBM
POWER microprocessors or SPARC processors). The
great leap toward 64-bit computing and the maintenance
of backward compatibility with 32-bit and 16-bit software enabled the x86 architecture to become an extremely exible platform today, with x86 chips being utilized from small low-power systems (for example, Intel
Quark and Intel Atom) to fast gaming desktop computers (for example, Intel Core i7 and AMD FX), and even
dominate large supercomputing clusters, eectively leaving only the ARM 32-bit and 64-bit RISC architecture as
a competitor in the smartphone and tablet market.

38.9.7

Virtualization

cluded QEMU/KQEMU, VirtualBox, and Xen.

The introduction of the AMD-V and Intel VT-x instruction sets in 2005 allowed x86 processors to meet the
Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements.[28]

38.10 See also

Itanium
PowerPC
Input/Output Base Address
Interrupt request
x86 assembly language
x86 instruction listings
List of AMD microprocessors
List of Intel microprocessors
List of VIA microprocessors
List of x86 manufacturers
CPUID
Microarchitecture
iAPX

38.11 Notes
[1] Unlike the microarchitecture (and specic electronic and
physical implementation) used for a specic microprocessor design
[2] Intel abandoned its x86 naming scheme with the P5
Pentium during 1993 (as numbers could not be trademarked). However, the term x86 was already established
among technicians, compiler writers etc.
[3] the GRID Compass laptop, for instance
[4] Including the 8088, 80186, 80188 and 80286 processors.

Main article: x86 virtualization

Prior to 2005 x86 architecture processors were unable
to meet the Popek and Goldberg requirements - a specication for virtualization created in 1974 by Gerald J.
Popek and Robert P. Goldberg. However both commercial and open source x86 virtualization hypervisor products were developed using software-based virtualization.
Commercial systems included VMware ESX, VMware
Workstation, Parallels, Microsoft Hyper-V Server, and
Microsoft Virtual PC; while open source systems in-

[5] Such a system also contained the usual mix of standard

7400 series support components, including multiplexers,
buers and glue logic.
[6] The actual meaning of iAPX was Intel Advanced Performance Architecture, or sometimes Intel Advanced Processor Architecture.
[7] The embedded processor market is populated by more
than 25 dierent architectures, which, due to the price
sensitivity, low power and hardware simplicity requirements, outnumber the x86.

38.12. REFERENCES

[8] The NEC V20 and V30 also provided the older 8080 instruction set, allowing PCs equipped with these microprocessors to operate CP/M applications at full speed (i.e.
without the need to simulate an 8080 by software).
[9] Fabless companies designed the chip and contracted another company to manufacture it, while fabbed companies
would do both the design and the manufacturing themselves. Some companies started as fabbed manufacturers
and later became fabless designers, one such example being AMD.
[10] It had a slower FPU however, which is slightly ironic as
Cyrix started out as a designer of fast Floating point units
for x86 processors.

401

38.12 References
[1] Pryce, Dave (May 11, 1989). 80486 32-bit CPU breaks
new ground in chip density and operating performance.
(Intel Corp.) (product announcement) EDN (Press release).
[2] Zet - The x86 (IA-32) open implementation ::
Overview. opencores.org. 2013-11-04. Retrieved
2014-01-05.
[3] John C Dvorak. Whatever Happened to the Intel
iAPX432?". Dvorak.org. Retrieved 2014-04-18.
[4] Ocial Intel iAPX 286 programmers manual
[5] iAPX 86, iAPX 88 users manual

[11] 16-bit and 32-bit microprocessors were introduced during 1978 and 1985 respectively; plans for 64-bit was announced during 1999 and gradually introduced from 2003
and onwards.

[6] late 1981 to early 1984, approximately

[12] Some CISC designs, such as the PDP-11, may use two.

[7] Benj Edwards (16 June 2008). Birth of a Standard:

The Intel 8086 Microprocessor. PCWorld. Retrieved 14
September 2014.

[13] That is because integer arithmetic generates carry between

subsequent bits (unlike simple bitwise operations).

[8] Stanley Mazor (JanuaryMarch 2010). Intels 8086.

IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 32 (1): 7579.
doi:10.1109/MAHC.2010.22.

[14] Two MSRs of particular interest are SYSENTER_EIP_MSR and SYSENTER_ESP_MSR, introduced on the Pentium II processor, which store
the address of the kernel mode system service handler
and corresponding kernel stack pointer. Initialized
during system startup, SYSENTER_EIP_MSR and
SYSENTER_ESP_MSR are used by the SYSENTER
(Intel) or SYSCALL (AMD) instructions to achieve Fast
System Calls, about three times faster than the software
interrupt method used previously.
[15] Because a segmented address is the sum of a 16-bit segment multiplied by 16 and a 16-bit oset, the maximum
address is 1,114,095 (10FFEF hex), for an addressability
of 1,114,096 bytes = 1 MB + 65,520 bytes. Before the
80286, x86 CPUs had only 20 physical address lines (address bit signals), so the 21st bit of the address, bit 20,
was dropped and addresses past 1 MB were mirrors of
the low end of the address space (starting from address
zero). Since the 80286, all x86 CPUs have at least 24
physical address lines, and bit 20 of the computed address
is brought out onto the address bus in real mode, allowing the CPU to address the full 1,114,096 bytes reachable with an x86 segmented address. On the popular IBM
PC platform, switchable hardware to disable the 21st address bit was added to machines with an 80286 or later so
that all programs designed for 8088/8086-based models
could run, while newer software could take advantage of
the high memory in real mode and the full 16 MB or
larger address space in protected modesee A20 gate.
[16] An extra descriptor record at the top of the table is also
required, because the table starts at zero but the minimum
descriptor index that can be loaded into a segment register
is 1; the value 0 is reserved to represent a segment register
that points to no segment.

[9] Time and again, processor architects have looked at

the inelegant x86 architecture and declared it cannot be
stretched to accommodate the latest innovations, said
Nathan Brookwood, principal analyst, Insight 64.
[10] Microsoft to End Intel Itanium Support. Retrieved 14
September 2014.
[11] Microprocessor Hall of Fame. Intel. Archived from the
original on 2007-07-06. Retrieved 2007-08-11.
[12] Setup and installation considerations for Windows x64
Edition-based computers. Retrieved 14 September
2014.
[13] Processors What mode of addressing do the Intel
Processors use?". Retrieved 14 September 2014.
[14] DSB Switches. Intel VTune Amplier 2013. Intel. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
[15] Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developers
Manual, Volume 1: Basic Architecture. Intel Corporation.
February 2014. Chapter 3.
[16] Guide to x86 Assembly. Cs.virginia.edu. 2013-09-11.
Retrieved 2014-02-06.
[17] Intel iAPX 86,88 Users Manual, August 1981, p. S-6,
S-13..S-15 (Order No. 210201-001)
[18] Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developers
Manual Volume 1: Basic Architecture. Intel. March 2013.
Chapter 8.
[19] Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developers
Manual Volume 1: Basic Architecture. Intel. March 2013.
Chapter 9.

402

CHAPTER 38. X86

[20] Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developers

Manual Volume 1: Basic Architecture. Intel. March 2013.
Chapter 10.
[21] iAPX 286 Programmers Reference. Intel. 1983. Section 1.2, Modes of Operation. Retrieved January 27,
2014.
[22] iAPX 286 Programmers Reference. Intel. 1983.
Chapter 6, Memory Management and Virtual Addressing. Retrieved January 27, 2014.
[23] Intels Yamhill Technology:
Geek.com

x86-64 compatible |

[24] Manek Dubash (July 20, 2006). Will Intel abandon the
Itanium?". Techworld. Retrieved 2010-12-19. Once
touted by Intel as a replacement for the x86 product line,
expectations for Itanium have been throttled well back.
[25] IBM Corporation (2007-09-06). IBM WebSphere Application Server 64-bit Performance Demystied. p. 14.
Retrieved 2010-04-09. Figures 5, 6 and 7 also show the
32-bit version of WAS runs applications at full native
hardware performance on the POWER and x86-64 platforms. Unlike some 64-bit processor architectures, the
POWER and x86-64 hardware does not emulate 32-bit
mode. Therefore applications that do not benet from 64bit features can run with full performance on the 32-bit
version of WebSphere running on the above mentioned
64-bit platforms.
[26] AMD Corporation (September 2012). Volume 2: System Programming (PDF). AMD64 Architecture Programmers Manual. AMD Corporation. Retrieved 201402-17.
[27] Charlie Demerjian (2003-09-26). Why Intels Prescott
will use AMD64 extensions. The Inquirer. Retrieved
2009-10-07.
[28] Adams, Keith; Agesen, Ole (October 2125, 2006). A
Comparison of Software and Hardware Techniques for
x86 Virtualization. Proceedings of the International
Conference on Architectural Support for Programming
Languages and Operating Systems, San Jose, CA, USA,
2006. ACM 1-59593-451-0/06/0010. Retrieved 200612-22.

38.13 Further reading

Rosenblum, Mendel; Garnkel, Tal (May 2005).
Virtual machine monitors: current technology and
future trends. IEEE Computer, volume 38, issue 5.

38.14 External links

25 Years of Intel Architecture
x86 CPUs guide
Why Intel can't seem to retire the x86
32/64-bit x86 Instruction Reference

Chapter 39

Computer hardware
For other uses, see Hardware.
In Computer science and Computer engineering Com-

Von Neumann architecture scheme.

PDP-11 CPU board

puter hardware is the collection of physical elements

that constitutes a computer system. Computer hardware
refers to the physical parts or components of a computer such as the monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer
data storage, hard disk drive (HDD), system unit (graphic
cards, sound cards, memory, motherboard and chips),
etc. all of which are physical objects that can be touched
(known as tangible).[1] In contrast, software is instructions that can be stored and run by hardware.

mann architecture, detailed in a 1945 paper by Hungarian mathematician John von Neumann. This describes a design architecture for an electronic digital
computer with subdivisions of a processing unit consisting of an arithmetic logic unit and processor registers, a control unit containing an instruction register
and program counter, a memory to store both data and
instructions, external mass storage, and input and output
mechanisms.[3] The meaning of the term has evolved to
mean a stored-program computer in which an instruction
fetch and a data operation cannot occur at the same time
because they share a common bus. This is referred to as
the Von Neumann bottleneck and often limits the performance of the system.[4]

Software is any set of machine-readable instructions that 39.2 Sales

directs a computers processor to perform specic operations. A combination of hardware and software forms a
For the third consecutive year, U.S. business-to-business
usable computing system.[2]
channel sales (sales through distributors and commercial
resellers) increased, ending 2013 up nearly 6 percent at
$61.7 billion. The impressive growth was the fastest sales
39.1 Von Neumann architecture
increase since the end of the recession. Sales growth accelerated in the second half of the year peaking in fourth
Main article: Von Neumann architecture
quarter with a 6.9 percent increase over the fourth quarter
The template for all modern computers is the Von Neu- of 2012.[5]
403

404

CHAPTER 39. COMPUTER HARDWARE

39.3 Dierent systems

There are a number of dierent types of computer system
in use today.

39.3.1

Personal computer

similar, although may use lower-power or reduced size

components.

Case
Main article: Computer case
The computer case is a plastic or metal enclosure that
houses most of the components. Those found on desktop
computers are usually small enough to t under a desk,
however in recent years more compact designs have become more common place, such as the all-in-one style
designs from Apple, namely the iMac. Laptops are computers that usually come in a clamshell form factor, again
however in more recent years deviations from this form
factor have started to emerge such as laptops that have a
detachable screen that become tablet computers in their
own right.

Power supply
Main article: Power supply unit (computer)
A power supply unit (PSU) converts alternating current
(AC) electric power to low-voltage DC power for the internal components of the computer. Laptops are capable
Hardware of a modern personal computer
of running from a built-in battery, normally for a period
1. Monitor 2. Motherboard 3. CPU 4. RAM 5. Expansion of hours.[6]
cards 6. Power supply 7. Optical disc drive 8. Hard disk drive
9. Keyboard 10. Mouse

Motherboard
Main article: Motherboard
The motherboard is the main component of computer. It
is a large rectangular board with integrated circuitry that
connects the other parts of the computer including the
CPU, the RAM, the disk drives(CD, DVD, hard disk, or
any others) as well as any peripherals connected via the
ports or the expansion slots.
Components directly attached to or part of the motherboard include:

Inside a custom-built computer: power supply at the bottom has

its own cooling fan.

The personal computer, also known as the PC, is one of

the most common types of computer due to its versatility and relatively low price. Laptops are generally very

The CPU (Central Processing Unit) performs most

of the calculations which enable a computer to function, and is sometimes referred to as the brain of
the computer. It is usually cooled by a heat sink and
fan. Most newer CPUs include an on-die Graphics
Processing Unit (GPU).
The Chipset, which includes the north bridge, mediates communication between the CPU and the
other components of the system, including main
memory.

39.3. DIFFERENT SYSTEMS

405

The Random-Access Memory (RAM) stores the Input and output peripherals
code and data that are being actively accessed by the
CPU.
Main article: Peripheral
The Read-Only Memory (ROM) stores the BIOS
that runs when the computer is powered on or
otherwise begins execution, a process known as
Bootstrapping, or "booting" or booting up. The
BIOS (Basic Input Output System) includes boot
rmware and power management rmware. Newer
motherboards use Unied Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) instead of BIOS.

Input and output devices are typically housed externally

to the main computer chassis. The following are either
standard or very common to many computer systems.
Input

Input devices allow the user to enter information into the

system, or control its operation. Most personal computers have a mouse and keyboard, but laptop systems typ Buses connect the CPU to various internal compo- ically use a touchpad instead of a mouse. Other input
nents and to expansion cards for graphics and sound. devices include webcams, microphones, joysticks, and
image scanners.
The CMOS battery is also attached to the motherboard. This battery is the same as a watch battery
or a battery for a remote to a cars central locking
system. Most batteries are CR2032, which powers
the memory for date and time in the BIOS chip.

Output device
Output devices display information in a human readable
form. Such devices could include printers, speakers,
monitors or a Braille embosser.

Expansion cards
Main article: Expansion card

39.3.2 Mainframe computer

The [expansion card] in computing is a printed circuit

board that can be inserted into an expansion slot of a computer motherboard or backplane to add functionality to a
computer system via the expansion bus.

Storage devices
Main article: Computer data storage
Computer data storage, often called storage or memory,
refers to computer components and recording media that
retain digital data. Data storage is a core function and
fundamental component of computers.
Fixed media
Data is stored by a computer using a variety of media.
Hard disk drives are found in virtually all older computers, due to their high capacity and low cost, but solid-state
drives are faster and more power ecient, although currently more expensive than hard drives, so are often found
in more expensive computers. Some systems may use a
disk array controller for greater performance or reliabilAn IBM System z9 mainframe
ity.
Removable media
To transfer data between computers, a USB ash drive or
Optical disc may be used. Their usefulness depends on
being readable by other systems; the majority of machines
have an optical disk drive, and virtually all have a USB
port.

A mainframe computer is a much larger computer that

typically lls a room and may cost many hundreds or
thousands of times as much as a personal computer. They
are designed to perform large numbers of calculations for
governments and large enterprises.

406

39.3.3

CHAPTER 39. COMPUTER HARDWARE

Departmental computing

In the 1960s and 1970s more and more departments

started to use cheaper and dedicated systems for specic
purposes like process control and laboratory automation.

[6] How long should a laptop battery last?". Computer Hope.

Retrieved 9 December 2013.
[7] Alba, Davey. Chinas Tianhe-2 Caps Top 10 Supercomputers. IEEE. Retrieved 9 December 2013.

Main article: Minicomputer

39.6 External links

39.3.4

Supercomputer

A supercomputer is supercially similar to a mainframe,

but is instead intended for extremely demanding computational tasks. As of November 2013, the fastest supercomputer in the world is the Tianhe-2, in Guangzhou,
China.[7]

Media related to Computer hardware at Wikimedia

Commons
Learning materials related to Computer hardware at
Wikiversity

The term supercomputer does not refer to a specic technology. Rather it indicates the fastest computers available
at any given time. In mid 2011, the fastest supercomputers boasted speeds exceeding one petaop, or 1000
trillion oating point operations per second. Super computers are fast but extremely costly so they are generally
used by large organizations to execute computationally
demanding tasks involving large data sets. Super computers typically run military and scientic applications.
Although they cost millions of dollars, they are also being
used for commercial applications where huge amounts of
data must be analyzed. For example, large banks employ
supercomputers to calculate the risks and returns of various investment strategies, and healthcare organizations
use them to analyze giant databases of patient data to determine optimal treatments for various diseases and problems incurring to our country.

39.4 See also

Open-source computing hardware

39.5 References
[1] Parts of computer. Microsoft. Retrieved 5 December
2013.
[2] Smither, Roger. Use of computers in audiovisual
archives. UNESCO. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
[3] von Neumann, John (1945). First Draft of a Report on
the EDVAC.
[4] Markgraf, Joey D. (2007). The Von Neumann bottleneck. Retrieved 24 August 2011.
[5] US B2B Channel sales reach nearly $62 Billion in 2013, by The NPD Group:
https:
//www.npd.com/wps/portal/npd/us/news/press-releases/
us-b2bchannel-sales-reach-nearly-62-billion-in-2013-according-to-the-npd-group/

Chapter 40

Personal computer
This article is about personal computers in general. For cable or a wireless connection. A personal computer may
the computer architecture commonly known as PC, see be a desktop computer or a laptop, netbook, tablet or a
IBM PC compatible.
handheld PC.
A personal computer is a general-purpose computer
Early computer owners usually had to write their own programs to do anything useful with the machines, which
even did not include an operating system. The very earliest microcomputers, equipped with a front panel, required hand-loading of a bootstrap program to load programs from external storage (paper tape, cassettes, or
eventually diskettes). Before very long, automatic booting from permanent read-only memory became universal.
Todays users have access to a wide range of commercial
software, freeware and free and open-source software,
which are provided in ready-to-run or ready-to-compile
form. Software for personal computers, such as applications and video games, are typically developed and distributed independently from the hardware or OS manufacturers, whereas software for many mobile phones
and other portable systems is approved and distributed
through a centralized online store.[1][2]
Since the early 1990s, Microsoft operating systems and
Intel hardware have dominated much of the personal
computer market, rst with MS-DOS and then with
An illustration of a contemporary personal desktop computer
Windows. Popular alternatives to Microsofts Windows
operating systems include Apples OS X and free openwhose size, capabilities and original sale price make it source Unix-like operating systems such as Linux and
useful for individuals, and is intended to be operated BSD. AMD provides the major alternative to Intels
directly by an end-user with no intervening computer processors.
operator. This contrasts with the batch processing or
time-sharing models that allowed larger, more expensive minicomputer and mainframe systems to be used by 40.1 History
many people, usually at the same time. A related term
is "PC" that was initially an acronym for personal computer, but later became used primarily to refer to the Main article: History of personal computers
ubiquitous Wintel platform.
Software applications for most personal computers The Programma 101 was the rst commercial "desktop
include, but are not limited to, word processing, personal computer", produced by the Italian company
spreadsheets, databases, web browsers and e-mail clients, Olivetti and invented by the Italian engineer Pier Giordigital media playback, games and myriad personal gio Perotto, inventor of the magnetic card system. The
productivity and special-purpose software applications. project started in 1962. It was launched at the 1964 New
began in 1965,
Modern personal computers often have connections to York Worlds Fair, and volume production
[3]
the
computer
retailing
for
$3,200.
the Internet, allowing access to the World Wide Web and
a wide range of other resources. Personal computers may NASA bought at least ten Programma 101s and used
be connected to a local area network (LAN), either by a them for the calculations for the 1969 Apollo 11 Moon
407

408
landing. Then ABC used the Programma 101 to predict
the presidential election of 1969, and the U.S. military
used the machine to plan their operations in the Vietnam
War. The Programma 101 was also used in schools, hospitals, government oces. This marked the beginning of
the era of the personal computer.
In 1968, Hewlett-Packard was ordered to pay about
$900,000 in royalties to Olivetti after their HewlettPackard 9100A was ruled to have copied some of the
solutions adopted in the Programma 101, including
the magnetic card, the architecture and other similar
components.[3]

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

drive, small CRT and full function keyboard. SCAMP
emulated an IBM 1130 minicomputer in order to run
APL\1130.[5] In 1973 APL was generally available only
on mainframe computers, and most desktop sized microcomputers such as the Wang 2200 or HP 9800 offered only BASIC. Because SCAMP was the rst to emulate APL\1130 performance on a portable, single user
computer, PC Magazine in 1983 designated SCAMP a
revolutionary concept and the worlds rst personal
computer.[5][6] This seminal, single user portable computer now resides in the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.. Successful demonstrations of the 1973
SCAMP prototype led to the IBM 5100 portable microcomputer launched in 1975 with the ability to be programmed in both APL and BASIC for engineers, analysts, statisticians and other business problem-solvers. In
the late 1960s such a machine would have been nearly as
large as two desks and would have weighed about half a
ton.[5]

The Soviet MIR series of computers was developed from

1965 to 1969 in a group headed by Victor Glushkov.
It was designed as a relatively small-scale computer for
use in engineering and scientic applications and contained a hardware implementation of a high-level programming language. Another innovative feature for that
time was the user interface combining a keyboard with a
monitor and light pen for correcting texts and drawing on Another seminal product in 1973 was the Xerox Alto, developed at Xeroxs Palo Alto Research Center (PARC),
screen.[4]
it had a graphical user interface (GUI) whch later served
In what was later to be called the Mother of All Demos, as inspiration for Apple Computer's Macintosh, and
SRI researcher Douglas Engelbart in 1968 gave a preview Microsoft's Windows operating system. Also in 1973
of what would become the staples of daily working life Hewlett Packard introduced fully BASIC programmable
in the 21st century: e-mail, hypertext, word processing, microcomputers that t entirely on top of a desk, invideo conferencing and the mouse. The demonstration cluding a keyboard, a small one-line display and printer.
required technical support sta and a mainframe time- The Wang 2200 microcomputer of 1973 had a fullsharing computer that were far too costly for individual size cathode ray tube (CRT) and cassette tape storage.[7]
business use at the time.
These were generally expensive specialized computers
sold for business or scientic uses. The introduction of
the microprocessor, a single chip with all the circuitry that
formerly occupied large cabinets, led to the proliferation
of personal computers after 1975.

Commodore PET in 1983 (at American Museum of Science and

Energy)

By the early 1970s, people in academic or research institutions had the opportunity for single-person use of a
computer system in interactive mode for extended durations, although these systems would still have been too
expensive to be owned by a single person.
In 1973 the IBM Los Gatos Scientic Center developed a portable computer prototype called SCAMP (Special Computer APL Machine Portable) based on the
IBM PALM processor with a Philips compact cassette

IBM Personal Computer XT in 1988

Early
personal
computersgenerally
called
microcomputerswere often sold in a kit form
and in limited volumes, and were of interest mostly
to hobbyists and technicians. Minimal programming
was done with toggle switches to enter instructions, and
output was provided by front panel lamps. Practical use
required adding peripherals such as keyboards, computer
displays, disk drives, and printers. Micral N was the
earliest commercial, non-kit microcomputer based on a

40.1. HISTORY

409

microprocessor, the Intel 8008. It was built starting in

1972 and about 90,000 units were sold.
In 1976 Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak sold the Apple
I computer circuit board, which was fully prepared and
contained about 30 chips. The Apple I computer diered
from the other hobby computers of the time at the beckoning of Paul Terrell owner of the Byte Shop who gave
Steve Jobs his rst purchase order for 50 Apple I computers only if the computers were assembled and tested and
not a kit computer so he would have computers to sell to
everyone, not just people that could assemble a computer
kit. The Apple I as delivered was still a kit computer as
it did not have a power supply, case, or keyboard as delivered to the Byte Shop.
IBM 5150, released in 1981
The rst successfully mass marketed personal computer
was the Commodore PET introduced in January 1977,
but back-ordered and not available until later in the year.
At the same time, the Apple II (usually referred to as the
Apple) was introduced[8] (June 1977), and the TRS80 from Tandy Corporation / Tandy Radio Shack in
summer 1977, delivered in September in a small num- unveiled by Commodore on July 23, 1985 at the Vivian
ber. Mass-market ready-assembled computers allowed a Beaumont Theater in the Lincoln Center in New York.
wider range of people to use computers, focusing more The Amiga 1000 featured a multitasking, windowing opon software applications and less on development of the erating system, color graphics with a 4096-color palette,
stereo sound, Motorola 68000 CPU, 256 kB RAM, and
processor hardware.
880 kB 3.5-inch disk drive, for US$1,295.[13]
Somewhat larger and more expensive systems (for example, running CP/M), or sometimes a home computer with
additional interfaces and devices, although still low-cost
compared with minicomputers and mainframes, were
aimed at oce and small business use, typically using
high resolution monitors capable of at least 80 column
text display, and often no graphical or color drawing capability.
Workstations were characterized by high-performance
processors and graphics displays, with large-capacity local disk storage, networking capability, and running under a multitasking operating system.
The 8 bit PMD 85 personal computer produced in 1985-1990 by
the Tesla company in the former socialist Czechoslovakia. This
computer was produced locally (in Pieany) due to a lack of
foreign currency with which to buy systems from the West.

During the early 1980s, home computers were further

developed for household use, with software for personal
productivity, programming and games. They typically
could be used with a television already in the home as the
computer display, with low-detail blocky graphics and a
limited color range, and text about 40 characters wide
by 25 characters tall. Sinclair Research,[9] a UK company, produced the ZX Series - the ZX80 (1980), ZX81
(1981), and the ZX Spectrum; the latter was introduced
in 1982, and totaled 8 million unit sold. Following came
the Commodore 64, totaled 17 million units sold.[10][11]
Another such computer, the NEC PC-98, sold more than
18 million units.[12] The revolutionary Amiga 1000 was

Eventually, due to the inuence of the IBM PC on

the personal computer market, personal computers and
home computers lost any technical distinction. Business
computers acquired color graphics capability and sound,
and home computers and game systems users used the
same processors and operating systems as oce workers. Mass-market computers had graphics capabilities
and memory comparable to dedicated workstations of a
few years before. Even local area networking, originally
a way to allow business computers to share expensive
mass storage and peripherals, became a standard feature
of personal computers used at home.
In 1982 The Computer was named Machine of the Year
by Time Magazine.
In the 2010s, several companies such as Hewlett-Packard
and Sony sold o their PC and laptop divisions. As a
result, the personal computer was declared dead several
times during this time.[14]

410

40.1.1

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

Market and sales

billion.[25] In 2002, 136.7 million PCs were shipped, at an

estimated value of $175 billion.[25] In 2000, 140.2 milSee also: Market share of personal computer vendors
lion personal computers were shipped, at an estimated
In 2001, 125 million personal computers were shipped in value of $226 billion.[25] Worldwide shipments of personal computers surpassed the 100-million mark in 1999,
growing to 113.5 million units from 93.3 million units in
1998.[26] In 1999, Asia had 14.1 million units shipped.[27]
As of June 2008, the number of personal computers in
use worldwide hit one billion,[28] while another billion is
expected to be reached by 2014. Mature markets like
the United States, Western Europe and Japan accounted
for 58% of the worldwide installed PCs. The emerging
markets were expected to double their installed PCs by
2012 and to take 70% of the second billion PCs. About
180 million computers (16% of the existing installed
base) were expected to be replaced and 35 million to be
dumped into landll in 2008. The whole installed base
grew 12% annually.[29][30]
Based on International Data Corporation (IDC) data for
Q2 2011, for the rst time China surpassed US in PC
shipments by 18.5 million and 17.7 million respectively.
This trend reects the rising of emerging markets as well
as the relative stagnation of mature regions.[31]

Personal computers worldwide in million distinguished by developed and developing world

comparison to 48,000 in 1977.[15] More than 500 million

personal computers were in use in 2002 and one billion
personal computers had been sold worldwide from the
mid-1970s up to this time. Of the latter gure, 75%
were professional or work related, while the rest were
sold for personal or home use. About 81.5% of personal
computers shipped had been desktop computers, 16.4%
laptops and 2.1% servers. The United States had received
38.8% (394 million) of the computers shipped, Europe
25% and 11.7% had gone to the Asia-Pacic region, the
fastest-growing market as of 2002. The second billion
was expected to be sold by 2008.[16] Almost half of all
the households in Western Europe had a personal computer and a computer could be found in 40% of homes in
United Kingdom, compared with only 13% in 1985.[17]
The global personal computer shipments were 350.9 million units in 2010,[18] 308.3 million units in 2009[19]
and 302.2 million units in 2008.[20][21] The shipments
were 264 million units in the year 2007, according to
iSuppli,[22] up 11.2% from 239 million in 2006.[23] In
2004, the global shipments were 183 million units, an
11.6% increase over 2003.[24] In 2003, 152.6 million
computers were shipped, at an estimated value of $175

In the developed world, there has been a vendor tradition to keep adding functions to maintain high prices of
personal computers. However, since the introduction of
the One Laptop per Child foundation and its low-cost
XO-1 laptop, the computing industry started to pursue
the price too. Although introduced only one year earlier,
there were 14 million netbooks sold in 2008.[32] Besides
the regular computer manufacturers, companies making
especially rugged versions of computers have sprung up,
oering alternatives for people operating their machines
in extreme weather or environments.[33]
Deloitte consulting rm predicted that in 2011,
smartphones and tablet computers as computing devices
would surpass the PCs sales.[36] As of 2013, worldwide
sales of PCs had begun to fall as many consumers
moved to tablets and smartphones for gifts and personal
use. Sales of 90.3 million units in the 4th quarter of
2012 represented a 4.9% decline from sales in the 4th
quarter of 2011.[37] Global PC sales fell sharply in the
rst quarter of 2013, according to IDC data. The 14%
year-over-year decline was the largest on record since the
rm began tracking in 1994, and double what analysts
had been expecting.[38][39] The decline of Q2 2013 PC
shipments marked the fth straight quarter of falling
sales.[40] This is horric news for PCs, remarked an
analyst. Its all about mobile computing now. We
have denitely reached the tipping point.[38] Data from
Gartner Inc. showed a similar decline for the same time
period.[38] Chinas Lenovo Group bucked the general
trend as strong sales to rst time buyers in the developing
world allowed the companys sales to stay at overall.[38]
Windows 8, which was designed to look similar to
tablet/smartphone software, was cited as a contributing

40.3. TYPES

411

factor in the decline of new PC sales. Unfortunately, it in Get a Mac advertisement campaign that run between
seems clear that the Windows 8 launch not only didnt 2006 to 2009, as well as its rival, I'm a PC campaign, that
provide a positive boost to the PC market, but appears to appeared on 2008.
have slowed the market, said IDC Vice President Bob
ODonnell.[39]
In August 2013, Credit Suisse published research ndings 40.3
that attributed around 75% of the operating prot share
of the PC industry to Microsoft (operating system) and 40.3.1
Intel (semiconductors).[41]

Types
Stationary

According to IDC, in 2013 PC shipments dropped by Workstation

9.8% as the greatest drop-ever in line with consumers
trends to use mobile devices.[42]

40.1.2

Average selling price

Selling prices of personal computers, unlike other consumer commodities, steadily declined due to lower costs
of production and manufacture. Capabilities of the computers also increased. In 1975, an Altair kit sold for only
around US $400, but required customers to solder components into circuit boards; peripherals required to interact with the system in alphanumeric form instead of
blinking lights would add another $2,000, and the resultant system was only of use to hobbyists.[43]
At their introduction in 1981, the US $1,795 price of the
Osborne 1 and its competitor Kaypro was considered an
attractive price point; these systems had text-only displays
and only oppy disks for storage. By 1982, Michael Dell
observed that a personal computer system selling at retail
for about $3,000 US was made of components that cost
the dealer about $600; typical gross margin on a com- Sun SPARCstation 1+ from the early 1990s, with a 25 MHz RISC
puter unit was around $1,000.[44] The total value of per- processor
sonal computer purchases in the US in 1983 was about
$4 billion, comparable to total sales of pet food. By late Main article: Workstation
1998, the average selling price of personal computer systems in the United States had dropped below $1,000.[45]
A workstation is a high-end personal computer designed
For Microsoft Windows systems, the average selling price for technical, mathematical, or scientic applications. In(ASP) showed a decline in 2008/2009, possibly due to tended primarily to be used by one person at a time, they
low-cost netbooks, drawing $569 for desktop computers are commonly connected to a local area network and run
and $689 for laptops at U.S. retail in August 2008. In multi-user operating systems. Workstations are used for
2009, ASP had further fallen to $533 for desktops and to tasks such as computer-aided design, drafting and model$602 for notebooks by January and to $540 and $560 in ing, computation-intensive scientic and engineering calFebruary.[46] According to research rm NPD, the aver- culations, image processing, architectural modeling, and
age selling price of all Windows portable PCs has fallen computer graphics for animation and motion picture vifrom $659 in October 2008 to $519 in October 2009.[47] sual eects.[52]

40.2 Terminology
PC is an initialism for personal computer. However, it is used in a dierent sense: It means a personal computers with an Intel x86-compatible processor
running Microsoft Windows (sometimes called Wintel).
PC is used in contrast with Mac, an Apple Macintosh computer.[48][49][50][51] This sense of the word is used

Desktop computer
Main article: Desktop computer
Prior to the widespread usage of PCs, a computer that
could t on a desk was remarkably small, leading to the
desktop nomenclature. More recently, the phrase usually indicates a particular style of computer case. Desktop computers come in a variety of styles ranging from
large vertical tower cases to small models which can be

412

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

Nettop
Main article: Nettop
A subtype of desktops, called nettops, was introduced
by Intel in February 2008, characterized by low cost and
lean functionality. A similar subtype of laptops (or notebooks) is the netbook, described below. The product line
features the new Intel Atom processor, which specically
enables nettops to consume less power and t into small
enclosures.

Home theater PC
Main article: Home theater PC
A home theater PC (HTPC) is a convergence device

A Dell OptiPlex desktop computer

tucked behind an LCD monitor. In this sense, the term

desktop refers specically to a horizontally oriented
case, usually intended to have the display screen placed
on top to save desk space. Most modern desktop computers have separate screens and keyboards.

Gaming computer

Main article: Gaming computer

A gaming computer is a standard desktop computer that

typically has high-performance hardware, such as a more
powerful video card, processor and memory, in order
to handle the requirements of demanding video games,
which are often simply called PC games. A number
of companies, such as Alienware, manufacture prebuilt
gaming computers, and companies such as Razer and
Logitech market mice, keyboards and headsets geared toward gamers.

An Antec Fusion V2 home theater PC, with a keyboard placed

on top of it.

that combines the functions of a personal computer and

a digital video recorder. It is connected to a TV set or an
appropriately sized computer display, and is often used
as a digital photo viewer, music and video player, TV receiver, and digital video recorder. HTPCs are also referred to as media center systems or media servers. The
general goal in a HTPC is usually to combine many or all
components of a home theater setup into one box. More
recently, HTPCs gained the ability to connect to services
providing on-demand movies and TV shows.

Further information: All-in-one computer HTPCs can be purchased pre-congured with the required hardware and software needed to add television
programming to the PC, or can be cobbled together out
Single-unit PCs (also known as all-in-one PCs) are a sub- of discrete components, what is commonly done with
type of desktop computers that combine the monitor and software support from MythTV, Windows Media Center,
case of the computer within a single unit. The monitor of- GB-PVR, SageTV, Famulent or LinuxMCE.
ten utilizes a touchscreen as an optional method of user
input, but separate keyboards and mice are normally still
included. The inner components of the PC are often located directly behind the monitor and many of such PCs 40.3.2 Portable
are built similarly to laptops.
Single unit

40.3. TYPES
Laptop
Main article: Laptop
A laptop computer or simply laptop, also called a note-

413
below. Netbooks are sometimes considered as belonging
to this category, though they are sometimes separated into
a category of their own (see below).
Desktop replacement Main article: Desktop replacement computer
A desktop replacement computer (DTR) is a personal

A modern laptop computer

book computer, is a small personal computer designed for

portability. Usually, all of the hardware and interfaces
needed to operate a laptop, such as the graphics card, audio devices or USB ports (previously parallel and serial
ports), are built into a single unit. Laptops contain highcapacity batteries that can power the device for extensive
periods of time, enhancing portability. Once the battery
charge is depleted, it will have to be recharged through a
power outlet. In the interests of saving power, weight and
space, laptop graphics cards are in many cases integrated
into the CPU or chipset and use system RAM, resulting
in reduced graphics performance when compared to an
equivalent desktop machine. For this reason, desktop or
gaming computers are usually preferred to laptop PCs for
gaming purposes.

An Acer Aspire desktop replacement laptop

computer that provides the full capabilities of a desktop

computer while remaining mobile. Such computers are
often actually larger, bulkier laptops. Because of their
increased size, this class of computers usually includes
more powerful components and a larger display than generally found in smaller portable computers, and can have
a relatively limited battery capacity or none at all in some
cases. Some use a limited range of desktop components to provide better performance at the expense of
battery life. Desktop replacement computers are sometimes called desknotes, as a portmanteau of words deskOne of the drawbacks of laptops is that, due to the size top and notebook, though the term is also applied to
and conguration of components, usually relatively lit- desktop replacement computers in general.[53]
tle can be done to upgrade the overall computer from
its original design. Internal upgrades are either not
manufacturer-recommended, can damage the laptop if Netbook
done with poor care or knowledge, or in some cases impossible, making the desktop PC more modular. Some Main article: Netbook
internal upgrades, such as memory and hard disk drive Netbooks, also called mini notebooks or subnotebooks,
upgrades are often easily performed, while a display or are a subgroup of laptops[54] acting as a category of small,
keyboard upgrade is usually impossible. Just as desk- lightweight and inexpensive laptop computers suited for
tops, laptops also have the same possibilities for con- general computing tasks and accessing web-based apnecting to a wide variety of devices, including external plications. They are often marketed as companion
displays, mice, cameras, storage devices and keyboards, devices, with an intention to augment other ways in
which may be attached externally through USB ports and which a user can access computer resources.[54] Walt
other less common ports such as external video.
Mossberg called them a relatively new category of
[55]
A subtype of notebooks, called subnotebook, has most small, light, minimalist and cheap laptops. By August
nothing more than smaller,
of the features of a standard laptop computer, but with 2009, CNET called netbooks
[54]
cheaper
notebooks.
smaller physical dimensions. Subnotebooks are larger
than hand-held computers, and usually run full versions of
desktop or laptop operating systems. Ultra-Mobile PCs
(UMPC) are usually considered subnotebooks, or more
specically, subnotebook tablet PCs, which are described

Initially, the primary dening characteristic of netbooks

was the lack of an optical disc drive, requiring it to be a
separate external device. This has become less important
as ash memory devices have gradually increased in ca-

414

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

An HP netbook

pacity, replacing the writable optical disc (e.g. CD-RW, HP Compaq tablet PC with rotating/removable keyboard
DVD-RW) as a transportable storage medium.
At their inception in late 2007as smaller notebooks optimized for low weight and low cost[56] netbooks omitted key features (e.g., the optical drive), featured smaller
screens and keyboards, and oered reduced specications and computing power. Over the course of their evolution, netbooks have ranged in their screen sizes from
below ve inches[57] to over 13 inches,[58] with weights
around ~1 kg (2-3 pounds). Often signicantly less expensive than other laptops,[59] by mid-2009 netbooks had
been oered to users free of charge, with an extended
service contract purchase of a cellular data plan.[60]

overshadowed by the release of Apples iPad; following

in its footsteps, most modern tablets use slate designs
and run mobile operating systems such as Android and
iOS, giving them functionality similar to smartphones.
In response, Microsoft built its Windows 8 operating
system to better accommodate these new touch-oriented
devices.[61]

In the short period since their appearance, netbooks have Ultra-mobile PC

grown in size and features, converging with new smaller
and lighter notebooks. By mid-2009, CNET noted that Main article: Ultra-mobile PC
the specs are so similar that the average shopper would The ultra-mobile PC (UMPC) is a specication for
likely be confused as to why one is better than the other,
noting the only conclusion is that there really is no distinction between the devices.[54]

Tablet
Main article: Tablet computer
A tablet is a type of portable PC that de-emphasizes
the use of traditional input devices (such as a mouse or
keyboard) by using a touchscreen display, which can be
controlled using either a stylus pen or nger. Some tablets
may use a hybrid or convertible design, oering a
keyboard that can either be removed as an attachment, A Samsung Q1 ultra-mobile PC
or a screen that can be rotated and folded directly over
top the keyboard.
small-conguration tablet PCs. It was developed as
Some tablets may run a traditional PC operating system a joint development exercise by Microsoft, Intel and
such as Windows or Linux; Microsoft attempted to enter Samsung, among others. Current UMPCs typically feathe tablet market in 2002 with its Microsoft Tablet PC ture the Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, or
specications, for tablets and convertible laptops running Linux operating system, and low-voltage Intel Atom or
Windows XP. However, Microsofts early attempts were VIA C7-M processors.

40.4. HARDWARE
Pocket PC

415

40.4 Hardware

Main article: Pocket PC

A pocket PC is a hardware specication for a handheld-

3
4
10

5
9

12

11

15
14

7
1

16

13

An exploded view of a modern personal computer and peripherals:

1. Scanner
2. CPU (Microprocessor)
3. Memory (RAM)
4. Expansion cards (graphics cards, etc.)
5. Power supply
6. Optical disc drive
7. Storage (Hard disk or SSD)
8. Motherboard
9. Speakers
10. Monitor
11. System software
12. Application software
13. Keyboard
14. Mouse
15. External hard disk
16. Printer
An O2 pocket PC

sized computer (personal digital assistant, PDA) that runs

the Microsoft Windows Mobile operating system. It may
have the capability to run an alternative operating system
like NetBSD or Linux. Pocket PCs have many of the
capabilities of modern desktop PCs.

Main article: Personal computer hardware

Computer hardware is a comprehensive term for all physical parts of a computer, as distinguished from the data
it contains or operates on, and the software that provides instructions for the hardware to accomplish tasks.
The boundary between hardware and software might be
Numerous applications are available for handhelds ad- slightly blurry, with the existence of rmware that is softhering to the Microsoft Pocket PC specication, many ware built into the hardware.
of which are freeware. Some of these devices also
include mobile phone features, actually representing Mass-market consumer computers use highly standarda smartphone. Microsoft-compliant Pocket PCs can ized components and so are simple for an end user to asalso be used with many other add-ons like GPS re- semble into a working system. A typical desktop comceivers, barcode readers, RFID readers and cameras. In puter consists of a computer case that holds the power
2007, with the release of Windows Mobile 6, Microsoft supply, motherboard, hard disk drive, and often an optical
dropped the name Pocket PC in favor of a new naming disc drive. External devices such as a computer monitor
scheme: devices without an integrated phone are called or visual display unit, keyboard, and a pointing device are
Windows Mobile Classic instead of Pocket PC, while de- usually found in a personal computer.
vices with an integrated phone and a touch screen are The motherboard connects all processor, memory and
peripheral devices together. The RAM, graphics card
called Windows Mobile Professional.[62]

416

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

and processor are in most cases mounted directly onto

the motherboard. The central processing unit (microprocessor chip) plugs into a CPU socket, while the memory
modules plug into corresponding memory sockets. Some
motherboards have the video display adapter, sound and
other peripherals integrated onto the motherboard, while
others use expansion slots for graphics cards, network
cards, or other I/O devices. The graphics card or sound
card may employ a break out box to keep the analog parts
away from the electromagnetic radiation inside the computer case. Disk drives, which provide mass storage, are
connected to the motherboard with one cable, and to the
power supply through another cable. Usually, disk drives
are mounted in the same case as the motherboard; expansion chassis are also made for additional disk storage.
For extended amounts of data, a tape drive can be used or
extra hard disks can be put together in an external case.

of a computer case is usually determined by the conguration of the motherboard that it is designed to accommodate, since this is the largest and most central component
of most computers.
The most popular style for desktop computers is ATX, although microATX and similar layouts became very popular for a variety of uses. Companies like Shuttle Inc. and
AOpen have popularized small cases, for which FlexATX
is the most common motherboard size.

40.4.2 Power supply unit

Main article: Power supply unit (computer)
The power supply unit (PSU) converts general-purpose

The keyboard and the mouse are external devices plugged

into the computer through connectors on an I/O panel on
the back of the computer case. The monitor is also connected to the I/O panel, either through an onboard port
on the motherboard, or a port on the graphics card.
Capabilities of the personal computers hardware can
sometimes be extended by the addition of expansion
cards connected via an expansion bus. Standard peripheral buses often used for adding expansion cards in
personal computers include PCI, PCI Express (PCIe),
and AGP (a high-speed PCI bus dedicated to graphics
adapters, found in older computers). Most modern personal computers have multiple physical PCI Express expansion slots, with some of the having PCI slots as well.

40.4.1

Computer case

Computer power supply unit with top cover removed.

mains AC electricity to direct current (DC) for the other

Main article: Computer case
A computer case is an enclosure that contains the main components of the computer. The rated output capacity of a PSU should usually be about 40% greater than
the calculated system power consumption needs obtained
by adding up all the system components. This protects
against overloading the supply, and guards against performance degradation.

40.4.3 Processor
Main article: Central processing unit
The central processing unit, or CPU, is a part of a computer that executes instructions of a software program. In
newer PCs, the CPU contains over a million transistors
in one integrated circuit chip called the microprocessor.
In most cases, the microprocessor plugs directly into the
motherboard. The chip generates so much heat that the
A stripped ATX case lying on its side.
PC builder is required to attach a special cooling device
components of a computer. They are usually constructed to its surface; thus, modern CPUs are equipped with a fan
from steel or aluminum combined with plastic, although attached via heat sink.
other materials such as wood have been used. Cases are IBM PC compatible computers use an x86-compatible
available in dierent sizes and shapes; the size and shape microprocessor, manufactured by Intel, AMD, VIA

40.4. HARDWARE

417
peripheral buses and physical connectors for expansion
purposes. Sometimes a secondary daughter board is connected to the motherboard to provide further expandability or to satisfy space constraints.

40.4.5 Main memory

Main article: Primary storage
A PCs main memory is a fast primary storage device
AMD Athlon 64 X2 CPU.

Technologies or Transmeta. Apple Macintosh computers were initially built with the Motorola 680x0 family
of processors, then switched to the PowerPC series; in
1GB DDR SDRAM PC-3200 module
2006, they switched to x86-compatible processors made
by Intel.
that is directly accessible by the CPU, and is used to store
the currently executing program and immediately needed
data. PCs use semiconductor random access memory
40.4.4 Motherboard
(RAM) of various kinds such as DRAM, SDRAM or
SRAM as their primary storage. Which exact kind is
Main article: Motherboard
used depends on cost/performance issues at any particThe motherboard, also referred to as system board or ular time.
Main memory is much faster than mass storage devices like hard disk drives or optical discs, but is usually
volatile, meaning that it does not retain its contents (instructions or data) in the absence of power, and is much
more expensive for a given capacity than is most mass
storage. As a result, main memory is generally not suitable for long-term or archival data storage.

40.4.6 Hard disk

Main article: Hard disk drive
Mass storage devices store programs and data even when

A motherboard without processor, memory and expansion cards,

cables

main board, is the primary circuit board within a personal computer, and other major system components plug
directly into it or via a cable. A motherboard contains
a microprocessor, the CPU supporting circuitry (mostly
integrated circuits) that provide the interface between
memory and input/output peripheral circuits, main memory, and facilities for initial setup of the computer imme- A Western Digital 250 GB hard disk drive
diately after power-on (often called boot rmware or, in
IBM PC compatible computers, a BIOS or UEFI).
the power is o; they do require power to perform read
In many portable and embedded personal computers, the and write functions during usage. Although ash memory
motherboard houses nearly all of the PCs core compo- has dropped in cost, the prevailing form of mass storage
nents. Often a motherboard will also contain one or more in personal computers is still the hard disk drive.

418
If the mass storage controller provides additional ports
for expandability, a PC may also be upgraded by the addition of extra hard disk or optical disc drives. For example, BD-ROMs, DVD-RWs, and various optical disc
recorders may all be added by the user to certain PCs.
Standard internal storage device connection interfaces are
PATA, Serial ATA and SCSI.

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

ics adapter or video adapterprocesses the graphics output from the motherboard and transmits it to the display.
It is an essential part of modern multimedia-enriched
computing. On older models, and today on budget models, graphics circuitry may be integrated with the motherboard, but for modern and exible machines, they are
connected by the PCI, AGP, or PCI Express interface.

Solid state drives (SSDs) are a much faster (but also a When the IBM PC was introduced, most existing
much more expensive) replacement for traditional me- business-oriented personal computers used text-only dischanical hard disk drives.
play adapters and had no graphics capability. Home computers at that time had graphics compatible with television signals, but with low resolution by modern standards
40.4.7 Visual display unit
owing to the limited memory available to the eight-bit
processors available at the time.
Main article: Visual display unit
A visual display unit, computer monitor or just display,
is a piece of electrical equipment, usually separate from
the computer case, which displays visual images without 40.4.9 Keyboard
producing a permanent computer record. A display device is usually either a CRT or some form of at panel Main article: Keyboard (computing)
such as a TFT LCD. Multi-monitor setups are also quite In computing, a keyboard is an arrangement of butcommon.
The display unit houses an electronic circuitry that generates its picture from signals received from the computer. Within the computer, either integral to the motherboard or plugged into it as an expansion card, there
is pre-processing circuitry to convert the microprocessors output data to a format compatible with the display units circuitry. The images from computer monitors originally contained only text, but as graphical user
interfaces emerged and became common, they began to
display more images and multimedia content.
A Model M IBM computer keyboard from the early 1980s.
The term monitor is also used, particularly by tech- Commonly called the Clicky Keyboard due to its buckling spring
nicians in broadcasting television, where a picture of key spring design, which gives the keyboard its iconic 'Click'
the broadcast data is displayed to a highly standardized sound with each keystroke.
reference monitor for condence checking purposes.
tons that each correspond to a function, letter, or number. They are the primary devices used for inputting
40.4.8 Video card
text. In most cases, they contain an array of keys specifically organized with the corresponding letters, numbers,
Main article: Video card
The video cardotherwise called a graphics card, graph- and functions printed or engraved on the button. They
are generally designed around an operators language, and
many dierent versions for dierent languages exist.

An ATI Radeon video card

In English, the most common layout is the QWERTY layout, which was originally used in typewriters. They have
evolved over time, and have been modied for use in computers with the addition of function keys, number keys,
arrow keys, and keys specic to an operating system. Often, specic functions can be achieved by pressing multiple keys at once or in succession, such as inputting characters with accents or opening a task manager. Programs
use keyboard shortcuts very dierently and all use dierent keyboard shortcuts for dierent program specic operations, such as refreshing a web page in a web browser
or selecting all text in a word processor.

40.4. HARDWARE

40.4.10

Mouse

419

40.4.11 Other components

Main article: Mouse (computing)

A computer mouse is a small, slideable device that users

A selection of computer mice built between 1986 and 2007

hold and slide around to point at, click on, and sometimes
drag objects on screen in a graphical user interface using
an on-screen pointer. Almost all modern personal computers have mice. It may be plugged into a computers
rear mouse socket, or as a USB device, or, more recently,
A proper ergonomic design of a personal computer workplace is
may be connected wirelessly via an USB dongle or Bluenecessary to prevent repetitive strain injuries, which can develop
tooth link.
over time and can lead to long-term disability.[63]
In the past, mice had a single button that users could press
down on the device to click on whatever the pointer on
the screen was hovering over. Modern mice have two,
three or more buttons, providing a right click function
button on the mouse, which performs a secondary action
on a selected object, and a scroll wheel, which users can
rotate using their ngers to scroll up or down. The scroll
wheel can also be pressed down, and therefore be used as
a third button. Some mouse wheels may be tilted from
side to side to allow sideways scrolling. Dierent programs make use of these functions dierently, and may
scroll horizontally by default with the scroll wheel, open
dierent menus with dierent buttons, etc. These functions may be also user-dened through software utilities.

All computers require either xed or removable storage

for their operating system, programs and user-generated
material. Early home computers used compact audio cassettes for le storage; these were at the time a very low
cost storage solution, but were displaced by oppy disk
drives when manufacturing costs dropped, by the mid1980s.

Initially, the 5.25-inch and 3.5-inch oppy drives were

the principal forms of removable storage for backup of
user les and distribution of software. As memory sizes
increased, the capacity of the oppy did not keep pace;
the Zip drive and other higher-capacity removable media were introduced but never became as prevalent as the
Mice traditionally detected movement and communi- oppy drive.
cated with the computer with an internal mouse ball,
and used optical encoders to detect rotation of the ball By the late 1990s, the optical drive, in CD and later
and tell the computer where the mouse has moved. How- DVD and Blu-ray Disc forms, became the main method
ever, these systems were subject to low durability, accu- for software distribution, and writeable media provided
racy and required internal cleaning. Modern mice use op- means for data backup and le interchange. As a retical technology to directly trace movement of the surface sult, oppy drives became uncommon in desktop perwere dropped
under the mouse and are much more accurate, durable sonal computers since about 2000, and
[note 1]
from
many
laptop
systems
even
earlier.
and almost maintenance free. They work on a wider variety of surfaces and can even operate on walls, ceilings A second generation of tape recorders was provided
when videocassette recorders were pressed into service
or other non-horizontal surfaces.

420

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

as backup media for larger disk drives. All these systems

were less reliable and slower than purpose-built magnetic tape drives. Such tape drives were uncommon in
consumer-type personal computers but were a necessity
in business or industrial use.
Interchange of data such as photographs from digital
cameras is greatly expedited by installation of a card
reader, which is often compatible with several forms of
ash memory devices. It is usually faster and more convenient to move large amounts of data by removing the
card from the mobile device, instead of communicating
with the mobile device through a USB interface.
A USB ash drive performs much of the data transfer and
backup functions formerly done with oppy drives, Zip
disks and other devices. Mainstream operating systems
for personal computers provide built-in support for USB
ash drives, allowing interchange even between computers with dierent processors and operating systems. The
compact size and lack of moving parts or dirt-sensitive
media, combined with low cost and high capacity, have
made USB ash drives a popular and useful accessory for
any personal computer user.

A screenshot of the OpenOce.org Writer software

ern personal computer may have signicant knowledge

of the operating environment and application programs,
but is not necessarily interested in programming nor even
able to write programs for the computer. Therefore,
most software written primarily for personal computers
tends to be designed with simplicity of use, or "userfriendliness" in mind. However, the software industry
continuously provide a wide range of new products for
use in personal computers, targeted at both the expert and
The operating system can be located on any storage, but
the non-expert user.
is typically installed on a hard disk or solid-state drive.
A Live CD represents the concept of running an operating system directly from a CD. While this is slow com- 40.5.1 Operating system
pared to storing the operating system on a hard disk drive,
it is typically used for installation of operating systems, Main article: Operating system
demonstrations, system recovery, or other special pur- See also: Usage share of operating systems
poses. Large ash memory is currently more expensive
than hard disk drives of similar size (as of mid-2014) but
are starting to appear in laptop computers because of their An operating system (OS) manages computer resources
and provides programmers with an interface used to aclow weight, small size and low power requirements.
cess those resources. An operating system processes sysComputer communications involve internal modem tem data and user input, and responds by allocating and
cards, modems, network adapter cards, and routers. managing tasks and internal system resources as a serCommon peripherals and adapter cards include headsets, vice to users and programs of the system. An operating
joysticks, microphones, printers, scanners, sound adapter system performs basic tasks such as controlling and allocards (as a separate card rather than located on the moth- cating memory, prioritizing system requests, controlling
erboard), speakers and webcams.
input and output devices, facilitating computer networking, and managing les.

40.5 Software

Common contemporary desktop operating systems are

Microsoft Windows, OS X, Linux, Solaris and FreeBSD.
Windows, OS X, and Linux all have server and personal
variants. With the exception of Microsoft Windows, the
designs of each of the them were inspired by or directly
inherited from the Unix operating system, which was developed at Bell Labs beginning in the late 1960s and
spawned the development of numerous free and proprietary operating systems.

Main article: Computer software

Computer software is any kind of computer program,
procedure, or documentation that performs some task on
a computer system.[64] The term includes application software such as word processors that perform productive
tasks for users, system software such as operating systems
that interface with computer hardware to provide the necessary services for application software, and middleware
that controls and co-ordinates distributed systems.
Microsoft Windows

Software applications are common for word processing,

Internet browsing, Internet faxing, e-mail and other digi- Main article: Microsoft Windows
tal messaging, multimedia playback, playing of computer
game, and computer programming. The user of a mod- Microsoft Windows is the collective brand name of sev-

40.5. SOFTWARE
eral operating systems made by Microsoft. Microsoft rst
introduced an operating environment named Windows in
November 1985,[65] as an add-on to MS-DOS and in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces
(GUIs)[66][67] generated by Apples 1984 introduction of
the Macintosh.[68] The most recent client and server version of Windows are Windows 8.1 and Windows Server
2012 R2, respectively.

421
Novell, Oracle Corporation, Red Hat, Canonical Ltd.
and Sun Microsystems. It is used as an operating system for a wide variety of computer hardware, including
desktop computers, netbooks, supercomputers,[71] video
game systems, such as the PlayStation 3 (until this option was removed remotely by Sony in 2010[72] ), several arcade games, and embedded devices such as mobile
phones, portable media players, routers, and stage lighting systems.

OS X

40.5.2 Applications
Main article: OS X
Main article: Application software
OS X (formerly Mac OS X) is a line of operating sys- Generally, a computer user uses application software to
tems developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc.. OS X
is the successor to the original Mac OS, which had been
Apples primary operating system since 1984. OS X is a
Unix-based graphical operating system, and Snow Leopard, Leopard, Lion, Mountain Lion, and the new Mavericks are version titles. The most recent version of OS X
is entitled OS X Yosemite.
On iPhone, iPad and iPod, versions of iOS (which is an
OS X derivative) are available from iOS 1.0 to the recent
iOS 8.
Linux
Main article: Linux
Linux is a family of Unix-like computer operating sys- A screenshot of GIMP, which is a raster graphics editor
carry out a specic task. System software supports applications and provides common services such as memory
management, network connectivity and device drivers, all
of which may be used by applications but are not directly
of interest to the end user. A simplied analogy in the
world of hardware would be the relationship of an electric light bulb (an application) to an electric power generation plant (a system): the power plant merely generates
electricity, not itself of any real use until harnessed to an
application like the electric light that performs a service
that benets the user.
A Linux distribution running KDE Plasma Desktop.

tems. Linux is one of the most prominent examples of

free software and open source development: typically
all underlying source code can be freely modied, used,
and redistributed by anyone.[69] The name Linux comes
from the Linux kernel, started in 1991 by Linus Torvalds. The systems utilities and libraries usually come
from the GNU operating system, announced in 1983 by
Richard Stallman. The GNU contribution is the basis for
the alternative name GNU/Linux.[70]

Typical examples of software applications are word processors, spreadsheets, and media players. Multiple applications bundled together as a package are sometimes
referred to as an application suite. Microsoft Oce and
OpenOce.org, which bundle together a word processor, a spreadsheet, and several other discrete applications,
are typical examples. The separate applications in a suite
usually have a user interface that has some commonality
making it easier for the user to learn and use each application. Often, they may have some capability to interact
with each other in ways benecial to the user; for example, a spreadsheet might be able to be embedded in a word
processor document even though it had been created in
the separate spreadsheet application.

Known for its use in servers, with the LAMP application

stack as one of prominent examples, Linux is supported
by corporations such as Dell, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, End-user development tailors systems to meet the users

422

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

specic needs. User-written software include spreadsheet

templates, word processor macros, scientic simulations,
graphics and animation scripts; even email lters are a
kind of user software. Users create this software themselves and often overlook how important it is.

absence of comprehensive national legislation or regulation on the export and import of electronic waste, the
Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition and BAN (Basel Action
Network) teamed up with 32 electronic recyclers in the
US and Canada to create an e-steward program for the orderly disposal of manufacturers and customers electronic
waste. The Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition founded the
Electronics TakeBack Coalition, a coalition that advo40.5.3 Gaming
cates for the production of environmentally friendly prodPC gaming is popular among the high-end PC market. ucts. The TakeBack Coalition works with policy makers,
Gaming platforms like Steam (software) and GOG.com recyclers, and smart businesses to get manufacturers to
(as well as competitive e-sports titles like League of Leg- take full responsibility of their products.
ends) are largely responsible for PC systems overtaking There are organizations opposing EPR regulation, such
console revenue in 2013.[73]
as the Reason Foundation. They see aws in two principal tenants of EPR: First EPR relies on the idea that if
the manufacturers have to pay for environmental harm,
they will adapt their practices. Second EPR assumes the
40.6 Toxicity
current design practices are environmentally inecient.
Toxic chemicals found in computer hardware include The Reason Foundation claims that manufacturers natulead, mercury, cadmium, chromium, plastic (PVC), and rally move toward reduced material and energy use.
barium. In a raw materials breakdown, computer is about
17% lead, copper, zinc, mercury, and cadmium; 23% is
40.7 See also
plastic, 14% is aluminum, and 20% is iron.
Lead is found in a cathode ray tube (CRT) display, and
on all of the printed circuit boards and most expansion
cards. Mercury is located in the screens uorescent lamp,
in the laser light generators in the optical disk drive, and
in the round, silver-looking batteries on the motherboard.
Plastic is found mostly in the housing of the computation
and display circuitry.
While daily end-users are not exposed to these toxic elements, the danger arises during the computer recycling
process, which involves manually breaking down hardware and leads to the exposure of a measurable amount
of lead or mercury. A measurable amount of lead or mercury can easily cause serious brain damage or ruin drinking water supplies. Computer recycling is best handled
by the electronic waste (e-waste) industry, and kept segregated from the general community dump.

40.6.1

Electronic waste regulation

Main article: Computer recycling

Computer case
Computer virus
Desktop computer
Desktop replacement computer
e-waste
IBM 5100
Information and communication technologies for
development
Laptop
List of computer system manufacturers
Market share of personal computer vendors
Personal Computer Museum
Portable computer

Personal computers have become a large contributor to

the 50 million tons of discarded electronic waste that
is being generated annually, according to the United
Nations Environment Programme. To address the
electronic waste issue aecting developing countries and
the environment, extended producer responsibility (EPR)
acts have been implemented in various countries and
states.[74]
Organizations, such as the Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition, Basel Action Network, Toxics Link India, SCOPE,
and Greenpeace have contributed to these eorts. In the

Public computer
Quiet PC
PC game

40.8 Notes
[1] The NeXT computer introduced in 1988 did not include
a oppy drive, which at the time was unusual.

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[74] Nash, Jennifer; Bosso, Christopher (2013). Extended

Producer Responsibility in the United States: Full Speed
Ahead?". Journal of Industrial Ecology 17 (2 - RPP-201304): 175185. doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00572.x.
Retrieved August 23, 2014.

[55] Walt Mossberg (August 6, 2009). New Netbook Oers

Long Battery Life and Room to Type. The Wall Street
Journal Online, Personal Technology.
[56] Cheap PCs Weigh on Microsoft. Business Technologies, The Wall Street Journal. December 8, 2008.
[57] UMID Netbook Only 4.8". Elitezoom.com. Retrieved
2010-10-14.

40.10 Further reading

[58] CES 2009 - MSI Unveils the X320 MacBook Air

Clone Netbook. Futurelooks.com. 2009-01-07. Retrieved 2010-10-14.

Accidental Empires: How the boys of Silicon Valley

make their millions, battle foreign competition, and
still can't get a date, Robert X. Cringely, AddisonWesley Publishing, (1992), ISBN 0-201-57032-7

[59] Netbook Trends and Solid-State Technology Forecast.

pricegrabber.com. p. 7. Retrieved 2009-01-28.

PC Magazine, Vol. 2, No. 6, November 1983,

SCAMP: The Missing Link in the PCs Past?

40.11. EXTERNAL LINKS

40.11 External links

How Stu Works pages:
Dissecting a PC
How PCs Work
How to Upgrade Your Computer
How to Build a Computer

425

426

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

40.12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

40.12.1

Text

History of personal computers Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20personal%20computers?oldid=643305035 Contributors: William Avery, Maury Markowitz, Edward, Ezra Wax, Mahjongg, Andrewman327, Dpbsmith, Blainster, Alan Liefting,
DavidCary, D6, Discospinster, Pixel8, YUL89YYZ, Ylee, Kross, John Vandenberg, Alison9, Wtshymanski, Amorymeltzer, Firsfron,
Woohookitty, Cuvtixo, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Jake Wartenberg, Ground Zero, Bgwhite, Wavelength, Folletto, Grafen, RazorICE, Tony1,
Mardus, SmackBot, Jagged 85, Thomas144, Hmains, Chris the speller, CAFxX, Mr.Z-man, CmdrObot, W guice, Kozuch, Epbr123,
Golgofrinchian, NapoliRoma, Fetchcomms, Warman17, Geniac, Theroadislong, GermanX, AVRS, Sydric, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Jesant13, Zootal, Vanished user g454XxNpUVWvxzlr, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Olegwiki, Splime200, Squids and Chips, SkyIsFalling,
Trex21, Philip Trueman, Enviroboy, Monty845, Jerryobject, Lightmouse, Alatari, Thatguykalem, Elassint, ClueBot, The Thing That
Should Not Be, By, Liopleurodon93, Rilak, LizardJr8, Bob bobato, Excirial, Alejandrocaro35, A plague of rainbows, Vybr8, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Mortense, DOI bot, Joshwashburn, Kongr43gpen, SpellingBot, Fluernutter, MrOllie, Tide rolls, Fryed-peach, Max137,
Yobot, Bunnyhop11, Banjohunter, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Maniadis, Apollo, LilHelpa, Capricorn42, AbigailAbernathy, Sci-Fi
Dude, J04n, Personalcomputer, Yoganate79, Chaheel Riens, Ddawkins73, FrescoBot, Magnagr, Wolfshades, Viralmeme, Pinethicket, I
dream of horses, LittleWink, Jonesey95, RedBot, Tim1357, Fox Mcloud, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, Larry.europe, ALibrarywik, Wikipelli, ZroBot, John Cline, Music Sorter, Thine Antique Pen, Pun, ChuispastonBot, Evan-Amos, ClueBot NG, Matthiaspaul,
Helpful Pixie Bot, 2001:db8, Toanin, Kangaroopower, BattyBot, Khazar2, K7L, Frosty, Wywin, Passengerpigeon, G PViB, WHOLY
SHIT-DAWG, Genetikalpha, Monkbot, Welcome1To1The1Jungle and Anonymous: 114
History of computing Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20computing?oldid=645412327 Contributors: NathanBeach,
SimonP, Youandme, Michael Hardy, JakeVortex, Lexor, Angela, Cratbro, Ike9898, Sbwoodside, Dysprosia, Greenrd, Jake Nelson, Omegatron, Bevo, Robbot, Fredrik, Academic Challenger, Blainster, Patcat88, Ancheta Wis, Tom harrison, Fastssion, Everyking, D3, Gdr,
1297, Sam Hocevar, Klemen Kocjancic, Gronky, Sergei Frolov, ESkog, Elwikipedista, Shanes, Causa sui, Viriditas, Mdd, Alansohn, Guy
Harris, Hq3473, Herodotos, Kzollman, KymFarnik, Bluemoose, MarcoTolo, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Bubba73, Nivix, Wavelength,
RussBot, Wgungfu, Abarry, Ragesoss, Jpbowen, Scs, DeadEyeArrow, CQ, JoanneB, Hearth, Rwwww, SmackBot, Unyoyega, Jagged 85,
Gilliam, Rdj999, Hmains, Carl.bunderson, Somewherepurple, Keegan, Mladilozof, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, JonHarder, Rchwong,
Dreadstar, BWDuncan, JoTp, Disavian, Kvng, Tawkerbot2, Davidbspalding, Ale jrb, ShelfSkewed, Barnas, Interwiki gl, Kozuch, Zalgo,
Kubanczyk, Acaciz, AntiVandalBot, JAnDbot, Karlhahn, VoABot II, Wikidudeman, KConWiki, Robotman1974, David Eppstein, DerHexer, Gwern, MartinBot, Maddogprod, Yonaa, R'n'B, Deathgecko, Jozwolf, JJGD, Knowledgebycoop, Alexdragon, ElinorD, TedColes,
Armenio3, D. Recorder, Crankit, Malcolmxl5, Legend, Oxymoron83, Scorpion451, Lightmouse, CharlesGillingham, Athenean, ClueBot,
GorillaWarfare, Thingg, TFOWR, NellieBly, PenComputingPerson, Addbot, Computerhistory, Joesh15, Jarble, Luckas-bot, Evaders99,
AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Citation bot, Gilo1969, Crzer07, Miym, FrescoBot, Hamaad.s, Liridon, Hyju, Tobby72, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket,
Jschnur, Horst-schlaemma, Vrenator, Wellfc, RjwilmsiBot, Aukeye, Bluedude588, Epsiloner, Wikipelli, ZroBot, Cogiati, H3llBot, EdBreaux, Donner60, Autoerrant, Rocketrod1960, ClueBot NG, AlbertBickford, Project realm, Helpful Pixie Bot, Calabe1992, Call1234,
Numbermaniac, MattKinPA, Epicgenius, I am One of Many, Aarondicks, Jasbam, Sorhn, Biblioworm and Anonymous: 156
History of computing hardware Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20computing%20hardware?oldid=645651338
Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Epopt, 0, Mav, Robert Merkel, Khendon, Arvindn, Aldie, Matusz, PierreAbbat, SimonP, Ellmist, Mintguy, Arno, Lisiate, Frecklefoot, Edward, RTC, Michael Hardy, Lexor, Dante Alighieri, Dominus, Nixdorf, Liftarn, Drjan, Chinju, Karada,
Arpingstone, Iluvcapra, 7265, Stw, Ahoerstemeier, William M. Connolley, Notheruser, Angela, Darkwind, Glenn, Cyan, LouI, Susurrus,
Cimon Avaro, EdH, Rob Hooft, Dwo, Vroman, Timwi, Harris7, Dmsar, Ww, Denni, Sbwoodside, Birkett, Tpbradbury, Timothy Muggli,
David Shay, Jnc, Tempshill, Wellington, Omegatron, Wernher, Samsara, Thue, Bevo, Topbanana, Mackensen, Raul654, Chrisjj, Secretlondon, David.Monniaux, Josephbui, Ke4roh, PBS, Jmabel, Verbose, Lowellian, Gandalf61, Sverdrup, Blainster, Diderot, Halibutt, ElBenevolente, Superm401, SpellBott, Mfc, Lysy, David Gerard, Snobot, Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Haeleth, Laurens, Geeoharee,
Tom harrison, Lupin, Everyking, Dune, Markus Kuhn, Fanf, Matt Crypto, Jackol, Bobblewik, Z3, Chowbok, Utcursch, Gdr, Quadell,
Beland, WhiteDragon, Gene s, Michael Rowe, Thincat, GeoGreg, Marc Mongenet, Neutrality, Krp, Ukexpat, Coeehood, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Leibniz, Vsmith, Pixel8, ArnoldReinhold, Topynate, MeltBanana, Michael Zimmermann, Paul August, Sergei
Frolov, Bender235, Alancookie, Pmcm, CanisRufus, Zscout370, Joanjoc, Bobo192, Denorris, Irrbloss, Smalljim, Colin Douglas Howell,
TheProject, Zygmunt lozinski, Notash, Ociallyover, Mdd, Alansohn, Enirac Sum, Guy Harris, Andrewpmk, Riana, Goldom, Lightdarkness, Mailer diablo, Polyphilo, Velella, Saga City, Wtshymanski, Suruena, TenOfAllTrades, Gunter, Redvers, TheCoee, Vmlinuz,
Marcelo1229, Angr, Camw, Asav, Wackyvorlon, Brunnock, Jacobolus, Davidkazuhiro, Robert K S, ^demon, CaptainTickles, Ruud Koot,
Pixeltoo, Cbdorsett, Wikiklrsc, Jacj, Driftwoodzebulin, Marudubshinki, Que, Rnt20, Graham87, Don Bratt, BD2412, Dweinberger,
Josh Parris, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Commander, JoshuacUK, Bhaak, Oblivious, EvilMoFo, Bubba73, Boccobrock, Brighterorange, Ian
Dunster, DemonStar55, Josephs1, Yamamoto Ichiro, Lonestarnot, David jones, RobertG, Greg321, Who, Gurch, TheDJ, Ballas, Alphachimp, Vossman, SteveBaker, Chobot, Bgwhite, Wavelength, Borgx, Crotalus horridus, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Me and, Splash, Balancer, Groogle, Rada, Lucinos, Stephenb, Manop, Gaius Cornelius, Ksyrie, Wgungfu, Eddie.willers, NawlinWiki, The Merciful, Rieger,
Grafen, Trovatore, Seeaxid, Davechatting, Jpbowen, Raven4x4x, Tony1, Adicarlo, Daniel C, Emijrp, Zzuuzz, Raistolo, Spondoolicks,
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Je G., Jennavecia, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, GimmeBot, Davehi1, Bitjungle, Imasleepviking, TedColes, Wpedzich, LeaveSleaves,
Jamelan, Softtest123, Enigmaman, Haseo9999, Blinx283, NickdeClaw, Dmcq, Vinhtantran, Sfmammamia, Red, Wjl2, SieBot, Ivan
tambuk, Malcolmxl5, Pakistan566, RJaguar3, Yintan, WRK, Flyer22, Radon210, Darvinkevin, Brian R Hunter, Oxymoron83, AngelOfSadness, Lightmouse, SimonTrew, PbBot, CharlesGillingham, Cyfal, Joao200, ImageRemovalBot, SallyForth123, Tomasz Prochownik,
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deng, FJPB, Aatayyab, Jackaranga, KylieTastic, Entropy, , Remember the dot, Jester7777, Gtg204y, Bonadea, Alan012,
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Jarda-wien, Allmightyduck, Zedlik, Oxymoron83, Listlist, Harry, Hello71, Steven Zhang, Redmercury82, Miguel.mateo, Fratrep, Macy,
Kumioko, Majorbrainy, Iknowyourider, Jacob.jose, Maralia, Egbsystem, Into The Fray, Stillwaterising, Martarius, Sokrato, Elassint, ClueBot, Kathmandu2007, Safarj, Prohlep, Artichoker, Hutcher, Fyyer, Foxj, The Thing That Should Not Be, Rodhullandemu, Starkiller88,
Jan1nad, Hellosandimas, Wysprgr2005, Ahadrt, Kornxi, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, Uncle Milty, Wikijens, Davennmarr, CounterVandalismBot, N n abc123, Passargea, Puchiko, Pointillist, Narayana vvss, DragonBot, PEH2, Drewster1829, Excirial, Jusdafax, M4gnum0n,
Jamesiemiller, Monobi, Eeekster, Setveen, Aqeelbilal, NuclearWarfare, Jotterbot, M.O.X, Elizium23, Noosentaal, ChrisHodgesUK, La
Pianista, Timothy Neilen, Thingg, Versus22, Doriftu, Perkinsleslie, HumphreyW, Apparition11, Party, Matthias M., SF007, SewerCat,
DumZiBoT, Bean2thousand, XLinkBot, Fastily, Gnowor, SwirlBoy39, Jovianeye, Avoided, Skarebo, SilvonenBot, IngerAlHaosului, Cburress, Big milsy, Siggy28, Darkevilfairy, Addbot, Pyfan, Some jerk on the Internet, Betterusername, Binary TSO, Ronhjones, CoolD, Scientus, CanadianLinuxUser, Fluernutter, Cst17, MrOllie, BalderV, Chzz, Mcdonald.ross5, Favonian, ChenzwBot, Doniago, Jasper Deng,
5 albert square, Japonca, Naik5abhi, Numbo3-bot, Dayewalker, Shakya ind, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Emvn, Avono, Teles, Wireless friend, Jarble, Phillip Ca, Legobot, Kurtis, Yobot, OrgasGirl, Cloudyed, Ptbotgourou, Senator Palpatine, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, MarioS, Pcap,
The Earwig, ArchonMagnus, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, TheBiaatch, A Stop at Willoughby, Fern80, Rogger.Ferguson, KamikazeBot, Knownot, Esoteric Rogue, Whitew123, South Bay, Matty, Backslash Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, Message From Xenu, Kerfuer,
Jim1138, Galoubet, Dwayne, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, Kingpin13, Amalhotra124, Materialscientist, Kc03, The High Fin Sperm
Whale, E2eamon, La comadreja, Felyza, LilHelpa, Kuldeep06march, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Jtbatalla, Lunaumbrax, P99am, S0aasdf2sf,
Frosted14, T4tarzan, Sivaguru411, RibotBOT, Wikicrazier2011, Amaury, Sorryranga94, Thurak13, Chongkian, Cyberstrike3000X, Shadowjams, A.amitkumar, Dougofborg, FrescoBot, Luntrasul, Tangent747, Rhye123, W Nowicki, Recognizance, Zero Thrust, MD66, HJ
Mitchell, QuintusQuill, Ragha joshi, DivineAlpha, Intelligentsium, Rajeshmagic, Trueshow111, T3h 1337 b0y, Boxplot, Winterst, Programmer13, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, HRoestBot, Edderso, Deggalega, Jonathandeamer, 10metreh, NinjaCross, NurAzije, LinDrug,
Skyerise, Hoo man, Jschnur, RedBot, Muhen, , Citypanther, Curtis23, Bgpaulus, Davie4125, Aardvarkzz, FoxBot,
SchreyP, DixonDBot, OWAIS NAEEM, Drawnman247, Dinamik-bot, Vrenator, MrX, January, Allen4names, Aoidh, Nourybouraqadi,
Reaper Eternal, Jerd10, Nascar1996, Tbhotch, Hauberk, Burnisk, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Andrea105, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot,
Shafaet, DSP-user, Rollins83, DASHBot, EmausBot, JMetzler, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, Happyisenough, Nima1024, Speaksleft,
Gfoley4, 021-adilk, Priyadarshi.pratyush, Freeeeeesoft, Dinhtuydzao, Racerx11, Ethine, GoingBatty, RA0808, RenamedUser01302013,
Kelldall, Solarra, Slowmo1993, Tommy2010, Wexhammer, K6ka, Anirudh Emani, Sitarherophil, Haunting The Better, Abufaisal65, F,
Angela 2502, MithrandirAgain, Funnysens, Dgd, Howling wolf of the jungle, AManWithNoPlan, Wayne Slam, Ocaasi, Tolly4bolly,
Puneet1507, EricWesBrown, Crazykr, Arman Cagle, Vale Len, L Kensington, Jguy, Mayur, Donner60, Virtualenv, Arnabatcal, Pigduckmeatshroom, Rihannoufal, Sven Manguard, DASHBotAV, 28bot, Venkisree, Web20image, Cgtdk, Petrb, Xanchester, ABC1A1,
Gwen-chan, ClueBot NG, Salmon92, Standalone0109, Shaluhijas, Xplodercop, AznBurger, Matthiaspaul, Satellizer, Jcrwaford5, Shaddim, Hamiltn, HectorAE, Seven.cardwell, Delusion23, Mesoderm, O.Koslowski, DURWHAT, Manishgoyal.indian, Ankur 360, Widr,
Matt j fox, JordoCo, Vibhijain, Oddbodz, Helpful Pixie Bot, Alazlogexi, Calibooboo1, HMSSolent, Itikhaarrr, Titodutta, Wbm1058,
SteveWringseld, BG19bot, Pine, Prahim, Jennapresley, Salmank120, Hz.tiang, Tiu, Ceradon, Northamerica1000, Ex-dot, Marcelnache,
P.deshmukh09, Travelour, Joydeep, Altar, Jcdericco, Dynix, Insidiae, Morning Sunshine, Klilidiplomus, Achowat, Wannabemodel, Calcifero, Knodir, EricEnfermero, Yasirilyas, BattyBot, Labscientist, Pratyya Ghosh, SaadTeenager, Piasa1, Vishwajith33, Zatya34, ChrisGualtieri, MrDKing, TC Cannon, Adriancjr, YountLor, Markwaugh117, Priyaranjanchampatiray, Majilis, Hackguard, Codename Lisa,
MaggieMidnight, TwoTwoHello, Buspirtraz, Lugia2453, Andro ip, SFK2, Xxtt, Sriharsh1234, Joeinwiki, Ipodsof, Dave Braunschweig,
Softwarenod, Moony22, Gregwinwood11, Afoshay, Deboub, I am One of Many, Carrot Lord, Aura707, Anand8prakash, Kogmaw, Jakec,
Taylor Bohl, Shubabegum, Probusiness, Scharge, Reneve48, Ahmlmh, Daideep patel, Sugavin, Babitaarora, Diptytiw, Wikiuser13, Ugog
Nizdast, Melody Lavender, Markchloe, George8211, Lukeama, Dannyruthe, Parth pratim, Inaaaa, Andy Xucha, Mmadade, WikiJuggernaut, Dee59, Rangerbot962, Jesus Morales Arce, Crow, Zeshannehal, Saisuryakattamuri, SergioGaeta, Abdllahijaz, Hiranya Kumar
Rajbongshi, Giliofelix, Charithvalluru1993, Filedelinkerbot, Prasoonnegi17, Vikash1122, Scarlettail, U2fanboi, Sanuamrani, Khali khelo,
Gnamus, Forextread, Xombear, Thandi moyo, Marcel15255, Avidwriterforever, Anny Johnson, Malerisch, Asdklf;, Blurseeps, JLalou,
Kingabzy7, Firas Boudaqa, Abdulrahmanimthihar, Hussa095, Shahnawaz hussain nagori, SDSJAFDHSA, TROLLED81, Shantanuspark,
SafeerAhmedAbro, Monaiva, Miaitza, AlishiaHolmes, Bazlul1 and Anonymous: 1438
Computer science Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer%20science?oldid=645656605 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Derek Ross,
LC, Lee Daniel Crocker, Tuxisuau, Brion VIBBER, Mav, Robert Merkel, Espen, The Anome, Tarquin, Taw, Jzcool, DanKeshet, Andre Engels, Khendon, LA2, Jkominek, Aldie, Fubar Obfusco, SolKarma, SimonP, Peterlin, Hannes Hirzel, Ole Aamot, Camembert,
B4hand, Hephaestos, Olivier, Stevertigo, Ghyll, DrewT2, JohnOwens, Ted, Michael Hardy, Erik Zachte, Gretyl, Kwertii, JakeVortex,
Dante Alighieri, Fuzzie, Rp, Bensmith, Mic, Ixfd64, Phoe6, Sannse, TakuyaMurata, Delirium, Loisel, 7265, Minesweeper, Pcb21, Kvikeg,
MartinSpamer, Ahoerstemeier, Haakon, Stan Shebs, Docu, J-Wiki, Kazuo Moriwaka, Angela, Jdforrester, Salsa Shark, Glenn, Cyan, LouI,
Poor Yorick, Nikai, Azazello, Kwekubo, Jiang, Cryoboy, Rob Hooft, Jonik, Mxn, BRG, Denny, Dgreen34, Schneelocke, Nikola Smolenski,
Revolver, Popsracer, Charles Matthews, Guaka, Timwi, Dcoetzee, Sbwoodside, Dysprosia, Jitse Niesen, Jay, Daniel Quinlan, Michaeln,
Greenrd, Quux, HappyDog, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Cleduc, Morwen, Buridan, Ed g2s, Persoid, Mikez80, Wakka, Wernher, Bevo,
Spikey, Traroth, Shizhao, Farmerchris, Dbabbitt, Raul654, Jim Mahoney, Marc Girod, Guppy, Carbuncle, ThereIsNoSteve, RadicalBender,
Robbot, Sdedeo, Fredrik, Hobbes, Soilguy2, R3m0t, RedWolf, Troworld, Altenmann, Naddy, Lowellian, Chris Roy, Mirv, MathMartin,
Merovingian, Hellotoast, Rfc1394, Academic Challenger, Texture, Bethenco, Diderot, Hadal, Nerval, Borislav, MOiRe, Pps, Bshankaran,
Anthony, Lupo, HaeB, TexasDex, Guy Peters, Iain.mcclatchie, Pengo, Tobias Bergemann, Applegoddess, Ancheta Wis, Decumanus, Honta,
Gbali, Giftlite, Thv, Fennec, Kenny sh, Netoholic, Abigail-II, Levin, Lupin, Zigger, Everyking, Henry Flower, Guanaco, Eequor, Matt
Crypto, Just Another Dan, Arvind Singh, Wmahan, Neilc, Quackor, Andycjp, Dullhunk, Bact, Kjetil r, Mineminemine, Antandrus, BozMo,
Thray, Billposer, APH, Josephgrossberg, Kntg, Bumm13, Sovereigna, Eiserlohpp, Leire Snchez, Robin klein, Fvilim, Andreas Kaufmann,
Zondor, Grunt, EagleOne, Bluemask, Corti, Perl guy, Jwdietrich2, MichaelMcGun, Smimram, Erc, Discospinster, Leibniz, Notinasnaid,
SocratesJedi, Michael Zimmermann, Mani1, BBB, Bender235, ESkog, Android79, Kbh3rd, S.K., Mattingly23, Project2501a, Relix, Barfooz, Linn, Barcelova, Brisis, RoyBoy, Bookofjude, Matteh, Aaronbrick, Coolcaesar, Bobo192, Smalljim, Shenme, Matt Britt, Maurreen,
NattyBumppo, Sam Korn, Haham hanuka, Pearle, Mpeisenbr, Nsaa, Mdd, Passw0rd, Poweroid, Alansohn, Liao, Pinar, Samuel.Jones,
Tek022, Jason Davies, Hellhound, TheVenerableBede, Walkerma, InShaneee, Hu, Katefan0, DoesPHalt, Caesura, Polyphilo, Shinji-

40.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

429

man, Wtmitchell, Velella, Shepshep, Cburnett, CloudNine, Mikeo, MIT Trekkie, HenryLi, Bookandcoee, Oleg Alexandrov, SimonW,
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Nakos2208, Shmitra, Al E., TreveX, Ralpedia, Sega381, Z80x86, Graham87, Qwertyus, Chun-hian, SixWingedSeraph, OMouse, Reisio,
Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, MarSch, Materdaddy, Nneonneo, Ddawson, Jhballard, Bubba73, Brighterorange, The wub, Mkehrt, Kwharris,
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SpectrumDT, BMF81, Jersey Devil, Bgwhite, Gwernol, Flcelloguy, Jayme, Eray, The Rambling Man, Wavelength, Spacepotato, Angus
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Miquonranger03, Fluri, LaggedOnUser, Spellchecker, Dzonatas, Krallja, A. B., Detter, Rrelf, Fireduck, Can't sleep, clown will eat me,
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Henderson, The Original Wildbear, Technopat, Sparkzy, Tomsega, Tms9980, Ocolon, T-Solo202, Ferengi, Metalmaniac69, Jackfork,
Psyche825, Noformation, Everything counts, The Divine Flualizer, ARUNKUMAR P.R, Hankhuck, Andy Dingley, Julcia, Yk Yk Yk,
Wolfrock, Piecemealcranky, Careercornerstone, Lake Greifen, Oldwes, Nighthawk19, Insanity Incarnate, Sebastjanmm, Pjoef, Palaeovia,
E. H.-A. Gerbracht, Demize, NHRHS2010, Matthe20, D. Recorder, S.rvarr.S, SieBot, EllenPetersen, Dawn Bard, Poisoncarter, Bruchowski, Ham Pastrami, Jerryobject, Happysailor, Flyer22, Radon210, JCLately, JetLover, JSpung, Aruton, Oxymoron83, Anjin-san,
Vpovilaitis, Lightmouse, Poindexter Propellerhead, Ceas webmaster, StaticGull, Mori Riyo, Maxime.Debosschere, Denisarona, Savie
Kumara, Kayvan45622, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, MBD123, Bwfrank, Foxj, The Thing That Should Not Be, Chocoforfriends,
Keeper76, HairyFotr, Diana cionoiu, Meisterkoch, Ndenison, Keraunoscopia, R000t, WDavis1911, Der Golem, Uncle Milty, Agogino,
Niceguyedc, Zow, Amomam, Darkstar56, Jmcangas, Masterpiece2000, Excirial, Pumpmeup, Bedwanimas214, Diderots dreams, Jusdafax, Waiwai933, Farisori, John Nevard, Jakraay, Hezarfenn, Muhandes, Buscalade, Alejandrocaro35, Sun Creator, Turnipface, Brianbjparker, Hans Adler, Morel, H.Marxen, ChrisHamburg, Thehelpfulone, GlasGhost, La Pianista, Thingg, Hunhot, PCHS-NJROTC,
Apparition11, DumZiBoT, AzraelUK, XLinkBot, Spitre, Pichpich, Mohammadshamma, Rror, Pasha11, Pimpedshortie99, Dhall1245,
Little Mountain 5, Srikant.sharma, Dimoes, MCR789, Skarebo, WikHead, Galzigler, Airplaneman, Branrile09, Ackmenm, Max the
tenken, Maimai009, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, DOI bot, Farzan mc, Betterusername, Elsendero, CanadianLinuxUser, MrOllie, Download, LaaknorBot, Favonian, West.andrew.g, 5 albert square, Unknown483, Gusisgay, Cupat07, Systemetsys, Tide rolls, Bguras
puppy, Verbal, Teles, Jarble, Luckas-bot, Yobot, OrgasGirl, Fraggle81, MarioS, Cyanoa Crylate, SergeyJ, Jnivekk, KamikazeBot, Khalfani khaldun, Sajibcse, Backslash Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, IRP, Galoubet, Royote, JackieBot, 9258fahskh917fas, Piano non
troppo, Danielt998, Law, Flewis, Lilgip01, Giants27, Materialscientist, Rtyq2, Salem F, Danno uk, Citation bot, Neurolysis, Roxxyroxursox, Quebec99, Xqbot, WikiNSK, Hubbard rox 2008, DSisyphBot, Grim23, Raj Wijesinghe, Blix1ms0ns, Tyrol5, Miym, Deadbeatatdawn, , Shirik, Mathonius, Erstats, Amaury, Doulos Christos, Dontknoa, Shadowjams, Methcub, CSgroup7, Luminique,
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BRUTE, Achraf52, Ezrdr, SpaceFlight89, Talbg, Meaghan, RandomStringOfCharacters, Jauhienij, Weylinp, Trappist the monk, SchreyP,
Si23mk4n32i, Alexmilt, Lotje, Keith Cascio, Thefakeeditor, Ladies gifts, Weedwhacker128, Mttcmbs, Lysander89, Yondonjamts, DARTH
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Pfuchs722, Surlydu50, Ibbn, Tinytn, Xiaogaozi, Pratapy, Solarra, Tommy2010, Lightdarkend, Wikipelli, K6ka, Djembayz, Lucas Thoms,
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Prashant Dey, Jay-Sebastos, Vanished user jtji34toksdcknqrjn54yoimascj, Donner60, Junip, Orange Suede Sofa, Rangoon11, Tijfo098,
Danushka99999, Srshetty94, 28bot, BigMatty93, Scotty16-2007, GreenEdu, Petrb, Hughleat, Signalizing, ClueBot NG, LogX, This lousy
T-shirt, Satellizer, Sdht, Jcrwaford5, Fauzan, Hon-3s-T, Astew10, Dfarrell07, Bergbra, Rinaku, Cntras, Cnkids, O.Koslowski, Mcasswidmeyer, Widr, Tonywchen, Ashish Gaikwad, Ajjuddn, Lawsonstu, Saketmitra, Jk2q3jrklse, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent, Jkimdgu, Wald,
Wbm1058, Jiule0, Trunks ishida, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Furkhaocean, ISTB351, MusikAnimal, J991, Neutral current, FutureTrillionaire, Sickdartzepic, Cadiomals, Mayuri.sandhanshiv, CalaD33, Kairi p, Mihai.stefanache, Salesvery1, Bryson1410, Zhenyanwang1,
Sreedharram, Carso empires, Isacdaavid, Abilngeorge, Klilidiplomus, Pavankbk1113, Anbu121, XIN3N, LloydOlivier, BattyBot, Computer tower, Mburkhol, Alkafriras, ComputerScienceForum, Valueindian, Fagitcasey, E prosser, Varagrawal, The Illusive Man, GoShow,
Chitraproject, JYBot, Tow, Mogism, Mani306, BlackHawkToughbook, Lugia2453, , Jamesx12345, Elcashini, Zziccardi, Itoula,
Snehlata1102, Faizan, Epicgenius, Babara150504, Crap12321, Littlejimmylel, Maggots187, Perfecshun, Netiru, Agenbola1, Red-eyed
demon, RG3Redskins, Eyesnore, Tiberius6996, Satassi, Tentinator, Dad29, JpurvisUM, Nbak, Kanoog, NJIT HUM dad29, Backendgaming, DavidLeighEllis, Diptytiw, Hollylilholly, Sibekoe,
, Ginsuloft, Quenhitran, MrLinkinPark333, Dannyruthe, Manul, TCMemoire, Rons corner, Ritik2345678, Philroc, Sbrankov05, Magicalbeakz1, JaconaFrere, Indiasian mbe maa, 7Sidz, Eaglepus, Kgeza71,
CompSci, Bobobobobobobdup, Monkbot, Wigid, Vieque, Ahsannaweed101, James.hochadel, 1908rs, BobVermont, Swet.anzel mee, NishantRM, Stuartbrade, Chacha2001, Typherix, Crfranklin, Antithesisx, Oy284, Robie024, Nigerhoe, Psychedgrad, Prachi2812, Yilinglou,
Iman.haghdost, Hansguyholt, Yaourrrt, Pishcal, ErickaAgent, Astrachano and Anonymous: 1352

430

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

History of articial intelligence Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20artificial%20intelligence?oldid=644291802

Contributors: ChangChienFu, Leandrod, Nealmcb, Michael Hardy, Cyde, JWSchmidt, DHN, Michael Devore, Wronkiew, Vadmium,
Paulscrawl, Yuriz, Jayjg, Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, Zy26, Blogjack, Kwamikagami, BrokenSegue, Viriditas, JosebaAbaitua, Hu,
M3tainfo, Firsfron, Woohookitty, Bkkbrad, Gimboid13, Audiodude, Graham87, BD2412, Qwertyus, Kane5187, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi,
Koavf, Nihiltres, Itinerant1, Elmer Clark, Gareth E Kegg, Spencerk, Gdrbot, Quentin X, Jlittlet, RussBot, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius,
Ritchy, Grafen, Trovatore, Darker Dreams, JustinCasey, Froth, Pawyilee, Open2universe, Tobi Kellner, Qero, Crystallina, SmackBot,
Moxon, Mneser, Jagged 85, Commander Keane bot, Hmains, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Pegua, Liontooth, Darre1, MegMaker, Gabi
S., Jaibe, ALYOSHA, Dreadstar, Serouj, Ohconfucius, Axem Titanium, Loadmaster, Samfreed, AdultSwim, FairuseBot, Devourer09,
CmdrObot, JohnCD, DSachan, Coolerhead, Ayyu, Pgr94, Neelix, Mblumber, Myscrnnm, Skittleys, Joanna Bryson, Christian75, Ferris37, Hilgerdenaar, Malleus Fatuorum, Barticus88, Alexander Wilks, 17Drew, Science History, SamatJain, The Transhumanist, Ph.eyes,
TAnthony, MegX, Nhayesroth, Rootxploit, Mschribr, Robotman1974, Gwern, Jackson Peebles, Rettetast, CommonsDelinker, Wiki Raja,
Wa3frp, Dispenser, Christian Storm, Shoessss, Burzmali, Remember the dot, Doctoroxenbriery, Funandtrvl, VolkovBot, Chigs.ca, TedColes, Jamelan, Bugone, Hmwith, DionysiusThrax, StAnselm, Lightmouse, AMCKen, SimonTrew, CharlesGillingham, Cyfal, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, WaltBusterkeys, Willingandable, Onetove, JustinClarkCasey, Alcazluis, Dank, SoxBot III, Addbot, Allenchue,
Elsendero, Perstranger123, Tassedethe, Yobot, Amirobot, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Cyanidethistles, Citation bot, MrsHudson, FrescoBot,
Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, Xentyr, AustralianMelodrama, Trappist the monk, SchreyP, Cordes, Ivanvector, RjwilmsiBot, Syncategoremata, AoV2, ZroBot, Knight1993, JaneStillman, ClueBot NG, Delusion23, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, AmericanLemming,
22merlin, Monkbot and Anonymous: 85
History of computer science Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20computer%20science?oldid=645412703 Contributors: Edward, Sbwoodside, David costanzo, Greenrd, E23, Dina, Giftlite, Jorend, Hugh Mason, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Martpol, Bobo192, Guy Harris, Andrewpmk, Wtmitchell, DanShearer, Bsadowski1, Quirkie, Hq3473, Davidkazuhiro, Ruud Koot, WadeSimMiser, KymFarnik, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Elsan, Johnnyw, Viznut, Wavelength, RadioFan, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Dialectric, Trovatore, RazorICE, Ragesoss, Daniel Mietchen, Jpbowen, Aldux, Raven4x4x, Mhkay, Rwwww, SmackBot, Emeraldemon,
Jagged 85, Delldot, Commander Keane bot, Rdj999, Hmains, JMiall, Somewherepurple, Miquonranger03, Dzonatas, Rrelf, Allan McInnes,
Jonovision, Astroview120mm, Ckatz, JHunterJ, R, Benplowman, CapitalR, Eastlaw, CmdrObot, CBM, Jaxad0127, Gregbard, Yaris678,
Epbr123, Ishdarian, AntiVandalBot, Pmt6sbc, Politicaljunkie23, JAnDbot, Kaobear, ThomasO1989, The Transhumanist, Bongwarrior,
VoABot II, Schwarzbichler, KConWiki, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, EstebanF, Fluxguy2005, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Ginsengbomb,
Rushforth1967, Dogsgomoo, Tricky Victoria, MusicScience, Anna Lincoln, !dea4u, Dj711, Logarkh, Flyer22, Oxymoron83, CharlesGillingham, Cyfal, Maxime.Debosschere, Athenean, Stuartjnoall, ClueBot, Shatree, Fyyer, Quinxorin, CristianCantoro, Niceguyedc, Excirial, Universityuser, KyuubiSeal, Wazupman, NellieBly, Addbot, Cst17, Torla42, Netzwerkerin, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Iroony,
AnomieBOT, Jim1138, IRP, Kingpin13, Materialscientist, ImperatorExercitus, Xqbot, Poetaris, Miym, Omnipaedista, Endothermic,
CES1596, Prari, FrescoBot, Thiagupillai, Kwiki, HamburgerRadio, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, RedBot, Full-date unlinking bot, Abc518, Dalakov, Krassotkin, Vrenator, RichNick, Jerd10, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, NotAnonymous0, Joshnnie, A930913,
L Kensington, Donner60, Floydvirginia, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Smtchahal, Wcherowi, Satellizer, Lukeno94, Kevin Gorman, ScottSteiner,
Helpful Pixie Bot, DBigXray, BG19bot, Mark Arsten, Chip123456, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Thom2729, Yosoyyosbel, Vanamonde93,
Zalunardo8, Ironeyes16, B14709, AmySmiles, AddWittyNameHere, JaconaFrere, Monkbot, Yu,Kevin, Ammara shahid, KH-1, Sayamsethi, Spumuq and Anonymous: 221
History of operating systems Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20operating%20systems?oldid=644558073 Contributors: Uriyan, The Anome, Sjc, Vaganyik, Aldie, Ortolan88, SimonP, Ark, Hirzel, B4hand, Bobdobbs1723, Edward, AdSR, Lexor, Dori,
Rossami, Dmsar, Dysprosia, Greenrd, Maximus Rex, Jnc, Bevo, Jws, Chrisjj, Sewing, EpiVictor, RedWolf, Psychonaut, Naddy, Auric,
Ancheta Wis, Markus Krtzsch, Abigail-II, AlistairMcMillan, ElfMage, Gdr, LiDaobing, DNewhall, Small business, Meb, Joyous!, Pnot,
Grunt, Childoferna, Discospinster, ArnoldReinhold, ESkog, Sc147, Ben Standeven, CanisRufus, R. S. Shaw, Brim, Trevj, Jason One,
Guy Harris, Mysdaao, Hu, Wtmitchell, Suruena, Ringbang, Simetrical, DonPMitchell, Pol098, Btmiller, Kmg90, Marudubshinki, Dgwarwick, Rjwilmsi, MordredKLB, Nihiltres, D.brodale, Wavelength, DigitalGuy, Gaius Cornelius, Mipadi, Grafen, Jpbowen, DisambigBot,
Katieh5584, Teply, Blue520, Commander Keane bot, Betacommand, Skizzik, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Thumperward, Oatmeal batman, Nick Levine, Harryboyles, Bilby, TJ Spyke, Unixguy, PuerExMachina, Cyrus XIII, Yousifnet, Spoxox, Cydebot, Mblumber, Krauss,
Editor at Large, Thijs!bot, Kubanczyk, James086, X201, AntiVandalBot, WinBot, Greensburger, LittleOldMe, VoABot II, Marko75,
Diego bf109, 2dMadness, Bjcampbell, Maddogprod, R'n'B, Tgeairn, Philcha, Public Menace, Cpiral, Starnestommy, Mvanner, In Transit,
Spellcast, Lights, AlnoktaBOT, TXiKiBoT, Jacob Lundberg, NPrice, Qxz, Someguy1221, TedColes, JhsBot, Jamelan, Michaeldsuarez,
AgentCDE, Oldwes, Sashimon, Jerryobject, Oxymoron83, Lightmouse, CharlesGillingham, ClueBot, CounterVandalismBot, Mspraveen,
PixelBot, Razorame, Andy16666, Stickee, Addbot, Ghettoblaster, CarsracBot, AndersBot, Tide rolls, Scooty, Dwbang, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Peter Flass, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Capricorn42, MonthlyPython, Anonymous from the 21st century, SassoBot, Chatul,
Petervee, FrescoBot, Skyerise, Rgambord, Buddy23Lee, Onel5969, EmausBot, Dcirovic, ZroBot, John Cline, Cogiati, H3llBot, Music
Sorter, W163, Swholland, ClueBot NG, Matthiaspaul, Helpful Pixie Bot, Compilation nished successfully, Wbm1058, JamesNZ, I am
One of Many, Comp.arch, Sandybibs, OMPIRE, FelixBearden, Squinge, Ananthrajkanagaraj and Anonymous: 182
History of programming languages Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20programming%20languages?oldid=
642807644 Contributors: Sabre23t, Rp, Fuzheado, Greenrd, Zoicon5, Phoebe, RedWolf, Altenmann, Rursus, Ancheta Wis, Pgan002,
Duncandewar, Beland, Marc Mongenet, Ukexpat, Yuriz, Discospinster, Huers, Lulu of the Lotus-Eaters, Ben Standeven, Danakil, Reeve,
Szyslak, Sietse Snel, Smalljim, John Vandenberg, R. S. Shaw, Mdd, Jumbuck, Tablizer, Gerweck, Diego Moya, Sligocki, Mr700, Jost
Riedel, Tony Sidaway, Zawersh, Djsasso, Mahanga, Firsfron, Ruud Koot, Wikiklrsc, Marudubshinki, Icey, Schmettow, Cassowary, Sceptre, Hairy Dude, Rsrikanth05, Jpbowen, Moe Epsilon, GraemeL, JLaTondre, Banus, Rwwww, SmackBot, Skizzik, Chris the speller, Bluebot, UdayanBanerjee, Rheostatik, Ashawley, KevM, Pwjb, Lambiam, Lakinekaki, DiarmuidPigott, Aljullu, Kpengboy, JMK, DEddy, Pi,
Pgr94, Cydebot, Valodzka, Indeterminate, Torc2, Juhovuori, Michael Fourman, Thijs!bot, Wikid77, Mojo Hand, Acaciz, Dylan Lake,
Arch dude, IanOsgood, Antic-Hay, PhilKnight, Abcarter, VoABot II, B3tamike, Sammi84, Gwern, STBot, Macaldo, Entropy, Funandtrvl,
VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, T-bonham, Clarince63, Arohanui, Cnilep, Nibios, Monty845, Logan, SieBot, Malcolmxl5, Jrm2007, Happysailor,
Oxymoron83, KoshVorlon, CharlesGillingham, The Thing That Should Not Be, Skpperd, DragonBot, Excirial, Hotcrocodile, MystBot,
Totlmstr, Id1337x, Quinntaylor, Addbot, Mortense, Ghettoblaster, Chamal N, Grin700, AnomieBOT, 1exec1, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Capricorn42, DSisyphBot, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, FrescoBot, Alexanderaltman, Soxey6, NumberByColors, December21st2012Freak, Andrzejsliwa, Sinbadbuddha, Raees Iqbal, Gf uip, EmausBot, Bgeron, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Cleme263, Vb4ever,
ZroBot, Tolly4bolly, Noodleki, Donner60, Denbosch, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Hossein bardareh, Skolastika, ISTB351, PhnomPencil, Pankaj.nith, Kooku10, ChrisGualtieri, Christophe.billiottet, Khazar2, RaLusch, Jasssonpet, Nvourvachis, Epicgenius, Jrgdelrisco,
Tentinator, Paulo torrens, Babitaarora, Ugog Nizdast, Simmonsandrew75, Monkbot, Axiarchist and Anonymous: 189

40.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

431

History of software engineering Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20software%20engineering?oldid=639926555

Contributors: Ed Poor, Deb, SimonP, Edward, Pnm, Denny, Greenrd, David.Monniaux, Postdlf, Confuzion, Sonjaaa, Beland, Dnas, Podkayne, Andreas Kaufmann, Mdd, Mixer, Bobrayner, Mindmatrix, Mandarax, Ligulem, Nouruso, RussBot, Jpbowen, Tony1, Josh3580,
Richardbondi, JLaTondre, Teryx, SmackBot, Bigbluesh, Gilliam, MichaelBillington, John Bentley, Niczar, 16@r, BranStark, Blackhawk
charlie2003, AGK, MaxEnt, Cydebot, Sonderbro, Kubanczyk, Wikid77, Missvain, Mr pand, Leolaursen, Magioladitis, Dekimasu, Mbarbier, GermanX, Gwern, Andareed, Plasticup, SieBot, Tresiden, AlphaPyro, BrainRepair, Rfortner, CharlesGillingham, Dlrohrer2003,
Sprigot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Ray3055, XLinkBot, Rror, Addbot, Ronhjones, Rsazima, Torla42, Yobot, Maxis ftw, Cityuni,
AbigailAbernathy, J04n, Qwertyzzz18, Ftrudel, FrescoBot, Mark Renier, VS6507, Dnllnd, Oashi, Citation bot 1, Vicenarian, At-par,
EmausBot, GEMDragon, ClueBot NG, Antiqueight, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wbm1058, Thom2729, PatrikFuhrmann, Enock4seth, Star767,
Melody Lavender and Anonymous: 75
History of the graphical user interface Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20graphical%20user%20interface?
oldid=645364941 Contributors: Brion VIBBER, Uriyan, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Amillar, SimonP, Shii, Ellmist, Hephaestos, Edward,
Michael Hardy, JakeVortex, Nixdorf, Pnm, Tannin, Ixfd64, Sannse, AlexR, 7265, Minesweeper, Ronabop, Ronz, Rboatright, Ericross, Djmutex, Cyan, GRAHAMUK, Crusadeonilliteracy, Csh, Dcoetzee, Viajero, Dysprosia, Fuzheado, Teabone, Zoicon5, Motor, Tempshill,
Jecar, Bloodshedder, Bcorr, Paranoid, Noldoaran, AlainV, Psychonaut, Hadal, David Gerard, Ancheta Wis, Inst, BenFrantzDale, Lmno,
Zizonus, AlistairMcMillan, Solipsist, J. 'mach' wust, Beland, Ctachme, Bumm13, Mysidia, Sam Hocevar, Vishahu, Chmod007, Corti, Ta
bu shi da yu, MichaelMcGun, Rich Farmbrough, Lovelac7, Unixplumber, Mprove, Pixel8, Martpol, Gronky, Thebrid, Kwamikagami,
AJP, Bobo192, NetBot, Viriditas, NeonLego, Polluks, Cohesion, Jjk, Diceman, A1kmm, Trevj, Minghong, Guy Harris, CyberSkull,
Diego Moya, AzaToth, Yamla, Pouya, Sligocki, KJK::Hyperion, Itschris, Marcelo1229, Firsfron, Woohookitty, Lost.goblin, Jacobolus,
Toussaint, Ae7ux, Xiong, Rlw, Kesla, Matilda, JiMidnite, BD2412, Ash211, Rjwilmsi, JoshuacUK, Raaele Megabyte, Sumanch, Cassowary, Minilo, FlaBot, Lokisnake, TheMidnighters, Brianreading, Thecosmos, Antilived, Logixoul, NorCalHistory, Gaius Cornelius,
Akhristov, Krystyn Dominik, Deodar, Smartyhall, Jpbowen, Raven4x4x, Tony1, Lcmortensen, Hyper0105, JakkoWesterbeke, Timbernerslee, Fmccown, Zzuuzz, IsUsername, Closedmouth, Skenmy, Tyomitch, Dunxd, SmackBot, DXBari, Cutter, Betacommand, Chris the
speller, TimBentley, Dubhdara, Tghe-retford, Thumperward, Mdwh, Akanemoto, Letdorf, Gracenotes, Danielnez1, Can't sleep, clown
will eat me, OrphanBot, Kcordina, Artie p, Warren, Germandemat, Nairebis, Serouj, Ohconfucius, AThing, Vufors, SilkTork, Disavian,
Vrza, JamesWeb, JHunterJ, Kyoko, Dicklyon, Peyre, Zhulien, FairuseBot, Altonbr, Acidradio, Jeremy Banks, FleetCommand, BGPhilbin,
Lanma726, AmadeoV, Safalra, Cydebot, Dancter, Orion Blastar, B, Sweecoo, Kubanczyk, Wikid77, O, Djdjohnson, MrKimm, Davidhorman, AntiVandalBot, KKong, Deective, NapoliRoma, Supertheman, East718, Mateia, Magioladitis, Zyklus, Hroulf, VoABot II,
Marko75, Cloudz679, Rettetast, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Mausy5043, Trusilver, Ciotog, Equazcion, Burzmali, Xeoe, Sosayso, 28bytes,
ABF, Je G., Woodsstock, MarekMahut, Jdtyler, Gona.eu, Ricardo Cancho Niemietz, Insanity Incarnate, Monty845, Hmwith, Josh
the Nerd, Rob.bastholm, Jerryobject, Flyer22, Faradayplank, Xe7al, Fishnet37222, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, Kl4m, Badger Drink,
Isaac.sutherland, Mild Bill Hiccup, Grahamsbrain, Sheenmeister, SchreiberBike, A plague of rainbows, SF007, Petchboo, Agentlame,
Dsimic, Addbot, AnnaFrance, Torla42, Tide rolls, Hartz, Yobot, Bunnyhop11, AnomieBOT, Ipatrol, Unara, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Martnym, Xorxos, Blenheimears, J04n, Zarcillo, Baldlars, SassoBot, Thehelpfulbot, FrescoBot, D(r)ead End, Hoo man, Cam493, Buddy23Lee,
Wikielwikingo, Nekohan, SilverbladeGR, Joshduman1, Ale07, John of Reading, JamesCrook, Alisha.4m, Werieth, Cbh2000, Music Sorter,
, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, Wbm1058, Technical 13, BG19bot, Compfreak7, Monstergx7, BattyBot, Azsxdc8, Climax 2, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Thom2729, Nozomimous, Jamesx12345, TSJSwimmer, Nmilety, Cbojorqu, Ramyarj, Herisee, Franky4Fngrs, BethNaught, OMPIRE, Kqm67073 and Anonymous: 253
History of the Internet Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Internet?oldid=645890844 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Mav, Zundark, Espen, The Anome, Amillar, Vaganyik, Enchanter, Fubar Obfusco, William Avery, SimonP, Hotlorp, Jvstein,
Tedernst, Edward, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Willsmith, Norm, Nixdorf, Rp, Ixfd64, Lquilter, GTBacchus, Paul A, Pagingmrherman, Ihcoyc, Ellywa, DavidWBrooks, Theresa knott, Julesd, Glenn, Ciphergoth, Cyan, Poor Yorick, John K, Mulad, Markb, Dcoetzee, David J
Walker, Paul Stansifer, Jay, Slark, Rahidz2003, Greenrd, Zoicon5, Furrykef, Jnc, Samsara, Mackensen, Fvw, Blr, Skybunny, Phil Boswell,
Nufy8, Robbot, Ke4roh, Pigsonthewing, Fredrik, Kizor, Vespristiano, RedWolf, ZimZalaBim, Nurg, Lowellian, Hemanshu, Diderot, Iaen,
Caknuck, Andrew Levine, Bkell, Hadal, Rho, Neckro, Diberri, Amead, Alan Liefting, Enochlau, Buster2058, Whir, Stirling Newberry,
Ancheta Wis, Centrx, Giftlite, Philwiki, DocWatson42, Andries, Beefman, Putamadre1234, Massysett, Netoholic, Tom harrison, Martijn
faassen, Fastssion, Everyking, No Guru, Gecko, Zaphod Beeblebrox, Avsa, Tom-, Jason Quinn, Rchandra, AlistairMcMillan, Just Another
Dan, Alvestrand, Jackol, Bobblewik, Edcolins, Lucky 6.9, Fishal, Plp, Alexf, Proberts2003, Antandrus, Beland, OverlordQ, WhiteDragon,
Piotrus, Kusunose, Taka, Rdsmith4, Reagle, CesarFelipe, Marc Mongenet, Karl-Henner, Asbestos, Neutrality, Highwind, Ianneub, Surfingslovak, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Zondor, EagleOne, Lacrimosus, Renano7, Zro, Ularsen, DanielCD, JTN, Lifefeed, Discospinster, Brianhe, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Wrp103, Vsmith, ArnoldReinhold, Xezbeth, Kim Meyrick, Paul August, Bender235, ESkog, Kbh3rd,
JoeSmack, Carribeiro, Violetriga, Billlion, Chewie, Stombs, Kb, Joanjoc, Juppiter, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Triona, Bookofjude, Coolcaesar, Adambro, Bobo192, Shenme, Cmdrjameson, KPalicz, Cwolfsheep, Matt Britt, Mark Musante, David Gale, Minghong, Wrs1864,
Sam Korn, Hlh, Nsaa, Foxandpotatoes, Disneyfreak96, Alansohn, Gary, Eixo, Guy Harris, John Quiggin, Andrew Gray, Lord Pistachio, Lightdarkness, Apoc2400, Robiecraig, Denniss, DreamGuy, Ronark, Max rspct, Mad Hatter, Helixblue, Saga City, Stephan Leeds,
Dtcdthingy, Docboat, Itschris, Tony Sidaway, RainbowOfLight, Sciurin, Tariqabjotu, Gmaxwell, Googleaseerch, Rodii, Philthecow,
Roboshed, OwenX, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Ethereal, Camw, Daira Hopwood, Josephf, JeremyA, Tabletop, Wikiklrsc, Bluemoose,
Eilthireach, Wayward, Miken32, Jwoodger, SqueakBox, FreplySpang, Kushboy, Zoz, Kane5187, Kafue, Sj, Drbogdan, Rjwilmsi,
Nightscream, Koavf, NatusRoma, Vary, Arabani, Alaney2k, JoshuacUK, SMC, Mike Peel, Nneonneo, Sohmc, Durin, Margosbot, Nihiltres, Brianreading, MacRusgail, Katerg, Pathoschild, RexNL, Gurch, A.K.Karthikeyan, Jrtayloriv, Preslethe, Terrx, RockOfVictory,
Ahunt, Agil, Its-is-not-a-genitive, Hatch68, Metropolitan90, DVdm, Gwernol, Metaeducation, Wavelength, RattusMaximus, Erachima,
RussBot, John Quincy Adding Machine, Expertu, GLaDOS, Chaser, Stephenb, Polluxian, Gaius Cornelius, Wgungfu, Rsrikanth05, Gustavb, Daveswagon, CarlHewitt, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, RattleMan, Grafen, Dijxtra, Daveliney, Joel7687, Howcheng, Barberio, Thiseye,
Retired username, Rbarreira, Robdurbar, Jpbowen, Raven4x4x, RUL3R, Kwh, Allynnc, Tony1, Supten, FlyingPenguins, Scottsher, Kyle
Barbour, Derek.cashman, Vonfragino, Bdell555, Emijrp, Zzuuzz, Yeltensic42, Mike Dillon, Nikkimaria, Closedmouth, Jwissick, KGasso,
Carabinieri, Andyluciano, Scoutersig, JLaTondre, Jack Upland, Kungfuadam, RG2, NeilN, Rwwww, KNHaw, DVD R W, Finell, CIreland,
Tom Morris, Qero, Luk, Torgo, Helmsb, SmackBot, Elving, Mmernex, Classiclms, Smitz, Impaciente, Hydrogen Iodide, Davewild, Thunderboltz, PizzaMargherita, Stie, Brossow, Thunder8, Onebravemonkey, JimmyBlackwing, Bburton, Edgar181, Wittylama, TypoDotOrg,
Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Skizzik, Richfe, Captain scarlet, Andy M. Wang, Rmosler2100, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Kharker, Persian Poet
Gal, PSPone, Cbh, SchftyThree, Deli nk, PureRED, Ctbolt, Colonies Chris, Sct72, Wjanio, Newmanbe, Zsinj, Can't sleep, clown will
eat me, Gamahucheur, Ransu, Eliyahu S, Zone46, Etu, Jennica, Rrburke, VMS Mosaic, Flyguy649, Cybercobra, Decltype, Flyingember, Solarius, DMacks, LtDonny, RJBurkhart, Ligulembot, Reliablesources, Kukini, Ohconfucius, HYC, Lambiam, Mchavez, AThing,
Harryboyles, NotMuchToSay, Twohlrab3, Scientizzle, SilkTork, Gobonobo, Disavian, Mgiganteus1, Comicist, CapitalQ, Waggers, Mar-

432

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

tian.knight, Lgeorgel, NJA, Kvng, Rcannon100, KJS77, DabMachine, Iridescent, Joseph Solis in Australia, Fitzwilliam, Shoeofdeath,
Wjejskenewr, Walton One, R2cyberpunk, J Di, CGMullin, UncleDouggie, Twas Now, Cbrown1023, Nethac DIU, Esurnir, Supersquid,
Courcelles, Cheeesemonger, Drwarpmind, Tawkerbot2, Chris55, MightyWarrior, Fvasconcellos, SkyWalker, Tannerhelland, Szfski, JForget, Cg-realms, Bsegal, Ale jrb, Sir Vicious, Scohoust, KyraVixen, Hertzsprung, Rasd, Tjkiesel, Schweiwikist, Dgw, Yarnalgo, AshLin,
MarsRover, Neelix, Erencexor, Richard Keatinge, Hemlock Martinis, MikeWren, Equendil, Jac16888, Cydebot, Clappingsimon, Mblumber, Mike Christie, Steel, Aanderson@amherst.edu, A Softer Answer, Chasingsol, SymlynX, Tawkerbot4, Jack Phoenix, Msnicki, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Compuserf, BhaiSaab, Gnfnrf, Kozuch, Brad101, Makwy2, Omicronpersei8, EvocativeIntrigue, Epbr123, Ryan3000,
LeeG, Daniel, Kablammo, Hcberkowitz, Crspyjohn, Headbomb, Mchtegern, John254, PizzaMan (usurped), A3RO, Electron9, Nezzadar, JustAGal, Andmunko, Dmirkin, RFerreira, AgentPeppermint, Sturm55, EdJohnston, Big Bird, Uruiamme, Natalie Erin, Mentisto, Hmrox, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, FHSerkland, Jj137, Smartse, Dylan Lake, Arx Fortis, Leuko, Harryzilber, Master
Sturm, NapoliRoma, Ol' Sturmo, MER-C, Matthew Fennell, Cyclonius, Sanchom, Andonic, Naugahyde, Kerotan, Acroterion, Ny156uk,
VzjrZ, Meeples, Magioladitis, Pedro, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Iriseyes, JamesBWatson, Appraiser, Deathre1992, Janadore, Gritironskillet, Sith Lord 13, CountingPine, Nyttend, Recurring dreams, SparrowsWing, Mkdw, LDR, Steamrunner, ATerezi, Thibbs, Damuna,
Glen, DerHexer, A2-computist, Patstuart, Paliku, Gwern, Hdt83, MartinBot, Alex LaPointe, Xv8M4g3r, Sturmster, The Sturmster, Himatsu Bushi, Arjun01, Rettetast, Sameereemas, Andsam, Nyp, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Dani1994, Tgeairn, J.delanoy,
Mcr616, Uncle Dick, Public Menace, TwigsterX, Eliz81, Mike Cherim, Nicko.dvz, Lach Graham, Krazysam 2k4, Katalaveno, Urban
turban, McSly, Algotr, AKA MBG, Wcreator, Crakkpot, Knavinusa, Bailo26, RedtheRad, SparsityProblem, Kmanning2008, NewEnglandYankee, Srpnor, Kyuleness, SJP, 83d40m, FJPB, Shoessss, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, Vcerf, Vanished user 39948282, Jollyjoel,
Kitkatcrazy, Kvdveer, Paul268, Wlgrin, West wikipedia, CardinalDan, Funandtrvl, Daimore, Keael, Deor, VolkovBot, Katydidit, Dom
Kaos, DesertDave, Ryan032, LeilaniLad, WOSlinker, DyloniusFunk, Goltz20707, Philip Trueman, Zidonuke, Torstein1, Chris-marshusa, Ianpeter, Shadowmark22, Vipinhari, Anonymous Dissident, Qxz, Ppsk12nhs, Retiono Virginian, Brunton, Nexus501, Martin451,
Webyoda, Leafyplant, Sanfranman59, Drappel, BotKung, ARUNKUMAR P.R, FFMG, Jamelan, Zhenqinli, Raggmopp614, Haseo9999,
MDfoo, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, Purgatory Fubar, Nori ice, Teh Josh.sbb, Insanity Incarnate, Anthony1091, Face-2-face, Chriswalker7,
DeanBonnett, NHRHS2010, Ageton, Brainstew34, Rickdl, Kbrose, Artypants, Glst2, GirasoleDE, EJF, GSSAGE7, SieBot, Kmasters0,
Nubiatech, Malcolmxl5, Kratoz78, MTHarden, Jauerback, Areinside013, Caltas, Triwbe, Swaq, Yintan, Excelsior f, Kaypoh, DavidBourguignon, Anglicanus, Radon210, JD554, Jaredbelch, AlexWaelde, Afterthought67, JSpung, Oxymoron83, Scorpion451, Brokendata,
Judicatus, AngelOfSadness, Nuttycoconut, KoshVorlon, Lightmouse, Tombomp, Callidior, Int21h, Tomi T Ahonen, Svick, C'est moi, Stfg,
Beachsidepress, Searchmaven, WordsExpert, Classicalecon, TheCatalyst31, The sunder king, Loren.wilton, Martarius, ClueBot, Peteriscoo, GorillaWarfare, The Thing That Should Not Be, Chip1990, Diensetti, Aaa3-other, Meekywiki, Cfsenel, LizardJr8, Ottawahitech,
B123456789, Dylan620, Trivialist, MindstormsKid, Bbb2007, Tazzy33182, Alexy527, Excirial, Agentareas, Jusdafax, PixelBot, John
Nevard, Gtstricky, NuclearWarfare, Outit, Dorgan65, Saebjorn, Thingg, Aitias, Wmjames, Gorkelobb, Versus22, MelonBot, Johnuniq,
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644381726 Contributors: William Avery, Edward, Nealmcb, Michael Hardy, Ronz, Samsara, Bevo, Nurg, Academic Challenger, Rursus, Davodd, Taliswolf, Radagast, Akadruid, Netoholic, Bkonrad, Fanf, Beland, FoeNyx, Adam850, Samboy, Michael Zimmermann,
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AlistairMcMillan, C17GMaster, Just Another Dan, John Abbe, Bumm13, Sam Hocevar, KeyStroke, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot,
Pixel8, ArnoldReinhold, Reeve, CanisRufus, Dreish, R. S. Shaw, Brim, Blotwell, Jdabney, Wrs1864, DiGiT, Greba, Wtshymanski, RainbowOfLight, Gunter, Forderud, Thryduulf, Brunnock, Vossanova, Marudubshinki, Bubba73, Krash, JanSuchy, RexNL, Psantora, CStyle,
Gwernol, Jimp, Epolk, Yamara, Shell Kinney, Wgungfu, Mortein, Tony1, Richard Hallas, Horonator, Mhkay, That Guy, From That Show!,
Dupz, SmackBot, Nsayer, McGeddon, Michaelfavor, Scott Paeth, Folajimi, Chris the speller, Bluebot, MalafayaBot, Mdwh, Neo-Jay,
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Timeline of computing 198089 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20computing%201980%E2%80%9389?oldid=
645359464 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Zundark, Tarquin, Ellmist, Hephaestos, Rbrwr, Lexor, Dave Farquhar, Egil, Htaccess, Crissov,
Greenrd, Wernher, RedWolf, Demerzel, var Arnfjr Bjarmason, Bobblewik, Quadell, Fuzlyssa, Generica, Rhobite, Pak21, Pixel8,
YUL89YYZ, Ben Standeven, Violetriga, Ht1848, Sole Soul, Retron, Blotwell, Alansohn, Diego Moya, Wtshymanski, M3tainfo, CS,
Thryduulf, Woohookitty, Brunnock, X1011, Mirror Vax, Ewlyahoocom, Psantora, Bgwhite, Crotalus horridus, Todd Vierling, Yamara,
JLaTondre, Ben D., SmackBot, Jaegen, Bluebot, Mdwh, Colonies Chris, Aleksandar unjar, Edwtie, Warren, Rory096, Guyjohnston,
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632886019 Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Epopt, Derek Ross, Aldie, Merphant, Ellmist, RTC, Michael Hardy, Lexor, Nixdorf, Liftarn,
Dave Farquhar, Ixfd64, IZAK, Tregoweth, Ahoerstemeier, Elano, CatherineMunro, 5ko, Dmsar, Dysprosia, Greenrd, K1Bond007, Wernher, Joy, Northgrove, Paranoid, Fredrik, Hadal, Gobeirne, Ancheta Wis, Gtrmp, var Arnfjr Bjarmason, Everyking, DO'Neil, AlistairMcMillan, Mackerm, Bobblewik, Kurros, Sam Hocevar, Ukexpat, Ta bu shi da yu, Larrybob, Jcm, Jda, Martin TB, Pixel8, ArnoldReinhold,
Ben Standeven, CanisRufus, Aude, Lunaverse, Cmdrjameson, Blotwell, Minghong, Alansohn, Interiot, ABCD, Hu, Bart133, M3tainfo,
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Ms2ger, NeilN, Selmo, SmackBot, Henriok, Jagged 85, Mmeri, Ga, Cheesy mike, Gilliam, Bluebot, Strubin, Mdwh, Colonies Chris,
Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Pepsidrinka, AdamWeeden, Edwtie, Warren, Harryboyles, Guyjohnston, Bilby, Onionmon, Tawkerbot2,
IronChris, Matthew Auger, FlyingToaster, Red Director, ZorphDark, Geniac, PrimroseGuy, Marko75, Wikifan21century, CountingPine,
Jatkins, Xtifr, Rettetast, CalendarWatcher, J.delanoy, Maurice Carbonaro, NewEnglandYankee, Doomsday28, ManoloKosh, Funandtrvl,
Meojive, Jkstark, Sarenne, Martin451, Kingofeds, NHRHS2010, Ciscokid21, Winnieee, Lightmouse, Callidior, CharlesGillingham, Dlrohrer2003, Martarius, Rilak, Alexy527, Pfzzit, DanielPharos, SoxBot III, Wwwolf3, Ghettoblaster, Fyrael, Spongejordan123, Tylerpn,
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434

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

Arndbergmann, DrilBot, Full-date unlinking bot, Rbt0, Reach Out to the Truth, ClueBot NG, Matthiaspaul, Frietjes, HMSSolent, Kingemocut, Frosty, Asdklf;, Hello0987654 and Anonymous: 142
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632886075 Contributors: Dominus, Greenrd, Riana, RussBot, SmackBot, Mdwh, Edwtie, Disavian, Tktktk, X201, HAl, Rettetast, R'n'B,
Pdcook, Funandtrvl, Je G., Julian BH, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Chris4uk, PL290, Ghettoblaster, Scientus, Ettrig, Yobot,
Mark Schierbecker, FrescoBot, Calmer Waters, Tim1357, Dewritech, GoingBatty, Ocaasi, ClueBot NG, Frietjes, BeakerGordon, BattyBot,
Ritus.exe, Mark6597, JamesMoose, Sergey Woropaew and Anonymous: 52
Timeline of computing 201019 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20computing%202010%E2%80%9319?oldid=
644286281 Contributors: Greenrd, Derek R Bullamore, Newone, Tgok, Funandtrvl, Grayfell, Yobot, Bunnyhop11, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Materialscientist, Mark Schierbecker, Catlemur, Frietjes, BG19bot, Frze, Ritus.exe, Epicgenius, JamesMoose, Linuxjava, Jon
Jonathan, Enrinor and Anonymous: 11
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Tobias Hoevekamp, Derek Ross, Tuxisuau, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, Tarquin, Ted Longstae, Eijkhout, Perry Bebbington, Chuckr30,
DavidLevinson, Ellmist, Modemac, Erik Zachte, Lexor, Nixdorf, Cyan, Greenrd, Phil Boswell, Ancheta Wis, Guanaco, D6, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Shanes, Hu, K3rb, Mattbrundage, Nuno Tavares, Brunnock, Graham87, Jpbowen, Shawnc, Rwwww, SmackBot,
Jagged 85, Betacommand, Mdwh, Onionmon, Dl2000, Pgr94, BhaiSaab, BetacommandBot, AntiVandalBot, Ventriloquist, Funandtrvl,
VolkovBot, Monty845, AlleborgoBot, Dawn Bard, OKBot, CharlesGillingham, Chocoforfriends, WikHead, Ghettoblaster, LaaknorBot,
Legobot, Xqbot, FrescoBot, Ozhu, Pinethicket, EmausBot, W163, ClueBot NG, BG19bot, Rixxardo, ProtossPylon and Anonymous: 36
Microsoft Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft?oldid=644821204 Contributors: AxelBoldt, TwoOneTwo, Matthew Woodcraft,
LC, Joakim Ziegler, Brion VIBBER, Eloquence, Mav, Wesley, Robert Merkel, The Anome, Tarquin, Stephen Gilbert, Taw, DanKeshet,
Mark Ryan, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Ted Longstae, Youssefsan, Christopher Mahan, Aldie, Matusz, PierreAbbat, Nate Silva, SimonP,
Hannes Hirzel, Ellmist, Rcingham, Heron, Hotlorp, Camembert, Hephaestos, Olivier, Chris Q, Nknight, Leandrod, Xoder, Mrwojo, Frecklefoot, Edward, K.lee, RTC, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Kwertii, Cprompt, Lezek, Nixdorf, Liftarn, Pstreck, Menchi, Tannin, Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, Graue, Zanimum, Aarrrggghhh, TakuyaMurata, Theanthrope, Karada, Flamurai, Dori, Paddu, (, Paul A, SebastianHelm,
7265, Minesweeper, Tregoweth, CesarB, Stw, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Ronz, Elano, Snoyes, TUF-KAT, Notheruser, Angela, Kingturtle,
Randywombat, Alvaro, LittleDan, Jschwa1, Djmutex, Bogdangiusca, Poor Yorick, Phenry, Nikai, Netsnipe, Cadr, IMSoP, Dpol, Jimregan, Evercat, David Stewart, JamesReyes, Qwert, John K, DesertSteve, Lukobe, Daveryan, Lee M, Mxn, Raven in Orbit, Denny, GRAHAMUK, ElGringo, Hashar, Uriber, Emperorbma, Mbstone, Dcoetzee, Andrevan, Dmsar, Ww, Viajero, Paul Stansifer, Dysprosia, Tedius Zanarukando, Jay, Fuzheado, WhisperToMe, IceKarma, DJ Clayworth, Chriskong37, Markhurd, Tpbradbury, Morwen, K1Bond007,
Tempshill, Tonius, Paul-L, Ed g2s, Wernher, Snarl, Samsara, Thue, Bevo, Wonko, Sandman, Jecar, Geraki, Khym Chanur, Fvw, Raul654,
Dpbsmith, Pakaran, Secretlondon, Johnleemk, Flockmeal, Veghead, Guppy, Frazzydee, Pollinator, Francs2000, Jeq, Bjrn, Onebyone,
Mrdice, Denelson83, SD6-Agent, Robbot, Paranoid, Dale Arnett, MrJones, Chealer, Noldoaran, AlainV, Astronautics, Earl Andrew, Pigsonthewing, ChrisO, Fredrik, Chris 73, Dumbledad, Matt me, R3m0t, Scott McNay, Alrasheedan, Vespristiano, RedWolf, Chocolateboy, Moncrief, Nyh, ZimZalaBim, Altenmann, Yelyos, Romanm, Modulatum, Mintchocicecream, Lowellian, Chris Roy, Samrolken, Tim
Ivorson, Markcollinsx, Thunderbolt16, Mirv, Babbage, Postdlf, P0lyglut, Merovingian, Tualha, Academic Challenger, TimR, Hemanshu,
SchmuckyTheCat, Texture, Meelar, DHN, Sunray, Bkell, EvilPettingZoo, Hadal, Mit2b, Ilya (usurped), Profoss, Mushroom, ElBenevolente, Lupo, Unyounyo, Rayzor, Cyrius, Znode, Superm401, Pengo, Dina, Peter L, Solver, David Gerard, Enochlau, Rdash, Psb777,
Matthew Stannard, Matt Gies, Centrx, Indy, DosBubba, Christopher Parham, Jacoplane, Gtrmp, DavidCary, Laudaka, Akadruid, Homeobocks, Nadavspi, Inter, Fudoreaper, WRJ, Tom harrison, Lupin, Ferkelparade, Brian Kendig, Orangemike, Zigger, Sploo22, Leyman,
Cool Hand Luke, Marcika, Peruvianllama, Alterego, Everyking, No Guru, Zsweden, Fleminra, Curps, Simon Lacoste-Julien, Henry Flower,
Niteowlneils, Emacsuser, Guanaco, Avsa, EJDyksen, Tyir, Mboverload, AlistairMcMillan, Thomas Ludwig, Profke, Gugilymugily, Falcon
Kirtaran, Timbatron, SWAdair, Pne, Uzume, AdamJacobMuller, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, Jrdioko, Golbez, ALargeElk, RcktScientistX,
Neilc, Greyfedora, Barneyboo, Gadum, Pgan002, Alexf, Knutux, Jpkoester1, Zeimusu, Slowking Man, Quadell, Antandrus, Beland,
Joeblakesley, MistToys, Quarl, Redune, PDH, Timealterer, Mark5677, Jossi, Phil Sandifer, Grauw, Rpm, Rdsmith4, Cb6, JimWae,
DragonySixtyseven, Maxlmus Rex, Maximus-Rex, Pat Berry, Jesster79, Maximaximax, Szajd, Bornslippy, Kevin B12, Krupo, Mysidia,
Jareha, ErikNY, Indolering, Gscshoyru, Soman, Joyous!, Imjustmatthew, Ropers, Brolap, Cab88, Syvanen, CohenTheBavarian, Karl Dickman, MementoVivere, Demiurge, Surngslovak, DMG413, Zondor, Adashiel, Grunt, Heliocentric, EagleOne, Ekai, Gazpacho, Mike
Rosoft, Alkivar, Frankchn, AAAAA, Freakofnurture, Monkeyman, Sujith84, Zarxos, CALR, Jisatsusha, DanielCD, EugeneZelenko, Hayford Peirce, A-giau, Patricknoddy, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Alexkon, Hydrox, Oliver Lineham, C12H22O11, Oska, Rama, Vsmith,
Zen-master, ArnoldReinhold, EliasAlucard, Smyth, Barista, Seweso, MeltBanana, Luxdormiens, Xezbeth, Mjpieters, Abelson, WikiPediaAid, Roodog2k, Gronky, SpookyMulder, Indrian, Bender235, ESkog, Android79, Kbh3rd, FrankCostanza, Goplat, Swid, Ground, Evice,
Brian0918, Darren Foong, Bobdoe, Danieljackson, Mind the gap, CheekyMonkey, CanisRufus, Kop, Purplefeltangel, Sfahey, El C, Zenohockey, Mwanner, Cafzal, Worldtraveller, Aude, PhilHibbs, Shanes, Mr. Strong Bad, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Triona, Bookofjude, Saturnight, Smashing, Lyght, Mcorr, DaClam, Femto, Dalf, CeeGee, Jpgordon, Causa sui, Alxndr, Bobo192, Iamunknown, Babomb, JonGwynne, Adraeus, K0hlrabi, BrokenSegue, Bds, Apyule, Dungodung, Jerryseinfeld, La goutte de pluie, Jojit fb, Alphax, Rje, LostLeviathan,
Minghong, GChriss, John Fader, James Foster, Sam Korn, Haham hanuka, Vanished user azby388723i8jfjh32, Benbread, NeilSantos,
Hooperbloob, Frank78, Merope, HasharBot, Jason One, Zellin, Rye1967, Ranveig, Alison9, Mattmentecky, WideArc, Orzetto, Poweroid,
Alansohn, Gary, Etxrge, Csabo, Mathwizxp, Sareen eng, Quess, Jamyskis, Guy Harris, Hoovernj, Asdewq, Keyser Sze, Joolz, Cormaggio,
Borisblue, Atlant, Mr Adequate, Philosophistry, Blx, Jtalledo, Dachannien, John Quiggin, Apoorvbadami, ABCD, Anittas, Hellhound,
Yamla, MarkGallagher, Krischik, Hoary, Lightdarkness, Apoc2400, Kurieeto, Gurulegend, InShaneee, Spangineer, Hu, Malo, Bart133,
Jedav, Wtmitchell, BanyanTree, Super-Magician, ShunterAlhena, KB3JUV, Fourthords, Kdau, Knowledge Seeker, ReyBrujo, Cburnett, Evil Monkey, Rockin, Harej, Wikicaz, Sciurin, Zxcvbnm, LFaraone, Kaushik twin, Henry W. Schmitt, MIT Trekkie, Redvers,
Instantnood, HGB, HenryLi, Bookandcoee, Dan100, Umapathy, Cristan, RyanGerbil10, Tom.k, Mattster, KUsam, Newnoise, Weyes,
MickWest, Rakslice, Hoziron, Boothy443, Kelly Martin, Simetrical, Zudduz, Jasonm, Bushytails, OwenX, Woohookitty, Jannex, Mindmatrix, Vanished User 3388458, RHaworth, Sam Burke, Brazil4Linux, TigerShark, Nuggetboy, Thorpe, Uncle G, Admcs13, Alci12, Matey,
Bratsche, Admrboltz, Robert K S, Pol098, Queerudite, Commander Keane, ^demon, Mcy, Ruud Koot, JeremyA, Chochopk, Apokrif,
Tabletop, Squirrelist, Tomlillis, Schzmo, Wikiklrsc, Bbatsell, Terence, Mangojuice, Torqueing, StephenDawson, SCEhardt, Red Dalek,
Csaribay, Sega381, Rchamberlain, Vanished895703, Zzyzx11, Kralizec!, Jonnabuz, Wayward, Toussaint, LinkTiger, Palica, Pfalstad, Trewornan, Marudubshinki, MrSomeone, Kesla, SqueakBox, Ashmoo, JEB90, Graham87, Marskell, Sam gheiace, Magister Mathematicae,
Hillbrand, Ktalah, BD2412, Qwertyus, Elvey, Deadcorpse, MC MasterChef, Kbdank71, FreplySpang, Psm, JIP, RxS, Melesse, Reisio,
Icey, Ryan Norton, Sj, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Seekreeper, Seidenstud, Tim!, Koavf, War, Inventingfacts, Vary, T0ny, PHenry, Hack-Man,
TAS, JoshuacUK, Tangotango, MZMcBride, Tawker, ErikHaugen, SpNeo, MariusStrom, Quietust, Oblivious, Ligulem, Ghepeu, Durin,

40.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

435

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Yamamoto Ichiro, A Man In Black, Fish and karate, SNIyer12, JanSuchy, Saksham, Wikiprojryan, Exeunt, FayssalF, Hackerquaker,
Titoxd, Sgkay, SlaunchaMan, FlaBot, Emarsee, Bmwboy, JFromm, Nonsequiturmine, Eyas, Mirror Vax, RobertG, Ground Zero, Spaceman85, Geldart, Musical Linguist, Doc glasgow, 1221, 1222, 12234, Crazycomputers, Megamac, Mathiastck, Garyvdm, Nivix, Isotope23,
Fragglet, Mark83, RexNL, Gurch, 7x, 7xh, Mitsukai, AndriuZ, SlimXero, CoolFox, Oggy, Gesiwuj, Epukinsk, Alphachimp, GreyCat, Tedder, Kanohievi, Mr Bartels, Ahunt, Exe, Aspro, Idaltu, Spencerk, Manufracture, Psantora, King of Hearts, Stormscape, Chobot, Daekharel,
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Bruguiea, CensorBot, Joshdboz, Grafen, Deskana, TheoYaung, Kmcguinness9, Ahills60, Johann Wolfgang, TheDaringDuke, DarthVader,
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Thetoaster3, Oliverdl, Malepheasant, Pelister, Haemo, CLW, Syed, Xpclient, Dan Austin, Mjsabby, Phenz, Priyananda, DonBruce,
Dv82matt, Wknight94, PGPirate, Tetracube, BazookaJoe, FF2010, Bcshell, Illuminatiscott, Zzuuzz, Spongebob64, Jsrduck, Lt-wiki-bot,
Trisreed, Bismark.a, The-, Raijinili, SFGiants, Cloudbound, Clindhartsen, Nikkimaria, Jwissick, Th1rt3en, SMcCandlish, Dr.alf, Zsynopsis, Vandalism01, Sean Whitton, BorgQueen, GraemeL, Aeon1006, JoanneB, Alias Flood, Shawnc, PureLegend, Tenox, JLaTondre,
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Broughton, Tyomitch, GrinBot, Samuel Blanning, GunnerJr, Amberrock, DVD R W, Serrie, One, Thekietstu, Rykotsusei, Anthony717,
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SmackBot, RossyMiles, Alan Pascoe, YellowMonkey, Nick Dillinger, Nmnmnm, Thomas Ash, Bobet, Haza-w, Estoy Aqu, Lcarsdata,
Maelwys, Zanter, InverseHypercube, KnowledgeOfSelf, Royalguard11, Throup, F, Full Eect, David.Mestel, Gribeco, Unyoyega, Pgk,
Cutter, Michael Diederich, Jacek Kendysz, Kilo-Lima, Thunderboltz, Btm, Piccadilly, Sciintel, BurntSky, SonoftheMorning, Anastrophe,
Alepik, Jrockley, Knilt, Delldot, Ajm81, Kopaka649, Mchs3d, Lion King, Davidbau, Fnfd, Scott Paeth, Hbackman, JimmyBlackwing,
Cronium, HalfShadow, Alsandro, Xxxyyy, Rjayres, Xaosux, Yamaguchi , Aksi great, Gilliam, Fortunata, Ohnoitsjamie, Folajimi, Betacommand, Oscarthecat, Isaac Dupree, SamWhited, Andy M. Wang, Cowman109, Jero77, Saros136, AstareGod, Chris the speller, Rokeaj,
Master Jay, TheDarkArchon, Kurykh, Geneb1955, Persian Poet Gal, JDowning, ElTchanggo, Asdfasdfghjk, Thumperward, Raymond arritt,
BabuBhatt, Ejg930, Cbh, ViolinGirl, MalafayaBot, Realitycheckmate, Schftythree628, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Azizasif, Sampi, Whispering, Kungming2, Baronnet, DHN-bot, Colonies Chris, Terraguy, U, Konstable, Wisden17, Antonrojo, Firetrap9254,
Fishmech, Nintendude, Narco, Mensuur, KieferSkunk, Nabeez, Zsinj, Stephen Hui, Kotra, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, John Hyams, 1(),
Jahiegel, , Hildanknight, HoodedMan, AussieLegend, Frap, Writtenright, X570, OrphanBot, Onorem, Jennica, Nixeagle, Cdouglas, AMK152, Rohawn, Xquiky, TheKMan, Ranmin, Kc32, Rassilon, Edivorce, Thrasher141, BWCNY, Khoikhoi, Pepsidrinka,
Sspecter, Fatjooooooseph, BadgerBadger, NoIdeaNick, Adamcobb, Stingraycu, Theonlyedge, Canuckid, Cybercobra, Tapered, Cka3n,
Decltype, Hhhhhh, Nakon, VegaDark, MichaelBillington, EVula, RaCha'ar, Dsarokin, Dream out loud, SeLfkiLL, Richard001, Warren,
Anoriega, KdogDS, Weregerbil, Doogie2K, Only, BryanG, Fubr, Mwtoews, Smart Fox, Ts4z, Kotjze, Engleham, Note360, Kalathalan,
Acdx, The Gilly, Luigi.a.cruz, LeoNomis, Ligulembot, Manojlds, Candorwien, J.smith, Vina-iwbot, Ghanghro, Ck lostsword, Pilotguy,
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Harris, Xkxdxmx, Candamir, Footballrocks41237, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Guat6, Slinga, Edwy, Gert2, W437913e, Minna
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Emurph, RyJones, AxG, DUMBELLS, SandyGeorgia, Jstupple7, Anomicene, Dhp1080, Cyanidesandwich, Tuspm, ModusOperandi, Ryulong, Atomicrooster, Condem, Oliperas, Shijaz, MTSbot, Zapvet, Avant Guard, BigT2006, Galactor213, JesusChrist2, Copey 2, Vtt395,
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TexMurphy, Dylan Lake, Superzohar, Quaker*oats, The Wild World of All-Time, THEunique, AdamDeanHall, Malcolm, Chill doubt,
Mr. Cherry Leggs, AubreyEllenShomo, Fearless Son, Myanw, Bomdemais, Psking, Canadian-Bacon, Obeattie, Rbb l181, Katous1978, JTMILLER, Markthemac, Bigjimr, JAnDbot, Chaitanya.lala, Samanello, Husond, Jimothytrotter, Kethinov, MER-C, Epeeeche, Ughugh,

436

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

T h e M a v e r i c k, Qasamaan, JamesRDavison, Shadowsurge, Conrad Devonshire likes Angela LOL!, BCube, VYS, Daprofessor,
Celegos, Hello32020, Emorph, Nicholas Tan, Honette, Revener, Zeeboid, Wiz126, Andonic, Roleplayer, Greensburger, PhilKnight, MastaShake1108, Dream Focus, Makron1n, HAl, Robert Buzink, Acroterion, Pchelpworld, SteveSims, Meeples, DoohanOK, Lil AzZa, Magioladitis, Dokteriq, Bakilas, Cmmm, VoABot II, Elpato, AuburnPilot, Hyipo, DjiXas, Yandman, Farquaadhnchmn, Evanreiser, Think
outside the box, Hangid, Lucyin, Gabe1972, Dark88, Jim Douglas, Jatkins, Avicennasis, Jessehess990, I JethroBT, Ahmadbilal1, Steevm,
Vanished user ty12kl89jq10, AlReece45, Pacorro55, Daarznieks, Xnoahx, Ciao 90, Bssa, LookingGlass, Deanostrodamus, Tsaiight, Mike
Payne, Chivista, Poing137, Lpo0, Total vid, Vssun, Brunky, Chewwtoy, Kalay bg, Horacegoesskiing, DerHexer, Hitech5, Esanchez7587,
Pquinn001, Khalid Mahmood, Pxvxn, Pax:Vobiscum, TheRanger, DIEXEL, Migur, Inclusivedisjunction, Sfdgsdhkfdh, Alexville, MasterDragon, Paliku, 0612, Alexandre linhares, Mithras6, DancingPenguin, FisherQueen, Aseemb, Jemijohn, Pauly04, Hdt83, MartinBot,
Rukaribe, CliC, Thirtysixway, Rzvagelsky, Rufus44, Lol2, Mikco, Poeloq, Eat123, COstop, Tech Nerd, EdwinCasado, Motley Crue
Rocks, Rrv1988, Bissinger, Egalre, Coolbeans101, Chiapet22025, Cheese man 5, Mpcovcd, Seedo, Timhann, Sweetback, LD18, Dominic7848, Adoado, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, The Telephone Company, Jenova1, IceD, Csobrito, Smokizzy, Liquidsnakejr, Dmiat, Midwestmax, Paranomia, Pkoden, Terrahertz1012, Player181, DrKiernan, JFM123, Robinhood1013, Bongomatic, Nick thelot, Kulshrax, Ali,
JamesR, Bogey97, UBeR, Cyanolinguophile, Kloper, Hellojon, Noob1, Jackobson, Javawizard, Mike Winters, Iporter26, Jesant13, Indiealtphreak, Richard1931, Extransit, Cuddly Panda, Michael Calwell, Magician that makes things white, Scurless, Leomancini, Tony ducati,
Walafrid, Cwbh, Jfkwentdown, Wvb20, Spmcnamee, Doom 124, WikiBone, FrummerThanThou, Dispenser, Zhimsel, Umopapisdnwi,
Starnestommy, Crocodile Punter, Zero Serenity, Falcon866, Chrono13, Wildball, Maxberners, Noahcs, Soobes, Orcatherelentless, WHeimbigner, Panhead666, Imamoron, Fullmetal2887, Davud363000, Cncccer, The Game 23, Moople22, Ln 922.4194 = 6.827, Peiling717,
Tombtom, Biscuit brain, SJP, Demoname5, Looblo115, Ccd2005740, SC10E, Johnno41, Allenjg21, 2812, Group29, Jcbparry, Joshua Issac, Hnaluru, Josh Tumath, WJBscribe, MoralesFanBoy, Jordanashley11, Remember the dot, AMD Exec, Carrosion, Non-existent account,
ElliotAdderton, U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A., Meryl Kiniry, Tetrasoft, Misingnoglic, Bcoeecat, Zhuman, Sarregouset, DMCer, Mcoeecat, Peeingpeopleo, Kurt 176, Monaroman, Ajfweb, Empline, Jaymindesai, Codycod10, Jvcdude, Fortunefaded, Red Thrush, Babygurl1853,
Luke255, Scott Illini, Linkagent, Zomglolwtfzor, Fiatofdeath, Mr Wesker, Coolman12, TheNewPhobia, Tkgd2007, Specter01010, Czexican, BugMan2, Analyzit, Rpeh, CardinalDan, BBilge, Idioma-bot, Spellcast, Olliepp, NJguy281, Meow07, Horstvonludwig, Fainites,
Psychocube, Throm, Jrugordon, UnicornTapestry, Crashsystems, Team7826, RoseTech, VolkovBot, Adrian90, Maddox rools, Thedjatclubrock, Jamcib, Enderminh, RingtailedFox, Leopold Stotch, Carter, Engwiki, Hersfold, Siufaiho, Je G., Kevinkor2, Niceley, Ramkumar
venkat, Ponch 316, Firefox guru, Gunnar Guvararson, X-play, Jacroe, Julian Carter, Barneca, Pvss, Philip Trueman, Eric outdoors,
Nosredna, Amother, Davidthejew, TXiKiBoT, Dreadrx7, WJSProwler, Ushadwa, Third hand smoking, Flyte35, El3mentary, InnovatorM,
Muro de Aguas, Harold Flowers, Aschthebloody, Noalslob, Technopat, Mathwiz3141, Jazzwick, Defeatjosh, Rsecker, Kreizhn, Eddyjackson, Naetle hikozaru pochama, Richard 354, Mosmof, Andy Smells, Rrtrent500, Emilmm, Qxz, Yourshue, FJGhkghjyh, CheesePlease
NL, Zunefan, Bsmith201, Jared989, Jason C.K., PointSkull, Lradrama, Sintaku, Melsaran, DennyColt, Pompariusliving345, Vinay412,
Bob Andolusorn, Herblin, QBasicer, HuskyHuskie, Takers biggest fan, KD-G722, Krismanx, UnitedStatesian, Je.homme, Mat Wilson, ElliotThomas, Urbanrenewal, Zoef1234, Unreal223, Certh, Haseo9999, WJetChao, BluejacketT, Purgatory Fubar, Nextrate, Avngd
SvenX, Vikrant42, Gepcsirke, Oklahoman, Tuxkicksass, Linkin.alvin, Twooars, Asim18, Doc James, AlleborgoBot, Eli81993, Anoko
moonlight, Olivierdamas, Iammrysh, Javier Donoso, ClarkLewis, PakistanGangster, CJ1158, EmxBot, The Legend of Zelda: Endless
Darkness, S.rvarr.S, Demmy, OsamaK, The Random Editor, Fanatix, Rolltide3738, Ponyo, Patman21, SieBot, Coee, AlasdairBailey,
Megaboy1337, Meltonkt, Liamo m, Jake987654321, Scarian, Sumitomo, Huewt4ever, Mrydude, Gileshacon, Winchelsea, Moon Rising,
Gerakibot, Josh the Nerd, Kalayaan, Matthew Yeager, Erier2003, Triwbe, Sephiroth storm, Macgyver89, Vanished user 82345ijgeke4tg,
Andrew Steller, Laurasmith76, Yulu, Mustangddg, Abhishikt, HimMan, Kanisha Mui, The Evil Spartan, Arbor to SJ, Letueros, Kondara4, T3hhax, Wilson44691, Callumunro, Asiliea, Hza100, Arcanine2k7, Allmightyduck, Devenish1850, Eurovision+rain=sad, Bsherr,
Bob98133, Gzgianfreda, Oxymoron83, Aspects, Alinnisawest, Spock2266, Lightmouse, Hak-k-ngn, Chad Kroeger, Musse-kloge, Mr
White, RouterIncident, Masonwheeler, Darkstar416, Anakin101, Dantheman88, StaticGull, Shivkpr16, Simile, Conrad.pramboeck, Soulrefrain, Maralia, Illegal Operation, Wiknerd, Mr. Stradivarius, Pem56, Dabomb87, Florentino oro, Nonerds0, Mcdogit, Xnatedawgx,
Blood3, Rogue Commander, Squash Racket, WikipedianMarlith, Secle, Deepen03, Martarius, Separa, ClueBot, The Thing That Should
Not Be, Rodhullandemu, Chrisofgenesis, Skiesofarcadiarulez, Plastikspork, ZippyGoogle, Neelchauhan, Suck12, Bendomac, Czarko,
Inuboy1000, Sga, Kellyjdrummer, Drmies, Rahim.Shabbir, Boing! said Zebedee, Timberframe, Here4thefood, Thegreatglobetrotter,
ICaleb.g4, Ottawahitech, Buckinkb, Deanvesuvio, The 888th Avatar, Cavalryman101, Trivialist, Hart90x, ChandlerMapBot, Secret (renamed), Sen amitava, Paulcmnt, Beenagent, Ty9dude, Stepshep, Alexkraegen, Resoru, Justin545, Agares65, Adimovk5, Tin77, Winston365, Tehjunker, TITAN 069, Wordwright, Old Shadow, Arjayay, Jotterbot, WalterGR, Jcangell, Tj1235711, M.O.X, Wttheninja,
KennethMPennington, Halo2attack, DanielPharos, Greenhelium, Thingg, EijdlaG, Nblschool, AntiVanMan, StevenDH, Mike9e92, Piratesmvp04, Akira-otomo, SF007, Ashford11, Mayankgates, MasterOfHisOwnDomain, DumZiBoT, Abcpp, Nathann sc, Jondo220, Sikskill47, Xmcgirk, Huggle, Stickee, BDFun, Blackwatch21, Svgalbertian, WikiRedactor, WillOakland, Networkengine, Rreagan007, NHJG,
Ck135667, Sha721, Stanleyivan, Badboycjr, Nathanrs10, Imnath, Teckdiva, Yfrwlf, Kodster, Punymortalslayer, Carlsueno1, Addbot,
Yousou, Ghettoblaster, Cdawwwg, IXavier, MrWacco, Vytheese, Ronhjones, Guy1423, Snailmail334, Scientus, Debloper, Sharnden,
Danoyz, Download, Joechua1996, RTG, ShepBot, Laskdfj456, Avtech, Lihaas, AndersBot, Sgtduty, Debresser, Favonian, Thepoet82,
Exor674, Jasper Deng, Tassedethe, St ttb, VASANTH S.N., AlexSh154, Tide rolls, Verbal, Lightbot, Ross Rhodes, Faunas, Apteva,
Zorrobot, Nicolas Love, Blablablob, Sdxvi, Legobot, Luckas-bot, BaldPark, Yobot, OrgasGirl, Cm001, AmaraBot, Nallimbot, Bugnot,
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Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, EagleOne, Gazpacho, Jayjg, Wikiti, R, ChrisRuvolo, N328KF, Monkeyman, Imroy, CALR, Beirne, Jkl,
Discospinster, Neep, Brianhe, Patricknoddy, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Pak21, Pmsyyz, Qutezuce, Metamatic, Thomas de Bruin,
Wk muriithi, Autiger, Night Gyr, Indrian, Bender235, ESkog, Jaberwocky6669, Kbh3rd, Kaisershatner, JoeSmack, Sgeo, Brian0918,
Ylee, CanisRufus, MBisanz, DS1953, Mascdman, Skware, Leif, Coolcaesar, Warpozio, Thunderbrand, Bootedcat, Bobo192, Longhair,
Smalljim, Adraeus, Walkiped, MITalum, Wisdom89, Cohesion, Giraedata, KBi, Slambo, Anonymous Cow, Jdabney, Drux, Ocrho,
Haham hanuka, Amcl, Jonathunder, Hooperbloob, Nsaa, Ociallyover, Mdd, Jumbuck, Alison9, Alansohn, Gary, PaulHanson, Mo0,
Nezbie, Somebody in the WWW, Andrewpmk, John Quiggin, Howrealisreal, Riana, Ashley Pomeroy, WhizzBang, AzaToth, Yamla, Fat
pig73, Apoc2400, Kurieeto, Mailer diablo, Gurulegend, InShaneee, Mysdaao, Spangineer, Wtmitchell, Velella, Object.toString(), Suruena, Dtcdthingy, Docboat, Max Naylor, Tony Sidaway, LFaraone, Kaiser matias, Bsadowski1, Gunter, SarahSmiles, Axeman89, Archagon,
Djsasso, Greenmind, Blaxthos, Bookandcoee, Ceyockey, Phi beta, TerminalPreppie, RyanGerbil10, Dismas, Oleg Alexandrov, UTF-8,
Empoor, Pcpcpc, Bobrayner, TorontoStorm, Boothy443, Firsfron, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Justinlebar, Camw, LOL, David Haslam,
Thivierr, Benhocking, Madchester, MattGiuca, Robert K S, JohnCongerton, Pol098, Commander Keane, Former user 2, Mms, KymFarnik,
Pchov, Quadra630, Wikiklrsc, Mangojuice, Zeerus, Justin Ormont, DeweyQ, Eluchil, Dovid, Allen3, Rtcpenguin, Kesla, Graham87, JiMidnite, Hillbrand, SamuraiClinton, Kbdank71, ALepik, Reisio, Ryan Norton, Rjwilmsi, Seidenstud, Koavf, Mfwills, Erebus555, IChrisI,
JoshuacUK, Urban011, MZMcBride, Agiorgio, Vegaswikian, UriBudnik, The wub, Lehk, MLRoach, Mscudder, Oo64eva, St33lbird,
Yamamoto Ichiro, A Man In Black, Titoxd, FlaBot, Mkamat, SchuminWeb, Ground Zero, Dan Guan, PinkDeoxys, Latka, Nihiltres,
Strangnet, Kmorozov, RexNL, Nimur, RobyWayne, Alphachimp, Tysto, Tedder, BradBeattie, AlexandreB, Idaltu, Chobot, DVdm, JJMG,
Hahnchen, Gwernol, Roygbiv666, Aluvus, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, Eraserhead1, OtherPerson, Beltz, MMuzammils, RussBot,
Clib, Rsshilli, Garglebutt, AVM, DanMS, Chensiyuan, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Wgungfu, Cryptic, Dsmouse, SamJohnston, Wikimachine, NawlinWiki, Dialectric, Aeusoes1, Thatdog, Alpertron, Ou tis, Mmccalpin, Gareth Jones, Steven Hepting, ChicosBailBonds,
Howcheng, Irishguy, Shinmawa, Brandon, Brian Crawford, CecilWard, Marc44, Nick C, PM Poon, ManoaChild, Falcon9x5, Samir, Vlad,
Bota47, Bnitin, Xpclient, Lumaga, Virtig01, Theodolite, Lt-wiki-bot, Ninly, Closedmouth, Zr2d2, , KGasso, GotenXiao, MaNeMeBasat, GraemeL, DGaw, Lpm, TheQuaker, Superp, Shawnc, JLaTondre, Fsiler, Whaa?, AGToth, David Biddulph, Rob G Weemho,
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Leip, Achille, KJS77, ICEBreaker, MikeWazowski, JeW, Woodroar, Iridescent, Rouven Thimm, DantisS, Hagindaz, J Di, Joao.caprivi,
Dragonix, Kmbush40, Aeons, DEddy, SYx, Courcelles, Cheeesemonger, Neurillon, Chovain, FairuseBot, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim,
WallStreetJournal, USA 5000, AbsolutDan, Eastlaw, Amniarix, Fma12, INkubusse, Jmalc, Mapsax, Alexa411, Ahy1, Japanfan, TimothyHorrigan, Fabe3k, Zarex, Rholliday, THF, Amehta02, MarsRover, Lazulilasher, DAB-NYC, Old Guard, Vannguy, Sandeep117, Cydebot, Danrok, Solarisworld, Reywas92, Vinoo202, Shamesspwns, Dafoeberezin3494, Rieman 82, Gogo Dodo, Flowerpotman, Llort,
Myscrnnm, Futureobservatory, Bugur, Timetcher, Mycroft.Holmes, Simon Brady, Trident13, Dancter, Mister Tog, B, Dv8tor, BenShade, Kozuch, ErrantX, Ike-bana, Omicronpersei8, Geekosaurus, Sathishvm, IScorpio, Thijs!bot, NeoPhyteRep, NatR, Hyperboreer88,
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438

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

Homo, Grayshi, Orilux, WhaleyTim, Samotto, XvirusX, Dawnseeker2000, GravityIsForSuckers, Buron444, KrakatoaKatie, Rees11, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, KickahaOta, Prolog, Dr. Blofeld, Jayron32, Lyricmac, Azbert, Scepia, Epcostello, Jc3, Toohool,
Jhsounds, BMGRAHAM, Golgofrinchian, JAnDbot, Chaitanya.lala, Samanello, NapoliRoma, Barek, Dustin gayler, MER-C, Arch dude,
Eurobas, FarnhamJ, OhanaUnited, Andonic, Deb.techno, PhilKnight, Robert Buzink, Freshacconci, Klasnicinhk, Angelofdeath275, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JNW, Sarahj2107, Ecksemmess, Steven Walling, Rich257, Twsx, Mouchoir le Souris, The Anomebot2, Gr1st, Bubba
hotep, WhatamIdoing, Knows stu, BjF, SeattleRetro, Animum, Sink257, Greg Grahame, Gusash, Glen, Rajpaj, DerHexer, Gavin Wilson,
Textorus, Johnbrownsbody, DIEXEL, Shivanshub, Yensin, Blondinm, RichMac, 0612, Alexandre linhares, Nicool333, Gjd001, Flowanda,
Jerem43, Skumarla, MartinBot, Bboyskidz, CliC, Arjun01, Philhower, Superteam1, Rettetast, Anaxial, Cholga, Keith D, Mmusiolik,
R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, PrestonH, Thewallowmaker, Lilac Soul, Siliconov, Blacknale, DenityCommunications, Tgeairn, J.delanoy,
Trusilver, Bongomatic, W2bh, Bogey97, Ginsengbomb, Huwey, MartinSFSA, Aqwis, Katalaveno, 5735ashley, Aboutmovies, Philclu,
Crocodile Punter, Oceanynn, Siegfried1, AntiSpamBot, M-le-mot-dit, Jemsmith70, NewEnglandYankee, Nwbeeson, West81, Xgmx,
Tascha96, 3dom, Jezstewart, Hanacy, Althepal, KylieTastic, Tibetologist, Tkaizan, Natl1, Wlgrin, Jvcdude, Red Thrush, Silvie rob, Cccp71,
Commander-64, Andy Marchbanks, Cmtam922, Useight, Analyzit, Athepirate08, CardinalDan, Funandtrvl, Deor, 28bytes, VolkovBot,
Jamcib, TheQuandry, Alanfeld, Ionut.shaggy, Rubyuser, Torswin, MarekTT, Bjmarto, SexyBern, Drunkenmonkey, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah,
Mercurywoodrose, Jkeene, Alan Rockefeller, GroveGuy, Technopat, A4bot, SueHay, GOD ACRONYM, CoJaBo, Shaeckel, Mitchel1682,
Minkaishorea, Seraphchoir, Prince of History, Brunton, Ricardian92, Martin451, Canaima, Modal Jig, UnitedStatesian, Starseeker shkm,
Winbuyer, Madhero88, Robo.mind, James Seneca, PlayStation 69, MartinPackerIBM, WiggettMonster, Wpktsfs, Billinghurst, Csrbabu,
Wisdom002, Imanpc101, SQL, Siddthekidd, Synthebot, AgentCDE, The Devils Advocate, Mohawks, Dmcq, Funeral, Jimmi Hugh, Logan, LuigiManiac, MrChupon, Javier Donoso, JarlinFo, Austriacus, SieBot, Mikemoral, TJRC, JiE, YonaBot, Cew79, Tiddly Tom, Scarian,
Malcolmxl5, Mathinker, Krawi, Gerakibot, Caltas, Matthew Yeager, TheSlowLife, Swaq, Miremare, M.thoriyan, TyrellC, Breawycker,
Flyer22, A. Carty, Belinrahs, Editore99, Elcobbola, Crowstar, Meateater, Baseball Bugs, MiNombreDeGuerra, Android Mouse Bot 3,
Mmkaram, HarisPorobic, Lightmouse, North wiki, Hobartimus, Saravanan rose, Sanya3, Dannyisawesome4, Harry the Dirty Dog, Kumioko, Valeria.depaiva, Conrad.pramboeck, Wuhwuzdat, Sean.hoyland, Dania4, Mygerardromance, TaerkastUA, Dust Filter, Mr. Stradivarius, Neo., TubularWorld, Denisarona, Xnatedawgx, Floorwalker, Vmanjr, Snarkosis, Joshkap18, Webteam orano, Lc9zb495, Reece
Hannam, Martarius, ClueBot, Soccer baker, Ritson Pinheiro, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, Elegantprashant, Templetongore, Mauricio Godoy, Pairadox, Dlabtot, Hschatz, Shaded0, Thegreatglobetrotter, Ottawahitech, 9-11 suicide bomber, Puchiko, Auntof6,
Awatt6, Pointillist, Paulcmnt, Fluykryptonite, DragonBot, Ktr101, Excirial, Jusdafax, Javascap, SpikeToronto, Sun Creator, NuclearWarfare, Cenarium, Jotterbot, Kippson, Eustress, Doommaster1994, Michaeldavisgv, Saebjorn, Polly, Stepheng3, Aitias, Naveennarula,
JDPhD, Joedaddy09, Blow of Light, Johnuniq, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, DumZiBoT, CBMIBM, Darkicebot, DZiemke, Escientist, AncientToaster, Aj00200, XLinkBot, Koro Neil, Rror, Wikiuser100, Edroppontiii, Jjjddd444222, Svgalbertian, WikHead, NellieBly,
PL290, Badgernet, Noctibus, Mm40, Jakezing, JCDenton2052, Duke of Geography, Ethan kee, The obs, Karonza21, BitterTwitter, Addbot, Speer320, Ghettoblaster, Nerdy117, Russellweiseld, Strode1, DOI bot, Jojhutton, Mabdul, Kingk21, Tjwolfe, M.nelson, Evannewman830, Skyworkeralan, MrGraber, TutterMouse, Fieldday-sunday, Bte99, CanadianLinuxUser, NjardarBot, Ka Faraq Gatri, Sleepaholic,
MrOllie, ShepBot, BepBot, Philbutt, BalderV, Roux, Favonian, Rvamruth, Wikbot, Angryeditor, Tide rolls, Lightbot, , Psyntium,
Gail, Zorrobot, Jarble, HerculeBot, ConstantLearner, , Sdxvi, Chrispy337, Chaldor, Luckas-bot, Jodanw22, Yobot, WikiDan61,
Digital fuel, Senator Palpatine, Hohenloh, Newportm, Amirobot, Nokes15, Agnosticaphid, Deathbyhornet, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?,
Christhi, Euler xlt, Dinosaur submarine, Esoteric Rogue, IW.HG, Yangtseyangtse, Mojei, Peter Flass, Retro00064, AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, Parisianphilosopher2008, JackieBot, Westcoastbiker, AdjustShift, Sensahuma, Kingpin13, Crecy99, Paraculos, 95jb14, Whendoestheworlddie, Johninamez, Materialscientist, Jdjonsson, Theicychameleon, 90 Auto, A123a, Citation bot, Astor14, Fgtr, Haleyga,
AOLLLTTYYY, Quebec99, Keithclandis, LilHelpa, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Cc68, RichInSydney, Jerey Mall, Gotophilk, Jmundo, Ched,
Qweedsa, Mitchrush, Chunkz29, AV3000, Schwijker, TheAmazingChandler,
, Wizardist, RibotBOT, Kyng, Firstm8e, JimBrammer,
Shadowjams, Iggymwangi, Hornymanatee, Ryantatar, iedas, Kmiki87, Ctkoobster, Leonardofp, Soccerman7, RetiredWikipedian789,
Bobopower, Crown Counsel, Sector001, FrescoBot, Jasonmcdonald, Harry7478, Coachmark2, Lady Rataxes, Km2065, ThiagoRuiz, Kokito23, Moin.max, Dlfkja;lskj, MGA73bot, Charliebone1, Davelee8675309, Stere0123, XeBot, ClickRick, Citation bot 1, PigFlu Oink,
Jpavlenyi, 73liam, Intelligentsium, Dudewiththebling, Biker Biker, Sonyaleech, MacMed, Pinethicket, Kenhed93, Abductive, Calmer Waters, Tinton5, Lockbox7, Boyhere, Lars Washington, MastiBot, , Macpl, , Full-date unlinking bot, Spalef, Paul C. Lasewicz, Trappist
the monk, Wagia, SchreyP, Kelvin Samuel, PacicJuls, Slavon37, , Klp363, Wliuibm, SimonThird, Tofutwitch11, Vrenator,
WPPilot, District Nein, Crysb, Hoov182, Innotata, Tbhotch, Minimac, Thibaultvanthillo, RjwilmsiBot, Ripchip Bot, Shail09, Reaper187,
NerdyScienceDude, JPInfo, The Stick Man, Sammy8912, EmausBot, Heracles31, Fdrgx, Dewritech, Srijnan, GoingBatty, RA0808, Bull
Market, Alchemy 142, Therealcolletepierre, Cannonball 248, Emma Frost 481, Wikipelli, K6ka, MGrit6619, Deakinboi, Bbeamer007,
AaronLLF, AvicBot, Kkm010, Kingkse, Kingkse1, Kingkse3, Mr. 57, F, Masque 308, Rockslide 91, ElationAviation, Kapoor.kanishka,
RaymondSutanto, Alpha Quadrant, Ichthyoid, A930913, H3llBot, JustinCredible00, Zeus 032, Bteed, Kojarou, Pamwooten90, Veritas
0273, Makecat, FinalRapture, Kurse 2799, Alexey.gaskov, Coasterlover1994, Rostz, Gsarwa, Donner60, Nlyte.Software, Hylene, Wikimothers, Rangoon11, MainFrame, Status, Clementina, EuroFlounder, Prakhar2121995, Parthrana, DASHBotAV, Chief07, Petrb, ClueBot
NG, HLachman, Herb richman, Packerman4290, Mushroom9, Farjankhan, Piast93, BrekekekexKoaxKoax, EnglandsDreaming, KamiCrit,
Frietjes, IBMPW, Themightynamah, O.Koslowski, Nerd in the Red Shirt, Sdiasio, Widr, Swonely, Zackaback, Kleeingram, Velvet765,
Theopolisme, Helpful Pixie Bot, Privatechef, HMSSolent, Ninjadunker13, Yuvaraj2106, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, MKar, Torpedolos, Hz.tiang, Ljenkins13, Ynlrc, Martinlangley01, MusikAnimal, Kendall-K1, Axrcr25, Solomon7968, IraChestereld, Compfreak7,
Jtjacks, Socialmaven1, WebHorizon, Fairlyoddparents1234, Rule Outed, Toccata quarta, Liam Braithwaite, Qwerty09910403, Yosoymalo,
Snow Blizzard, Philpill691, Shikhaa, RGloucester, M.Fin.User, Johanvz, Glasssh1, Epohlo, Arigoldberg, Factsearch, Garemoko, Dougthelegoman, Chaitanya manani, Bnicolae, SergeantHippyZombie, Jg1996, Scopecreep, ChrisGualtieri, SERutherford, Conduitwiki, Ccbowman, Sandeep.ved, SD5bot, Ashleyfalcon, Ducknish, JYBot, Bindhast, Seetrue, BarkingNigel, Horation12, Webclient101, Appleeater123,
331dot, Twinbros22, L7eer, Awdrgyjilmjnhbgvfcdxsz, Alibabaoglan, Deeptiman123, Lugia2453, Frosty, SFK2, Mubeenkhateeb, Quiksilver895, DBryantDE, Corn cheese, DallasClarke, Pkunk, PC-XT, SouL Prisoner, Sonanto, Sm53629, Eyesnore, Apranam2, Vanished
user lalsdi45ijne4, Picklehorse123, Ovidjure, DavidLeighEllis, WidgetFan874, Jdorenstein, TheMeq, Zahiyounan, Kajal1234asd, Govtwonk33, Ibm questions, Jigarjaan, Patbdwll, -1, Mithoon, Mario-Tiv, Sarliza, Mdn0403, ScotXW, Notimportant123, Jeremybphone, Thewikiguru1, FrB.TG, Johnq8, Lakun.patra, Addlevonda, Ecumen.c, Svaughn8891, Monkbot, BerkeleyLaw1979, Wikiman1119,
Shotsmc, WordYankee, Wonderboyxox, Thebookman2, Thisisnotmyaccount, JC713, Sidd.arora99, TAYLORGATE, Ultimatehero64,
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SlimVirgin, Fat pig73, Water Bottle, Lightdarkness, Smearp, Sligocki, Mac Davis, Goodoldpolonius2, Mailer diablo, Mrmiscellanious,
Jaardon, Spangineer, Malo, Idont Havaname, Bart133, DreamGuy, Angelic Wraith, Kefto1, Wgw2024, Wtmitchell, Melaen, Isaac, Kesh,
SidP, ClockworkSoul, Rebroad, ProhibitOnions, Yuckfoo, Stephan Leeds, Max Naylor, Ilse@, Sciurin, LFaraone, Henry W. Schmitt,
Bsadowski1, BlastOButter42, Gortu, GabrielF, Matthew kokai, Redvers, Netkinetic, Vadim Makarov, Blaxthos, Sinalet, Yurivict, Ceyockey, April Arcus, Mpdehnel, Dismas, Mahanga, Libertas, Mightyzantar, Zntrip, KUsam, INic, Stemonitis, JALockhart, Weyes, Hoziron,
Boothy443, Rorschach, Firsfron, Lemi4, OwenX, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Mediaright, Fupis, LOL, Simon Shek, Syriven, Rocastelo,
Jersyko, TheArmadillo, Rostam Payamehr, Bkkbrad, Stickguy, Poiuyt Man, Scott.wheeler, Scjessey, Qaddosh, Adpenaranda, Commander Keane, JeremyA, Plicease, DavidJackson, Dlauri, Quadra630, Hailey C. Shannon, Arru, Grika, Wikiklrsc, Bbatsell, Dako, Damicatz,
Tomabuct, Bradybd, Csaribay, Frungi, Crpietschmann, SDC, Male1979, Plrk, Mb1000, Zeerus, Zzyzx11, Kralizec!, MarkusHagenlocher,
Toussaint, Gimboid13, Palica, Pfalstad, DaveApter, Paxsimius, LeoO3, Graham87, Cuvtixo, Deltabeignet, GoldRingChip, Descendall,
Jonohill, Tomhormby, BD2412, Elvey, Kbdank71, DePiep, Shadowhillway, Kohlmannj, Nuptsey, Ryan Norton, Pittising, Rjwilmsi, Lars
T., Seidenstud, Joe Decker, Nightscream, Koavf, Plainsong, Rogerd, Jake Wartenberg, Adjusting, Lockley, Commander, Lordsatri, Rillian,
Quiddity, Josiah Rowe, Leeyc0, JoshuacUK, Rschen7754, Tangotango, Staecker, Harro5, Feydey, EdPaget, MZMcBride, Zz9pluralzalpha,
Tawker, Vegaswikian, Nneonneo, Makaristos, Sajad.Ghafarzadeh, Oblivious, Ligulem, Tdowling, NeonMerlin, ElKevbo, Brighterorange,
The wub, DoubleBlue, Aaronmz, Aerotheque, MLRoach, Calledto, Wikier, Sango123, Lotu, Raprat0, Oo64eva, Yamamoto Ichiro,
X1987x, SNIyer12, JanSuchy, Baryonic Being, JohnDBuell, Tvacula, Exeunt, Makru, Yablo, Python, Fhyre, FlaBot, John Rotenstein,
SchuminWeb, RobertG, Windchaser, Ground Zero, Pitamakan, Heilemann, Pleasehelp, MMMEEE, Nihiltres, Crazycomputers, Brianreading, Nivix, Robertos Consuelos Garcias, JYOuyang, Abrooks, RexNL, Ewlyahoocom, Gurch, Mitsukai, Mee Merone, TheDJ, Jrtayloriv,
Gussisaurio, Hani, CoolFox, TeaDrinker, OriginalGamer, MacMania, Alphachimp, Consumed Crustacean, Bmicomp, Vneiomazza, Brokenjago, Imnotminkus, Idaltu, Theshibboleth, Valentinian, Butros, Manufracture, Psantora, Chris is me, CStyle, Chobot, Djtotoro, Flamedude, Benlisquare, GangofOne, Bornhj, Jcgt, JesseGarrett, Sharvael, AdamDavid85, Mattderojas, Hall Monitor, Bomb319, Therefore,
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Nikplus, Canley, GraemeL, JoanneB, Willkm, Ironchef90, FiveIron, CWenger, Exvicious, Peter, Grahambrunk, HereToHelp, Stattenf,
Hayden120, Wilsynet, Pieter Ouwerkerk, Ddspell, DoriSmith, Chris1219, Stevouk, ViperSnake151, Allens, Ief, Sahm Crispy, Doom127,
Benandorsqueaks, Kingboyk, GrinBot, Destin, Nambio, Perardi, One, Jer ome, Kf4bdy, Rykotsusei, Mcstoney hiphop, XSTRIKEx6864,
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Jjnguy, Ga, Ian Rose, W505W, Adamwilcox, PeterSymonds, Macintosh User, Gilliam, MrGater, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Betacommand, Cybiko123, Skizzik, Smeggysmeg, The monkeyhate, Saros136, Chris the speller, Happywae, Master Jay, Kurykh, Professoryak,
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440

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

Skomae, HartzR, Joehaer, Repetition, Mike1, Mdwh, Analogue Kid, Gutworth, Schi, Nbarth, Ctbolt, EdgeOfEpsilon, Kungming2, Epastore, DHN-bot, Ned Scott, Worthawholebean, Konstable, Firetrap9254, Jorgen veisdal, Reaper X, D-Rock, John Reaves, Manhinli,
Pretzels, Scwlong, Amdma2003, AwtpSIM, NYKevin, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, , Thursdayx20, Mitsuhirato,
Liontooth, Hildanknight, AussieLegend, NicolaM, Furby100, OrphanBot, Kindall, GrienMac, Yidisheryid, Dlippman, Whatthree16,
TheKMan, EvelinaB, Matchups, Wes!, BarryTheUnicorn, Rsm99833, Buttery0fdoom, Whpq, Jax9999, Edivorce, Stevenmitchell, Bad
ideas, Dharmabum420, COMPFUNK2, MartinRobinson, ALLCSANDANS, Krich, Tkdan235, Flyguy649, Adamcobb, Hateless, Cybercobra, Brookslockwood, Ddas, Bryant85x, Tiki2099, Nakon, Savidan, Speedplane, TedE, VegaDark, Ian01, James McNally, Jduke2,
RJN, MichaelBillington, Quackshot, Yeagh, Dream out loud, MathStatWoman, Silveroblivion, Kimos, Algr, Warren, Xendude, T3h,
MBCF, Anable, Weregerbil, DenisRS, TS1, Xagent86, Bryanmcdonald, Hammer1980, Nathans, Tomwchow, Afterthought.cjb.cc, Diasimon2003, BiggKwell, Salamurai, Sigma 7, Obsoletepower, Candorwien, Vina-iwbot, Fireswordght, G F Williams, Kukini, Claytron,
Mojo-chan, ENG422, Andrei Stroe, BlackTerror, Charivari, John Reid, Ohconfucius, IGod, Will Beback, Cyberevil, Thepangelinanpost,
Thejerm, JoeTrumpet, J Dogg, Shane198three, Conradq, ThurnerRupert, The undertow, Madcow 93, Lmcm1990, Rockvee, Anss123,
Tanadeau, Doug Bell, Harryboyles, Xerocs, JzG, Greatrayray, Romansanders, Kuru, BHC, John, Will 3rd, ShiningEyes, Wellander, DeveloperFrom1983, Disavian, Superway25, Barabum, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Guat6, Awsoma, This user has left wikipedia,
Goodnightmush, Destructobot, JohnWittle, Joshua Scott, Chris 42, Nbattist, Beefball, Heliogabulus, Cerberus, Thomas Gilling, Randum, The Man in Question, Chrisch, 16@r, Nintendogeek05, Walksonwalls, Footballplayr69, Slakr, Beetstra, Muad, NcSchu, Elnerdo,
Mr Stephen, Rabhyanker, Kyoko, Dicklyon, Davemon, Technicat, Meco, Adamcpennington, Ric, EdC, Falco223, Onetwo1, Novangelis,
AEMoreira042281, Zamboni93, Jdude204, Saxbryn, Crimsonfox92, JohnnyBGood, Grapplequip, Sanji1119, Ramuman, Murphmeister,
Keredson, JYi, Levineps, Rubywine, Hetar, Unsunghero28, Michaelbusch, Dakart, JohnnyTwain, Mwhite66, Lswells, Joseph Solis in Australia, JoeBot, Alabasterporpoise84, GDallimore, Tony Fox, PN123, Crater Creator, Courcelles, Illyria05, Coeezombie, WakiMiko, Fabrice Florin, FairuseBot, Tawkerbot2, Shortgeek, I5bala, Coreycubed, Daniel5127, Gumbos, Clancyhong, Joshuagross, Enginear, DKqwerty,
Ianbamberger1, Altonbr, AbsolutDan, Conrad.Irwin, Editornumber24, Slippyd, EvilRobot69, Roger2000, Kiddstu, JForget, Clickmyface,
Linuxerist, Anthony22, Pauerbach08, Stockdiver, NKSCF, Zarex, Mineral, Blue-Haired Lawyer, WhatDidIDoNow, Ilikefood, Leevanjackson, Yunggunn2k3, DeLarge, CWY2190, Ruslik0, GHe, Devoindahouse, Jsmaye, Bennyp77, Rockysmile11, Wallnut, Sanka123,
Mitchello, NTDOY Fanboy, WeggeBot, Logical2u, SelfStudyBuddy, Old Guard, Mactux, CmdrDan, Gran2, Tbone2001, Lokal Prol,
Keithh, MrFish, BaRiMzI, Helios Entity 2, Imamathwiz, Qrc2006, Erpollack, Justin Tokke, PDAgeek, Peteturtle, Jgunaratne, Cydebot,
Lodevermeiren, Malimbar04, Solarisworld, Wcstockton13, A D 13, Qwerty.nose, MC10, Steel, Celticsrocks, Gameguider, Matt.Hoy,
Dream of Goats, DrunkenSmurf, SyntaxError55, Jdbsa05, Gogo Dodo, Travelbird, Khatru2, JFreeman, DVokes, Corpx, Islander, Adolphus79, Reckless protest, Studerby, Ntay, Odie5533, Gilabarak, UberMan5000, Xusmc7, Chrislk02, Camuvan, Cyferz, Akcarver, Optimist
on the run, Northwest, Jay Navy, Djbatman, Kozuch, ErrantX, Omicronpersei8, Yonzie, JodyB, A7x, Landroo, Trev M, Runningtherace2024, FrancoGG, CieloEstrellado, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, JLeach87, Qwyrxian, Ultimus, Sayessayes, Daniel, Kablammo, Sagaciousuk,
Scryptographyk, Tobz1000, 03jmason, Mojo Hand, Megalon, Chaz13, Trevyn, Simon.louw, Rcandelori, Chairman87, Gailwin, West
Brom 4ever, Allyx3, Frank, Ilovetacos, Phooto, Cr0w, Aquilosion, Sir Simon Tolhurst, Sjenkins7000, Rhrad, Moronicles, Hcobb, MFfan310, Seth Nimbosa, Dgies, CharlotteWebb, Ricardoramirezj, Whoda, Funpage, Klausness, SusanLesch, Jordangreen, Natalie Erin,
Silver Edge, Geneects, Escarbot, Adamfc, Danarmstrong, Dzubint, I already forgot, Mentisto, Ju66l3r, Rees11, AntiVandalBot, Majorly, Pumpkinshirt, Luna Santin, Mvjs, Dbrodbeck, Uncle Grover, Inndebula, Prolog, Jbrian80, Unintentional Guy, Rmsuperstar99,
Nosirrom, The-Doctor, Jj137, Scepia, Yoosq, MECU, ARTEST4ECHO, Znalbone, OSX, Blair Bonnett, Wayiran, Erciesielski, CaptainCap, Smcmanus, Scrumshus, MikeM2011, Qwerty Binary, E.James, Myanw, Mentaka, Obeattie, BeefRendang, Sluzzelin, PJ Pete, Ioeth,
Nonameplayer, Bigjimr, JAnDbot, Darthjarek, Dan D. Ric, Timlee90, Jimothytrotter, Arifsaha, Xadith12, Zabby1982, TigerK 69, Armando12, Barek, Megamanfan3, MER-C, Epeeeche, ZZninepluralZalpha, Andrew Powell, Djdut, MB1972, Vikram ramesh, Zeeboid,
OhanaUnited, Andonic, GurchBot, Matjpow, SkydiveMike, Patrick Henke, Kirrages, Chad Hennings, Madhive, Suduser85, LittleOldMe,
Steveprutz, SteveSims, Mdeanoly, Magioladitis, Iamrecognized, Bongwarrior, Banzai!, VoABot II, Davidjk, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, JNW,
Nightcrawler1089, Ec1o, Mclay1, Desbo, Janadore, J mcandrews, Cameraman03, Hangid, Kosmopolis, Xmido, Qzyphus, Cannotdraw,
Cheeselouise, Steven Walling, Jatkins, Aka042, Daddylight, The Anomebot2, Avicennasis, Gr1st, Bubba hotep, WhatamIdoing, Animum,
FMAN, Cyktsui, MetsBot, Pawl Kennedy, Ranger1991, Loonymonkey, Mike Payne, Richie.Preece, Glen, Arfan, DerHexer, Wdake,
Esanchez7587, Huadpe, Khalid Mahmood, Auniqueid, Michael K. Edwards, TheRanger, TimidGuy, IlliterateSage, Alexandre linhares,
Noshpit, Jav72, Xtreme racer, Hdt83, MartinBot, Mmoneypenny, Bboyskidz, Jonathan Stokes, Alikaalex, Ports84, HubmaN, ShaunL,
BackStagePass, Mymoodz, Boyton, BetBot, Mingyishi, Arjun01, XEVD, NAHID, Fishtank123, Jstaryuk, Lcaa9, Rettetast, Bissinger,
Roastytoast, SCJohnson77, Keith D, Rigmahroll, Mschel, Dominic7848, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Ash1402, Cowsgoquack101, Smokizzy, Siliconov, Skepticus, Chase78, Ssolbergj, RockMFR, Robb0082, J.delanoy, Pilgaard, Uniuni, Wow1000, CFCF, Weissmann, Trusilver, Bongomatic, Pauras, Euku, Yocam, Dlcscool, UBeR, Zorakoid, Richiekim, Mattnad, Eztigma, Uncle Dick, 72Dino, Nigholith,
Jesant13, Extransit, WarthogDemon, Mcg3o, Xylit, Jarodapperson, Jammerpunk1089, Dspider0, George415, Walafrid, Erik16, Gzkn,
Acalamari, Comeback2009, Rufous-crowned Sparrow, Babar54, Grace567, Davidm617617, Dispenser, Vinaltech056, McSly, Nemo bis,
Janus Shadowsong, Maduskis, Jimv1983, Falcon866, Gurchzilla, Buoptip, Goarany, Ric.mc, Riku1978, Bamsucks123, AntiSpamBot,
(jarbarf), Berserkerz Crit, Floateruss, Steventity, Bro1041, Viewfromthebridge, DBailey635, Agrado, FamicomJL, Zhouf12, Sd31415,
Ymal31, Jdebar, DadaNeem, SJP, Carewser, MKoltnow, Xorandor, Pliable, Brian Pearson, Mufka, Erwong105, Shoessss, Kingbobs,
Thogan, Richard Wolf VI, Yosetche, Artyboy, Cmichael, Althepal, Cg2916, Juliancolton, Atheuz, Cometstyles, Rabmaster, RB972, Tiggerjay, Tweisbach, Action Jackson IV, Rony888, Berlevg, B0gmen0t, DMCer, Ajfweb, Bonadea, Jvcdude, WIDEnet, RobertJohnson,
Baseball-bob, Klink258, Unixfanatic, Martial75, Scottydude, Supermoneybags, Hotholly95, SoCalSuperEagle, Xiahou, Universalgenius,
Athepirate08, CardinalDan, Lime dawn, Highelds, Xnuala, Twump, Spencerwalford, Kmccusker2, Lights, CtrlC CtrlV, X!, Startreklegacy, Ddusenbery, UnicornTapestry, Greengirae, King Lopez, T66T, Kentmoraga, Hammersoft, VolkovBot, CWii, Jamcib, Ergopropter,
The Wild Falcon, Hersfold, Je G., Jmrowland, Alanfeld, Niceley, Brucethemoose, Zilver01, Majoreditor, Satani, Cantina.band, Master
X. Summers, Davidwr, Dom Kaos, Zeno333, Philip Trueman, Abberley2, Eric outdoors, Rishumandolia, TXiKiBoT, Mercurywoodrose,
AlexRampaul, Tyfq, Bartfat, BuickCenturyDriver, Chickenmoomoo3, Malinaccier, Kww, El dudino, 6348guy, Corgy.x, ThijsN, Brutimus, Nduv, Quylob, Oconnor663, Wannger27, GDonato, Miranda, Rsecker, Anonymous Dissident, Auent Rider, Sweetnessy, TrevorRobertson, Sankalpdravid, Charlesdrakew, WaterMan90, Qxz, Someguy1221, Cowfear, Olly150, PaulN1234, C.J. Grin, Phillip Rosenthal, Jason C.K., ColinSSX, DennyColt, Victoria2007, Seb26, Numlockcapslock, Wtfthatusernameistaken, Aaron Rotenberg, JohnAndrewB, Abdullais4u, KarynN1, LeaveSleaves, Seb az86556, UnitedStatesian, Z99zazn, Hyperux, Jack in pikachu, Opo111, Maxim,
Dennin, Drdionysus, Suriel1981, Rhinokitty, BigDunc, Blurpeace, Sklettke, Rjgodoy, Can't sleep, Zordon will teleport me, Homana,
Haseo9999, Richard626, Iantr36, WJetChao, Synthebot, Mrwooster, Royaldutchairlines, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, Ragglesnape, Drgnaw,
Hotuan87, RaseaC, Lmessenger, A Raider Like Indiana, Chocolatemilk94, Redblackred, Hmallett, TcKnd, GeeTeeBee, Thewisebolivian,
Xyz456, Bobtheboyz, Playstationdude, ManfrenjenStJohn, Billybutthaed94, Sgomez1180, Monty845, Lotsamystu, Fischer.sebastian,
Vanished User 1002, Eli81993, Mister Universe, Monkshbandana, JRGregory, Dvaladares, EmxBot, Twikir, The Big PowerMacBoy,

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441

S.rvarr.S, Xarr, Vodak, Dongdakong123, Martha p, The Random Editor, Hissyt10, SieBot, MuzikJunky, Wraithvefa, Gir obsesser,
Orng atom, Theking11811, Meltonkt, Taftgod, JamesA, Applescope, CWPappas, Sparrowman980, EwokiWiki, Ori, Jauerback, EvanM07,
Kgoarany, Gerakibot, Jsc83, Phe-bot, Josh the Nerd, Dawn Bard, Knik94, Savorie, DBishop1984, Acps110, Hoobastank234, Swaq, Rgarrity999, Warren Whyte, Naghavic, Justthai, Crash Underride, Dqcater, Srushe, Avpmechman, AlbertHall, Woppermann, GlassCobra,
JustAnotherBombtrack, Supercoolsephirothis, Dustman81, Afknlnmfss, Twitch4thmay, RucasHost, Jessimmonds, Rocknroll12p, Tiptoety, Neutralhomer, KP-TheSpectre, Arbor to SJ, TrevorX, Gnfgb2, Allmightyduck, Oxymoron83, RussiaCow, Toejam118, Rockevan23, Aspects, Csaag, Orchid34, Callen08, KoshVorlon, Specialpetfrommarsandacoolkidtoo, Lightmouse, Nboavida, SmileTodayPublic,
Beej175560, MC Dupree, Astrale01, Darius X, Fd, AMackenzie, OKBot, DancingPhilosopher, Negasable, Peter31, Stephen Shaw,
Mr White, Addison2008, JohnSawyer, Iva.ebud, Anakin101, Oopaloopaboi, Henlbac, Spartan-James, Janggeom, Bobas, Blackrockboy,
Alatari, Sandy Snake, Setheryb, Apple farmer, Conrad.pramboeck, Wuhwuzdat, Raidako, Mygerardromance, Realm of Shadows, Soulman1213, Sammyjmoseley, Wiknerd, Jontoxic, TaerkastUA, Nipsonanomhmata, Sponge1987, Echo95, AndytheTweedale, Mickemos,
Illinois2011, Nonerds0, Guesty-Persony-Thingy, Lynswell12, GWBUSH1989, Escape Orbit, Iccdel, Wjmummert, Eric55lv, Cwtripp7,
TheCatalyst31, ImageRemovalBot, SallyForth123, WikipedianMarlith, Faithlessthewonderboy, Pscott22, DreamsAreMadeOf, Martarius,
Sfan00 IMG, Leahtwosaints, Elassint, KJG2007, ClueBot, Kathmandu2007, Madfoxhound, Strongsauce, AndrewJSteele, Andrew Nutter,
Binksternet, Kennvido, Fyyer, Wikievil666, The Thing That Should Not Be, Nickdyville, Oregondean, Moonblu, Rjd0060, Chrisofgenesis, Plastikspork, 3riipriinc3ss, Outspan, Mx3, Nnemo, Ndenison, Takeit2thestrts, R000t, Mrhson, RobertL, Jevonsp, Reeceyyyy15,
Sandpiper800, Drmies, Frmorrison, Stuthomas4, SuperHamster, Wagonkeys, Thegreatglobetrotter, Avoitus43, Testecull, N1554, Meaningsearch, Pyroames0, Dogzrdogz, Moodjan, Ottawahitech, Sgtlion, Jstar8, Michaelrwiley, Garcan, Matoro183, Cirt, Puchiko, Auntof6,
Rockfang, Drphilismyhero, Awatt6, Ferdinand h2, AlexanderHaas, Luke4545, Aua, Bbb2007, Stepshep, Guci22, Lucky the Cat and Solaris, Ktr101, Excirial, PastExpiryDotCom, Forextrader, Alexbot, T3k3ste, Addy14, Dajopas, Greenja1, Andy pyro, Resoru, Agmonaco,
Mvmarier, Marcusliou, Ludwigs2, Utkarsh apple, Tehjunker, Nate123456789, Vivio Testarossa, JCT120, Jrhyle, Me is mint, Javyredd23,
Rhododendrites, Sonicdrewdriver, Gorilla 999, Boo147, NikkiRosetta, Stealth500, MacedonianBoy, Engines On, Djmatthew678, Old
Shadow, S.cheese, Gaurav21r, Haris221092, NuclearWarfare, Wiki libs, Jake Aldred, Ice Cold Beer, Cenarium, Arjayay, TheDashboard, Waitandbleed15, MacJoey, JamieS93, Spoonator, Blakely07633, Spectorza, Drumz101, Razorame, Cowshar, -a-w-13, Jabbafett,
Redthoreau, Dekisugi, Gorillatheape, ChiliPeeper, Escapomobil, Rogamma1234, Spcleddy, Kakofonous, Stepheng3, 2girls1cupROX, Inspector 34, Adderz91, Hockeyryan2k2, Deled2467, Fryn, Zappa711, Baggioboy, Deepsoni2006, Thingg, DaDrumBum, Camster360,
Shj95, Mac128, Luke Farrelly-Spain, Certes, Scalhotrod, Versus22, Sharp175, Stevenrasnick, Mythdon, SoxBot III, Magnum2037, 3193th,
SF007, Qwerty12345678901234567890, DumZiBoT, X1xtomx1x, Lowyingowl, XLinkBot, Lockalbot, Hotcrocodile, Nxtbug, Fastily,
Dhart94, BizMgr, Jytdog, Jovianeye, Wikiuser100, Dthomsen8, Punjabi101, WikiRedactor, Ibamberger, Rreagan007, Echubb, Doc9871,
Alijamali, NellieBly, CapnZapp, Harrygrayblakeman, Kaiwhakahaere, Vianello, JCDenton2052, Airplaneman, A.Cython, Shadow Editor,
Teckdiva, HexaChord, Gramy, BitterTwitter, Xp54321, Man with one red shoe, Cxz111, Keensdesign, Cody10000, Yousou, Nerdy117,
Elemented9, Willking1979, Freakmighty, Jojhutton, Guoguo12, 6675548, Vivara, Landon1980, IXavier, Valejo10005, Sgsports, Binary
TSO, Nicrostar, DougsTech, Theguitarman2, Blethering Scot, Syohn, Computerhistory, Gul e, Tanhabot, RedRose333, BrainMarble,
Fluernutter, Danoyz, Download, Powerbattery, CarsracBot, ShepBot, Sir Foley, TSJ 992, Qaovxtazypdl, Glane23, Michael-Billa, Debresser, AnnaFrance, Nurmib, Shadow blazer187, Pyl, Polancox, Ginosbot, LemmeyBOT, Jasper Deng, Terrillja, Tide rolls, Lightbot,
Zorrobot, MuZemike, Jarble, Hartz, BlueMario1016, Sdxvi, Frehley, Alwaystech, Legobot, Kyro, Luckas-bot, ZX81, Yobot, Maxim4o,
Ptbotgourou, Newportm, Donfbreed, Yiplop stick stop, Electronsoup, Freikorp, Mmxx, Golftheman, KamikazeBot, Jerebin, Bathysphere,
Amazincredible, Djbrown UK, Vroo, Ebygum, Dmarquard, Pontiac g5, Tjdynamite223, Orion11M87, AnomieBOT, Decora, ThaddeusB,
Jim1138, IRP, Galoubet, Parisianphilosopher2008, JackieBot, 90, Maximilian Caldwell, Kingpin13, Justme89, Photographerguy, Ulric1313, Bluerasberry, Cutmynoseotospitemyface, Maqspeed, OttoTheFish, UnexpectedBanana, Citation bot, Astor14, Amit6, Elm-39,
Fquez95, Rlmcguire, ,
, GB fan, LovesMacs, Gessoart, LilHelpa, Gsmgm, Cameron Scott, Xqbot, Nishantjr, Holden15, S h i v
a (Visnu), Dancing-amy, JimVC3, Conay, Capricorn42, Dohol003, Kilgar, Gibbsyspin, TechBot, Jerey Mall, Millahnna, Ahmad123987,
DSisyphBot, Mastado, James Raider, Tyrol5, Mlpearc, J JMesserly, Schamps, TooSkilled, GrouchoBot, Abce2, Zigster man, Romatoto,
Dimatter, ProtectionTaggingBot, Penguins4k, Jt4411, Jamesrnorwood, Mark Schierbecker, Feral-Golduck, RibotBOT, Guyinchair, Kyng,
Kieryh, Aklosty, Dr.Malooden, Sayerslle, AnimatedZebra, Swapnil95, Haslam22, Tcalight, Klemmoylan, Altus Prosator, AlexandGuy,
Ajgower1088, Paperpunk, Ieat3hchildren, Ilikeapple, ScaryNathan, =Josh.Harris, Shadowjams, WebCiteBOT, Chaheel Riens, SchnitzelMannGreek, CorporateM, Erik9, Governor Jerjerrod, Green Cardamom, Benny White, Tktru, Joncomp12, Nocrowx, FrescoBot, Jerzyboy455, Ejohnsequilar, Tanynep, Ch Th Jo, Hoth Hottie1977, Carmen Smith Jones, Sky Attacker, Oldman14, Eball, Sanpitch, SolanaRanger, Charles Edwin Shipp, KuroiShiroi, Jonathansuh, 2toy mora, Endofskull, Seanbond5, Marina330, Hay264, Cody Cooper, Drew
R. Smith, Xhaoz, Wireless Keyboard, Citation bot 1, Allstrak, Miner11, Davidoganesyan, Yoonsikp, PrBeacon, Amplitude101, Intelligentsium, Asadajack14, Celerachi, Trueshow111, Himasha Wijesurendra, Willisonwill, Macmcapple, Biker Biker, Alex530, Dakota Detective, Anonymkis, Uni4life, Wanagi18, Aizuku, Domoblomo, Ragnarookie, SethFerreira, Sctechlaw, 10metreh, Onthegogo, ImageTagBot,
Billcheese1, MJ94, Calmer Waters, Qwerty786, Jcf0987, Tinton5, JohnHWiki, Yahia.barie, MystechLabs, Posada432, Johnno555, Super
Goku V, A8UDI, Charlesbell515, Pavit1234554321, Proessor Awesome, Hoo man, CHawc, Redvaiz, MastiBot, IceBlade710, Omnomnommommy, Zukoblast36, JaradT, SpaceFlight89, Ratchet dre, SpongePedia WikiPants, Adityavijay09, Sonyps2, Iron9iant, Thatguythatmadeausername, RyanH135, , Redsfan22, Diemikeydie, Appletipz, Gsilva91473, Mahdiour, Jujutacular, EdoDodo, Spellcheck254, Xeworlebi, Brixshallbefat, Techkid100, Bgpaulus, David290, Beanmonkey69, Bill-Klinton, Nsharma2014, SW3 5DL, Soboredlesso, Fanto38,
Michaelalessandro19, Surfeit of palfreys, Nirinsanity, Reconrmer444, Jikybebna, Arbero, Kannu1994, Tim1357, Chessmazteraaron,
Robvanvee, Joe59108, Idunius, Fti, Scythre, Rpgris, Bigpappy, Karebear 1022, PacicJuls, Aaadrian, Nigeria01, Omi745, Slavon37,
Mono, Superawsomeishnot, Lotje, MarcCapa, BeeSwim, Zacharykelaty, Thetradge, Begoon, January, Will Marlow, Hancock10, Vte1688,
Suburb 77, Lucius Winslow, Mediafreaks, Crysb, Aurorion, Yyyaaa, Jmans25, Canuckian89, Adi4094, Brian the Editor, Qazwsx777,
Mass09, Jynto, Tbhotch, Anthony Solano, Reece394, Derild4921, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Bento00, Twonernator, Weh0068,
Phlegat, Scieberking, Hajatvrc, Aslanbash, Ha us 70, NerdyScienceDude, Mdznr, Winchetan, HenryTheNinja, DASHBot, Steve03Mills,
Drama123, Whywhenwhohow, EmausBot, CleanMusic101, John of Reading, Nima1024, Nathanl1192, WikitanvirBot, JCRules, Curtmolloy, Sjd394, Zollerriia, Bguitarman, GoingBatty, Bencbartlett, Bull Market, BaseballPie, Vanished user zq46pw21, Jim Michael,
Tommy2010, Benny476, Bigmanbliss, TuHan-Bot, TeleComNasSprVen, Jasonanaggie, MonoALT, Leumas.yawdarb, AaronLLF, Mz7,
Evanh2008, Iwan Novirion, Pro translator, Kkm010, ZroBot, Halil marx07, John Cline, Darkman101, Mr. 57, Mj1999, KingOfTheLynn,
Cmist12, Pixilotter, 851shawn, Jakegt1, Sir337, Rppeabody, GoldRenet, Subhom.mitra, 1980fast, LionFosset, Jack Sebastian, Anonymous
Paul, Alpha Quadrant, Ichthyoid, KuduIO, Anniv22, , Elektrik Shoos, H3llBot, Stepo114, Someguy432, PJCT, Asterisker,
SporkBot, Vanished user fois8fhow3iqf9hsrlgkjw4tus, Chevymontecarlo alt, StasMalyga, Thine Antique Pen, Mohsen.1987, Truthsnier,
SHADOW4, Pengkeu, CN3777, , Coasterlover1994, L Kensington, Jguy, Heater123, Ebildude123, Gsarwa, AntsmaPantsma454545,
Jtl5000, BrianXChen, MadnessInside, Jhariani, Grahamengineer, Moshi Monster Fan303, Elektrik Shoos sock, The Spock, Rangoon11,
Crazymutt15, M3lm4tt, ChuispastonBot, Nugget4free, Colejohnson66, Mariomedici707, Mfkeyl, Laptopmaker, Zippy120, Dorsal Axe,

442

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

LikeLakers2, Afranelli, Bennyluo, Eorde, Gomacs, Will Beback Auto, Rohith goura, WikiSpector, ClueBot NG, HLachman, Mepolypse,
Jnorton7558, Michaelmas1957, Steviedman, King Of Aviators, Goalloverhere, JetBlast, Islamisgr88, Gilderien, Ridwan97, A520, Odisha1,
Aboutworld, Utaustin22, UniverseNow, SmartAn01, Sigsuprem, Esebi95, Evancg1411, Violettsureme, Ploca12, Alexhch, Wezkoh, Frietjes, Delusion23, PrezHubbard97, Dingowasher, Hazhk, Chisme, O.Koslowski, Iamjforlife, Abingor, Nerd in the Red Shirt, Widr, Zackaback, Strangrhouse, Miros 0571, , Theopolisme, Soulcedric, Carlover08, Faster2010, Helpful Pixie Bot, Ankur.hbk,
Jtwall12, Davis, Molly, Calerusnak, , Wbm1058, Technical 13, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, 2pem, Muqman 52, Krenair,
TGilmour, MKar, Vagobot, Cues101, Flix11, Puramyun31, EOProductions, Huhshyeh, Exploding Toenails, Ke5skw, Sasan Geranmehr,
Burjanton, Hackweb, Ella Plantagenet, Dan653, Himan1238569, Hannes1983, Squirrel8296, Game-Guru999, Compfreak7, Tederico,
TrebleSeven, Socialmaven1, Ajayupai95, Cadiomals, KeganChannel, Falkirks, Zach Vega, Joydeep, Apatheist, VirusKA, Gosh33, MonkeyKingBar, MyKingdom200, Liam Braithwaite, Zhang.jiahe, Chris4315, Tt121673, JamieBrown2011, Chewlohseng, Italian Job 2005,
Neuraxis, Benfelps, Astros4477, Politicalpat, GermanUser2045, Shaun, Muncle11, M.Fin.User, Heluxtech, HYFR, Wer900, Anbu121,
Paddude, Jonadin93, Bldonne, Factsearch, Justincheng12345-bot, Kymanib, ShannakaysoKute, Skylanders09, Jackmancool, Marjamrob, Sscsasrs, Triggerhippie4, Murughendra, Meelegod, Ryanguy426, Reuvengrish, TreboniusArtorius, ChrisGualtieri, DreamFieldArts,
SERutherford, TheJJJunk, BSRF, Khazar2, Soulparadox, Energygal, Dobie80, SteelShaftx0x, SimonBramtt, MadGuy7023, JYBot,
Yadferhad, Caque Barbosa Oliveira, Atakuzier, Awesomepenguin1337, Obtund, IsraphelMac, JoeyRR, BrightStarSky, Epicness360,
Dexbot, Rezonansowy, Mandishaa, Codename Lisa, Webclient101, Interlude65, Mogism, 1234567890Number, Jackintosh11, Twisty
twisty, TechArena20, Rsardiwal, Npx122sy, Techreader44, Jc86035, Touranushertz, Jamesx12345, Sriharsh1234, Zziccardi, Thinker21,
Google9999, Cdwn, Corn cheese, Lambro01, Iberichard, Rockgod69, DataEdit101, Exenola, KillaM701, Justjokinlol, Krobin6937, TheRealMaker, Epicgenius, Seqqis, CameronBanga, Simoncowell58, Kuplet, Fabuhassan, The All Knowing Master, Xzaviur, Joetigerbob,
TheFrog001, CsDix, Parabplus, Shahvr, Techiemonkey, , AmaryllisGardener, Bananasoldier, Melonkelon, ThomasMikael, Neitiznot,
Vanished user lalsdi45ijne4, Mikeman22, EngGerm12, Hellodough, Evano1van, Tango303, Appfan33, Justinhu12, Mustafa.mian.mm,
Rajib007, Rolf h nelson, Bahooka, New worl, Georgij Michaliutin, Comp.arch, KurtWags3, Wikiuser13, Harosed, AmitWikiCool, Sarr
X, TheMostAmazingTechnik, JacobEditor, Mcfaddenskyler, Bronx Discount Liquor, Programingcraze007, 636Buster, Jora8488, Jacob
Steven Smith, Cleanbeach96, Koluke, HuTheWeevil, Ryan5685, Smashmeerkat, G S Palmer, Christianboys, Nubbygarter, Lagoset,
Ajay.u.pai, Monkbot, CodyLogs, Coeedrinker115, Xbrlus, Qwertyxp2000, Paul Badillo, Egyptian445, Mercedes-Benz Today, Josephlalrinhlua786, 2014Best, Bammie73, WCVB98swell, Crystallizedcarbon, Swati111, Infernus 780, Lolmydear, Nhn Giang, Aytk, StewdioMACK, Omio Asad, Satkara, STJMLCC and Anonymous: 2196
Operating system Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating%20system?oldid=645431805 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Magnus
Manske, Brion VIBBER, Mav, Robert Merkel, The Anome, Tarquin, Stephen Gilbert, Jeronimo, Amillar, Awaterl, Andre Engels, Rmhermen, Christian List, Fubar Obfusco, Ghakko, SolKarma, SimonP, Hannes Hirzel, Ellmist, Ark, Heron, Hirzel, Olivier, Edward, Ubiquity,
Patrick, RTC, Ghyll, D, Norm, Kku, Tannin, Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, Eurleif, Dori, Minesweeper, CesarB, Ahoerstemeier, KAMiKAZOW,
Gepotto, Kokamomi, Stevenj, Nanshu, Typhoon, Yaronf, Darkwind, Trisweb, Nikai, IMSoP, Rotem Dan, Evercat, Jordi Burguet Castell,
, Mxn, GRAHAMUK, Conti, Hashar, Htaccess, Dysprosia, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Furrykef, Cleduc, Bevo, Traroth, Shizhao,
Gerard Czadowski, Joy, Stormie, AnonMoos, Olathe, Lumos3, Sewing, Branddobbe, Robbot, Noldoaran, Sander123, Fredrik, RedWolf,
Moondyne, Romanm, Lowellian, Stewartadcock, Rfc1394, SchmuckyTheCat, Texture, Blainster, Caknuck, Mendalus, Kagredon, Tobias Bergemann, McDutchie, Alexwcovington, Martinwguy, Giftlite, DavidCary, Kim Bruning, Kenny sh, var Arnfjr Bjarmason, Tom
harrison, Zigger, SheikYerBooty, Foot, No Guru, Enigmar007, CyborgTosser, Jfdwol, Sdsher, AlistairMcMillan, Falcon Kirtaran, VampWillow, Jaan513, Wiki Wikardo, Wmahan, K7jeb, Alexf, Bact, Kjetil r, Antandrus, Beland, Onco p53, Kusunose, Ablewisuk, Am088,
Karol Langner, 1297, Rdsmith4, APH, Bornslippy, Bbbl67, Zfr, Gschizas, Gscshoyru, Creidieki, Henriquevicente, Jh51681, Hillel, Demiurge, Zondor, Squash, Grunt, Canterbury Tail, Bluemask, Gazpacho, Mike Rosoft, Rolandg, D6, Ta bu shi da yu, Archer3, RossPatterson,
Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Lovelac7, Florian Blaschke, Wk muriithi, HeikoEvermann, Notinasnaid, SocratesJedi, Andrew Maiman,
Dyl, Rubicon, ESkog, JoeSmack, Ylee, CanisRufus, Livajo, Tyrel, MBisanz, Ben Webber, El C, Phil websurfer@yahoo.com, Mwanner, RoyBoy, EurekaLott, Triona, Dudboi, Coolcaesar, Wareh, Bastique, Afed, Bobo192, Iamunknown, Viriditas, R. S. Shaw, Polluks,
Jjk, Daesotho, Syzygy, Cncxbox, Kjkolb, Nk, Trevj, Minghong, Idleguy, Nsaa, Mdd, Jumbuck, Musiphil, Alansohn, Guy Harris, Conan,
Uogl, Atlant, Jeltz, Andrewpmk, Riana, Stephen Turner, Gaurav1146, Wdfarmer, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Ronark, Gbeeker, Wtshymanski,
Paul1337, Max Naylor, RainbowOfLight, LFaraone, Bsadowski1, Gortu, Kusma, Freyr, Djsasso, Dan100, Markaci, Rzelnik, Kenyon, Sam
Vimes, Woohookitty, Karnesky, Lost.goblin, Shreevatsa, Georgia guy, TigerShark, Prophile, Ae-a, Thorpe, MattGiuca, Robert K S, Ruud
Koot, JeremyA, Hdante, MONGO, Miss Madeline, Acerperi, Robertwharvey, Schzmo, Eyreland, Meneth, Umofomia, Waldir, Wayward,
, Jbarta, Marudubshinki, Mandarax, Slgrandson, Graham87, Cuvtixo, MC MasterChef, Kbdank71, CarbonUnit, Jclemens, Brolin
Empey, Gorrister, Rjwilmsi, Dosman, Koavf, Attitude2000, Raaele Megabyte, Alll, OKtosiTe, Ian Dunster, Sango123, DirkvdM, Fish and
karate, SNIyer12, Titoxd, Ian Pitchford, Mirror Vax, Pruefer, SchuminWeb, RobertG, Ground Zero, Latka, Winhunter, Crazycomputers,
RexNL, Gurch, Patato, Ayla, Intgr, Zotel, Ahunt, BMF81, Tarmo Tanilsoo, Qaanol, Theshibboleth, King of Hearts, Chobot, SirGrant, Celebere, DVdm, Cactus.man, Carlosvigopaz, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Wavelength, TexasAndroid, Hawaiian717, RattusMaximus, X42bn6,
Daverocks, Logixoul, DestroyerPC, Gardar Rurak, SpuriousQ, Lar, Hansfn, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Cpuwhiz11, Canageek, Dmlandfair, Big Brother 1984, NawlinWiki, Shreshth91, Wiki alf, Astral, Grafen, Ang3lboy2001, Jaxl, SivaKumar, RazorICE, Ino5hiro, Nick, Xdenizen, Moe Epsilon, Mikeblas, MarkSG, Tony1, Joshlk, Dasnov, DeadEyeArrow, Gogodidi, Ke5crz, Oliverdl, Elkman, Nlu, Mike92591,
Wknight94, Dsda, Daniel C, Floydoid, Phgao, TheguX, Zzuuzz, Tokai, Clindhartsen, Theda, Closedmouth, E Wing, KGasso, Anouymous,
Josh3580, Charlik, JoanneB, Alasdair, LeonardoRob0t, Fram, JLaTondre, Fsiler, Chris1219, Ilmari Karonen, Katieh5584, Simxp, Meegs,
Delinka, Teply, Rayngwf, Tyomitch, Arcadie, Kimdino, Luk, Davidam, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Drummondjacob, MattieTK, Smadge1,
Captain Goggles, Aim Here, Julepalme, KAtremer, Incnis Mrsi, Caminoix, Reedy, Ashley thomas80, KnowledgeOfSelf, Hydrogen Iodide,
Unyoyega, Lvken7, Rokfaith, Blue520, WilyD, Jfg284, KocjoBot, Chairman S., Matthuxtable, Jedikaiti, Monz, BiT, Alsandro, Mslimix,
Yamaguchi , Macintosh User, SmackEater, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Betacommand, Cybiko123, Enno, ERcheck, JSpudeman,
JorgePeixoto, BenAveling, Guess Who, Andyzweb, GoneAwayNowAndRetired, Bluebot, Bidgee, Unbreakable MJ, DStoykov, Badriram,
Thumperward, DJ Craig, Mnemoc, Miquonranger03, MalafayaBot, AlexDitto, Jerome Charles Potts, Lexlex, Letdorf, Omniplex, Vbigdeli,
Baronnet, DHN-bot, Charles Nguyen, MovGP0, Philip Howard, Darth Panda, Cfallin, Verrai, FredStrauss, Emurphy42, Schwallex, Rrelf,
J00tel, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, , Frap, Onorem, Skidude9950, Parasti, Nixeagle, Sommers, Snowmanradio,
JonHarder, Thecomputist, Yidisheryid, Benjamin Mako Hill, DrDnar, Yoink23, Addshore, Flubbit, Kcordina, Edivorce, Mr.Z-man, Slogan621, SundarBot, Easwarno1, Paul E T, Grover cleveland, Khoikhoi, World-os.com, Cybercobra, Jhonsrid, Nakon, VegaDark, MisterCharlie, Tompsci, Warren, Superswade, Huszone, Tomcool, Mwtoews, Leaord, Kidde, Sigma 7, LeoNomis, Ck lostsword, Fyver528, Qwerty0, The undertow, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Harryboyles, Cdills, Kuru, Rodri316, Vincenzo.romano, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington,
Linnell, Edwy, Kashmiri, Joelo, Goodnightmush, Antonielly, KenBest, IronGargoyle, Ben Moore, Camilo Sanchez, Tom Hek, Chrisch,
Aaronstj, Hanii Puppy, Loadmaster, JHunterJ, Ems2, Ehheh, Nayak143, Manifestation, Tdscanuck, MTSbot, Rlinnity, Wwagner, Lucid, Rubena, Emx, Iridescent, Casull, Twas Now, Golngton, Beno1000, Zlemming, Courcelles, Linkspamremover, Desolator12, Slobot,

40.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

443

Tawkerbot2, Alegoo92, Gumbos, Cartread, Tgnome, EvilRobot69, Fvasconcellos, J Milburn, JForget, James pic, Ahy1, Unixguy, CmdrObot, Deon, Ale jrb, Raysonho, Mattbr, Flonase, Makeemlighter, Btate, Kev19, Charles dye, RockMaster, Michael B. Trausch, NE
Ent, SolarisBigot, SpooK, TempestSA, Karimarie, Mblumber, Krauss, A876, Oosoom, Mortus Est, Michaelas10, Gogo Dodo, Travelbird,
David Santos, TheWorld, Corpx, Spanglegluppet, Medovina, Odie5533, Kotiwalo, Dynaow, Christian75, Chrislk02, Trevjs, Sp, After
Midnight, Omicronpersei8, Jguard18, Landroo, Maziotis, Rbanzai, Nrabinowitz, JamesAM, Littlegeisha, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Kubanczyk,
Jobrad, Qwyrxian, Ultimus, Anshuk, N5iln, Jdm64, Ursu17, Marek69, James086, Doyley, Optimisticrizwan, TommyB7973, Ideogram,
TurboForce, CharlotteWebb, CarbonX, SusanLesch, Ablonus, Sean William, TarkusAB, Dawnseeker2000, AlefZet, Escarbot, Dzubint,
KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Mike33, Luna Santin, Widefox, Guy Macon, Seaphoto, QuiteUnusual, ForrestVoight, Prolog, Memset,
Chase@osdev.org, PhJ, Credema, Sridip, Yellowdesk, Alphachimpbot, Jstirling, MichaelR., Eleete, MikeLynch, Ioeth, JAnDbot, Chaitanya.lala, SuperLuigi31, Leuko, Numlockshy, DuncanHill, NapoliRoma, Ethanhardman3, MER-C, Arch dude, Nvt, Socalaaron, Hut
8.5, Greensburger, Knokej, Adams kevin, Bookinvestor, SteveSims, Raanoo, Bencherlite, Pierre Monteux, RogierBrussee, Jaysweet, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JamesBWatson, Marko75, SHCarter, Kajasudhakarababu, PeterStJohn, Lucyin, Sedmic, Rami R, Inklein, Jatkins,
Twsx, Bubba hotep, Manojbp07, Alanbrowne, Bleh999, Indon, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Creativename, Papadopa, User A1, Bwildasi, Glen,
DerHexer, Wdake, Janitor Starr, ChaoticHeavens, Calltech, Seba5618, Oroso, Stephenchou0722, Adriaan, AVRS, PhantomS, MartinBot,
Miaers, BetBot, Alexswilliams, Ethan.hardman, Vanessaezekowitz, Kiore, Twitty666, Aladdin Sane, Comperr, Rettetast, Joemaza, Anaxial, Jonathan Hall, Mickytz13, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Nono64, PrestonH, Tgeairn, Erkan Yilmaz, Manticore, J.delanoy, Pharaoh
of the Wizards, Trusilver, Uncle Dick, Public Menace, Jesant13, DanDoughty, Johnnaylor, Jerry, Ian.thomson, Cpiral, Alexei-ALXM,
Davidm617617, Dispenser, It Is Me Here, Katalaveno, Mc hammerutime, Grosscha, Silas S. Brown, AntiSpamBot, Plasticup, Dvn805,
Warut, NewEnglandYankee, Burkeaj, Matthardingu, Super Mac Gamer, Cobi, Touch Of Light, Tatrgel, Bigdumbdinosaur, Mufka, Manassehkatz, Orrs, Tdrtdr, DigitallyBorn, Althepal, Cometstyles, Mwheatland, Simon the Dragon, RB972, Vanished user 39948282, Treisijs,
Dekard, MrPaul84, Bonadea, Useight, TheNewPhobia, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Joecoolatjunkmaildotcom, Signalhead, Vox Humana
8', S.borchers, Hammersoft, VolkovBot, Thedjatclubrock, Thomas.W, Riahc3, Murderbike, S10462, Rhyswynne, Je G., AlnoktaBOT,
Brownga, Philip Trueman, Kyuuseishu, TXiKiBoT, Masonkinyon, Amphlett7, Zidonuke, Manmohan Brahma, Neversay.misher, Hqb,
NPrice, Ngien, Naohiro19 revertvandal, Wingnutamj, Vanished user ikijeirw34iuaeolaseric, Anna Lincoln, Ocolon, Lradrama, Melsaran, Mistman123, JhsBot, Sanfranman59, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Tpk5010, Seb az86556, Random Hippopotamus, 1yesfan, Hrundi
Bakshi, Kaustubh.singh, Maxim, Rjgarr, Ngch89, Milan Kerlger, Lejarrag, BigDunc, Andy Dingley, Dirkbb, Jsysinc, Alten, Wasted
Sapience, Prashanthomesh, Jpeeling, Benneman, Rainsak, WJetChao, Synthebot, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, Duke56, RaseaC, Insanity Incarnate, Brianga, Jackmiles2006, Zx-man, AlleborgoBot, Badhaker, Jimmi Hugh, Bhu z Crecelu, Logan, EmxBot, Deconstructhis, Kbrose,
The Random Editor, SPQRobin, SieBot, Coee, Utahraptor ostrommaysi, Rektide, YonaBot, Euryalus, BotMultichill, EwokiWiki, Themoose8, Zephyrus67, Zemoxian, Winchelsea, Josh the Nerd, RavenXtra, Rockstone35, DBishop1984, Triwbe, March23.1999, Yintan,
Revent, DavidHalko, Kaypoh, GrooveDog, Jerryobject, Purbo T, Buonoj, Android Mouse, Toddst1, Oda Mari, Aruton, Oxymoron83,
Antonio Lopez, Harry, Techman224, BenoniBot, Dantheman88, P.Marlow, Pithree, Echo95, Pinkadelica, M2Ys4U, Nergaal, Denisarona, Escape Orbit, Martarius, ClueBot, Avenged Eightfold, GorillaWarfare, PipepBot, Wikievil666, The Thing That Should Not Be,
Alksentrs, MarioRadev, Rilak, Emwave, Jan1nad, ImperfectlyInformed, Arakunem, Drmies, Cp111, Unknown-xyz, Mild Bill Hiccup,
E.mammadli, Kathleen.wright5, Polyamorph, Boing! said Zebedee, McLovin34, Jdrowlands, Mbalamuruga, Lyt701, Danieltobey, Ramif
47, The1DB, DragonBot, Rbakels, Excirial, Socrates2008, Jusdafax, M4gnum0n, Andy pyro, Susheel verma, Eeekster, John Nevard,
Kamanleodickson, Winston365, Njuuton, Lightedbulb, Posix memalign, Garlovel, Sun Creator, Tyler, Jotterbot, Josef.94, Tnxman307,
Dekisugi, Youwillnevergetthis, Rmere, Yes-minister, Muralihbh, La Pianista, Ninuxpdb, OlurotimiO, Thingg, Andy16666, Callmejosh,
Aitias, Mdikici, Johnuniq, SF007, Kerowhack, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Aaron north, Spitre, MarmotteNZ, Stickee, Rror, Agentlame,
Rreagan007, Klungel, Skarebo, WikHead, ErkinBatu, NellieBly, Galzigler, KenshinWithNoise, Alexius08, Kgoetz, Osarius, HexaChord,
JimPlamondon, CalumH93, Ratnadeepm, Ghettoblaster, NNLauron, AVand, Wluka, Donhoraldo, Love manjeet kumar singh, Melab1, Mabdul, Ente75, Raywil, Tothwolf, Grandscribe, Elsendero, Ronhjones, CanadianLinuxUser, Scherr, Debloper, Lindert, Ka Faraq
Gatri, MrOllie, Download, Eivindbot, LaaknorBot, Chamal N, CarsracBot, EconoPhysicist, M.r santosh kumar., Glane23, AnnaFrance,
Favonian, Kyle1278, LinkFA-Bot, Jasper Deng, Manickam001, Tide rolls, Luckas Blade, Teles, Gail, Jarble, Legobot, Wisconsinsurfer,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, Applechair, WikiDan61, 2D, OrgasGirl, Senator Palpatine, Josepsbd, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, PlutosGeek, 2nth0nyj,
Washburnmav, Mmxx, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Nallimbot, Sven nestle, Golftheman, Baron1984, Timir Saxa, Knownot, Masharabinovich, Amicon, Quarkuar, TestEditBot, South Bay, Tempodivalse, Synchronism, Jorge.guillen, AnomieBOT, Create g77, 1exec1, Gtz,
Geph, Lucy-seline, Jim1138, 789455dot38, 9258fahskh917fas, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, Law, Remixsoft10, RandomAct, Flewis,
Materialscientist, Mcloud91, 9marksparks9, Twistedkevin, Felyza, Rabi Javed, Johnny039, Waterjuice, GB fan, Ashikpa, Xqbot, TheAMmollusc, Holden15, Capricorn42, CoolingGibbon, Biometricse, Nasnema, Mononomic, Jewang, Inferno, Lord of Penguins, HDrake, Pmlineditor, Nayvik, RibotBOT, Kyng, Oroba, Karolinski, Cul22dude, Sophus Bie, Sidious1741, Maitchy, N419BH, =Josh.Harris, Shadowjams, Chatul, Astatine-210, Kevin586, Endothermic, Jerrysmp, Lkatkinsmith, Captain-n00dle, Erickanner, FrescoBot, OspreyPL, Ashleypurdy, Trimaine, Pepper, Mthomp1998, Fobenavi, Gauravdce07, Michael93555, Cps274203, Ishanjand, Photonik UK, Clsin, Jjupiter100,
Kwiki, Dhtwiki, WellHowdyDoo, DivineAlpha, Sanaskar, Citation bot 1, Skomes, DrilBot, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Abazgiri,
Vicenarian, Elockid, AR bd, 10metreh, Martin smith 637, Skyerise, Ngyikp, Jschnur, RedBot, MastiBot, Chikoosahu, Meaghan, Ltomuta, Gtgray1948, Merlion444, White Shadows, Tim1357, Wormsgoat, TobeBot, SchreyP, Yunshui, Zonafan39, , Mptb3,
Javierito92, Dinamik-bot, Vrenator, TBloemink, MrX, Defender of torch, Ansumang, Aoidh, Ondertitel, DeDroa, Rro4785, WikiTome,
Weedwhacker128, Lysander89, Reach Out to the Truth, Jesse V., Programming geek, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Dexter Nextnumber, SirGre, Alextyhy, Jfmantis, Kjaleshire, Mppl3z, TjBot, Pontiacsunre08, Stealthmartin, BjrnBergman, Sweet blueberry pie, Sarikaanand,
DiaNoCHe, Francis2795, Lordmarlineo, Slon02, Urvashi.iyogi, Deagle AP, Rollins83, N sharma000, Vinnyzz, EmausBot, Tasting boob,
Odell421, SampigeVenkatesh, RA0808, Cookdn, Nwusr123log, Mrankur, CaptRik, NotAnonymous0, Tommy2010, Elvenmuse, Wikipelli,
Alisha.4m, Werieth, ZroBot, John Cline, Ida Shaw, Parsonscat, MithrandirAgain, Enna59, EdEColbert, Bbuss, Ferrenrock, Lt monu,
Vorosgy, Fred Gandt, Hazard-SJ, Bijesh nair, Can You Prove That You're Human, Demonkoryu, Utilitytrack, Tolly4bolly, Thine Antique
Pen, W163, Eab28, Icerearceus, Arman Cagle, THeReDragOn, OllieWilliamson, L Kensington, Bachinchi, Gsarwa, Donner60, Wikiloop, Djonesuk, Pun, Adityachodya, ChuispastonBot, Wakebrdkid, GrayFullbuster, Sven Manguard, DASHBotAV, Rocketrod1960,
Blu Aardvark III, Jekyllhide, Cgtdk, Petrb, MetaEntropy, ClueBot NG, Cwmhiraeth, Nothingisoftensomething, Frankdushantha, JetBlast,
Matthiaspaul, NULL, Satellizer, Sparkle24, Dhardik007, Adair2324, WorldBrains, SunCountryGuy01, Feedintm, Doh5678, Sainath468,
Muon, Mesoderm, O.Koslowski, Geekman314, 149AFK, Joshua Gyam, CaroleHenson, Alenaross07, Widr, WikiPuppies, Ashish Gaikwad, Sharanbngr, Friecode, Cllnk, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jijojohnpj, Mujz1, , Ndavidow, Calabe1992, Wbm1058, Karabulutis252, Sunay419, Altay437, Muehlburger, Lowercase sigmabot, Lifemaestro, BG19bot, Pcbsder, Integralexplora, Northamerica1000,
Who.was.phone, Snow Rise, Abhik0904, Atomician, CimanyD, Yowanvista, Dainomite, Aranea Mortem, Bcxfu75k, Upthegro, Lmmaaaoooo, Glacialfox, GeneralChrisV, Jkl4201, Achowat, Vikrant manore, ItsMeowAnywhere, Iswariya.r, SupernovaExplosion, Sharkert, Pratyya Ghosh, Cyberbot II, Fronx, DreamFieldArts, Meowmeow8956, Macintosh123, MadGuy7023, JYBot, TravellerQLD, Dexbot,

444

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

Sakariyerirash, Kushalbiswas777, Ziiike, Webclient101, Mualif02, 12Danny123, Nozomimous, TwoTwoHello, Frosty, SFK2, Hair, Openmikenite, Sowlos, Harris james, Corn cheese, Crossy1234, Epicgenius, Poydoy, Acetotyce, Carrot Lord, Pdecalculus, Sosthenes12, ArjunML, EngGerm12, AnthonyJ Lock, Mjoshi91, Comp.arch, Melody Lavender, Fercho333, AlexanderRedd, Dannyruthe, Bbirkinbine,
Inaaaa, Monkbot, Augbog, TerryAlex, NQ, Oy284, Suspender guy, Nelsonkam, TranquilHope, Endlesss2014, Derpmeup, Trevor35on,
Mathewisgreat, Prakashmeansvictory, Harshkohli1 and Anonymous: 2315
Unix Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix?oldid=645707989 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Kpjas, Lee Daniel Crocker, Tuxisuau,
Brion VIBBER, Mav, Zundark, Stephen Gilbert, Koyaanis Qatsi, Ap, Sjc, Amillar, Andre Engels, Graham Chapman, JeLuF, Christian
List, Aldie, Fubar Obfusco, LukeyBoy, Peterlin, Shii, Ant, Maury Markowitz, Panairjdde, Heron, Dwheeler, XTaran, Jim McKeeth,
Spi, Frecklefoot, Edward, RTC, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, Kwertii, Alexr, Dante Alighieri, Nixdorf, Liftarn, Wapcaplet,
Zeno Gantner, Gbleem, Iluvcapra, AquaRichy, 7265, CesarB, Ahoerstemeier, Cyp, Stan Shebs, Nanshu, Typhoon, CatherineMunro, Plop,
Angela, Kingturtle, DropDeadGorgias, Djmutex, Nikai, Evercat, Smay, Rl, Mxn, Darkonc, Darksyde, Hashar, Mulad, Dave Bell, Jdstroy, Ike9898, Magnus.de, Paul Stansifer, Dysprosia, Jay, Greenrd, Zoicon5, Joshk, Maximus Rex, Tschild, Furrykef, Grendelkhan, Jnc,
Wellington, SEWilco, Omegatron, Wernher, Bevo, Xevi, Shizhao, Joy, Khym Chanur, AnonMoos, Flockmeal, Jim Mahoney, MrWeeble,
Francs2000, Quist, Phil Boswell, Robbot, Hankwang, Iam, Owain, PBS, Scott McNay, Alrasheedan, RedWolf, Nyh, Altenmann, Nurg,
Treutwein, P0lyglut, Merovingian, Yosri, Blainster, Bkell, Hadal, JesseW, Wereon, Per Abrahamsen, Tobias Bergemann, Jrash, David
Gerard, Ancheta Wis, Somercet, Alerante, Kbahey, Gtrmp, Jhf, Arved, Juliand, Elf, Hylaride, Massysett, Luis Dantas, var Arnfjr
Bjarmason, Lethe, Tom harrison, Lupin, Fleminra, Lussmu, Qaramazov, Mcapdevila, Curps, Wikibob, Jewarnica, Ssd, Sdsher, Guanaco, Masken, Jorge Stol, Mboverload, AlistairMcMillan, Macrakis, Bobblewik, Wiki Wikardo, Wmahan, Chowbok, Bact, Mendel,
Jonel, Antandrus, HorsePunchKid, Joeblakesley, WhiteDragon, Wehe, DNewhall, Burgundavia, Brian Mitchell, Karl-Henner, Sam Hocevar, Troels Arvin, Eiserlohpp, Pm215, Mschlindwein, Zondor, Kate, Gazpacho, Millisits, Edave10, Mernen, Apalsola, Imroy, SkArcher,
Discospinster, Leibniz, ArnoldReinhold, Smyth, YUL89YYZ, Redneon, HutchisonB, Gronky, Lachatdelarue, Bender235, Kjoonlee, Niels
Leenheer, Evice, RJHall, Ylee, *drew, Lankiveil, Mwanner, Richard W.M. Jones, Spearhead, Linkoman, EurekaLott, Nickj, Bobo192,
Longhair, John Vandenberg, Cmdrjameson, Reuben, Giraedata, Mark Musante, SpeedyGonsales, Cavrdg, Sam Korn, Haham hanuka,
Jonathunder, Tullius, EliasTorres, Schissel, Michael Dring, Gurre, Alansohn, Csabo, Guy Harris, Conan, Atlant, Andrewpmk, Jonathanriley, Swift, Dental, Snowolf, Gbeeker, Wtshymanski, Rick Sidwell, Paul1337, Kdau, Stephan Leeds, Tony Sidaway, Ceyockey, Kay Dekker,
Mahanga, Roland2, Kelly Martin, Jannex, Lost.goblin, Rocastelo, Ae-a, Uncle G, MattGiuca, Ruud Koot, WadeSimMiser, Cbdorsett, Jkid,
Damicatz, Pgilman, Eyreland, SDC, Male1979, Zzxc, Bradd, Marudubshinki, Graham87, BD2412, Qwertyus, Chun-hian, Haikupoet,
JIP, Reisio, Pittising, Ej, Wpuser0, George Burgess, Wahkeenah, Colin Hill, Nneonneo, Mbutts, N-Man, Lairor, Drrotmos, The Deviant,
SystemBuilder, SchuminWeb, Unixan, GnuDoyng, Jsheehy, Ewlyahoocom, Ryan Gardner, Bmicomp, Ahunt, BMF81, Chobot, FeldBum,
Peterl, Gwernol, Banaticus, YurikBot, Eraserhead1, Hairy Dude, Geljamin, Dleonard, Epolk, Groogle, Chaser, Hydrargyrum, Gaius Cornelius, Brec, NawlinWiki, Msikma, Sisir Koppaka, Daniel Simanek, Dogcow, Jpbowen, Jhessela, Moe Epsilon, Zwobot, Xompanthy,
PS2pcGAMER, Wknight94, Georgewilliamherbert, Paul Magnussen, Zzuuzz, Lt-wiki-bot, Ninly, Icedog, , Zerodamage, Brian
Tvedt, Reyk, Lynbarn, GraemeL, Femmina, Janizary, Camje lemon, Rwwww, Tyomitch, Liujiang, That Guy, From That Show!, Yuuki
Mayuki, Johnmarkh, Ananthshrinivas, Ozzmosis, SmackBot, FocalPoint, Pippijn, MattieTK, Asinghal, Impaciente, Slashme, KnowledgeOfSelf, KocjoBot, Alex mayorga, Anastrophe, Delldot, Natebarney, Agarvin, Monz, Agentbla, Frymaster, Kievite, Btwied, Aceofspades1217, Oscarthecat, Evilandi, Psiphiorg, Master Jay, Keegan, Rolfecat, DStoykov, ElTchanggo, Stevotower, Thumperward, Jerome
Charles Potts, Chisophugis, Lexlex, Letdorf, Nbarth, DHN-bot, MercZ, Krallja, Scwlong, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Drkirkby, Frap,
Chlewbot, WikEditor, Rrburke, Squigish, SundarBot, Jaimie Henry, Khukri, MisterCharlie, Fewiii, Dren, Warren, DylanW, DenisRS, Lus
Felipe Braga, Jklin, Cpugeniusmv, Acdx, Vina-iwbot, Kukini, SashatoBot, Harryboyles, Attys, Bizzako, Brujo, Gobonobo, Vrza, Minna
Sora no Shita, Joelo, Xofc, SPho3nix, Scetoaux, Hulmem, Loadmaster, Ems2, SQGibbon, Robert Bond, Brainix, Aarktica, Ryulong,
Prunk, MTSbot, Infologue, Wwagner, Sonic3KMaster, Iridescent, Peter M Dodge, CzarB, JoeBot, JDubman, Twas Now, GDallimore,
Daniel5127, Chetvorno, IJK Principle, Sakurambo, Ahy1, Unixguy, Raysonho, Mineral, Makeemlighter, Xose.vazquez, Kylu, Michael B.
Trausch, Hga, Arruah, ChristTrekker, A876, UncleBubba, Gogo Dodo, Travelbird, Dr unix, Starship Trooper, Blackjack48, GeneralDuke,
Ultimus, SkonesMickLoud, Headbomb, Marek69, NorwegianBlue, Electron9, Zzthex, Stualden, Ideogram, EdJohnston, Greg L, Druiloor,
Genegorp, AntiVandalBot, Widefox, Guy Macon, Cbrucker, Xeroxxx, Prolog, Robzz, Jj137, Maksud, Isilanes, Postlewaight, Semifreddo,
LegitimateAndEvenCompelling, Z-vap, Bigjimr, NapoliRoma, MER-C, Geobio, Nickvikeras, Sethpen, Reverendnathan, Xeno, GoodDamon, .anacondabot, SteveSims, DRHagen, Andreas Toth, Akuyume, Pharillon, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Crimperman, Avjoska, JamesBWatson, SHCarter, Praveenp, Tedickey, Schily, DAGwyn, Martinkb, Foxb, Wwmbes, Allstarecho, Sue Gardner, Gludwiczak, Calltech,
Paliku, Gwern, MartinBot, Aaron.baker, Rettetast, Unix jaick, R'n'B, V.petcu, Tgeairn, Bogey97, Nbauman, Public Menace, Mcg3o, Bluebiru, Cpiral, Davidm617617, Dlgauthier, SpigotMap, Sup889, WinkJunior, Girl2k, Utanapishti, Raise exception, NewEnglandYankee,
Marktuson, 83d40m, Gwen Gale, Seemywiki, Sakthivinayagam, Fultus, VolkovBot, Numberp, Philip Trueman, Chomsky1, PGSONIC,
TXiKiBoT, Dolcecars, Dojarca, Blaclef, Couilles007, Technopat, Hqb, Ryan shell, Macslacker, Vanished user ikijeirw34iuaeolaseric,
Mauror, Robbier, Liberal Classic, Zoef1234, Synthebot, True ozzy, !dea4u, Insanity Incarnate, Laval, NHRHS2010, EmxBot, Kbrose,
SieBot, Mora.klein, YonaBot, Ufykgj, YourEyesOnly, Caltas, Icktoofay, Jerryobject, Leeman056, Toddst1, Zutme, Dalvizu, Oxymoron83,
Mnudelman, PointDread, Oniscoid, DixonD, Kalidasa 777, H1nkles, Brian Geppert, COLDshiver, ImageRemovalBot, John Doe42, Martarius, ClueBot, Apacheguru, Ignorance is strength, 4Minesweeper, DrParkash, LizardJr8, Trivialist, Jfblanc, Carsoman, DragonBot,
Rbakels, Jusdafax, Georgeyardley, Lartoven, Tyler, Dralconz, Jotterbot, Yes-minister, BOTarate, La Pianista, Gnowxilef, Andy16666,
Horselover Frost, MelonBot, Azrael Nightwalker, SF007, DumZiBoT, Darkicebot, XLinkBot, Ptfbending, Bradv, WikHead, Airplaneman,
Dsimic, FatBear1, IsmaelLuceno, Addbot, Man with one red shoe, Mckinley99, Ghettoblaster, DougsTech, Tanhabot, Ronhjones, Scientus, Fluernutter, MrOllie, Glane23, Pclunixos, Jake7401, AgadaUrbanit, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Secundus Zephyrus, Gail, Zorrobot, Jarble,
Felisone, Luckas-bot, Yobot, JackPotte, Fraggle81, Galio, Nallimbot, KamikazeBot, Retro00064, 4th-otaku, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Galoubet, CraigBox, Flewis, CasperBraske, HughesJohn, Citation bot, Xqbot, Timir2, Wikante, CoolingGibbon, Christopher Forster, Locos
epraix, Khaderv, RibotBOT, Bugefun, =Josh.Harris, Shadowjams, DenisKrivosheev, Tobby72, Mark Renier, Alan D, Enonx1, Pshent, Redrose64, Pinethicket, Trijnstel, LittleWink, 10metreh, Skyerise, RedBot, Jbp66, Cullen12, Unixandthings, SpaceFlight89, Full-date unlinking bot, Redbeanpaste, Jauhienij, Dr.Szlchedzki, Mmeerman, Jake3373, ItsZippy, Lotje, Minikola, Zvn, MFNPeas, Morgensindelar6.9,
Seahorseruler, Dash ambikesh, Jesse V., Mattrod666, RjwilmsiBot, Siwanoy, *nix, Charanreddyk, PsychicShades, EmausBot, Acather96,
Nima1024, WikitanvirBot, Vindigenous, Hoeky9, Reborg, IBoy2G, Kkm010, Shuipzv3, GoldRenet, Aeonx, H3llBot, Caspertheghost, Demonkoryu, Eltony uy, W163, L Kensington, Donner60, Truewww, Ego White Tray, ChuispastonBot, Unixisbetter, Lunarkat211, Voomoo,
Sonicyouth86, ClueBot NG, PatchesTheCaveman, Matthiaspaul, EnekoGotzon, TheOpenFreeFan, Miroumilou, Ghostly reader, Widr,
Helpful Pixie Bot, Karabulutis252, Lowercase sigmabot, Jagoly, Bkouhi, Ajraju7, Wiki13, Lifeformnoho, Nsda, Mm32pc, PartTimeGnome, Eman2129, Rvfh, Hippopotamus777, Venera Seyranyan, WiseSAM23, ANI MARTIROSYAN, Peterbartoli, Tkbx, Sachin31131,
Kushalbiswas777, Richardmstallman, RazvanLNX, UNOwenNYC, Lolo Lympian, PinkAmpersand, 12boshod, AutomaticClown, The
French Rat, Myconix, Dannyniu, Babitaarora, Huihermit, Ginsuloft, Rotaryphone111, Monkbot, Harry.as43, Tonga2010, Unician, Jay

40.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

445

patar, NetworkOP and Anonymous: 815

Intel Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel?oldid=645634632 Contributors: AxelBoldt, General Wesc, Vulture, Mav, The Anome,
Mark Ryan, Andre Engels, Youssefsan, Christopher Mahan, Ray Van De Walker, Olivier, Vkem, Stevertigo, Frecklefoot, Edward, RTC,
JakeVortex, Llywrch, Komap, 7265, Tregoweth, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Ronz, Nanshu, Theresa knott, Notheruser, Cherkash, Mxn, Denny,
Dtwhite, Alex S, Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, Dcoetzee, David Latapie, Jay, WhisperToMe, Timc, Kaare, Maximus Rex, Mrand, Wernher, Samsara, Thue, Nickshanks, Fvw, David.Monniaux, RadicalBender, Robbot, ChrisO, Fredrik, Korath, Donreed, Moncrief, Nurg,
Chris Roy, Stewartadcock, Hemanshu, UtherSRG, Profoss, Mushroom, Mystyc, Dave Bass, Cek, Dbroadwell, Alerante, JamesMLane,
DocWatson42, Jacoplane, DavidCary, Twburger, Pretzelpaws, Fudoreaper, Angmering, Ich, Everyking, Curps, Presto8, Niteowlneils,
Sdsher, Robert Weemeyer, Proslaes, AlistairMcMillan, Phongn, Adam McMaster, Uzume, Bobblewik, Edcolins, Patsup, LiDaobing,
Vanished user svinet8j3ogifm98wjfgoi3tjosfg, Slowking Man, Antandrus, Beland, Onco p53, Intel, Mproud, PDH, CaribDigita, Pale
blue dot, DragonySixtyseven, Daniel11, Elz dad, Icairns, Gscshoyru, Michael L. Kaufman, GNU, Fvilim, MementoVivere, DMG413,
Jake11, Thorwald, Frankchn, ChrisRuvolo, Imroy, Indosauros, Naryathegreat, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Mhowkins, Pak21, FT2,
Jpk, Notinasnaid, Berkut, Bender235, Rubicon, Swid, Evice, Narcisse, CanisRufus, Edwinstearns, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Cacophony,
Coolcaesar, Dalf, Yanzi, Peter Greenwell, Walkiped, Duk, Cncxbox, Jerryseinfeld, Kjkolb, Nk, Rajah, Cheung1303, Chrisblore, Amcl,
Ehurtley, Merope, Jumbuck, Alison9, Storm Rider, Jigen III, Mithent, Gary, PaulHanson, JamesTseng, Retran, Guy Harris, Arthena,
Rd232, Sandstig, Yamla, Graingert, Kurieeto, Sligocki, Mailer diablo, Wdfarmer, Denniss, Velella, Isaac, Suruena, Max Naylor, Tony
Sidaway, RainbowOfLight, Geraldshields11, SteinbDJ, Instantnood, Dan100, Dennis Bratland, RyanGerbil10, Dismas, Mahanga, KUsam,
Weyes, Joriki, Boothy443, Mel Etitis, Woohookitty, David Haslam, Timharwoodx, DD, Admrboltz, JeremyA, Apokrif, Tygar, CiTrusD,
Quadra630, Uris, Nick Hill, GregorB, Wayward, Rapty, Allen3, Kesla, Graham87, David Levy, Kbdank71, Xxpor, FreplySpang, Shadowhillway, Rjwilmsi, Seidenstud, Jake Wartenberg, Ikh, Jgp, Viakenny, Tangotango, Bruce1ee, Joz3d, Shoelace256, MZMcBride, Tawker,
Gudeldar, CQJ, SeanMack, The wub, Aaronmz, Oo64eva, SNIyer12, Win777, JanSuchy, Sheldrake, Teshel, Titoxd, StuartBrady, FlaBot,
Yoursvivek, Geldart, JYOuyang, RexNL, Gurch, Brendan Moody, Stormwatch, Intgr, WikiWikiPhil, Gareth E Kegg, Dougthebug, Idaltu,
CJLL Wright, Chobot, Sherool, Costas Skarlatos, ManuBhardwaj, Josh59x, Gwernol, Aluvus, Ravenswing, YurikBot, Wavelength, Spacepotato, RobotE, Phantomsteve, Wengier, Chaser, Lucinos, Revertix, RadioFan2 (usurped), Hydrargyrum, Akamad, , Polluxian, Gaius Cornelius, XX55XX, CambridgeBayWeather, Akhristov, Bovineone, SamJohnston, NawlinWiki, Stephen Burnett, Smash, RazorICE, Thiseye, EntChickie, Cleared as led, Retired username, Rbarreira, Blu Aardvark, BertK, Voidxor, Falcon9x5, Suso, M3taphysical,
Karl Meier, Pablomartinez, DeadEyeArrow, Eclipsed, Bota47, MartinHagberg, Denis C., Evrik, Malepheasant, Max Schwarz, Poisonotter, FF2010, DerekL, Gergis, AGNXadmin, Cloudbound, Arthur Rubin, Jogers, BorgQueen, Shawnc, Cjwright79, Curpsbot-unicodify,
Imdaking, ViperSnake151, Tdsanchez, Eptin, Airconswitch, RahulM, One, Tom Morris, Anthony717, Ledward, NetRolller 3D, Sardanaphalus, Locke Cole, KnightRider, SmackBot, Snecklifter, Barrakketh, Evilgrug, Ashwinkn, Wlindley, Reedy, LocalH, KnowledgeOfSelf, Gnangarra, Pgk, KocjoBot, Mirmo!, Anastrophe, Alepik, Knilt, Eskimbot, ProveIt, Aaronproot, Fnfd, Kungfuazn, Cazort, Darijoe, Commander Keane bot, Gilliam, Betacommand, Carl.bunderson, ERcheck, Diamondheart, P-unit, EncMstr, MalafayaBot, Sibilev,
Wcwnwo17, Letdorf, Baronnet, DHN-bot, Colonies Chris, ACupOfCoee, Rlevse, Narco, Zsinj, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Joachim
Schrod, Hildanknight, Sonicblue4, Frap, Eliyahu S, OrphanBot, ZachPruckowski, JonHarder, TonySt, CorbinSimpson, Easwarno1, UU,
Stevenmitchell, Dharmabum420, Hackand, Flyguy649, DinosaursLoveExistence, NubianOracle, NoIdeaNick, Jaimie Henry, Cybercobra,
Decltype, MureninC, Nakon, Valenciano, Brucer42, PStatic, Gump Stump, DMacks, -Marcus-, A5b, Daniel.Cardenas, PhilipB, Pilotguy,
Chickenofbristol, Wilt, Ohconfucius, Thepangelinanpost, The undertow, SashatoBot, Rory096, Dirk math, DHR, Haakon Thue Lie, Thebt,
Kuru, John, Sjock, Markdr, Buchanan-Hermit, iga, Catapult, Shadowlynk, This user has left wikipedia, Kashmiri, Minna Sora no Shita,
Dumelow, Codepro, Mr. Lefty, IronGargoyle, 16@r, Ex nihil, Aeluwas, Rabhyanker, Avedomni, Dicklyon, AxG, Fedallah, BrockF5, AEMoreira042281, AdjustablePliers, Samh004, Xljesus, KJS77, Hu12, DabMachine, Lucid, Norm mit, Seqsea, Nicoli nicolivich, Iridescent,
Coldpower27, Paul venter, Lonyo, RichSPK, JoeBot, Ultimatejester, Shoeofdeath, J Di, Twas Now, JustinRossi, Aeons, Fdp, FairuseBot,
Tawkerbot2, George100, Cryptic C62, Binaifaa, AbsolutDan, Fernvale, Japco, Grasshoppa, Alexthe5th, Berniedehler, J Milburn, JForget, Sadalmelik, Purva4u, Amsteinberg91, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Raysonho, Mattbr, FunPika, Zmiller923, Epistemophiliac, ShelfSkewed,
Sahrin, Null Nihils, Charlie Huggard, Arrenlex, Dario D., CCFreak2K, Cydebot, Solarisworld, Treybien, Gogo Dodo, Pig de Wig, Bazzargh, Nick2253, Futureobservatory, BDS2006, Tawkerbot4, Clovis Sangrail, AndersFeder, DumbBOT, Cyferz, Kozuch, Omicronpersei8,
JodyB, JohnInDC, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Do it, KLabe, BurningCandy, Edwardx, Jastein, Marek69, James086, JJLL, Scaredpoet,
Dfrg.msc, LG4761, Firstshadow, Hcobb, Nick Number, Pfranson, Dawnseeker2000, I already forgot, Applemeister, Techy4life, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Gniekerk, Prolog, Fastcash21, Smartse, Semifreddo, Eric1985, Tkirton, Ecoconservant, JAnDbot, Chaitanya.lala,
Samanello, TigerK 69, Barek, Arch dude, Xnemesis, Azian1of4, MB1972, Andonic, GGreeneVa, PhilKnight, MSBOT, SteveSims, Klasnicinhk, Rob1974, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Paranoidmage, AuburnPilot, RBBrittain, JamesBWatson, Gabe1972, Zinga,
Robzy, Cyktsui, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, BilCat, Boob, Schumi555, DerHexer, Commandersonic00, Mustafa1702, Patstuart, Track02,
Darkre?, ZSS9393, Flowanda, Taborgate, A. S. Aulakh, MartinBot, CliC, Daniil Veremchuk, Lemento, Chefboyardi, Zeus, Rettetast,
Subzbharti, R'n'B, Pbroks13, Lepidus16, V.petcu, Pomte, Discpad, Tadpole9, J.delanoy, Jwigton, Trusilver, Bongomatic, Mbcrothers, Cocoaguy, BBrucker2, TomCat2800, Gunrun, Aboutmovies, Zero Serenity, C2S7, Wildball, AntiSpamBot, Plasticup, Allreet, Adam Schwing,
Utkarsh is Cool, Crazymentalchris, Thogan, KylieTastic, Musabhusaini, Atama, Tkaizan, Drake arch, WizardDuck, Tagus, Bonadea, Jvcdude, Dorftrottel, Horst.Burkhardt, ThePointblank, Funandtrvl, 1812ahill, Pain, Undeadhunter, Vranak, VolkovBot, Bricks2183, Thedjatclubrock, Jamcib, Je G., Umalee, Philip Trueman, DoorsAjar, TXiKiBoT, Mercurywoodrose, Davehi1, Rei-bot, CoJaBo, Charbroil,
DennyColt, JSB73, Martin451, Ng.j, Sushiya, UnitedStatesian, Winbuyer, Madhero88, Jlguenego, WJetChao, Moocowsrock, Maseratifast, The Devils Advocate, Nssbm117, Ikluft, ClarkLewis, NHRHS2010, EmxBot, Hmwith, Sxcboi123, The Random Editor, GirasoleDE,
SieBot, Avyshue, Sonicology, Afa1989, Gallardoman, OatmealSmith, Caltas, Matthew Yeager, Technoric, Keilana, BlueAzure, Toddst1,
Flyer22, Radon210, HkCaGu, JD554, Kristinwt, Nopetro, Tazpa, Baseball Bugs, Jhdezjr, Steven Zhang, Lightmouse, Manway, Fratrep,
Maelgwnbot, Anakin101, C'est moi, SlimDan22, Alatari, Anchor Link Bot, TaerkastUA, T3chn0s1s, Denisarona, Escape Orbit, Dawnsonzhang, Deaksarm, Squash Racket, Martarius, ClueBot, Mariordo, The Thing That Should Not Be, Beer112, EoGuy, Wysprgr2005, Kamath.nakul, Czarko, Krzysz00, HIHIHIHO, Uncle Milty, Niceguyedc, Xenon54, Nualran, Ottawahitech, Trivialist, John J. Bulten, Rprpr,
Puchiko, MC Scared of Bees, Auntof6, Kingoftherings, Bbb2007, Connor 99, Tim32, Goodone121, Liberal Saudi, Sparob, Next in line2,
Brewej, EvilSupahFly, Dmyersturnbull, Jotterbot, Hardikp12, Dekisugi, Nobody of Consequence, Nukeless, Stepheng3, Chaosdruid, C628,
Thingg, Crunchynut93, Cacacacacacacacal, Tigeron, SoxBot III, DumZiBoT, Finalnight, Ekvipinkumar, Loghtoftruth, Fastily, SJ Morg, Jovianeye, Rror, Svgalbertian, Divius, WikHead, Coopman86, CheatLemur, Saxboychair1, Airplaneman, Dsimic, Teckdiva, Addbot, Immortal Martyr, Piz d'Es-Cha, Ghettoblaster, Willking1979, Landon1980, SirClaymore, Jlemos35, TutterMouse, Professor Reginald, Scientus,
Vishnava, Zarcadia, Sprinter76, Cst17, MrOllie, Download, Deverell, ShepBot, AndersBot, FiriBot, FCSundae, Favonian, Mpcscomputers,
Aunva6, Jasper Deng, Bernie Kohl, IronBlood, Hellzdev, Numbo3-bot, colampadius, Sandua, F Notebook, JediVulcan, Membrain00,
Lightbot, Setiah, Llakais, Avono, Mjquinn id, Teles, Shadis, Sdxvi, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Senator Palpatine, Legobot II, Pravikumar
82, DJ LoPaTa, Wonder, Svntnth, Khvarena, Umerfarooqawan, Asha koul, AnomieBOT, Jgough90, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Crecy99,

446

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

Materialscientist, Arruina cumpleaos, Alawadhi3000, The High Fin Sperm Whale, ArthurBot, Nishando, Xqbot, Zad68, Holden15, Intelati, Drilnoth, Renaissancee, Jerey Mall, Alex at kms, Legitt, Vino boblee, DawnPatrol, Schwijker, AVBOT, Mathonius, Famousfahad,
Adrianwo, Tigz54, Natural Cut, Bigger digger, Miyagawa, Jerrysmp, Dougofborg, Frozenevolution, 11mwood, Erikbushey, Mummy34,
FrescoBot, Lexicon1979, Designerx, Tobby72, Kknepper, W Nowicki, StaticVision, Hosszuka, Kyteto, Moin.max, D'ohBot, Dwjones12,
2toy mora, The ansible, Caleb Jon, Arndbergmann, DearthOfMateriel, Ractogon, I dream of horses, Chatfecter, Daminstant, Tinton5, Hanskucing, , Redbeanpaste, Akjon.roosho, Secret squirel, Tim1357, Altairantares, Lpchao, TobeBot, Zhernovoi, Sparklex, Karebear 1022,
PacicJuls, Slavon37, Mellis1995, Lotje, Peterhunt21, Suomi Finland 2009, Franckn55, Zvn, Extra999, Wiki-nika, Tonytan723, Specs112,
Diannaa, Mass09, Mac.lauren1989, Cccs123, Jesse V., RobertMfromLI, Siripuramrk, Josmcast, Mean as custard, Tinkba, RjwilmsiBot,
TjBot, Mj116, Noommos, Ben-Bopper, Rollins83, WikitanvirBot, Ikerus, Nerissa-Marie, Brentyoung, Hblackhawks, NoisyJinx, Anole
418, Therealcolletepierre, Catiana 465, Gambit 28, AvicBot, Kkm010, 15turnsm, Pieter4298, ZroBot, John Cline, Cogiati, Daonguyen95,
Mastermind 147, Rogue 173, Innitjest, AOC25, Steven929890349023, Marvellousmanas, H3llBot, Doas90123, Thedoctar, Arnim Zola
765, Sonez1113, EWikist, Sharon Ventura 8372, Kilopi, Kukulcan 7560, Music Sorter, Stuart215, Jsayre64, L Kensington, Gsarwa, Donner60, Nlyte.Software, Ipsign, Rangoon11, Bomazi, Vanished 1850, ClueBot NG, Yambaram, Technobuzz, Astatine211, Sam6861, Matthiaspaul, Captain Hindsight, Rock1074, BigBob200, Frietjes, Rukiddingchicken, Mattamall, Daxter21, O.Koslowski, Ekphraster, NoomBot, Gamestop123456789, Smuckers912, Rndomuser, Smmgeek, Helpful Pixie Bot, Davis, Molly, TechGeek70, Privatechef, Wbm1058,
Dfasdfaslj4e, Dfasdfaslj4edd, Stupid0303, ChrisEngelsma, Delop84, Doorknob747, BG19bot, Martin0499, Killswitch125, Jazz872, Livebriand, PhnomPencil, Wiki magnet, MusikAnimal, Amp71, Sunshinecany2, Sowsnek, Pradip0707015, Compfreak7, Rule Outed, Areasoap9, Mahalle hemant, Lancededcena, Liam Braithwaite, Stevegt2, Talkhence3242, HMman, Typesback23432, Bauyrzhan123, Robijunior, Winston Chuen-Shih Yang, BattyBot, Factsearch, Bagoto, Chaitanya manani, Ajaxore, Reallynotnick, PHIL4534, Khazar2,
Beganevent1, Kielimiliisi, Soulparadox, MadGuy7023, Paulusbenedictus, Codename Lisa, Ada-bayor, Jlg97, Ahpathy, Lugia2453, Lola
Rennt, Quiksilver895, Charlesworth1991, Zziccardi, Rabid.conservationist, WILL.I.AM123654, Bandtank, Corn cheese, Thebigtroller,
Geoace326, Obombni, Polytope4d, Vanamonde93, Kbd201214, Acetotyce, Melonkelon, A.Glew, Vanished user lalsdi45ijne4, Limefrost Spiral, RaphaelQS, TheSeptember11Archive, Gabbarsingh07, Wikitechman, AmitWikiCool, Jdog147123, Ginsuloft, Xx Wiki Aus
xX, Someone not using his real name, Tritario, Dbhakta123, Zenixaro, ScotXW, Wes5566, Bobbysedita, W.carter, Lakun.patra, Bimmer528in20, Ndm97, Physicsintelcom, Axon Active Vietnam, M5Chrille, Monkbot, BerkeleyLaw1979, Epic Wink, Cruxsums1, LenMargaux, Xbrlus, Shotsmc, Robob18, Sophie.grothendieck, Wikotest, Granhil, Sandun1234, KH-1, ChamithN, Wikithreehundred65, Intelcom1, TechnologyExplorer, Cool2536, Catcherintherye72, KBushehri, Gamer Dad Dude, Shabber wiki, Josephkv, MEGAMJRS, TGV
Duplex, Mjhsu, Jenny from the block 2014, Yuvraj123456789, ArturZ72 and Anonymous: 1197
Microsoft Windows Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft%20Windows?oldid=645619053 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, The
Epopt, Eloquence, Mav, Zundark, Berek, AstroNomer, Mark, Andre Engels, XJaM, Christian List, Aldie, SimonP, Ben-Zin, Ellmist, LionKimbro, Camembert, JonasL, Dwheeler, Metz2000, Xlation, Lumpbucket, Leandrod, Frecklefoot, Edward, Thalakan, Patrick, RTC, D,
JohnOwens, Qwitchibo, Modster, Nixdorf, Jketola, Tompagenet, Tannin, Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, TakuyaMurata, Delirium, Flamurai, Anonymous56789, Minesweeper, Alo, Goatasaur, Spliced, Tregoweth, CesarB, Egil, Fantasy, Ahoerstemeier, Haakon, Mac, Nanshu, Snoyes,
JWSchmidt, Fuck You, Cgs, Whkoh, Ffx, Poor Yorick, IMSoP, Cstanners, Grin, Cherkash, Rl, Caelice, Kaysov, Samuel, Mxn, Ilyanep,
Arteitle, Hashar, Mulad, Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, Timwi, Tacvek, Andrevan, RickK, Slathering, JCarriker, Paul Stansifer, Dysprosia, Fuzheado, Markhurd, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Furrykef, Saltine, SHeumann, Bartosz, Ed g2s, Bevo, Geraki, Khym Chanur,
Indefatigable, Pakaran, Secretlondon, Johnleemk, Archivist, Sjorford, Robbot, Pigsonthewing, Tonsofpcs, Lbs6380, Chris 73, Nurg, Naddy,
Lowellian, Ashdurbat, Academic Challenger, TimR, Rursus, SchmuckyTheCat, Meelar, DHN, Jondel, Dehumanizer, Benc, Mushroom,
Robartin, Cyrius, Chazz, Dina, DarkHorizon, David Gerard, Enochlau, Aomarks, Sethoeph, Fennec, Yama, Massysett, Haeleth, Twernt,
Lupin, Ferkelparade, Monedula, Anville, Betelgeuse, Naltrexone, Ssd, Emacsuser, Sourcejedi, Zoney, Siroxo, Djegan, AlistairMcMillan,
Matt Crypto, Spe88, Wmahan, Reilly, Stevietheman, Jiy, Thewikipedian, Geospear, Chowbok, Gadum, Utcursch, Shibboleth, Knutux,
Antandrus, Onco p53, Hurtstotalktoyou, JoJan, Nimc, Am088, Phil Sandifer, Rdsmith4, DragonySixtyseven, Sam Hocevar, Ricjl, Cynical,
Stilroc, Howardjp, Gscshoyru, Stonda, Aidan W, Joyous!, Derek Parnell, Dcandeto, Grm wnr, Zondor, Trevor MacInnis, Grunt, Lacrimosus, DmitryKo, Gazpacho, SYSS Mouse, Running, Ta bu shi da yu, SimonEast, Freakofnurture, ClockworkTroll, Archer3, Jiy, A-giau,
Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, TrekMaster, Andros 1337, Xmachina, Smyth, YUL89YYZ, IlyaHaykinson, Mjpieters, Sperling, LeeHunter,
Pavel Vozenilek, Gronky, Edgarde, Kbh3rd, JoeSmack, Plugwash, Evice, Brian0918, Aranel, Uli, CanisRufus, Kop, PPGMD, Joanjoc,
Marx Gomes, Marcok, Aude, Shanes, Susvolans, Cacophony, Bdoserror, Leif, SHARD, Coolcaesar, Thu, Bobo192, Mike Schwartz, Mrdelayer, BrokenSegue, Blakkandekka, Spug, Cwolfsheep, Dungodung, Shnout, Davelane, Stino v, Cncxbox, SpeedyGonsales, Jerryseinfeld,
La goutte de pluie, Sasquatch, Jojit fb, Shashank Shekhar, Deryck Chan, Raja99, Towel401, Skirks, Liberty Miller, Beinsane, Poweroid,
Mithent, Gary, JYolkowski, Elwood00, Mathwizxp, Scuiqui fox, Mo0, Walter Grlitz, Guy Harris, Halsteadk, Keyser Sze, Arthena,
Somebody in the WWW, Yamla, Fraslet, Lectonar, MarkGallagher, Goldom, Water Bottle, Kurieeto, Mailer diablo, Ynhockey, Denniss,
Malo, Avenue, Blobglob, Shinjiman, Ronark, Helixblue, Rebroad, Almafeta, Cburnett, Yuckfoo, Suruena, Evil Monkey, 2mcm, Sciurin,
Jopxton, Rd syringe, Henry W. Schmitt, Redvers, Blaxthos, Ceyockey, Cristan, Neo2256, Kbolino, Daranz, Zntrip, Kelly Martin, OwenX,
Woohookitty, Karnesky, Georgia guy, Scriberius, Rocastelo, Ae-a, Thorpe, Aveilleux, Deeahbz, MattGiuca, Commander Keane, Windsok,
Fbv65edel, Ruud Koot, JeremyA, Mms, RolandH, Tabletop, Databases, Terence, Red Dalek, Crpietschmann, Blackcats, Rchamberlain,
Umofomia, Rjecina, Samvscat, Gerbrant, Mirddes, Marudubshinki, Holek, Kesla, Graham87, Cuvtixo, Deltabeignet, Magister Mathematicae, Ilya, Galwhaa, FreplySpang, JIP, RadioActive, Reisio, Ryan Norton, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Tyraios, NewGuy4, Linuxbeak, JoshuacUK,
Adamacious, Tangotango, Colin Hill, MZMcBride, Tawker, Vegaswikian, C12345, Holbred, Frenchman113, SeanMack, The wub,
Bhadani, Ttwaring, Fred Bradstadt, Husky, Sango123, Yamamoto Ichiro, MJGR, X1987x, SNIyer12, Leithp, FayssalF, Wragge, FlaBot,
Ian Pitchford, SchuminWeb, RobertG, Blackanddarkness, Tomcage9, Billyswong, MMMEEE, Crazycomputers, Riluve, SouthernNights,
JYOuyang, RexNL, Ewlyahoocom, Looksliketrent, Mguy77, Pgiii, Cayindra, Darranc, Srleer, Mr Bartels, Milfman, Antimatter15, CJLL
Wright, Chobot, SirGrant, Dstln, Hall Monitor, Peter Grey, MCC, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Klingoncowboy4, Pile0nades, RobotE,
BillG, Kinneyboy90, Eraserhead1, OtherPerson, Charles Gaudette, John Quincy Adding Machine, Wengier, Bleakcomb, Jumbo Snails,
TheDoober, Hendrixski, Pigman, Gardar Rurak, Bergsten, Yuhong, Mehran, RadioFan, Akamad, Noypi380, Avihut, Sikon, Debackerl,
Gaius Cornelius, Cryptic, Akhristov, MontyB, Wimt, Swollib, Anog, Wiki alf, GSK, BigCow, Gosub, Mgw854, Thaek, Supers, Jaxl, Johann
Wolfgang, Blueforce4116, Computerdan000, Conman23456, Banes, Gaodifan, Dethomas, Larry laptop, Kaycubs, Nhesketh, Fatjoe151,
O!, Amcfreely, Tony1, FlyingPenguins, Syrthiss, BOT-Superzerocool, Bota47, Kissmeplease, Jeh, Jeremy Visser, Jtc, Blowdart, Jrcure, Xpclient, Brisvegas, Ilmaisin, JoshuaArgent, Alpha 4615, Max Schwarz, Wknight94, Ms2ger, Mugunth Kumar, FF2010, Pinikas,
Lt-wiki-bot, Gtdp, IsUsername, The Fish, Frederik.Questier, Tsunaminoai, JuJube, JoanneB, Barrera marquez, CWenger, Alemily, HereToHelp, JLaTondre, Markustwofour, Spooksh, Vahid83, Smurfy, David Biddulph, DisambigBot, ViperSnake151, Simxp, Kungfuadam,
TLSuda, Snaxe920, Ramanpotential, Benandorsqueaks, Rwwww, Tyomitch, GrinBot, Samuel Blanning, Ergosteur, TuukkaH, Tom Morris, WikiFew, FrozenPurpleCube, Bibliomaniac15, Luk, Robertd, Pschulz01, SmackBot, Scorpiona, Nmnmnm, Mattarata, Aido2002,
Gamerzworld, Faisal.akeel, Lcarsdata, Vbrtrmn, KnowledgeOfSelf, Ma8thew, Throup, Adam Mirowski, Dieboybun, Pgk, Korossyl, Gary

40.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

447

Kirk, Sciintel, Delldot, Eskimbot, Ajm81, Odd bloke, Srnelson, Edgar181, Aksi great, SmackEater, Gilliam, Brianski, Oscarthecat, Enno,
Vontafeijos, Ioprwe, Chris the speller, Jonghyunchung, StephenH, Michael Ray, Quinsareth, Big Booger, Persian Poet Gal, MK8, Thumperward, MalafayaBot, Repetition, Propound, Wykis, A gnome, Letdorf, Ctbolt, EdgeOfEpsilon, Kungming2, Paulfp, M Johnson, Metalim,
DHN-bot, Tommy Irianto, Rlevse, Xation, Jonatan Swift, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Bakery2k, 1(), AussieLegend, Frap, Alphathon,
Heapchk, Jsmethers, Codicate, TheKMan, Rsm99833, Chille, SundarBot, Ganeshotaku, Stevenmitchell, Khoikhoi, DinosaursLoveExistence, BostonMA, Valenciano, Ne0Freedom, Windowsknowitall@msn.com, Brandon Brown, Localzuk, RandomP, Vedek Dukat, Warren,
Astroview120mm, Binsurf, Ithizar, Mwtoews, Matt.forestpath, Sigma 7, Luigi.a.cruz, LeoNomis, Candorwien, AbsoluteFlatness, Towsonu2003, Vina-iwbot, T, Kukini, Ged UK, TiCPU, IGod, Midkay, SashatoBot, Madcow 93, Phanton, Nishkid64, KingpinE7, Harryboyles, Guyjohnston, Robert H, John, Thavian, Cjcamilla, Buchanan-Hermit, Gobonobo, NewTestLeper79, Sebrat, Soumyasch, Candamir,
Fitzebwoy, Gang65, Mmoller, Joelo, CaptainVindaloo, Groggy Dice, Danny Beaudoin, Yasirniazkhan, Admin@pcrevs.com, Mr. Lefty,
Flying Bishop, 16@r, Bluestriker, Timmeh, Werdan7, AxG, Optakeover, Johnmc, Zapvet, Peyre, Galactor213, Zepheus, TJ Spyke, Swotboy2000, WilliamJE, Iridescent, GNUtoo, Brandizzi, JoeBot, Jpoke89, Blakegripling ph, Ollie the Magic Skater, J Di, Cbrown1023, Tony
Fox, Amakuru, Z220info, Jcurtin, Dp462090, Marysunshine, Z98, Courcelles, Exodite, Illyria05, Mcwatson, Fdp, FairuseBot, Tawkerbot2,
Alegoo92, Daniel5127, RaviC, Marceki111, Lahiru k, FatalError, Robinhw, Linuxerist, FleetCommand, Ivan Pozdeev, F80, Zarex, Maester
mensch, SmoothNikola, MacGeekGuy, Crazyromo, Jesse Viviano, DanielRigal, Ganfon, Charles dye, Shandris, Yousifnet, Casper2k3, Corporal clegg48, NE Ent, Moonknightus, Aihtdikh, JettaMann, Olioster, Phatom87, Somaditya, Peteturtle, Karimarie, Supremeknowledge,
ToasterOS, Bbq man, Steel, SyntaxError55, UncleBubba, Gogo Dodo, Red Director, Hebrides, Corpx, ST47, Tfgbd, Nick2253, Scottymoze, AvantgardeMVC, Julian Mendez, Roketjack, Mr. XYZ, B, Andyh2, Aanhorn, DumbBOT, Nathan nfm, Starionwolf, Kozuch,
ErrantX, Njan, DalekClock, Omicronpersei8, A7x, TAG.Odessa, Hirosho, FrancoGG, Jdlowery, Thijs!bot, Tepidpond, Rockymountains,
Ultimus, Dasani, O, Frozenport, Jdm64, RevolverOcelotX, 9ms, Ondrejsv, Jyoz, Wiki fanatic, Nachmore, Jon vs, Hcobb, Grayshi, Alphius,
FreeKresge, Big Bird, Kolonuk, SusanLesch, Dawnseeker2000, Dzubint, Ju66l3r, KrakatoaKatie, Ialsoagree, AntiVandalBot, Mlscdi, DigitalLife, Luna Santin, Widefox, Skyeap, Opelio, Antique Rose, Prolog, Teamcritical, Dtech, MERC, Scepia, Tadas12, Gilbertogm, Oneupthextraman, Malcolm, Ae, Elaragirl, Myanw, Canadian-Bacon, Avocado27, Caper13, JAnDbot, The Geneticist, Dan D. Ric, Leuko,
Kigali1, Jimothytrotter, El Dominio, NapoliRoma, Barek, Megamanfan3, Dustin gayler, MER-C, Qudder, Amrykid, JacquesStrap, Arch
dude, Tech2blog, Hello32020, Shakumafu, Zeeboid, John Ericson, Kipholbeck, Robert Buzink, Acroterion, DataMatrix, Michaeldadmum,
Boylett, VoABot II, Anony, Davidjk, Kakomu, Think outside the box, Tedickey, Kierenj, Maxim Masiutin, Wanderson9, Midgrid, Bubba
hotep, Richard Lotspard, Indon, Cyktsui, Mmoll21m, Disorganisation Man, Ciao 90, ZFU738, Mkdw, Allstarecho, Clyde1998, Justanother,
Toddcs, Themodernizer, UMC2, Glen, DerHexer, Esanchez7587, Coniosis, Thompson.matthew, Freeeekyyy, Wikinger, Ozherb, Gwern, Tracer9999, Stephenchou0722, Phoogenb, PsyMar, Xtreme racer, Rderijcke, Hdt83, MartinBot, GrandPoohBah, Djmasala, D thadd,
Bissinger, Sweetback, Uriel8, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Hairchrm, Thewallowmaker, Smokizzy, ItsProgrammable, GamerXp, Okwestern,
Wow1000, Trusilver, Richiekim, BillWSmithJr, Pursey, Jesant13, Man123123, Kar.ma, Stephanwehner, Petrwiki, StuIsCool, Wangmike,
Boris Allen, StuThomas, Thegreenj, Luce007, Unimaginative Username, Sigmundpetersen, Robbie940, Sebmathews, Cpiral, Albert0057,
EH74DK, Fiver2552, Bogods, TheChrisD, WikiBone, Andrewtechhelp, RedKlonoa, DarkFalls, Selivanow, Ipodsocool, Nathanlilienthal13,
Thomas Larsen, Ryan Postlethwaite, Downloaddude1258, Martyx, Ahodacsek, Zero Serenity, QUAZWRATH, Rocket71048576, AntiSpamBot, Cncccer, Xgmx, Xeysz, Jcbparry, Sleepeeg3, Althepal, Joshua Issac, Cometstyles, Josh Tumath, RB972, Tiggerjay, Dragar
Gt, Warlordwolf, Remember the dot, Jamieostrich, Szhang21, Casper10, ElliotAdderton, WikiMan44, Ajfweb, Michael Angelkovich,
BUzTeD, Chris Pickett, TheNewPhobia, Darthnader37, Specter01010, Diegogrez, Deus2, ThePointblank, Funandtrvl, Resplendent, Ottershrew, Googler459, Tripacer99, Lead$peaker, Spear of re, Theazman1, Jigs41793, Kwen, ACCOM2222, Fowl2, Jake Wasdin, Hammersoft, VolkovBot, Rhtc, DOHC Holiday, Science4sail, Kevinkor2, Michaelpremsrirat, AlnoktaBOT, 67773732TYU, Rutherfordjigsaw,
Gunnar Guvararson, George Adam Horvth, Philip Trueman, Hydr, TXiKiBoT, Dojarca, Flanakin, Adamodell, GDonato, Joejoejo, Reibot, Joe2832, Robotchicken1886, Ann Stouter, Z.E.R.O., Anonymous Dissident, Qxz, MarkSpearmint, Kjhonsa, Wikiwaka101, Linear88,
Dolphinn, WindowzRULZlolZ, Choppie3000, Werideatdusk33, Nukleartoaster, DragonLord, Lou.weird, Hypnoticcyst, Selfdiscipline,
Cremepu222, Yergizmo, Jmoynihan08hm77, Slipknotmetal, Wykypydya, SpecMode, Qwerty124gg, CRFWNY, Jmath666, Telecineguy,
Ianjones50, Eliotwiki, Toyotaboy95, Codyblevins, Chriswoz, Packard Bell Legend, Haseo9999, Hahafatpeople, Richard626, Ayjay1545,
Synthebot, BrianRecchia, Thisisntfake1, Burntsauce, Digita, A Raider Like Indiana, Chocolatemilk94, MasterCole, Mike4ty4, LittleBenW,
Zakeming, Patrickweeks007, Michael Frind, Jimmi Hugh, Iammrysh, Kohlmalo, Sauronjim, NHRHS2010, EmxBot, S.rvarr.S, Demmy,
MinorItem, SieBot, Froztbyte, Coee, Jmjglick, Peyman4u, Jauerback, VVVBot, Krawi, Gerakibot, Josh the Nerd, Caltas, Eagleal,
Dcolvin, This, that and the other, Jevel66, Audrius u, Xelgen, Thealexweb, Purbo T, Cjordan93, Abhishikt, Radon210, Lord British,
Jimthing, Rsantmann, Rhesusmonkeyboy, Oxymoron83, Faradayplank, Dragonhelmuk, Lightmouse, Iain99, Techman224, Dimre01, SimonTrew, Ceeon, Eggsacute, BenoniBot, Aqair, Qxl32, Whiteford8, Mr White, David1409, Silvergoat, Bimmerosx, Gustyfalcon, Illegal
Operation, BrianGo28, Markie2, Ageha Winds, Dust Filter, Skiwi, Treekids, TubularWorld, Jkonline, MikeZuniga, Llalala, Escape Orbit,
Jordan015, Cvinoth, ImageRemovalBot, WikipedianMarlith, Faithlessthewonderboy, Zer0431, Felipe Aira, Deepen03, Dinjired, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, Elassint, ClueBot, LAX, Moonridersaregay, Spencerperry, Vincent.premysler, Neelchauhan, Patrolman89, Slashuer,
Cp111, Frmorrison, Mild Bill Hiccup, Aria1561, Lantay77, Swabjob, Timberframe, Mastershake86, McLovin34, Jesus5555, Methanegas,
Jesus764, September 11 terrorist, LonelyBeacon, Wlklpedla is meant to be vanda1ized, The Disco Times, Hbomb phd mom, Trivialist,
XrXeJoeXaXpXeXr, ChandlerMapBot, Badwolf2212, Chmpoure, Jesuss, DragonBot, Petaluma Paranormal, Turionaltec, Aaleksanyants,
Googlesucks56789, Cgnabod, Hungupbg, Crem23, PixelBot, Mvmarier, CitronManden, Foo1995, Bobwrit, Jotterbot, WalterGR, BlueCaper, Afro Article, IXella007, Jaericho, Shelmac, Bbriggs1, Fiskegalen92, Dj789, Thingg, Andy16666, DaDrumBum, Anthall1991, Piratesmack, Padsquad43, Rasmasyean, BNSF Man, Johnuniq, Ryan t moua, I8189720, Azrael Nightwalker, Akira-otomo, SF007, Ginbot86,
DumZiBoT,
, Emmette Hernandez Coleman, Vanished user k3rmwkdmn4tjna3d, Ximian99, Ost316, WikiRedactor, Twickline,
Darremon, SilvonenBot, Stevenh123, Airplaneman, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Xp54321, Ghettoblaster, ConCompS, Rincewind32, Alexandra Goncharik, Blubberboy92, Ente75, Jan Hofmann, Tothwolf, Southpark20, Geek45, Nintendog master 54, Older and ... well older,
Rcmouse1010, Nickenzi, Scientus, 03jmgibbens, SoSaysChappy, Buddha24, ILOVELOL32, Favonian, Jasper Deng, Rodeo90, RedXII,
Numbo3-bot, Newfraferz87, John Goettle, OlEnglish, Wmplayer, Nicolas Love, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Bunnyhop11, Falco McCloud, Enigmaaaaa, Neckername, Nallimbot, Binzisimpsons, Kittyhawk2, OregonD00d, Koman90, AnomieBOT, The Colclough, Jacob Hnri 5, Galoubet, Angeljon121, JackieBot, Djhybrid117, Shadowfyren, Citation bot, Elm-39, Johnclow13, Deanhowell123, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Arnoldkul, Xqbot, Lprd2007, Injust, Eivindsol, CoolingGibbon, TechBot, Person1936, Jewang, Tad Lincoln,
,
KrisBogdanov, Tyrol5, Rbuj, S0aasdf2sf, Reallikeunreal, Solphusion, Otter Mii-kun, Loismum, Mark Schierbecker, 1nt2, Cyfraw, BenBen1234, Bo98, Shadowjams, Enco1984, Iggymwangi, Opagecrtr, Jerrysmp, JennKR, FrescoBot, Lordalpha1, Lonaowna, , Cityscape4,
MichealH, 2toy mora, HJ Mitchell, Sae1962, Endofskull, NGSF, Pokyrek, Xxglennxx, DigbyDalton, Simple Bob, Biker Biker, Dcshank, Gnepets, Unknownperson1234, HRoestBot, Neo The User, Rameshngbot, MJ94, Tinton5, Thetehror, Jose Concepcion, MastiBot,
Tarashav, Xiejunmingsa, Beao, Pcuser42, December21st2012Freak, Gryllida, FoxBot, Mark85296341, Robert Xia, Evosoho, JoThousand,
TobeBot, Train2104, Lotje, Vrenator, Moonwolf14, Aoidh, Mkbashier, Fabsss, Tbhotch, Jesse V., Fry1989, Supercooljs2, Yehiahassan,

448

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

Rollins83, DASHBot, Abletonlive05, J36miles, EmausBot, Interframe, WikitanvirBot, Dinhtuydzao, G&CP, TuneyLoon, Computer boy2,
Kkm010, Kiralexis, Bollyje, W1 m2, JuanC08, Blackcap95, Westley Turner, Ichthyoid, Alshaheen15, Dog1818, Bilbo571, Bothary,
MADCastro2012, Demiurge1000, Alex Neman, TyA, JustPlaneEditing, Tomy9510, EndlessCoee54, L Kensington, Gabrielpokemon,
Quoladdie, TheChampionMan1234, Pun, MainFrame, Colejohnson66, ClamDip, Dylan Flaherty, Weararedjacket, Bdshort1, Macurry,
PoWwOw123, Kenny Strawn, Monothleft, Dorsal Axe, Steezly, Jordanyoung17, DASHBotAV, Karlo2002, Mokk123, JohnJamesWIlson,
I have wood, Ichangefacts, Dinnerface, Jekyllhide, Davey2010, Kypr8, Mrleewilliams, Nhellviktor, Matthiaspaul, Pizza1016, David O.
Johnson, Loginnigol, YannickFran, Esebi95, PoqVaUSA, Sherylanne, Gavin.perch, Miros 0571, Davidvkimball, Mawcowboybillsbrick7,
Wikidexel2, BG19bot, JoJaEpp, Rdococ, Puramyun31, Cosmicdense, TheGeneralUser, Gagetony8, Midnight Green, Compfreak7, Dipankan001, Cadiomals, Rgbc2000, VirusKA, Sumesh Dugar, Unixman83, Matt99clancy, NotinREALITY, Kelton2, Kyonzuken, RyanDolan123, Wsoder, Shirudo, Pikachu Bros., Phoenixlogan123, Gabe290, Kushared, Heroman1234, Pai Walisongo, Sciencegeek10188,
Shwangtianyuan, KumardipSarkar, Imscare, Krystaleen, Otisfrog, MrTechNews123, Boogie314, JYBot, Prjrv787, Dexbot, Rezonansowy, Codename Lisa, Justashuman960, Rolandhelper, Badpiggy, Nozomimous, Sri555666, Wiki nol ege, Gacelpernian, PhelperRF,
Kevin12xd, NightShadow23, AwesomeSaucer9, Liudant, HPD, Jdanielcampos, Cmckain14, Vanished user lalsdi45ijne4, TheMeaningOfBlah, RyDroid, Dimeji.97, Editor605, Ipad135, George Parastatidis, Kuyi123w, Comp.arch, Techie007, , Frenzie23, Timdog13, Angelgreat, Japanese Rail Fan, WinDev2014, Nickid12, Snowbooks423, Qwertyuiop9ew9ew9ee, Thatkitten, Ejrusselllim123, Hum1969,
Lbj90, ZackDickens12, Qwertyxp2000, Snowbooks1419, PremiumBananas and Anonymous: 1016
Linux Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux?oldid=645911315 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, AxelBoldt, Magnus Manske, The
Cunctator, Lee Daniel Crocker, Brion VIBBER, Eloquence, Uriyan, Zundark, The Anome, Tarquin, Stephen Gilbert, Koyaanis Qatsi,
David Merrill, Malcolm Farmer, Ffaker, Amillar, Youssefsan, XJaM, Arvindn, Christian List, Matusz, Phil Bordelon, Fubar Obfusco,
MadSurgeon, Roadrunner, SolKarma, Shii, Sharuzzaman, Hannes Hirzel, Drbug, Ellmist, Ark, Jaknouse, Dwheeler, Modemac, Metz2000,
Chuq, Stevertigo, Hfastedge, DennisDaniels, Nevilley, Frecklefoot, Edward, Nealmcb, Ghyll, Michael Hardy, Kwertii, JakeVortex, Isomorphic, Dante Alighieri, Ronincyberpunk, Norm, Nixdorf, Collabi, Wwwwolf, Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, Bcrowell, Gaurav, Graue, Dcljr, Sannse,
Tomi, TakuyaMurata, Delirium, Skysmith, (, 7265, Minesweeper, Pagingmrherman, CesarB, Egil, Mdebets, Ahoerstemeier, TomK32,
Haakon, Mac, Stevenj, Nanshu, Baylink, Theresa knott, Snoyes, CatherineMunro, 5ko, Angela, Den fjttrade ankan, Jebba, LittleDan,
Julesd, Salsa Shark, Ugen64, Glenn, Jarle fagerheim, Acooley, Whkoh, AugPi, Nikai, Susurrus, Cimon Avaro, Kaihsu, Shammack, Evercat, Jordi Burguet Castell, Rl, Darkonc, Dwo, Hashar, Coren, Barak, Tarka, Emperorbma, Crusadeonilliteracy, Guaka, Timwi, Dcoetzee, Nohat, Andrevan, RickK, Dmsar, Ww, Mac c, Slathering, Sepper, Paul Stansifer, Dysprosia, Hydnjo, Jay, Enigmasoldier, Zoicon5,
Hdk, DJ Clayworth, CBDunkerson, Lotas, Halmonster, Maximus Rex, Jerey Smith, Grendelkhan, Morwen, Saltine, Wwheeler, Populus, Fibonacci, Omegatron, Ed g2s, Ann O'nyme, Wernher, Samsara, Thue, Bevo, Traroth, Topbanana, Earthsound, Joy, Fvw, Stormie,
Raul654, AnonMoos, Baclan, Chrisjj, Pakaran, Jusjih, Johnleemk, Flockmeal, D8uv, Anjouli, Guppy, Finlay McWalter, Francs2000, Aenar, Chuunen Baka, AlexPlank, Robbot, Pfortuny, Ke4roh, Chealer, Noldoaran, Wanion, Sander123, Astronautics, Fredrik, Kizor, Chris
73, R3m0t, Vespristiano, RedWolf, Dittaeva, Klanda, Romanm, Nbarr, Phatsphere, Tim Ivorson, Markcollinsx, Mirv, Stewartadcock,
Wjhonson, Merovingian, Pingveno, Ashdurbat, RossA, Henrygb, Clngre, Rursus, Texture, Meelar, Ckor, Jondel, Paul G, Hadal, Dehumanizer, JesseW, Victor, Cbm, Ianml, Michael Snow, Fuelbottle, Mushroom, Boarder8925, Isopropyl, Diberri, Superm401, Pengo, Dina,
Tobias Bergemann, Mlk, Alan Liefting, David Gerard, Cedars, Psb777, Centrx, Giftlite, Julianp, Mshonle, DavidCary, Elf, Sj, Jtg, Axeman,
Nichalp, Markvs, Massysett, Tobiah, Kenny sh, var Arnfjr Bjarmason, Netoholic, Lethe, Tom harrison, Lupin, Tubular, Herbee, Dissident, Neuro, Bradeos Graphon, Jonabbey, Curps, NeoJustin, Michael Devore, Nomad, Jfdwol, Sdsher, RatOmeter, Maroux, Energiza,
Guanaco, Masken, Daniel Brockman, Alan Chang, Sinclair44, AlistairMcMillan, Gugilymugily, Cjensen, Darrien, Jaan513, MikaelSorlin,
Python eggs, Alvestrand, Pne, Lakefall, Bobblewik, AlanCox, Mobius, Ryanaxp, Peter Ellis, Utcursch, SoWhy, Shibboleth, CryptoDerk,
Cbraga, SarekOfVulcan, Yath, Yardcock, Quadell, Emphazy, Antandrus, Demonslave, Onco p53, Joeblakesley, Estel, Robert Brockway,
Quarl, Melikamp, Bongbang, Am088, Bonethugnd, Jossi, Wehe, Hackeron, AlexanderWinston, Rdsmith4, MAxImUs ReX, Maximus Rex
is a FAGOT!!!, Vbs, Bornslippy, Kbrooks, Daniel11, Halo, Bk0, Goh wz, Sam Hocevar, Talrias, Eanschuessler, Cynical, Stilroc, Troels
Arvin, Gscshoyru, Gnu, Meb, Oknazevad, Imjustmatthew, Goobergunch, Kevin Rector, StephanDoerner, Jiel.B, Now3d, Chmod007, Zondor, Trevor MacInnis, Squash, Intrigue, Moxfyre, Praveer, Grunt, RandalSchwartz, DmitryKo, Jfpierce, Kate, Daxkelson, J.B. NicholsonOwens, Corti, Ta bu shi da yu, Wanted, Daviis, R, Tom X. Tobin, Imroy, Sysy, MM23, Felix Wiemann, Trypa, Discospinster, Rich
Farmbrough, Rhobite, Guanabot, Sladen, Bedel23, Hydrox, FT2, Invictus, Cfailde, Drano, Magic5ball, Rama, Jpk, Iswm, Andrewferrier, Zen-master, Wk muriithi, EliasAlucard, Smyth, Will2k, Mjpieters, Michael Zimmermann, Paul August, Gronky, Stereotek, Shlomif,
Lachatdelarue, Bender235, ESkog, Rokcathang, Moa3333, Kbh3rd, Dcabrilo, Kjoonlee, Kaisershatner, Elykyllek, Plugwash, BACbKA,
Elwikipedista, Evice, PlasmaDragon, RobyWiki, CanisRufus, Kop, Pt, Shad0, Kiand, Miraceti, Kloy1334, Kwamikagami, Mwanner,
Richard W.M. Jones, Tverbeek, Jantangring, Shanes, Spearhead, Mr. Strong Bad, Raidenmaru, Matteh, Pikesta, Eltomzo, Mqduck,
Migozared, Causa sui, Bobo192, Nigelj, Alegna, Mike Schwartz, Rhoppenrath, Mrdelayer, StarFucks, John Vandenberg, Ch1pman, RAM,
GTubio, Jericho4.0, Spug, ParticleMan, SoulJuice, Scott Ritchie, SpeedyGonsales, Rajah, Alexs letterbox, Franl, Jaguar2k, RichardNeill,
Minghong, Towel401, Bobby Digital, James Foster, Npc, Obradovic Goran, Idleguy, Sam Korn, Mattl, Sean Kelly, Improv, Zachlipton,
Djspiewak, Rernst, Poweroid, Alansohn, JYolkowski, Onursendag, Proteus71, Jamyskis, Sheehan, Fadookie, Njaard, Eric Kvaalen, Conan,
Atlant, A.M., Pravs, AzaToth, Yamla, Axl, AeneasMacNeill, Swift, Dkennert, Mysdaao, Mrholybrain, Malo, VladimirKorablin, Ashlux, Wtmitchell, Velella, Ronark, Gbeeker, SidP, Jrleighton, Suruena, Aka, Evil Monkey, 2mcm, Tony Sidaway, Gpvos, Geraldshields11,
LFaraone, Zoohouse, Chevelle572, Deadworm222, P Ingerson, Joshbrez, Bestiarosa, Pauli133, Versageek, K3rb, Netkinetic, Kinema,
Btornado, Kbolino, Andyault, Dismas, Bruce89, Oleg Alexandrov, Mahanga, Kmself, Dejvid, INic, Weyes, Xanthar, Evolve75, Kelly Martin, Simetrical, Firsfron, OwenX, Woohookitty, Brazil4Linux, TigerShark, GVOLTT, Jesse Hannah, Timo Laine, LOL, Thorpe, Saragc,
Uncle G, Borb, Gherald, Snodnipper, Scott.wheeler, Roblinux, Pages, MattGiuca, Ruud Koot, Dodiad, JeremyA, Mms, Hdante, Tedneeman, Rtdrury, Acerperi, Cy21, Wces423, Bkwillwm, Dmol, Bbatsell, TreveX, Frungi, El Suizo, Rchamberlain, CharlesC, Waldir, Crucis, Toussaint, Prashanthns, Gimboid13, Wisq, Karam.Anthony.K, Teemu Leisti, Omega21, Turnstep, Havocted, Rgbea, Marudubshinki,
LeoO3, LimoWreck, Kesla, Graham87, Cuvtixo, Magister Mathematicae, Hillbrand, Ilya, BD2412, Qwertyus, Kbdank71, Lanoitarus,
Haikupoet, JIP, Island, Reisio, Jshadias, Stdout, Phoenix-forgotten, Josh Parris, Ryan Norton, Canderson7, Rjwilmsi, Tizio, Koavf, DucoNihilum, Jake Wartenberg, Eddypoon, Buck09, Strait, Mjm1964, Bob A, MarSch, XP1, Quiddity, Linuxbeak, CDCAA18D, JHMM13,
Tangotango, Bruce1ee, Fifty, Mitul0520, Gudeldar, Scorchsaber, Ligulem, Boccobrock, Graibeard, Muj0, The wub, Bhadani, Dar-Ape,
BirdbrainedPhoenix, FlavrSavr, Jakerome, Sango123, Svaksha, Yamamoto Ichiro, Austrian, SNIyer12, Leithp, SLi, Titoxd, StuartBrady,
RicKk, TrinkerBell, Toresbe, SchuminWeb, Vizion, Lolroxors, Loggie, Ysangkok, Godlord2, Crazycomputers, Harmil, Nivix, Chanting
Fox, Soulnoise, Jsheehy, Flowerparty, Superchad, RexNL, Scottrainey, Intgr, Jagginess, Wingsandsword, ZScout370, Clockwork Soul, Alphachimp, Bmicomp, Greenpenguin, Kedadi, Ahunt, Exe, Theshibboleth, Butros, King of Hearts, CStyle, Bornhj, Actown, Korg, Bgwhite,
Jpkotta, Mysekurity, Gwernol, Tone, Roboto de Ajvol, Siddhant, Lunarcloud, Wavelength, Eraserhead1, Sceptre, I need a name, Hairy
Dude, Charles Gaudette, Mclayto, StuOfInterest, Adam1213, Simoncpu, BruceDLimber, Hyad, Sakurina, Jtkiefer, John Quincy Adding
Machine, The Storm Surfer, Splash, Hendrixski, Limulus, Gardar Rurak, SpuriousQ, Ansell, Akamad, Dotancohen, Archelon, Gaius Cor-

40.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

449

nelius, Yvovandoorn, Bovineone, Pelago, Tarheelcoxn, Draeco, Anomalocaris, Srini81, Antidrugue, Capi, Linuxguy3827, NawlinWiki,
Stephen Burnett, Greenlead, Wiki alf, Mipadi, CrackMonster McFuckDemon, Msikma, Ozarfreo, Jaxl, Julien Deveraux, Mkouklis, Barberio, Dureo, Musteval, Saoshyant, Retired username, Aaron Brenneman, PrologFan, Randolf Richardson, ThomasChung, D. F. Schmidt,
Jpbowen, Sekelsenmat, Raven4x4x, Fuck Linux, Dementedd, O!, Voidxor, Vipsta, Beanyk, Tony1, Aaron Schulz, User-green, Leotohill,
Suso, Mysid, Psy guy, MathNT, Jeremy Visser, T-rex, Jhinman, Hosterweis, Elkman, Dan Austin, Mike92591, Wknight94, The Halo, Mugunth Kumar, Rwxrwxrwx, FF2010, Sandstein, Zerathidune, Kenguest, Emijrp, Masatran, KingKane, Zzuuzz, Harrisonmetz, Encephalon,
Nfreader, Mike Dillon, Ahmednh, IsUsername, Danudey, Petri Krohn, GraemeL, JoanneB, Kingkiki217, Janizary, Fram, Smurrayinchester, Peter, Kevin, JLaTondre, Gorgan almighty, WormNut, ViperSnake151, Katieh5584, Simxp, Kungfuadam, Camje lemon, DCEvoCE,
RG2, Kuzain, Rwwww, Innity0, Airconswitch, Ajross, Mardus, Arnabbh, Quadpus, Blastwizard, Hal peridol, DrJolo, Sardanaphalus,
Sarah, SmackBot, John Lunney, Macorovi, Fireman bi, Sparkyf1, Kbedell, Historian932, Mihai cartoaje, Faisal.akeel, Andras23, Coq
Rouge, Bobet, ThreeDee912, Rtc, State of Love and Trust, InverseHypercube, KnowledgeOfSelf, NaiPiak, Bd84, Lantianer, Pgk, Cutter,
Vald, Elsewhere, Gary Kirk, Wegesrand, Phaldo, KVDP, Actin, Delldot, Darklock, GeneralAntilles, Kangy, Arny, Tiberious726, CapitalSasha, Vilerage, Kintetsubualo, Kslays, Hbackman, BiT, Lucohami, 42istheanswer, HalfShadow, Flankk, Echimu, Tommstein, Ga,
Jmendez, Xaosux, Diegotorquemada, 1c3d0g, Unforgettableid, KennethJ, PeterSymonds, Gilliam, Brianski, Ohnoitsjamie, Coplan, Oscarthecat, Richfe, Geronimooo, JorgePeixoto, Ioprwe, Jared0x90, Fetofs, Saros136, Westsider, LinuxDemos, Redk0de, Persian Poet Gal,
JDCMAN, Thumperward, Morte, Snori, Rogerhc, Jojo 1, SchftyThree, Donnie Love, Akanemoto, Jerome Charles Potts, Imagine1989,
Marc321, Wolf0403, Letdorf, Baronnet, Duneatreides, JGXenite, Gyrobo, Modest Genius, Dethme0w, Can't sleep, clown will eat me,
Harumphy, 1(), Mohnke, Hildanknight, Frap, Sunnan, Klacquement, Juancnuno, Skidude9950, JonHarder, Adomas, Vegard, MrBobla,
Zvar, Jcravens42, Cyber rigger, Edivorce, Rpgdude, Soosed, Krich, Zrulli, Emre D., Spectrogram, Cybercobra, Decltype, MureninC,
Makemi, Nakon, Akulkis, Brithackemack, MichaelBillington, Blake-, Chargh, Orbitalwow, Localzuk, Monotonehell, Shadow1, Dreadstar, Dave-ros, Marc-Andr Abrock, Warren, Anoriega, Onlinej, Binary2k5, Markhobley, Weregerbil, Seven Days, CristianoMacaluso,
Fitzhugh, Wisco, Freedom to share, SpiderJon, Phoenix314, Kotjze, James Mohr, Where, Sigma 7, Gurklurk, Curly Turkey, Pilotguy,
Kukini, AnK, Ged UK, Ohconfucius, LN2, Caleb Parks, Liquidtenmillion, Nishkid64, Dr genestealer, ArglebargleIV, Rory096, AThing,
Staalmannen, Guyjohnston, Axem Titanium, JzG, HeroTsai, Wtwilson3, Jaganath, Djwings, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Shadowlynk, Tim Q. Wells, Zyqwux, CaptainVindaloo, Zarniwoot, Gnevin, MonstaPro, Mr. Lefty, Beefball, EvanR, Intiendes, Thomas Gilling,
Ben Moore, Anguis, Plato2006, Aav, Agathoclea, Slakr, Hvn0413, 81120906713, Ems2, Thekittenofterra, SQGibbon, Subiet, Arkrishna,
Optakeover, FourDollarsAndFiftyTwoCents, , Waggers, Sasabune, Spiel496, Cbruno, Jose77, Peyre, LaMenta3, Thatcher, Galactor213, Inquisitus, Galadh, DanConnolly, Liquidat, Hu12, Lucid, Fasach Nua, JYi, Emx, Jparshall, Iridescent, Bradojev, Bmuller, Ronius,
JoeBot, Thepizzaking, Wiki man sam, Andrew Hampe, Tony Fox, Beno1000, Momet, Courcelles, Linkspamremover, Htmlland, Knirirr,
Fdp, Tawkerbot2, Alegoo92, RaviC, Inkybutton, Lahiru k, AdrianTM, SkyWalker, Zealotgi, Ruykava, Nintendomania, Linuxerist, Sakurambo, Gebbun, CRGreathouse, Boborok, Raysonho, Mgumn, Ithuwakaga, Xose.vazquez, CWY2190, MonstrousBone, Tjkiesel, CuriousEric, Vbv4, Jaxad0127, Xakuzzah, DanielRigal, Requestion, Lentower, Lyoko is Cool, Avillia, Michael B. Trausch, Tim1988, Karenjc,
Skybon, Rmallins, Inzy, Beowulf.1000, Cydebot, Karimarie, Bill (who is cool!), ChristTrekker, Scoeld Boy, Asmitford, UncleBubba,
Gogo Dodo, Red Director, Ttiotsw, ST47, A Softer Answer, Chasingsol, Huysman, Pascal.Tesson, RitBit, Tawkerbot4, Quibik, Enigma
foundry, HitroMilanese, Msnicki, Codetiger, Nikopoley, Torc2, DumbBOT, Michaelbarnes, Brumar59, Blb9t, Jmartin678, Akcarver,
Kozuch, Bsmntbombdood, Neustradamus, AVIosad, Gregvw, Daniel Olsen, Instaurare, Danhm, Epbr123, Barticus88, Mercury, FromanylanD, Bytebear, KimDabelsteinPetersen, Edupedro, Cain Mosni, TZM, Sagaciousuk, Frozenport, Jdm64, Mojo Hand, Headbomb, Hugh G.
Rection, Dddeln, Blkf, James086, Java13690, Mr pand, Turkeyphant, OtterSmith, Dfrg.msc, Aleksanteri, NigelR, TurboForce, Mlogic,
Ranunculoid, Big Bird, Kohlrabi, Evmilker, Santoshsnayak, Rtoris288, Dawnseeker2000, Urdutext, CowardX10, AlefZet, Escarbot, Mentisto, Hmrox, The prophet wizard of the crayon cake, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Widefox, Clarenceville Trojan, Guy Macon, Wildboy211, Stephenx77, Prolog, Hectard, Robzz, SmokeyTheCat, DivineOmega, TimVickers, Tmopkisn, Scepia, Isilanes, Bakabaka, Dylan
Lake, Coviti, Obsessiveatbest, Mutt Lunker, WChess, LonTheCleaner, Dmerrill, Neur0X, Ioeth, JAnDbot, Deective, Kigali1, Aibara,
Kaobear, DuncanHill, Skridge, NapoliRoma, Barek, Dustin gayler, MER-C, Lino Mastrodomenico, Arch dude, Fetchcomms, Jephir, THEBLITZ1, Nickvikeras, Reverendnathan, ANTROPOCENTRIO, Amcleodx, Jpolster2005, Danwri, Alliance1911, Acroterion, SteveSims,
I80and, Plamoa, Joebengo, Caronteycerbero, Magioladitis, Chevy20Man, Canjth, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Kamran Riaz Khan, Rhwawn,
LOLDSFAN, Wikidudeman, Hasek is the best, JNW, JamesBWatson, Marko75, Jsk Couriano, Stuart Morrow, Tedickey, Jancikotuc,
Twsx, Loqi, Rootxploit, Aka042, Avicennasis, JMBryant, Trapped2, Indon, Panser Born, Troykitch, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Ciaccona,
Sirsai, Allstarecho, LorenzoB, Zaid85, OpenAdvantage, Bugtrio, Alansing, Xavierorr, TehBrandon, Chris G, DerHexer, Esanchez7587,
Nankai, ChaosE, Pax:Vobiscum, Patstuart, Calltech, Fluteute, Wikinger, Murraypaul, Gwern, Aliendude5300, S3000, AVRS, Jerem43,
Etinin, Conquerist, MartinBot, LiamUK, Pdraig Coogan, EyeSerene, BetBot, Janolder, Arjun01, Faazshift, Aladdin Sane, Draconicus,
Rettetast, Paunaro, Trevorp, Filksinger, Peco4, Dominic7848, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, KTo288, Fattymcblu, Senthryl, TinaSDCE,
LouDogg, TLF1981, Leson2403, Slash, Exarion, J.delanoy, PriscillaBerry, Trusilver, Lord Samael, Deep Alexander, Kulshrax, Uncle
Dick, Public Menace, Lonjers, Man123123, Jascha00, NerdyNSK, Footballfan42892, Cpiral, Arite, WikiTorch, Barts1a, Bogods, Dispenser, Katalaveno, Firedraikke, McSly, Nemo bis, Ignatzmice, Grosscha, Crakkpot, Starnestommy, Touisiau, SUOERMAX, NiGHTS
into Dreams..., AntiSpamBot, RoboMaxCyberSem, Shaka908, NewEnglandYankee, Gelasius, Diego.viola, MKoltnow, Mufka, Rekiwi,
Memmke, Orrs, BigHairRef, Mocoloco311, 2help, Bob, Cometstyles, Jamesontai, Remember the dot, GregJackP, Gwen Gale, Uluboz,
Ilya Voyager, Phiv, Natl1, Rugby471, Bonadea, Nat682, Starnessonny, PowerSp00n, Xlunchboxtbx, Czarbender, Belegur, Jarry1250,
Chris Pickett, HighKing, Raunaak, Mark the ma3, Butholer, Rmih, Ste03, Idioma-bot, Spellcast, Davidr89, Sagar bhatia26, Nomaxxx,
Omglinuxrulez, Jyoungxxxx, Fultus, VolkovBot, Jrasmuss, Je G., Jennavecia, Alexandria, Cadby Waydell Bainbrydge, Lears Fool, Philip
Trueman, Fran Rogers, TXiKiBoT, WatchAndObserve, Jkstark, Raty2hotty, Tagno25, Shne, Ensign Q, Couilles007, Easto, Comrade
Graham, Technopat, A4bot, Xerxesnine, GDonato, MrFirewall, Qxz, DaBest1, DFSwiki, Seraphim, Pikidalto, Martin451, Virtual11234,
Nibsthomas, Leafyplant, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Sgbirch, Josepy, Tb33, Ilyushka88, Thomas419ca, Merctio, TJollans, ShedPlant, Craiggyb, Nonsequitor, Andy Dingley, Dougbertram, Henrysukumar, Dirkbb, Rbuicki, Meters, Lamro, Synthebot, Altermike, Prestondocks,
Tomaxer, Enviroboy, EleFlameMax, Kalan, Chachy18, AlanS, Fr0dofraggins, The Devils Advocate, Nibios, Brianga, Treyfury, Monty845,
HiDrNick, Twooars, Shdw.puppet, Michelleem, Thunderbird2, Logan, Darxus, Jeremiah Grin, Slidexd, EmxBot, Arne Brasseur, RedChinaForever, H92, Kbrose, Diah ayu, The Random Editor, Biscuittin, Qwertydvorak, Ewewfws, Wumingzi, Terryjones130, SieBot,
TJRC, Dusti, Anhimgr8, Milnivri, Scatteredpixels, 0bj3c7i0n, Psbsub, Fanra, Blusme1, Krawi, Josh the Nerd, H.7004.Vx, Parhamr,
Dawn Bard, Caltas, RJaguar3, Swaq, Radof94, Yintan, I Love Pi, ThomasJensenDaugaard, Boxxertrumps, Mr. Maka, Martinsanders,
Mrmister001, Thejackisback, Pitilessbronze, Ham Pastrami, Jerryobject, Purbo T, Krishna.91, Cjayakumar, PookeyMaster, Acet0ne, Mattkicksbottomnomsayin, Android Mouse, Flyer22, Tiptoety, Radon210, Exert, Moosemanx, Momo san, Nopetro, Askild, Hiddenfromview,
Narkou, Carazo, Chemtype, Nslater, Oxymoron83, Majojohnson, Harry, Shayolar, Poindexter Propellerhead, KathrynLybarger, Nicuro,
Hobartimus, Astrale01, Iamnotyouami, Millstream3, Macy, Hatster301, Jorgen W, Pascal Steger, Nancy, KritonK, Svick, Maelgwnbot,
Aa00076765aa, Rkarlsba, Soleedges, RedBlade7, Kentynet, Openiworld, Tcrow777, Maralia, Sapeli, Ascidian, Haris.tv, Dabomb87,

450

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

Treekids, Baosheng, Jean pierreCamu5, Iccdel, Kanonkas, TuxDistro, PsyberS, Tuntable, StewartMH, Tranalogic, Dav7, Missing Ace,
Smashville, Martarius, Rfvuhbtg, ClueBot, Mapiwef, Smart Viral, Kevanv, Binksternet, GrandDrake, The Thing That Should Not Be,
Aohara1986, Number774, Freed42, ImperfectlyInformed, Homelessboxman, Ryannelson714, Czarko, Arakunem, Rockonbon, Kl4mAWB, Der Golem, Jamie Bates, Perkster, Wwood28, Alvarokr, Wikijens, CounterVandalismBot, Blanchardb, Mhmondragon 1, Tnchris,
Ramif 47, Melizg, Carsoman, Chmpoure, Bald Eeagle, NotSuspicious, DragonBot, Damon S Lucas, Awickert, Excirial, Propeng, Bproftt, Alexbot, Kanguole, Tuxthepenguin933, Eeekster, Vivio Testarossa, Lightedbulb, Lartoven, Technobadger, Cenarium, Nikesh.jauhari,
Jotterbot, WalterGR, Barretboy, Rcsteve93, Dekisugi, Tempmj, Noxia, Mewtu, DanielPharos, Bald Zebra, Sdrtirs, Andy16666, TomoFR,
Error 128, Gremoldo, Aitias, Count Truthstein, Scalhotrod, Wmadavis, Versus22, GameSlaveX-13, Aronzak, Multikty, SoxBot III,
Somekindofusername, W4otn, SF007, Valdisvi, DumZiBoT, Templarion, Steveozone, Chris1834, Hogman500, XLinkBot, Blaznspadz,
Fleeson, Aaron north, Fastily, Ptfbending, Koolabsol, Xray7224, Marriottn, PseudoOne, SakJur, Estemi, Rror, Bradv, Dthomsen8, Btvideo,
Leorojas82, Little Mountain 5, Klungel, SilvonenBot, Olegthezenon, Gazimo, Bit Lordy, Soulzone, Zodon, Dwilso, Ryuinnity, RyanCross, Dsimic, Gggh, Kgoetz, Kodster, Dr. Robotnic, Tayste, Addbot, Proofreader77, Man with one red shoe, Pyfan, Archerman2000,
Grayfell, LP, Some jerk on the Internet, Titanramones, Msanguino, Tcncv, Okoura, Thomas888b, Superw4w, Xicer14, Tothwolf,
Grandscribe, Fieldday-sunday, Hoax99, Scientus, CanadianLinuxUser, ThinkMark, Leszek Jaczuk, GrrlPower, Jcgrob, Thunderpenguin, Laskdfj456, Michael2346, Pclunixos, Debresser, LinkFA-Bot, Jasper Deng, Jake7401, Fireaxe888, Tsange, Peter Napkin Dance
Party, AgadaUrbanit, Darkanimematt, Irvanis, Numbo3-bot, Danutzdobrescu, Issyl0, R3ap3R, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Club5566, Gail, Zorrobot, Jarble, Felisone, CountryBot, Team4Technologies, Blablablob, Yobot, CFeyecare, Legobot II, Darfellan, Ogredeschnique, DeluxNate, Mirosamek, Golftheman, QueenCake, Luizdl, Jerebin, Kailasisonline, Davidjohn1969, Knownot, Punctilius, Nightre001, Xeku,
Steveux, Spammer64, South Bay, Tempodivalse, Magog the Ogre, Szajci, AnomieBOT, KDS4444, 1exec1, Gtz, IncidentalPoint, Rjanag,
Jose278, Royote, Keithbob, AdjustShift, Earizon, Flewis, Aaron dub, Mann jess, Frebel93, Skkamath, Materialscientist, Kr0n05931,
The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, Carlsotr, Maxis ftw, Kellogg257, Neurolysis, ArthurBot, Quebec99, Diddy29, The Firewall,
MauritsBot, Xqbot, ChicagoDilettante, Timir2, Capricorn42, Y.P.Y, CoolingGibbon, 4twenty42o, Miracleworker5263, Foxcow, Person1936, Teddks, Alaaanwar, Wiki-Saboteur, Anna Frodesiak, Locos epraix, Someslowly, Taruean, GRAPEMAPLESYREP, Shadowrpg,
Hi878, Noscope101, Jamie Bunting, Homyakchik, Socaltechboy, Shirik, Uniwersalista, RibotBOT, SassoBot, Kernel.package, Dalesc,
WilliamTheaker, Kpm0310, Doulos Christos, AlasdairEdits, GhalyBot, Minorworlder, 2ndAccount, Shadowjams, Tuxman, KFV101,
Milanix, Josemanimala, Hiimluke, Dougofborg, Swatnio, Cachorro Podre, Texasranger9, Vlad003, FrescoBot, 0imagination, Lagelspeil,
IvarTJ, W Nowicki, Mhadi.afrasiabi, Srbobranac, Aperson5654236, Gaddarca, HJ Mitchell, L1ttleTr33, Mynam690, Tetraedycal, Grohlerg, Nobodys Fool, HamburgerRadio, Pinged007, Pshent, Busukxuan, Simple Bob, Viralmeme, WQUlrich, Pinethicket, Farazv, Bolatan, Tra, 10metreh, Jonesey95, Martin Raybourne, Smuckola, Skyerise, Boston rider, BRUTE, RedBot, Houbysoft, 124Nick, SpaceFlight89, Jeliekbigbusanas, , Doppelback, Jandalhandler, Footwarrior, Woona, Lineslarge, Full-date unlinking bot, Ktpenrose, Travisman26, Wenet, PixelRGB, Herakleitoszefesu, Dinmammaerfet, FoxBot, TobeBot, Diblidabliduu, Econtechie, Lexischemen, Yunshui,
Wolfehhgg, DicksForSale, Andr Caldas, Bendib, Lotje, Michael9422, Zvn, SeoMac, Iamsocool97, Drknkn, Aoidh, Saneeth.pr, David
Hedlund, Diannaa, Ivanvector, Sniperdude0, Jimb0onwheelz, Knightmeepo, Lysander89, Sandhiav, Suusion of Yellow, Nascar1996,
Tbhotch, Jesse V., DARTH SIDIOUS 2, PaulFrields, SawyerL, RjwilmsiBot, Viper dove, Iliaskr, Benman557, DRAGON BOOSTER,
Provehuman, Elium2, Florianwardell, Balph Eubank, Bimanpilot, Husseinmoien, ThDavidRuk, Kerrick Staley, Tomvanbraeckel, Nyxaus, Piotrek54321, Roney.thomas.0, EmausBot, Nikhil1234567890, Nima1024, Hrjohnson10, WikitanvirBot, Immunize, Zollerriia, Thelinuxkid, Hecta, GoingBatty, Collinrocks26, Curtis8712, Ballofstring, ZxxZxxZ, Drfrjenkins, Compsciguy1988, Huctwitha, Zaixionito,
Dcirovic, , K6ka, Bgismyfriend, Regression Tester, Icewalker, Alisha.4m, Kkm010, ZroBot, Cogiati, Killertux666,
Bollyje, Skiddielv1, Kennethaar, Krd, Iajrz, RussellGee, TheAmericanizator, Cullero, H3llBot, Babkock, Logangorence, Demonkoryu,
Funkiyak, Wayne Slam, Cosman246, Alperoguz, JasePow1968, Blackwidowhex, L Kensington, Lxr1234, Palosirkka, Wikiloop, HenriqueRocha, Operation Ubuntu, RedRabbit, Wei2912, ChuispastonBot, Lioncash, Kenny Strawn, Creopterouis, JustinC474, Oshidash,
Mjbmrbot, Georgy90, Ultrabud, Petrb, Jwaked, Mnicolosi, Kenny4427, ClueBot NG, Pantergraph, Maclinwright, Iamiyouareyou, LogX,
This lousy T-shirt, Wikinium, Satellizer, Lostick, Strcat, Yourmomblah, Mjt365, RocketLauncher2, Frietjes, Delusion23, Rahulghose,
MrMinarion, C. Jeremy Wong, O.Koslowski, ScottSteiner, I epic win fail, Josemonmaliakal, Blakedog, Linuxpl0x, Xenophonix, Jebethe,
Alaukikyo, TurnspitDawg, Sanketg86, Gavin.perch, Kracethekingmaker, Anupmehra, Prejeeshp, Crazymonkey1123, Mtking, Mimarsapple, Gavinstubbs09, Helpful Pixie Bot, Squidwardrocs, BubbaTLC, Kezar12356, GRANYEBOY, ProtoFire, Ndavidow, Exeva, Ahme
t 151, Karabulutis252, Bozkurte, BG19bot, Island Monkey, Linuxsux, Rijinatwiki, Puramyun31, Franciso Linux, XXAutisticJeezusXx,
Thand3, AlphaSly, Kendall-K1, StuGeiger, Byu68, Vikingwarrior5678, Acpipower5678, Kavins92, Fallacy of the Masses, Trevayne08,
ASCIIn2Bme, Applelinux, RadicalRedRaccoon, Medende, Jayadevp13, Ioanthecomputerguy, Svnpenn, Lux2545, Isokiho, Merritttttt,
Isacdaavid, Rubinkumar, Carliitaeliza, MeanMotherJr, Tkbx, Abhilash Mhaisne, HueSatLum, Zhaofeng Li, Inops, Cyberbot II, Angela
MacLean, Timothy Gu, EuroCarGT, Tow, Dexbot, Rezonansowy, Spameliminator, MirandaStreeter, Mogism, TwoTwoHello, Jc86035,
Calinou1, Rotlink, Palmbeachguy, RicardAnufriev, Hnurgds, Ruby Murray, I am One of Many, The Editorial Voice, Theemathas, Jakec,
EvergreenFir, Fsandlinux, Jacob.halsey1, Myconix, Flat Out, ElHef, DavidLeighEllis, Comp.arch, Huihermit, Ant.ton.t, Bubills7701,
NorthBySouthBaranof, The Herald, OliverBel, PrivateMasterHD, My name is not dave, Williamt5120, FDMS4, MattyWinder, Quenhitran, Paulo Jorge Tom, Saniya2090, Jackmcbarn, Tronedit, DatEditorPenguin, AddWittyNameHere, WallnutKraken, ScotXW, Sashaursic98, Lucky7-phool, DwellingDreamr, Ariel Lindo, Soa Lucifairy, CarnivorousBunny, Lagoset, Monkbot, Sudsbuds, Stefenev, Helworld,
Filedelinkerbot, Vieque, Jarrod lawrence69, Patelaarti2393, Ketansingh123, Mit Romney, Aste9974, Hitechcomputergeek, Amortias,
DWIZKID10, Maulik1512, Blablabli, Mario Casteln Castro, Fleivium, Khoi D. Dinh, JAYAVAISHU, Jeremy.rican, Hchaudh3, Linuxtinkerer, SupertemplarDX, RagsGamingGamer, Davidnotcoulthard, Zoomoow, Robinjons1515, Notarock, Uareafag, Arandombunnyrabbit
and Anonymous: 2572
MS-DOS Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS?oldid=644808506 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Tobias Hoevekamp, Uriyan,
Tarquin, Stephen Gilbert, RobLa, Andre Engels, Aldie, William Avery, Ben-Zin, Hannes Hirzel, Valhalla, Ericd, Leandrod, Tim Starling,
Kwertii, Modster, Mahjongg, Tompagenet, Tannin, Dave Farquhar, Ixfd64, Graue, TakuyaMurata, Georey, Minesweeper, CatherineMunro, Whkoh, IMSoP, SeeSchloss, Deisenbe, Emperorbma, Saint-Paddy, EALacey, Andrevan, Dmsar, Viajero, Greenrd, WhisperToMe,
IceKarma, Lfwlfw, Maximus Rex, Furrykef, Saltine, Nv8200p, Tempshill, EthanL, Wernher, Bevo, Jeeves, AnonMoos, Pakaran, Robbot,
R3m0t, Donreed, Modulatum, Stewartadcock, SchmuckyTheCat, Blainster, Bkell, Hadal, Jwinters, Alerante, Alexwcovington, Mshonle,
Lproven, Cobaltbluetony, Bkonrad, Anville, Djegan, AlistairMcMillan, Steven jones, Jaan513, Lakefall, Bobblewik, Gadum, Lst27, Vina,
Billposer, Bumm13, Kevin B12, Karl-Henner, Kmweber, Jh51681, Gazpacho, Ta bu shi da yu, Freakofnurture, Rich Farmbrough, Dudley
Doright, Ardonik, Smyth, Filzstift, Xezbeth, Michael Zimmermann, Goplat, Evice, Ylee, CanisRufus, Chungy, Kwamikagami, Hayabusa
future, RoyBoy, Zebs, Warpozio, MPS, Perfecto, Dom Lochet, Bobo192, Deathawk, W8TVI, Enric Naval, Retron, Clarkbhm, Cwolfsheep, Jojit fb, Nk, MARQUIS111, Sam Korn, El Raki, Beinsane, Alansohn, Guy Harris, Interiot, Stovetopcookies, Andrewpmk, ABCD,
Ashley Pomeroy, Demi, Gblaz, Mysdaao, Wgw2024, Rebroad, Peter B., Wtshymanski, Drat, Dirac1933, Versageek, Redvers, Dan100,
KelisFan2K5, X3J11, Woohookitty, Mr Tan, JarlaxleArtemis, Timharwoodx, Ae-a, MattGiuca, Pol098, Ruud Koot, Scootey, Blackcats,

40.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

451

Wayward, ThomasHarte, Gniw, Shanedidona, Palica, MrSomeone, Kesla, Graham87, Misternuvistor, Isaac Rabinovitch, Ranvel, Wiktator, JoshuacUK, Tangotango, Boccobrock, FlaBot, Patrick1982, SchuminWeb, JeremyMcCracken, Doc glasgow, Master Thief Garrett,
Jak123, RexNL, Gurch, Riki, Stormwatch, Intgr, CoolFox, BradBeattie, Justayankeefan, Chobot, Guliolopez, YurikBot, Wavelength, Jcam,
Jzylstra, OtherPerson, Hairy Dude, Family Guy Guy, Hyad, Fabartus, Wengier, Koeyahoo, Yuhong, Hydrargyrum, Stephenb, Pmurph5,
Sikon, Shell Kinney, Akhristov, Wimt, NawlinWiki, Aftermath, Wiki alf, Kufat, Neverstable, Dureo, Xeos, FreelanceWizard, Mikeblas,
Mysid, Vlad, Blowdart, Sandstein, Zzuuzz, Pinikas, JuJube, GraemeL, Ian Fieggen, Janizary, Marcodeo, ArielGold, Katieh5584, Rwwww,
Tyomitch, Mardus, DVD R W, SpLoT, Ozzmosis, SmackBot, Herostratus, KnowledgeOfSelf, C.Fred, Jagged 85, Troyoda1990, Jrockley,
Scott Paeth, Gilliam, Skizzik, Stuart P. Bentley, Chris the speller, Geneb1955, @modi, Persian Poet Gal, Chemturion, Nbarth, Yunax,
DHN-bot, Gracenotes, Emurphy42, AussieLegend, Petersh, An-chan, Rrburke, GVnayR, Ahodes1, Jiddisch, Andrew Jackson, Localzuk,
Warren, Binsurf, Freedom to share, Acdx, Sigma 7, Luigi.a.cruz, SashatoBot, Anss123, Robomaeyhem, Vanished user 9i39j3, RCX,
Kashmiri, Joelo, Diverman, Aleenf1, Bilby, Slakr, Stwalkerster, Critic-at-Arms, Avs5221, Julthep, Waggers, Whomp, Wrlee, MTSbot,
Peyre, Kvng, Supaman89, Norm mit, Asmpgmr, Linkspamremover, Illyria05, Kev19, Jamst98, Dogman15, CCFreak2K, Cydebot, SyntaxError55, UncleBubba, Gogo Dodo, ST47, Mrstonky, JenKilmer, Aanhorn, Starionwolf, Garik, Kozuch, After Midnight, Omicronpersei8,
Mattisse, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Anubaph, Marek69, Dgies, Nick Number, Dawnseeker2000, AlefZet, Escarbot, Dzubint, Trlkly, AntiVandalBot, Konman72, Oneupthextraman, Leojei, Res2216restar, DOSGuy, RobIII, JAnDbot, Deective, YK Times, Schwarzes Nacht,
PhilKnight, Aacini, Y2kcrazyjoker4, Acroterion, VoABot II, JamesBWatson, Think outside the box, Tedickey, Sonamunda chaks, Edmundwoods, Bssa, NoychoH, Ahmad87, DerHexer, GermanX, ReedSturtevant, Menneisyys, AVRS, CommonsDelinker, Nono64, Jascii,
Ayecee, Mot256, Dgiraes, Katalaveno, Nintendough, Jmajeremy, Skier Dude, Ohms law, Babedacus, KylieTastic, Mike V, Useight,
VolkovBot, DSRH, Michaelpremsrirat, Vincent Lextrait, Ryan032, Chitrapa, Epson291, TXiKiBoT, Slamminsam069, Robotchicken1886,
Koopa turtle, Qxz, GL1zdA, B4light, PlayStation 69, Pykello, Molotovnight, Methodius12, Freddy Riegel, A Raider Like Indiana, Insanity Incarnate, Arborinus Verginix, TheStarman, Brooktree, SieBot, StAnselm, Stephenkall, Graham Beards, Scarian, Meldor, Josh the
Nerd, Sshennar, Defydaydryers, Jerryobject, Dirk P Broer, CombatCraig, Qst, Arbor to SJ, JSpung, Oxymoron83, Fonzzee, Faradayplank,
Vpovilaitis, AngelOfSadness, Petzi1969, Gamingnews, Dkid3404, JohnnyMrNinja, Maralia, Nskbalu, Echo95, Joshb306, Denisarona, ImageRemovalBot, Zer0431, Martarius, Mbssbs, ClueBot, NickCT, Helpsloose, Wikievil666, Mattgirling, Wendy.krieger, Infogaure, Anby,
Pointillist, Rahulgr8888, DragonBot, Avouac, Excirial, Mynameischarlesbarkley, Posix memalign, Tyler, Kaiba, Thehelpfulone, Foxroz,
Andy16666, ITexter, PCHS-NJROTC, SF007, DumZiBoT, Helixweb, Emmette Hernandez Coleman, Jner, Nepenthes, WillOakland,
TruckMonkey, Evan Russell, PURAMILK, Dwilso, Alanthehat, TrainTC, Addbot, Ghettoblaster, Mabdul, Fyrael, SirClaymore, PrintStar,
Magus732, GSMR, Tothwolf, AkhtaBot, CoolD, Cliftonmullins, Roadstaa, Oisjfw, Animesh.saxena, Buddha24, Favonian, 5 albert square,
Lightbot, Funkmasterj1, Gail, Zorrobot, WikiDreamer Bot, CountryBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Naudefjbot, Crispmuncher, KamikazeBot,
South Bay, Koman90, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Galoubet, Betax, Samo00099, Materialscientist, Gotgod86, Citation bot, Redsoxcool,
Tamiera, LilHelpa, Boxstaa, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Alexander Mclean, Loismum, RibotBOT, Amaury, Smallman12q, Petervee, FrescoBot,
Hypertime179, Ballon845, Kerjuk, 123, Pcuser42, Saayiit, Lotje, Fayedizard, Allen4names, Reaper Eternal, Seahorseruler, Meemsinator, Alex230592, Diannaa, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, The Utahraptor, TjBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Oliverlyc, Ricer46, CudllllyCakeMixCore, Solarra, Thecheesykid, 15turnsm, N90p, SporkBot, Wayne Slam, Sahimrobot, Quantumor, Raven-14, Czeror, 28bot,
Jekyllhide, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, Matthiaspaul, Shaddim, Yourmomblah, Nick Huitema, O.Koslowski, Widr, Funllama680,
Be..anyone, Strike Eagle, Wbm1058, Hikmet483, BG19bot, Altrio, MusikAnimal, Rack004, Asdfasdfg23, Rynsaha, Annavoskanyan,
Cooljrt, Achowat, Pratyya Ghosh, ScholarWarrior, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Gasgiant69, Ducknish, Sri555777, Rezonansowy, Codename
Lisa, Interlude65, Kephir, Charl0929, MegaScience, Mr Pie Guy1234, WinUser, Taikoguide, RaphaelQS, Ryanferber, Andrew Sti, Buggzy1011, Ksupoudel, Uplift Humanity, Rypted, Butteryclown, Patrioticstripey, Sk-Eiht, ChamithN, Chrin21, Qqwe2, EChastain, Ddhdbdhss, Ffdddsf and Anonymous: 605
Google Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google?oldid=645463091 Contributors: AxelBoldt, NathanBeach, Vignaux, Fubar Obfusco,
William Avery, Shii, Zoe, Huailin, Stevertigo, Edward, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Bewildebeast, Lezek, Dante Alighieri, Kidburla, Mahjongg,
Pnm, Ixfd64, Zanimum, TakuyaMurata, Dori, Paddu, Pcb21, Tregoweth, CesarB, Ahoerstemeier, Haakon, Ronz, Arwel Parry, Theresa
knott, Snoyes, Plop, Angela, Kingturtle, Darkwind, DropDeadGorgias, Julesd, Ugen64, Bogdangiusca, Rossami, Phenry, Netsnipe, IMSoP,
Kwekubo, Kaihsu, Schneelocke, PatriceNe, Saint-Paddy, Adam Bishop, Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, Timwi, Nohat, Andrevan, RickK,
Reddi, Havardk, David Latapie, Denni, Hydnjo, Tejano, WhisperToMe, Hao2lian, ThomasStrohmann, Tpbradbury, Sue D. Nymme, Furrykef, Morwen, David Shay, Omegatron, Ed g2s, Samsara, Thue, Bevo, Pietro, Earthsound, Fvw, Dpbsmith, Bcorr, Pakaran, Johnleemk,
Cvaneg, Flockmeal, Francs2000, Cluth, Lumos3, Denelson83, Jni, Fito, Donarreiskoer, Bearcat, ChamPro, Dale Arnett, Je8765, Pigsonthewing, Fredrik, Hobbes, Schutz, Biggins, Moondyne, ZimZalaBim, Altenmann, Peak, Netizen, Nurg, Mintchocicecream, Lowellian,
P0lyglut, Kwi, Academic Challenger, Diderot, DHN, Caknuck, Acegikmo1, Rrjanbiah, Hadal, Demerzel, Roozbeh, Aetheling, Mushroom,
Lupo, HaeB, Lzur, Jleedev, Superm401, Dina, Jooler, Vacuum, Alan Liefting, David Gerard, David Koller, Alerante, Centrx, Giftlite,
Philwiki, Thv, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Jacoplane, Jyril, Nikodemos, Beefman, Markus Krtzsch, Willhester, Philwelch, Fudoreaper, Tegla, Cobaltbluetony, var Arnfjr Bjarmason, Lethe, Tom harrison, Lupin, Ferkelparade, Tapo, Marcika, Obli, Vanished
user oijhowintoiew534f, Peruvianllama, Alterego, Ds13, Cybertooth, Everyking, Capitalistroadster, Maha ts, Curps, Michael Devore,
Henry Flower, Cantus, Rick Block, Niteowlneils, LLarson, Nikita Borisov, Danio, Frencheigh, Jfdwol, Fjarlq, Ravn, Skagedal, Iota, Sundar, Mboverload, Nintimdo, Spe88, Python eggs, Alvestrand, Bobblewik, Ragib, Golbez, DougEngland, Barneyboo, Gadum, Utcursch,
Pgan002, Patteroast, Alexf, Sohailstyle, Toytoy, Sonjaaa, Ran, Antandrus, BozMo, Beland, Joeblakesley, OverlordQ, MarkSweep, G3pro,
Khaosworks, Ejgm, Jossi, CaribDigita, Zantolak, DragonySixtyseven, Wkdewey, Pitr, Rlcantwell, Arcturus, Gscshoyru, Huaiwei, Jmeppley, Soman, Mamdu, Creidieki, Neutrality, Joyous!, Goobergunch, Bbpen, Ukexpat, Jewbacca, Dcandeto, Syvanen, Trilobite, Johngelles, Pinnerup, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Zondor, Adashiel, Zoltarak, Canterbury Tail, Gazpacho, Corti, Eep, Derat, Jayjg, ChrisRuvolo,
Freakofnurture, Lord Bodak, Gest, Ularsen, Monkeyman, Sysy, Wfaulk, DanielCD, Ultratomio, A-giau, Discospinster, ElTyrant, Patricknoddy, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Vague Rant, NeuronExMachina, Hydrox, Pmsyyz, Qutezuce, Vsmith, Edibobb, Zen-master, ArnoldReinhold, Will2k, Heenan73, Xezbeth, R.123, Exabyte, Ibagli, Pavel Vozenilek, Martpol, Paul August, Gronky, Bender235, ESkog,
Kbh3rd, Nick5000, Plugwash, Violetriga, Evice, Syp, MG, CanisRufus, Aecis, Mr. Billion, Anphanax, Cherry blossom tree, DS1953,
DamianFinol, Ryantrask, Kwamikagami, Aude, Shanes, Spearhead, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, EurekaLott, Saturnight, Euyyn, Coolcaesar,
Cuervo, Jpgordon, Adambro, Axezz, Bobo192, Grue, Iamunknown, Longhair, J44xm, Beachy, Adraeus, Mpk, BrokenSegue, Tronno, R.
S. Shaw, Skyleth, Adrian, Brian McNeil, L33tminion, Ziggurat, Homerjay, Jerryseinfeld, Sriram sh, Audrey, La goutte de pluie, Deryck
Chan, Bawol, Anonymous Cow, Jemnch, Minghong, John Fader, James Foster, Sam Korn, Pharos, Gsklee, Jonathunder, M vitaly,
Ekevu, Poli, NickCatal, Knucmo2, Autopilots, Jigen III, Danski14, Alansohn, Gary, JYolkowski, Etxrge, Jordan117, Jamyskis, Buaidh,
Hoovernj, Halsteadk, Interiot, Megan 189, CyberSkull, Uogl, Philosophistry, JimParsons, Improv, Andrewpmk, Ricky81682, Ninio,
Juicifer, ShardPhoenix, ABCD, AzaToth, Yamla, Lectonar, MarkGallagher, Water Bottle, Hoary, Lightdarkness, Ciaran H, Apoc2400,
Viridian, Kel-nage, Mailer diablo, Tchalvak, Mysdaao, Spangineer, Eno, Malo, Yau, Syo, Chicopac, Samohyl Jan, PaePae, Melaen,
Bucephalus, Super-Magician, Zantastik, Skuld, Wtshymanski, Hierarchypedia, Salexpert, Evil Monkey, Omphaloscope, Tedp, Randy

452

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

Johnston, TenOfAllTrades, Sciurin, Pethr, Geraldshields11, LFaraone, H2g2bob, Henry W. Schmitt, Sfacets, Computerjoe, Gunter,
Freyr, Icco, Redvers, Instantnood, Gingerblokey, DSatz, Jun-Dai, LunaticFringe, Bookandcoee, Dan100, Umapathy, Amitpagarwal,
Kenyon, Brookie, WayneMokane, Jackhynes, Mightyzantar, Zntrip, Empoor, Feezo, KUsam, DarTar, NorrYtt, Daveydweeb, Gmaxwell,
Weyes, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Pekinensis, Ercolev, Simetrical, Arvinds, Jerey O. Gustafson, Octernion, Jean Xu, OwenX,
Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, ChrisNoe, TigerShark, Masterjamie, LOL, Sumeetpai, 25or6to4, Gruepig, Thorpe, LeonWhite, Josephf, Uncle G, Thivierr, Splintax, Jacobolus, Madchester, Joeyconnick, Bratsche, Admrboltz, Robert K S, ^demon, Tomtomtomtomtom, Ruud
Koot, Duncan.france, MrDarcy, Darrenstraight, Cy21, Howabout1, Ianweller, Schzmo, Al E., Wikiklrsc, Bhound89, Bbatsell, Striver,
DanielWhite, Bluemoose, GregorB, Dionyziz, Plrk, Mb1000, Ignus, Zzyzx11, Jonnabuz, Wayward, Mutante23, Prashanthns, Gimboid13,
DavidFarmbrough, DeweyQ, Eluchil, Nycmstar, Meehawl, Kourge, Atari2600tim, Richardgm, Behun, Irishrichy, Kesla, SqueakBox, Graham87, Paiste, Johnny Mnemonic, Deltabeignet, Magister Mathematicae, Confab, Jonohill, Ilya, Electricmoose, BD2412, Li-sung, Galwhaa, Deadcorpse, Wachholder0, LanguageMan, MC MasterChef, Benley, Kbdank71, Bunchofgrapes, FreplySpang, RadioActive, Seyon,
Vanderdecken, BorgHunter, Ppoi307, Canderson7, Crzrussian, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, F0CUS, Scandum, Joe Decker, P3Pp3r, Whatcanbrowndo, JVz, Koavf, War, KYPark, Robotwisdom, Erebus555, Strangethingintheland, Wikibofh, Davidp, Vary, Harry491, Newspaperman, PinchasC, T0ny, Carbonite, JHMM13, Tangotango, Staecker, GrayFox9420, MZMcBride, Tawker, R.O.C, Heah, Agiorgio,
Vegaswikian, Quietust, Haya shiloh, Oblivious, HappyCamper, Ligulem, Jehochman, Dudegalea, Bubba73, Gadha, Brighterorange, Commando303, The wub, Dolphonia, Bob Wiyadabebe-Iytsaboi, Sleepyhead81, GregAsche, AySz88, Sango123, Tvhuang, Rebug, Renaissance
Man, Yamamoto Ichiro, X1987x, SNIyer12, Calvinlough, Algebra, Bash, Exeunt, FayssalF, Dinosaurdarrell, Titoxd, Sgkay, Ian Pitchford,
Acetylene, SchuminWeb, G Clark, Xmoogle, Fluyx, JeremyMcCracken, CR85747, Spaceman85, CalJW, Musical Linguist, Doc glasgow, Latka, Mschweigert, Winhunter, Frob, Harmil, GT, Garyvdm, Nivix, Jsephton, Webgeek, RexNL, Payo, Gurch, AdamantlyMike, OrbitOne, Subversive, Max1900, TeaDrinker, Super Sam, Alphachimp, Jehb, Bmicomp, Darranc, Skitzo, Dothefandango, Kickboy, Ahunt,
Newsjunkie, Snailwalker, Imnotminkus, Djej1, Idaltu, Acela Express, Jijithecat, Escobar600ie, Mongreilf, Psantora, King of Hearts, AHinMaine, CJLL Wright, Michaelritchie200, Mullugutherum, Visor, 0o64eva, Parallel or Together?, Badbois4l, Bornhj, Mhking, Mmx1, FeldBum, Korg, CaptainAmerica, Bgwhite, Hall Monitor, Digitalme, NSR, Gwernol, Flcelloguy, MamboJambo, Shervinafshar, The Rambling
Man, Wavelength, Mushin, Angus Lepper, Crotalus horridus, Jzylstra, Neitherday, Kinneyboy90, Sceptre, Todd Vierling, Mahahahaneapneap, Retodon8, Kafziel, Swerty, Thejapanesegeek, Wikky Horse, Harpalus, StuOfInterest, Adam1213, CltFn, RussBot, Hyad, Apancu,
Kyle Andrew Brown, Red Slash, Rocketgoat, Jtkiefer, WritersCramp, Anonymous editor, Muchi, BTLizard, Bhny, Splash, Fsolda, Kunit, Matthewvelie, SpuriousQ, Cbloch, LordBleen, Mehran, Notime007, Akamad, Stephenb, CambridgeBayWeather, Havok, Neilbeach,
Salsb, Wimt, JahWaheKaTsung, SamJohnston, Thane, United88, Daveswagon, K.C. Tang, EngineerScotty, Robbyyy, Shanel, NawlinWiki,
Nahallac Silverwinds, IAMTHEEGGMAN, Oneoclockbird, Smash, Golfcam, Wiki alf, Mipadi, GSK, BigCow, Factman27, Adaxl, Dietwald, Avuton, CensorBot, Tne80, Orioneight, Badagnani, Codyrank, Deskana, Jaxl, PatCheng, Tom Edwards, CJK, Dugosz, Justin
Eiler, Chunky Rice, Howcheng, Joelr31, Daniel Simanek, Sitearm, Irishguy, TechnoGuyRob, Macshune, ArmadniGeneral, Josejose50,
Espantajo, Jac08, Cholmes75, Daniel Mietchen, Jpbowen, CecilWard, Blu Aardvark, ScottyWZ, Qviri, Phileo, Moe Epsilon, Kks krishna,
Terrin, Misza13, Grakm fr, Juras14, Tony1, Occono, Epa101, Mkill, Deckiller, Justinkirk, Leotohill, Kyle Barbour, Samir, Mieciu K,
BOT-Superzerocool, Wangi, Brat32, DeadEyeArrow, PS2pcGAMER, Psy guy, T-rex, Derek.cashman, Kewp, Evrik, Bnitin, Malepheasant,
Elkman, Haemo, Snu, Skysk, Ilmaisin, Nlu, User27091, Wknight94, Lordsid, Ms2ger, TransUtopian, Hohohob, Mehudson1, StevenHidy,
Sherbet boy, Crisco 1492, Flooey, Brianfedirko, Jkelly, Luqigaoyan, Govind17, Laurent Van Winckel, FF2010, LarryLACa, Manjithkaini,
Jeremyzone, WarpstarRider, Getcrunk, Likeminded, Emijrp, Zzuuzz, Maddog Battie, TheKoG, Marketdiamond, Trisreed, Gtdp, Cynicism addict, Wotw90505, Bayerischermann, Ageekgal, Closedmouth, Mmeng, Jwissick, Joelf, Arthur Rubin, Th1rt3en, GotenXiao, Esprit15d, Dr.alf, Dspradau, Matt Casey, Sean Whitton, GraemeL, Speculatrix, JoanneB, TBadger, Alias Flood, CWenger, Shawnc, Cerebrith,
Fram, Peter, PureLegend, HereToHelp, Inquisitor911, Emc2, Mais oui!, Spliy, Wikipedianinthehouse, ArielGold, AntL, Jedward, Garion96, 8bitJake, Archer7, Smurfy, RunOrDie, Whouk, Kam-Ren, Ybbor, Itself, Crazyquesadilla, ViperSnake151, Ephilei, Sancassania,
Kungfuadam, Heebiejeebieclub, Junglecat, TrustTruth, Banus, Imerilai, Jakewaage, Jasn, Meegs, LepricahnsGold, Bandit321, Sinan
Taifour, Maxamegalon2000, Rwwww, Airconswitch, Auroranorth, Gslide, Rehevkor, Nippoo, Alin0Steglinski, DVD R W, CIreland, One,
Vedant lath, XSTRIKEx6864, Matt Heard, Quadpus, Dposse, Treelovinhippie, Luk, Sycthos, Kneewax, DocendoDiscimus, Groupventure,
Amalthea, Crystallina, Yakudza, KnightRider, A bit iy, Rageear, XOX, SmackBot, Looper5920, PaulWay, YellowMonkey, Nick Dillinger,
Elonka, Forteller, Aido2002, Ashenai, Classiclms, Moeron, Estoy Aqu, Alexlinsker@gmail.com, Styles, KnowledgeOfSelf, TestPilot,
Royalguard11, FloNight, Link the windwaker, Stev0, FlashSheridan, Dougal.s, Simongoldring, David.Mestel, Pgk, Pellucidity, Flyer 13,
Gabe0505, Kilo-Lima, Thunderboltz, Clpo13, Chairman S., Grandeandy, Nickst, Alepik, Spagf5, Jrockley, Eaglizard, Knilt, Delldot, Ted
chou12, NickWhaleyIsSexy, Miljoshi, Cylik, Fnfd, Kslays, Fenin, Imzadi1979, Adam3d90s, Cesoid, Btwied, HalfShadow, GrimReaper,
Thornstrom, Master Deusoma, Lakhim, Xaosux, Vikramsidhu, Turre, Gilliam, Brianski, Ohnoitsjamie, Betacommand, GwydionM, God
gs, Iadord, Knuckleskin, Chris the speller, Reza1615, Bluebot, Matt0401, Bhutti, Bidgee, Keegan, Wuyz, Geneb1955, Persian Poet
Gal, AndrewMcGuckin, Rick7425, Tghe-retford, Glossika, BabuBhatt, Oli Filth, Ejg930, Tree Biting Conspiracy, PrimeHunter, Miquonranger03, MalafayaBot, Adam Clark, Gh0sT, Repetition, Timneu22, GreyWanderer, SchftyThree, Hooriaj, SephirothXIIIX, Kitty1983,
Dustimagic, Ikiroid, JONJONAUG, Kungming2, Patriarch, 12.000, ZyMOS, Sparsefarce, Konstable, Supernick345, The1exile, Rlevse,
Gracenotes, Raymondangel, Emurphy42, XSG, Rodrigogonzalezhoyos, Modest Genius, Dizdaz89, Royboycrashfan, The Chef, Zsinj, Ericjzhang, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CaptainCarrot, HarrisX, Bloggerbrigade, Hildanknight, AussieLegend, DLand, Narge, Decademus,
Vulcanstar6, Onorem, Vanished User 0001, Racklever, Kindall, Vanis314, Sommers, MeekSaron, OOODDD, Wikipedia brown, TheKMan, Coldkill, Mhym, Odiwan, GRuban, Parent5446, Rukawa110, Edivorce, Yalto, -Barry-, BWCNY, Mugaliens, Threeafterthree, Grover
cleveland, Sweetstudent, Sidious1701, Jmnbatista, Pepsidrinka, Download fan, Krich, B^4, JudahH, Tsop, NoIdeaNick, BostonMA, Earl
CG, Ianmacm, Ricky326123, Mig30m6, Cybercobra, Irish Soue, Makemi, Nakon, Jackohare, TedE, Qoosa, Larix, Akral, Andymarczak,
Daveserpa, Hoof Hearted, Nuj, Soapergem, Dreadstar, Dunny, Silveroblivion, Invincible Ninja, ShaunES, Anoriega, Lcarscad, Weregerbil,
Fitzhugh, Matt Whyndham, TikiWiki, Frog29, Wisco, Freedom to share, Merlin-UK, Mwtoews, Smart Fox, DMacks, Diasimon2003,
Whoville, 574069, Kwantem, Hammydude, Kalathalan, Jngers88, Salamurai, Sigma 7, Daniel.Cardenas, Ligulembot, DDima, Risker,
Davidone, SamBlob, Pilotguy, Kukini, SimonLee, Ohconfucius, Will Beback, Thepangelinanpost, Byelf2007, Lunarbunny, HYC, Weatherman1126, Dingledow, Vildricianus, G-Bot, Nishkid64, Maddenplayer1226, Thesmothete, Rory096, Serein (renamed because of SUL),
Robomaeyhem, Banzoo, Andrea Censi, Aled D, Straif, Prodecum, SS2005, Dbtfz, Aplomado, Sunroof, Kuru, John, ZenSaohu, Theelectricchild, Zaphraud, TheBlackMage01, Hellspawn905, Raineybt, Moench, Negative47, Rodsan18, Agencius, Ocee, Briantist, Tye101,
Disavian, Catapult, Xornok, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Butko, Frandsen, Btg2290, Spet1363, This user has left wikipedia, Edwy,
Chodorkovskiy, Ninnnu, Mgiganteus1, Led zepplin, ManiF, Highpriority, Gbarnett, D0NK3Y, Needlenose, A.Z., Gamextheory, Aleenf1,
Jorge1984, Mr. Lefty, IronGargoyle, Beefball, Jeran, Juo, PseudoSudo, Mr. Blake, Intiendes, Naproite, Anand Karia, Bucannon, Gamerfreak, Morshem, Collect, The Man in Question, Chrisch, 16@r, Fellio, Slakr, Hvn0413, Kazikame, Tupac13th, TheHYPO, Frozenkatkiller,
Crazy Fox, Beetstra, Androl, Optimale, Yvesnimmo, Aquarelle, Mr Stephen, Kseferovic, AxG, Xiaphias, PRRfan, Wnxkwh, Meco, Eridani, Mets501, Funyon, Funnybunny, WebHead, Dasher220, Sharcho, Mintchocolatebear, Ryulong, DeStijl1, Big Smooth, Tardedmun,

40.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Mike Payne, Invisible Flying Mangoes, Madmanguruman, Gomm, Lpo0, Thibbs, Gyroid, Xanderthegogetter, Ulikleafar, Tenkage, Reonwaterman, Aldenrw, Rup88, Ajblanck, EstebanF, Rajpaj, DerHexer, Depsidee, Simon Peter Hughes, Galapagosland, Esanchez7587,
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Nate12345678, Nick thelot, Enjaeb, Kulshrax, Ipooponu334, Alex543211, Akupchak, Keithkml, Hans Dunkelberg, Ztjank, Bo Basil,
Ayecee, Uncle Dick, 72Dino, GHibler, Ronaldblue, Jaymac407, Jesant13, Pedracer400, Nate512, Derryquinn, Mbm124verizon, Cocoaguy, Head-doctor, Richyeilding, Dustinr88, Wcap, Alania Flamestar, Century0, Brintoul, Mickeyyeety, Azeroth, NiZhiDao, Eskimospy,
Midnightmover3, Missmurder071291, Inquam, Andareed, Babar54, Davidm617617, WikiBone, FrummerThanThou, Dispenser, BotSchafter, Shawn in Montreal, Katalaveno, Arronax50, Kangie, SpigotMap, Warnke, Nemo bis, Salchimel, Drew16, Alex owns, Grosscha, Zabrak, Panuber, Geeky Bacon, Nards911, Acushot, Naniwako, Eliethesame, StephaneOdul, Fuzzybunny101, Tobias Willmott,
Trentelam, Rocket71048576, HockeyInJune, AntiSpamBot, Plasticup, Xxskullxx4, WHeimbigner, Belovedfreak, Zhouf12, Nintendofan369963, Adamwenner, Anakletos, Gelasius, DadaNeem, Vgx5, Sjshar1510, Flatterworld, Mufka, Crynryan101, Nay Min Thu, Kwaigg,
Deadness, Shoessss, Dodge1884, Gladiatorstudios, Kidlittle, Parkerdeal, Hc5duke, Kinky Kingy, Golemarch, Welcomematt22, Tobylle,
U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A., DorganBot, Sam100255, Ajfweb, MartinRinehart, Gtg204y, TWCarlson, Jvcdude, Rkoking, Andy Marchbanks,
WLRoss, TheNewPhobia, Tkgd2007, Shantetrey, Fairxento, Earfetish1, JJGD, Steel1943, Supramano8, Bfrposh, Idioma-bot, Spellcast,
Navious, Paginesparse, Lrdwhyt, Lights, Sekarnet, Tamillimat, Shoat, Hammersoft, VolkovBot, Alienlifeformz, Johnfos, Jamcib, Pontius
Ethics, Ukkor, TalibKweli123, Hersfold, Pandoraxor, Alanfeld, Antz9, Butwhatdoiknow, Tyler9xp, Maglonj72, Majoreditor, Rutherfordjigsaw, Kyle the bot, Student355, Medberry, Bobsd, Eric outdoors, HiraV, Pr0xy 00d3r, Robobobatron, TXiKiBoT, AllanManangan,
Jj0909jj, Mercurywoodrose, AlexRampaul, Epengfei, Chewycreation, Pellande12, Muro de Aguas, Hellsnake, Osama bin dipesh, Dog
company, A4bot, GDonato, Miranda, Chris.smiet, Joe2832, Kreizhn, MTIH, Anonymous Dissident, Liam37, Aymatth2, HelloWikipediaXD, Qxz, Centurion123, Beebob123, Ericpelland, KTFCdan, Wiikipedian, Seraphim, Semehmanew, Pieguy1234, Jcm4, Szlam, Martin451, Occasional Reader, Samoowestmill, Wordsmith, Trekky0623, Derg999, Robert3008, Andylu, Chris200x9, Maharashtraexpress,
Yiggum, Woopde, Sc0ttkclark, AL3X R1D3R, Florenus, UnitedStatesian, Dantheman2008, Stormshadow07, Gingerginger, Pishogue,
Waycool27, Ale85, Bllasae, Themat21III, ACEOREVIVED, RiverStyx23, Urbanrenewal, Rastrojo, Xavcam, Bibrydo, Rogerdpack, Peteritism, Tbaum17, Toyotaboy95, Bashereyre, Enigmaman, Michaeldsuarez, Jadensaga, Davidmwhite, Lemo11, PieterDeBruijn, Sokker
playa, Adam.J.W.C., , WJetChao, Dalek94, CoolKid1993, Pointgrey, Lavathing9, Nadrian182, BluejacketT, Abdi234,
Omphg, Softlavender, Formy57, Musicstarr, Prince05j, Seresin, Kai, Skixz, Kulikovsky, Djmckee1, Jakub Vrna, Fatchicken1, Manamanam, Brianga, Bond 2.0, Truthanado, Jonnyno1, Chenzw, Cindamuse, Joshuadivine, Anson Stark, Supermaner, Captain Future,

454

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

CharlieTC, Supercool111, BuzzAldrinreader, E1337ben, Ellomate, SWfanatic09, Davisferrell, Sliverorbit906, Mikeeeeey1, Chuck Sirloin, NHRHS2010, Rhymeindaj, Red, Thismachienekillsfacists, Dackley, Master rikku, B1llycl3m3nt, Moo9876567, Antisatanic, Indanewsk8board, Bufsabres2007, Towerguard, Logan wilder, Doggie Bark, King Krusha, Jigsaws father, ZomgZombieSauce, SieBot, DesertEagle73, Leirith, Dusti, Guptanikhil, Gprince007, Jamie Bourne, Jpp42, Gangstammar, Jugbug, Fishtea, Squarion, Karaboom, Youngdude, Valentine Smith, CAIRNSY90, Vanished User 8a9b4725f8376, Ameeromar, TawnyNicole, Fpscameron, Daabomb, Grundle2600,
WildWildBil, Laurasmith76, Jerryobject, Dattebayo321, Xrie, Nite-Sirk, Thebattle, Exert, Theaveng, Oda Mari, Jvk2699, Reapermage1990, Smoking popes666, Jccort, Nopetro, Nachother, Aygulka, Eric1sr, Webfan29, Oxymoron83, JeStudios, Artoasis, Julian Andres Klode, AngelOfSadness, Matohno, Vanished user oij8h435jweih3, Aspects, Bennett92, , Airhogs777, Reagsta, Lightmouse,
Tombomp, Darkeekt, Alex.muller, Amolmodi, Icedevil14, Tubz84, JOrgill, Rrpauldoran, Cheese223, Cdjm92, OKBot, Pediainsight,
Mufasa182, Realjameso, Paperre, Andrij Kursetsky, NastalgicCam, Sebeano, Cras, Chillum, Thekoolpatrol, Sivasankar1984, TaerkastUA, Dust Filter, Starnix17, Benfeldman, EveryDayJoe45, Mattydakin, Florentino oro, Itamarm10, Curtdbz, Varanwal, Brianshane1992,
Jza84, DRTllbrg, Richardlalleman, Jons63, Mhnin0, Finetooth, Xnatedawgx, Into The Fray, Acjwatt, Kazama3000, Zeekinfo, Iamrandomo, Angel caboodle, Squash Racket, Dementedtoe, ImageRemovalBot, Vivo78, Master Freeman, Spiderverse, WikipedianMarlith,
Carne991, Mr Bum, Twinsday, Nonerds10, H8ed, Odarlee, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, Doyee5, Andrewtrigg, Ssetd, Afshin10, Skmohanta,
De728631, Mikeandike4533, Nonerds11, ClueBot, Sea.wolf4, Asmith1243, Bond81895, Exnir7, Binopoly, Bartgenius, Smart Viral, Mariordo, Cdwuydiop, Centaurioid, Classic Fan, Pipep, PipepBot, Thirteenity, UniQue tree, Tintinobelisk, Gotenks93, Yogimittal, Riyansh,
Mugka, Dem393, Osfan1011, Agent Smith teh Uber Pr0, MalwareSmarts, Reliefappearance, Eric Wester, JMowery, Mderezynski, Cyrus
levine, Hem and hem, Jeshan, Jarrodpie1, Poached2008, Joebobfenestre, EoGuy, Maurismd, Dudemanpeace, Wormfarm, B. van der Wee,
Porn6969, Matsuiny2004, Shelteredlivin, Kiwemo, Eulallia1, 3rdTriangle, Czarko, Hornet35, Crazydarky, Park Crawler, Drmies, Der
Golem, Messyrules, Ipkualot, Cp111, Altricity7491, Riley Felardeau, Mild Bill Hiccup, Azzdoga, Vmmaoi, Junguyen308, Mavericks12,
WIKIDICK, Skinybum12, Panomania, JTBX, Sw258, Manpieman, Wikifan1256, Gadol87, HectaSelecta, Thegreatglobetrotter, Cpq29gpl,
Omfgurkiddingme, Niceguyedc, John Appleseed, Gogogregg, Ottawahitech, Aled2912, Dantheman23, Fastngers3, Dengero, Deanvesuvio, Cantell94, Zspecialone, Trivialist, TeaganMago, Saliamis, Kylefelipemzlino, 123kuko321, BlueAmethyst, Sportkid22, Pughy3,
Uknowme0204, Ray3055, DragonBot, Ktr101, Mkativerata, Excirial, CohesionBot, Usx9, Jshap1289, Star12354, Wikitumnus, Dedbaby,
Lynchburg, Liam head08, Muhandes, TheGreenEditor, Rhododendrites, Sun Creator, Naveedtaji, Newcastleunitedfan, EddyJ07, NuclearWarfare, Weir22, Kablamo223, Cenarium, WGG14, Tbeauchamp, Corinmom, Bonjovi20192, JamieS93, Aseld, Freunde, Ianjones600,
Homeless5, DhananSekhar, Kaiba, Craig12evans, Redthoreau, Skinnydonk, Tosty, Sampsonite5, Mikaey, Midgetinabikini, Flaawless, BOTarate, GlasGhost, La Pianista, Stepheng3, MilesAgain, Marshton, Deerstop, Chris2693, Nitex, Shj95, Jonverve, CKCortez, 2, Romney yw, Tuptup13, Smely brando, Flababiii, PCHS-NJROTC, Unedit, Robdb2, UncleverOnion, 3193th, SF007, Spansign, Willrey619,
Anti-spammo, DumZiBoT, Ogdens, Reed.wilcox, Crazy Boris with a red beard, Mr. Gerbear, Mrsticky005, Against the current, Jimvarghese, XLinkBot, Jyotiswaroopr123321, Auto469680, Koolabsol, Ahmad.j.ziq, Boyd Reimer, Belekvor, Knzr, Ost316, WikiRedactor, TomDonohue,NewsVisual, Rbc1298, Kaze69, Skarebo, SilvonenBot, Galzigler, Tai Ni Po Ni, Theallian, Jamusmax, Illusionist555,
Navy Blue, Tcnossen1, Chezie, Thehotshotpilot, Airplaneman, Mirz5, NonNobisSolum, Gggh, Alanthehat, JoB614, Primarypenguin,
Maddebow, Nikhilb239, B Fizz, Potily, Luwilt, Aceleo, Prowikipedians, Addbot, Speer320, Dultana, M1ch1ganst8, Chrisgon, Dabby,
Nonnb, Cantaloupe2, The Twenty Thousand Tonne Bomb, Jvanore68, Penalmonkey, Rusuggestingcocconutsmigrate?, Bromas11, Dvnwlkr, Scipio82, IXavier, Pmackarate, Atethnekos, Annielogue, Ucla90024, DougsTech, Hurkeyturkey, Xyn1, Kea2, O484, Listing Port,
Burningstarsfall, Older and ... well older, Ronhjones, TutterMouse, Wingspeed, Raedance, Untitledmind72, Kyleshome, Scientus, CanadianLinuxUser, Harryglancy, Thecreativeace, Googleguy1234, Download, Yasir106, LaaknorBot, ShepBot, Michael2346, Themaludude101,
Z. Patterson, Avazelda13, WCAWiki, ILOVELOL32, Brian788, LinkFA-Bot, Jasper Deng, Chailisowns, Kitkat123546, HonorTheKing,
TehFreezer, NothingWorthy, ACM2, Joemexico17, Guydrawers, Jongrant, Frozennacho, Brainmachine, FlagFreak, Numbo3-bot, Tide
rolls, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Apteva, Iamzimbra, Pureditor, SasiSasi, Okungnyo, Jarble, HerculeBot, , Olsen-Fan, Margin1522, Luckas-bot, Leahbbz, Yobot, Number one maximum ride fan, TaBOT-zerem, Mayower3, Boulevardier, Yngvadottir, Fenrirof-the-Shadows, Indigokk, KenelmJames, Becky Sayles, Bugnot, QueenCake,
, Brixtonboy, Vroo, Dmarquard, Anonymous from
the 21th century, Synchronism, Bility, Koman90, AnomieBOT, SaaHc2B, Weather130, Localbatman, JDavis680, Sonia, Manishwriter,
DanKassem, Rangasyd, Cyanidethistles, Footballman010101, Flewis, Alagemo, CoMePrAdZ, 11rcombs, Citation bot, Rlmcguire, Mk17b,
Crimsonmargarine, Wikisplasher, ArthurBot, JAKEWELCH08, Quebec99, Cameron Scott, PaperStrike, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Sketchmoose, Ledsabbath165, Jerey Mall, Nasnema, Jordsta95, DSisyphBot, 1wolfblake, Justanothervisitor, Jewang, Locos epraix, Tomwsulcer, Abc kop l, Kjinho213, Ragityman, Hi878, WaluigiSmith, Anonymous from the 21st century, Punkrockpat, Thexper, Solphusion,
Wizardist, Aeac, Omnipaedista, Trumpetengineer, Greg Tyler, 7OA, Mark Schierbecker, Feral-Golduck, RibotBOT, Abhkum, Tcalight,
Bodnaria, Gamerveda, GhalyBot, MINITEK, Wikiresearchman, Wdenhelm, Bo98, B767-500, ASOTMKX, Boatsdesk, Governor Jerjerrod, Jerrysmp, Homedog21, UnTrooper, I Grave Rob, Princebalakrishna, Daxterminator, FrescoBot, Voxii, Liquidluck, GageSkidmore,
Tobby72, Airship (whoops), Furryblobs, TheGrandAmanin, SolanaRanger, 2toy mora, Kurkleson, Scott A Herbert, Destroyer2000, Sephiroth878, Danhomer, Jakesyl, The One & Only Fools and Horses, Citation bot 1, Narutodude000, Lilagent, Scarce, Pshent, Casprings,
Srijan89, Himasha Wijesurendra, DrilBot, Lakerboy2664, Nmatavka, Uni4life, LittleWink, Chatfecter, Unnachamois, WikiSolved, Divinity76, Tinton5, Yahia.barie, A8UDI, Charlesbell515, Zackary210, RedBot, Joelrussell, Mdjango, Naftprod, Histornomicon, Quilokos,
, Cullen328, Beao, Elf slayer53, Woona, Full-date unlinking bot, Banej, Americanman095, Jhbuk, Steve2011, Wild mine, Kallikanzarid, HyperCapitalist, Marsal20, AGiorgio08, Shane rae, Scottbob9, FoxBot, Robert Xia, TobeBot, Melthamman, Srschu273, Mariacer
Cervantes, Winjay, DEC42, Djones96, Mono, Lotje, Sussexonian, Peterrivington, Dinamik-bot, Markpackuk, Clarkcj12, Extra999, Begoon, Beastra, Chrispvm, BetaVersion, Pborri, David Hedlund, Omer Shachnai, Crysb, Aisha9152, Findaknow, Diannaa, Geek4gurl,
Antrikshy, For Loop, Iceman247, PleaseStand, Tbhotch, Jesse V., Rahuloof, BrightBlackHeaven, Tduk, Larson5511, Mattmarks001,
Longnoodle, RjwilmsiBot, Dsantiago1997, TjBot, Buggie111, Aslanbash, Ha us 70, NerdyScienceDude, Benevolinsolence, Petermcelwee, Wiking, Mradamjohn, Whywhenwhohow, EmausBot, Tomsmith0002, CleanMusic101, Nebabc11, WikitanvirBot, JCRules, Stryn,
Wiki.Tango.Foxtrot, Timtempleton, Never give in, Awesome211, Dewritech, Pattelefamily, Artystyk386, GoingBatty, G&CP, BillJohnson0003, JamesDavy, Bull Market, Sp33dyphil, Saipraneethn, Tommy2010, Imager Visioner, Sillybillypiggy, Cmlloyd1969, Djembayz,
Anirudh Emani, Thecheesykid, Mz7, Iwan Novirion, Pro translator, Vaibhavdeshmukh007, Kkm010, Zzomtceo, Trinanjon, Cprzybyl, Webmastermind, TestSubject528491, Agent4453, Fintelia, KuduIO, Fixblor, Kennethphsu, Hazard-SJ, Elektrik Shoos, Battoe19,
Bilbo571, Netknowle, MAINEiac4434, Wingman4l7, Vanished user fois8fhow3iqf9hsrlgkjw4tus, Ariesk47, Longnoodle1, Karthikndr,
ShadowLion, Brandmeister, Heliumsingh5000, PlantRunner, Shrigley, Rawiki, Gsarwa, Irrypride, Wikiloop, Jcubic, Moshi Monster
Fan303, Pun, Juancameneses11, Rangoon11, JingleJim, Jcaraballo, Kenny Strawn, Uziel302, Dorsal Axe, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, Dragonsh9, Lhimec, Onano, Band Geek 06, LogX, Rhain1999, Odisha1, Mctechuciztecatl, 201Two, A wild Rattata, Rinaku, Twillisjr, Worldofvikram, Dru of Id, Ddonald99, U.Steele, Ashstar01, 336, Scottonsocks, Mouse20080706, Dykstra2, 1996vishak,
Snowgeek22, Theopolisme, North Atlanticist Usonian, L'editeur, Helpful Pixie Bot, Tinkuxlnc, Lionhead99, TechGeek70, DmitryKsWikis, , Tholme, Dreggmanrox1, Jeremy1000000, Curb Chain, Chorobek, Slimeguy789, Shubhanshu shukla, Wikisian,

40.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

455

BG19bot, Ckywht, Kamranm1000, Simonrodan, WikiTryHardDieHard, SRWikis, M0rphzone, Blake Burba, Northamerica1000, Timetomove, Brazuca100, Wildhoney2, Hurricanefan25, ElphiBot, MusikAnimal, Bacon and the Sandwich, Chief SIRQ, Drake11111, Secret
Agent Julio, Mark Arsten, Martand307, Compfreak7, Mytelecom, Q6637p, Rjkhan, FutureTrillionaire, Muneeb2000, Rituraj.shukla, TrebleSeven, Socialmaven1, Smileverse, DrizzyDrakeFan, Fairlyoddparents1234, Benzband, Rgbc2000, SuperSherbet, Soerfm, Gswarnkar,
Rob 1279, Chmarkine, Chris4315, Rynsaha, Meatsgains, Averonicaw, Afree10, Fluernutter2, Mylesjonas, Deezy.D., GermanUser2045,
M.Fin.User, WebTV3, Fylbecatulous, Agent 78787, RudolfRed, BattyBot, Factsearch, Saturn HT, Bagoto, Guy9374nice, Khazar2, Soulparadox, Ciaran Sinclair, Dobie80, Alb d91, Boogie314, JYBot, Tow, Mkg just4u, BrightStarSky, Dexbot, Rezonansowy, Trancelot,
Mandishaa, Crumpled Fire, Br'er Rabbit, Codename Lisa, Hmainsbot1, Warminster10101, Mogism, UsefulWikipedia, Shreyas.shridhar,
John F. Lewis, Jc86035, Redalert2fan, Dasschaefchenbot, Zziccardi, Thinker21, DharmaKeerthi, WiHkibew, MisterShiney, Copulative,
LMANSH, Steen12Steen12, AwesomeSaucer9, MarchOrDie, Donfbreed2, Guy9374isback2, Epicgenius, FallingGravity, Sodla, MervinVillarreal, JPaestpreornJeolhlna, WikiU2013, Melonkelon, Inglok, ThomasMikael, Vanished user lalsdi45ijne4, DrAndrewWinters,
Wuerzele, Shrey150, Dustin V. S., New worl, ArmbrustBot, Zedaki, Georgij Michaliutin, Comp.arch, Baalijan1, Coolgama, AmitWikiCool, RemoHe27, ThomasBeGaming, Sarr X, PrivateMasterHD, Akumarsherwal, Qed237, Bronx Discount Liquor, Keepinternetfree,
Kind Tennis Fan, Lightning Dhyanu, JEMZ1995, Sportfan5000, ScotXW, Konveyor Belt, 3850rpm, Rmnsediting, Signedbo, Archwayh,
BrunoMed, Unicodesnowman, WikiWinters, Meemo16, 1ravenhurst, Monkbot, Alvaro B., Coeedrinker115, Anuvarshanw, Ptb1997,
Barneysucks106, Xbrlus, Shotsmc, Bit ohms, CloudComputation, Jacobmacmillan, SD0001, CandyJugz, Secretkeeper12, ChamithN, Feynman1918, Crystallizedcarbon, Akhi666, Emilyscarr, Omio Asad, Neudabei and Anonymous: 2001
IBM Personal Computer Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM%20Personal%20Computer?oldid=645932930 Contributors: Damian
Yerrick, Uriyan, Bryan Derksen, Stephen Gilbert, Aldie, Nate Silva, Chlor, Heron, Twilsonb, Edward, RTC, Kchishol1970, JohnOwens,
Modster, Mahjongg, Liftarn, Matthewmayer, Tannin, Dave Farquhar, Sannse, Egil, Julesd, Glenn, Arteitle, Dmsar, Magnus.de, Choster,
Geary, Zoicon5, Mrand, Saltine, Omegatron, Philopp, Wernher, Morn, Dpbsmith, Jusjih, Robbot, Zz, Boy b, RedWolf, Desmay, Hemanshu, Blainster, Hadal, SpellBott, David Gerard, Matt Gies, DocWatson42, Jhf, Axeman, Inter, Monedula, Everyking, Jason Quinn,
Foobar, Uzume, Thewikipedian, Chowbok, Goat-see, MacGyverMagic, Bumm13, Marc Mongenet, Bk0, Wadsworth, Neschek, Gazpacho,
N328KF, Rich Farmbrough, Pak21, Snap2grid, Pmsyyz, Rama, Pixel8, Alistair1978, Bender235, ESkog, Evice, Ylee, CanisRufus, Omnibus, Trixter, Xed, Bobo192, Deathawk, Cmdrjameson, Cwolfsheep, Giraedata, Ocrho, Canadacow, Nkedel, Jumbuck, PaulHanson,
Stovetopcookies, Sligocki, PeteVerdon, NTK, GeorgeStepanek, ProhibitOnions, Wtshymanski, Uucp, Suruena, HungryHorace, Drbreznjev, Stinger, Qnonsense, JarlaxleArtemis, Ae-a, Tripodics, Pol098, WadeSimMiser, Ntg, Tckma, Wikiklrsc, Mangojuice, WikianJim,
Alecv, HiFiGuy, Kesla, Graham87, Cuvtixo, Tzadikv, Tomhormby, BD2412, Qwertyus, Benley, Melesse, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Jivecat,
Vegaswikian, Bubba73, Mirror Vax, SchuminWeb, Ground Zero, Fragglet, Swtpc6800, D.brodale, Viznut, NevilleDNZ, Chobot, Bgwhite,
YurikBot, Wavelength, Crotalus horridus, OtherPerson, Hyad, Fabartus, Gardar Rurak, Stephenb, Manop, Barefootguru, Wgungfu, Dugosz, Howcheng, Rwalker, Jeh, Jeremy Visser, Torneco, Petri Krohn, Fourohfour, Howard81, Rwwww, Kraiken, Rob Prins, A bit iy,
SmackBot, C.Fred, Zyxw, Darklock, PJM, Canthusus, Nethency, Bugs5382, Enno, QTCaptain, Rick7425, Thumperward, Snori, Nintendude, Edlin, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Bthylafh, MureninC, Morio, Gvf, Ed@islandnet.com, SashatoBot, Anss123, Volt4ire,
Slowmover, UKER, Saxbryn, DabMachine, Iridescent, Clocker, BerVi, CapitalR, Jas88, Ale jrb, Hnc197, Hertzsprung, Rmallins, Futureobservatory, Ameliorate!, Kozuch, Smiteri, Thijs!bot, Electron9, Marokwitz, Pekinduck, Jj137, Markw99, Lex Bouvier, Lklundin,
NapoliRoma, Cancerward, PrimroseGuy, Jhansonxi, Bongwarrior, Antipodean Contributor, GermanX, Rderijcke, CliC, Rettetast, Yonaa,
CommonsDelinker, Ciri5678, Deben Dave, Michael Daly, Nintendough, Aboutmovies, WebHamster, Hakutsuru, Grand Rapids, Idiomabot, Funandtrvl, Dezignr, Meiskam, VolkovBot, ReddShadoe, The Wild Falcon, Melhallerman, Je G., TXiKiBoT, Liamoliver, A4bot,
Sarenne, Minkaishorea, Lexington50, Econterms, Supertask, Jackfork, GL1zdA, Kim Pirat, WinTakeAll, PlayStation 69, Falcon8765,
Meson81, Thunderbird2, EmxBot, Wjl2, SieBot, Coee, Arkwatem, Tiddly Tom, Josh the Nerd, Mr.Z-bot, Dirk P Broer, Mr. Neutron,
Lightmouse, Diego Grez, Alatari, Ed Avis, Martarius, ClueBot, Wikievil666, MikeVitale, Wendy.krieger, Mkjo, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, Uncle Milty, Ladne2, PixelBot, Mewtu, Vybr8, DumZiBoT, InternetMeme, Badmachine, XLinkBot, Bazj, Addbot, Wildplum69,
Chevy1948, Ghettoblaster, Magus732, Elsendero, Download, Himerish, Lightbot, Nicolas Love, LuK3, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Yngvadottir, Athelstanent, Nokorola, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Vintageibm, Rodrigobartels, Wordsrus, Citation bot, , JmCor, Xqbot, NSK
Nikolaos S. Karastathis, Wolf3188, NorwalkJames, Jerey Mall, Microlm, Kyng, Ableu, Shadowjams, Chaheel Riens, A.amitkumar,
Cekli829, FrescoBot, I dream of horses, Lars Washington, Thinking of England, GerbilSoft, Arbero, Lotje, Mass09, Onel5969, Bahnfrend,
Balph Eubank, Thenqu, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, UOJComm, Finn Bjrklid, Phantomazero, ZroBot, Daonguyen95,
EVIL-MCDUCK, Redhanker, Mtiddens, ClueBot NG, Vintageibmmt, Matthiaspaul, Sphere808, Nerd in the Red Shirt, Widr, Dougmcdonell, Theopolisme, Majesty of the Commons, Helpful Pixie Bot, Helvitica Bold, Wbm1058, Pine, Northamerica1000, Frze, Trevayne08,
BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, MadGuy7023, SoledadKabocha, Mogism, SSastry (WMF), Lugia2453, Eyesnore, Jodosma, Someone
not using his real name, Monkbot, Soa Koutsouveli, Forbidden User, Ddhdbdhss, Ggfdzr, Fghjbvv and Anonymous: 308
Digital Equipment Corporation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital%20Equipment%20Corporation?oldid=644952557 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, TwoOneTwo, Lee Daniel Crocker, Mav, Amillar, Youssefsan, Ortolan88, Maury Markowitz, David spector,
Zippy, TerrapinDundee, Hephaestos, Soulpatch, AdamWill, Vkem, Edward, RTC, Tannin, Minesweeper, DavidWBrooks, Ronz, CatherineMunro, Notheruser, Jll, IMSoP, Emperorbma, Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, Bemoeial, Dmsar, Jay, Timc, Lee Cremeans, Ozuma,
Itai, Jnc, Wernher, Gerard Czadowski, Dpbsmith, Rhsatrhs, Walin, Jhobson1, Robbot, Murray Langton, RedWolf, Altenmann, Pjedicke,
Litefantastic, Moink, Sheridan, UtherSRG, Lupo, Ancheta Wis, Brouhaha, Levin, Peruvianllama, AlistairMcMillan, Macrakis, Bobblewik,
Neilc, Chowbok, Jonel, Erik Corry, Pat Berry, Icairns, DMG413, EagleOne, Kate, ChrisRuvolo, Rich Farmbrough, ArnoldReinhold,
Cestes, Dyl, Bender235, Emelbee, Vt100, Ylee, Theinfo, CanisRufus, RoyBoy, Dennis Brown, Warpozio, Darkguy, John Vandenberg,
MITalum, Cmacd123, Cwolfsheep, Sam Korn, Linuxlad, Guy Harris, Atlant, M7, Stevestrange, Roy G, Wtshymanski, Paul1337, Evil
Monkey, Recury, Stephen, JeTK, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Mu301, Sburke, Pol098, Riumplus, Quadra630, Wayward, Qwertyus,
Zzedar, Pmj, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Rogerd, Misternuvistor, Swirsky, TedPostol, Amire80, Wiarthurhu, StuartBrady, FlaBot,
Toresbe, Mirror Vax, SchuminWeb, CarolGray, Ewlyahoocom, Jaraalbe, ShadowHntr, Wavelength, Spacepotato, Hairy Dude, RussBot,
Sillybilly, Wgungfu, Mkatan, Stassats, Nbrouard, Geertivp, Daniel Pritchard, Thatdog, CecilWard, Gadget850, Vlad, Ingling, Mikeroetto,
JLaTondre, Mikus, NeilN, Rwwww, One, KnightRider, BonsaiViking, SmackBot, Herostratus, Unyoyega, Eaglizard, Agentbla, Brianski, Folajimi, Hmains, Chris the speller, QTCaptain, Cbh, Hmich176, Letdorf, RageX, OrphanBot, Greenshed, Adamantios, CWesling,
Maelnuneb, GregCutler, Ohconfucius, Pinecone, Bhludzin, Autopilot, Petr Kopa, Harryboyles, David notMD, Bryanmackinnon, Edesio,
Ryulong, MrDolomite, JoeBot, Skapur, Rpb01r, IvanLanin, Aeons, Bclaremont, Pkjohnston, Enginear, CBM, Ozga, Gihanuk, Neelix,
Cydebot, Tom94022, Jedonnelley, Rhe br, Colorprobe, Teratornis, After Midnight, CieloEstrellado, Epbr123, Luminifer, Qwyrxian,
GentlemanGhost, PaulLambert, Ideogram, Binarybits, KrakatoaKatie, Decvet, Jj137, Starboy444, Glasnt, Dreaded Walrus, Daytona2,
Austinmurphy, Robinr57, Magioladitis, Jllm06, Tedickey, DAGwyn, Vanished user ty12kl89jq10, Cgordonbell, Gwern, Al Kossow, Lilac
Soul, Wa3frp, Maproom, BrokenSphere, Siobhanellis, Christian Storm, Cobi, Pblaauw, LoopTel, Funandtrvl, TXiKiBoT, Evanbauer,
Mercurywoodrose, Dojarca, Don4of4, Gbuchana, Raryel, Urbanrenewal, Jjzanath, Donnymo, Michael Frind, EmxBot, Copros, Mire-

456

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

mare, Jp314159, Jerryobject, Aspects, Lightmouse, Urch9999, Svick, NameThatWorks, StaticGull, Anchor Link Bot, MrMichaelJKelly,
Xnatedawgx, ImageRemovalBot, Martarius, Bbump, Badger Drink, MichaelKirche, Rilak, Supertouch, Mild Bill Hiccup, Namazu-tron,
Copyeditor42, Rcooley, WikiNickEN, NuclearWarfare, JayWhitney, Chiefmanzzz, DumZiBoT, Millennas, Valtyr, Cminard, Shieber, IngerAlHaosului, Ghettoblaster, PrintStar, Computerhistory, Joren Six, Oxymoron42, Lightbot, Softy, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, OrgasGirl, Oachain, Cyanoa Crylate, Sven, Peter Flass, AnomieBOT, Aneah, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Jkbw, Miracleworker5263, AV3000, GrouchoBot, LolaBeDen, Douglas W. Jones, Green Cardamom, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Hansivers, Skyerise, Cbredeaux, Lotje, PleaseStand,
DSP-user, Twons, EmausBot, Ipduh, Werieth, ZroBot, Dolovis, Azikate, Kalinrose, ML2000, , FrankFlanagan, Bomazi, Hazard-Bot,
ClueBot NG, JetBlast, Matthiaspaul, Reify-tech, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, PartTimeGnome, Compfreak7, BattyBot, Codename Lisa,
Touranushertz, Limefrost Spiral, MrT42, Ferranselles, Monkbot, Xbrlus and Anonymous: 247
Hewlett-Packard Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard?oldid=645418374 Contributors: Kpjas, Matthew Woodcraft,
Mav, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Tim Chambers, Css, Amillar, LA2, Youssefsan, XJaM, Aldie, B4hand, Zippy, Olivier, Jose Icaza,
Edward, Ubiquity, RTC, Tannin, Axlrosen, Flamurai, Minesweeper, Tregoweth, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, Ronz, Typhoon, Baylink,
Snoyes, John K, Hauser, Magnus.de, Hydnjo, Jay, WhisperToMe, Wik, Zoicon5, Hao2lian, Vancouverguy, Kierant, Wernher, Samsara, Rhsatrhs, Jeq, Carlossuarez46, RadicalBender, Nufy8, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Fredrik, Kristof vt, Donreed, ZimZalaBim, Nurg,
KSweeley, P0lyglut, Academic Challenger, Caknuck, Sunray, Mervyn, UtherSRG, Jpbrenna, Alan Liefting, Jasenlee, Aomarks, Eric42,
Jacoplane, Nichalp, Fudoreaper, Orangemike, Matt Borak, Alison, Siroxo, AlistairMcMillan, Golbez, Wmahan, TRIBESMAN, Utcursch,
Arjuna, Pamri, J, Daen, Quadell, Antandrus, Skywolf, Rdsmith4, Burgundavia, Chrisn4255, Neutrality, Oknazevad, Kareeser, Bbpen,
Cab88, DMG413, Zondor, Trevor MacInnis, Grunt, Teddy 80087, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Pak21, Hydrox, FT2, Andros 1337, Rama, Gronky, Chadlupkes, Bender235, Veila, Evice, Schmeitgeist, RJHall, CanisRufus, Sfahey, Tom, Spearhead, Sietse
Snel, RoyBoy, Keno, Mairi, Coolcaesar, Deathawk, Adraeus, Cmdrjameson, R. S. Shaw, Richi, Kappa, Jerryseinfeld, B Touch, Cheung1303, TheProject, Deryck Chan, Pobrien, Pearle, Amcl, Hooperbloob, Alison9, Beinsane, Alansohn, Rgb9000, Somebody in the
WWW, Mu5ti, Atlant, Ricky81682, KKvistad, Spangineer, Jplatt39, Wtmitchell, Velella, SidP, Tedp, Wootingfuner, Henry W. Schmitt,
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PubLife, Ground Zero, Jezarnold, Cbmaster, Pevernagie, Tedder, Mrschimpf, Idaltu, King of Hearts, Chobot, DVdm, Guliolopez, Ahpook, UkPaolo, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, Retodon8, Crazytales, Red Slash, Sarranduin, Torinir, Garglebutt, Hede2000, Markpeak, Gardar
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clown will eat me, Aremith, Nick Levine, Frap, JonHarder, Folksong, EvelinaB, Addshore, Greenshed, RedHillian, Edivorce, BWCNY,
UU, Calbaer, Stevenmitchell, 13139913, Kristod, Flyguy649, Lykovaa, Edwtie, Nakon, EVula, Rustypup49, Dream out loud, MrCyber,
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Rklawton, Straif, Luiseargote, Valfontis, Soap, Kuru, John, Zooterkin, Scientizzle, Arnoha, Gobonobo, Ccirulli, Vinayak.s, 16@r, A. Parrot, JHunterJ, Astuishin, Rabhyanker, Dicklyon, AxG, Tmcw, Interlingua, Doczilla, Jnk, Hu12, DabMachine, Seqsea, Iridescent, Deanh,
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NapoliRoma, Barek, John a s, Colotfox, OhanaUnited, I Own AIienware, Aang, PhilKnight, Adrian-polglase, Vvn india, Snowynight, 7severn7, Geniac, SteveSims, Ajaxfan, Rob1974, Mewtwowimmer, Magioladitis, Pgenie, Bongwarrior, JamesBWatson, Appraiser, Cziems,
Trentono, Gr1st, Vanished user ty12kl89jq10, Jodicy, Mkdw, Styrofoam1994, Mlsquad, Bancham, Gavin Wilson, Esanchez7587, Khalid
Mahmood, DIEXEL, Saganaki-, Patstuart, Rimau007, Makro, Oroso, The1McShane, Ricksy, Greenguy1090, FisherQueen, Jerem43,
Xtreme racer, MartinBot, Bboyskidz, Antennaman, CliC, BetBot, Casieg, Kiore, ARC Gritt, Banstaman, Rettetast, Bissinger, Anaxial, Keith D, Spykidz, CommonsDelinker, Dewhastme, Nono64, Sibi antony, Siliconov, Pomte, RockMFR, J.delanoy, Hippo Potamus, Trusilver, Bongomatic, Nabild, Hippasus, Erlv, Bal3d, Laurusnobilis, Cpiral, Maproom, Trey Kinkead, Liangent, BrokenSphere,
Mhopeng, LordAnubisBOT, Mappase, Nuno valente19, AST3, Crocodile Punter, Naniwako, L'Aquatique, B64, (jarbarf), Ricardocolombia, Plasticup, Belovedfreak, NewEnglandYankee, Tascha96, Dungs, Cmichael, Salmans801, Comphy3, Tiggerjay, Tkaizan, Crabworld,
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94, Nighthawkzx, Thomas.W, Jamcib, TheQuandry, Liam3851, TXiKiBoT, Mercurywoodrose, Bartfat, Zummis, Osama bin dipesh, Vipinhari, Technopat, Knowsetfree, Uagehry456, Nxavar, CUBJONES83, Jimzo, Xvxonline17, Lordvolton, Kaghup6, Tmuzzatti, Canaima,
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Krawi, Tbo 157, Da Joe, Parhamr, Dawn Bard, Wpc-01, X-Fi6, Ximaera, Purbo T, Keilana, Bentogoa, Happysailor, Flyer22, Oda Mari,
MolotovH, EditorInTheRye, DirectEdge, Lagrange613, Oxymoron83, Baseball Bugs, Android Mouse Bot 3, KoshVorlon, Lightmouse,
Or Hiltch, Takuy, Jesper Gerved, Brucedp, Bigfoots Curse of the Wild, Dillard421, Reginmund, Wonderbiscuit, Luapnampahc, JohnnyMrNinja, StaticGull, Zzblue, Roded86400, TaerkastUA, Dabomb87, Superbeecat, Illinois2011, Xnatedawgx, Into The Fray, Tripod86,
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Hult041956, S51438, Pairadox, Frmorrison, Wefoij, Ricardocucuta, TheOldJacobite, Kamix, TaraPan, GeorgiKobilarov, Thegreatglobetrotter, Niceguyedc, Ottawahitech, Trivialist, Sen amitava, Awatt6, 718 Bot, Brewcrewer, DragonBot, TMV943, Nymf, M4gnum0n,

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458

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

Jimwthompson, Crossreference16, Lukethecreator, Camberleybates, Vikas.ramesh.saxena, Mrt3366, Ccbowman, EuroCarGT, Jethro B,

Mogism, WikiEXBOB, Pvtcal, Jamesx12345, BLUEmainframe, Ugog Nizdast, Cokkie7550, My name is not dave, Ginsuloft, Freewayfan99, JaconaFrere, BruceHellmer, Monkbot, Supersonik45, OMPIRE, GeorginaMat and Anonymous: 554
Macintosh Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macintosh?oldid=645414888 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, AxelBoldt, Marj Tiefert,
The Cunctator, Tuxisuau, Brion VIBBER, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Tarquin, Gareth Owen, Charleschuck, Ryrivard, Zisa, Enchanter, William
Avery, Ben-Zin, Cayzle, Maury Markowitz, Ellmist, DavidSJ, Heron, Hotlorp, Hephaestos, Olivier, Bobdobbs1723, Edward, Kchishol1970,
Michael Hardy, Nixdorf, Liftarn, Wapcaplet, Dave Farquhar, Ixfd64, Philipdw, Tango, Markonen, Theanthrope, Iluvcapra, Minesweeper,
Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, Stevenj, Nanshu, Typhoon, TUF-KAT, Angela, ?alabio, BigFatBuddha, Julesd, Glenn, Ciphergoth, Stefan,
Rossami, Andres, Evercat, TonyClarke, Lukobe, GRAHAMUK, Seth ze, Proud, Dmsar, Reddi, JCarriker, Dysprosia, Hydnjo, Slark,
Doradus, Zoicon5, TEG24601, Patrick0Moran, Tpbradbury, Jerey Smith, Taxman, Wampa Jabba, Tempshill, Omegatron, Wernher,
Bevo, Nricardo, HarryHenryGebel, Fvw, Bloodshedder, Raul654, Johnleemk, Ldo, Finlay McWalter, Frazzydee, RadicalBender, SD6Agent, Twang, Robbot, NorseLord, Dale Arnett, Sdedeo, Astronautics, Chris 73, Schutz, Rdikeman, RedWolf, Donreed, Moncrief, Moondyne, Altenmann, Netizen, Mintchocicecream, Sverdrup, Academic Challenger, SchmuckyTheCat, Blainster, Timrollpickering, Wikibot,
Wereon, Michael Snow, Garrett Albright, Aetheling, Mushroom, Miles, Mystyc, Anthony, Lupo, Cyberia23, Jleedev, Agendum, Cedars,
Tosha, Paul3144, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Lproven, KelvSYC, Beefman, Elf, Cdespinosa, Gil Dawson, ShaneKing, Philwelch,
var Arnfjr Bjarmason, Netoholic, Lethe, Doovinator, Lupin, Brian Kendig, Obli, Everyking, Anville, Physman, Curps, Alison, Danio,
Frencheigh, BigHaz, Mboverload, AlistairMcMillan, Python eggs, Jackol, Bobblewik, Deus Ex, Ryanaxp, Crazysim, MSTCrow, Gadum,
Hayne, Alexf, Toytoy, Kjetil r, Quadell, Subsailor, Antandrus, Ctachme, OverlordQ, GroundedZero, Robert Brockway, Catdude, Mproud,
Mark5677, Kiteinthewind, Jossi, Rdsmith4, Neilfein, MFNickster, Kesac, Rattlesnake, Jokestress, Gscshoyru, Austin Hair, Tooki, Pidgeot,
Jcw69, Bbpen, Fg2, Exia, Cab88, Grm wnr, Chmod007, Zondor, Lostchicken, Adashiel, Fishtorte, Trevor MacInnis, Lacrimosus, Generica,
DF08, Mike Rosoft, Slady, Newkai, NathanHurst, RossPatterson, Diagonalsh, Blanchette, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, ThomasK,
Jpk, ArnoldReinhold, Smyth, Dave souza, Upi, LindsayH, Jasonq, JohnRDaily, Alistair1978, Arthur Holland, SpookyMulder, Edgarde,
Bender235, Dewet, ESkog, Martinman11, Ylee, CanisRufus, El C, Fenevad, Robert P. O'Shea, Kwamikagami, Hayabusa future, Kross,
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Norton, Canderson7, Rjwilmsi, Lars T., Seidenstud, Nightscream, Koavf, Rogerd, Missmarple, Adjusting, Vary, Zinoviev, JoshuacUK,
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Jw21, RexNL, Ivymike21, Bob Schaefer, Gurch, Valermos, Karrmann, TheDJ, DevastatorIIC, Quuxplusone, OrbitOne, Seinfreak37,
DannyDaWriter, CoolFox, OriginalGamer, Alphachimp, Theblueslime, Manufracture, Thesab, Psantora, King of Hearts, Superdude876,
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Mtze, Richardcavell, Danamania, Paul Magnussen, 21655, Zzuuzz, Hoolme, Encephalon, IsUsername, Ageekgal, Adamdavid85, Closedmouth, Jwissick, Oyvind, Fang Aili, KGasso, Brian Tvedt, Canley, BorgQueen, Petri Krohn, GraemeL, Danallen46, JoanneB, Nothlit,
Wechselstrom, Janizary, HereToHelp, Garion96, Kungfuadam, 790314002, The Catsh, GrinBot, Ergosteur, Dsyzdek, One, Tom Morris,
Shanesan, David Wahler, Cobbb, Luk, Veinor, AndersL, A bit iy, Statsong, SmackBot, Dweller, Aido2002, Thomas Ash, Classiclms,
Brian Patrie, Nsayer, Reedy, Prodego, KnowledgeOfSelf, Ma8thew, Hydrogen Iodide, Wcquidditch, Barntks, Shoy, Unyoyega, Pgk, BenBurch, C.Fred, Jacek Kendysz, RedSpruce, Delldot, Mdd4696, Luumu, PJM, Brossow, Canthusus, Knowhow, Mrclark411, Ms ArtGeek,
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Miquonranger03, Repetition, Neil D, Mike1, MidgleyDJ, Mdwh, SchftyThree, Victorgrigas, JoeCool59, Apple2gs, DoctorW, Epastore,
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will eat me, Thursdayx20, MrC539, DHeyward, X570, OrphanBot, Bte288, Onorem, Anvish, Ww2censor, God of War, Rrburke, Lord
Vader, VMS Mosaic, Buttery0fdoom, Ickyelf, Addshore, RedHillian, Tutnkmn, Wine Guy, Phaedriel, Crboyer, TotalSpaceshipGuy3,
E. Sn0 =31337=, Hippo X, Hateless, Cybercobra, JR98664, Bajajvikram, BigBurkey, Nakon, Chainsawriot, Nappilainen, McDonaldsGuy, Michelle eris, Onthost, , VegaDark, Jared, Trailbum, Cnjartist, EVula, Pdk, Yeagh, Orbitalwow, Localzuk, Eran of
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Qinnyc, Anonymous 94056, SashatoBot, Anss123, Checco, Digana, Nishkid64, Salanus, LtPowers, Rory096, Yakbasser, Harryboyles,
Salty!, Rklawton, Srikeit, Romansanders, Rambo23, Kuru, Diemunkiesdie, Liubei, Brmwk, CenozoicEra, Soumyasch, Sir Nicholas de
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PseudoSudo, Thomas Gilling, Randum, Ckatz, Intersting, BillFlis, Kyphe, Andypandy.UK, Slakr, G-O-D of W-A-R, For great justice.,
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40.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

459

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460

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Mysterious El Willstro, Tommy2010, Staney23, Wikipelli, K6ka, Gyounk, Hanselcat, Ronk01, ZroBot, Caseybutt, Daonguyen95, Liquidmetalrob, F, Bobthechick, Scrotie, GoldRenet, UchihaKazu, Elmo456, Kickapples, Anonymous Paul, Harley22xxx, KuduIO, Webeditor909, PR3V3NTION, JimEOme, H3llBot, Spritzsinger, Unreal7, SporkBot, ME4236, EricWesBrown, Rx 100e, Geologist001, Slimkaos,
Rostz, L Kensington, TheChampionMan1234, Usb10, Wipsenade, Zekeman95, Appleuser4, ChuispastonBot, Lfaporsche2424, DASHBotAV, Qwertyiscool1234567, Mac sux, Mhkmack, Bassplaya7, Zacherik, ClueBot NG, Pantergraph, Payco, This lousy T-shirt, Satellizer, Tree Falling In The Forest, Zackkattackk247, Muon, ScottSteiner, Torbix, Hiddenpwner, Widr, Kissedbythesun, Lotta12, Craft Bio,
Anas 1762, Matthewwilliamproctor, Saptahrshi, Techpodusa, Danstein7, Katescherm, Honytawksroprater, Diyar se, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Compilation nished successfully, M A Alvi, Thespencerjones, Manoast3, Lowercase sigmabot, Gateway122, Mvelez0002, BG19bot,
Turkeybacon97, Encyclopedant, Vagobot, Hubcush, Shaneo95, Emayv, MusikAnimal, Ramunnoodles, Mark Arsten, Chrisrowhatey,
CimanyD, Zach Vega, Joydeep, Jeancey, Miss Morning, Snow Blizzard, MORRISPC10, Ramunnoodle, GoogledIt?, Glacialfox, Ufosjt,
TBrandley, Baconlover42, Minsbot, Klilidiplomus, Registeraccount, WikiLegend12, Joelbelknap1, MaganT2k13, Hopping cat, Sinfoid,
BattyBot, Hahahaidontgetit, Creeper1342, Vikramc84, Esong200, Carter4444, Bubbadaboy, StrawBerryBannaCream, Muzzy136, Bluedude5887, Keremtezcan, ChrisGualtieri, Zach Van Hyfte, Rnbangras, Logan598, Khazar2, Kierenfahey, EditorE, Ekren, Ducknish, Hemi9,
Cachdis123, Dexbot, Letsbeends, Webclient101, Wikignome1213, WillumMaguire, Lugia2453, Bvisetch, Zziccardi, Thinker21, Pktgfd38765, Theoasher97, Epicgenius, Henryonus17, Evilpopper1, Hurpnamvey, Ruby Murray, Sulik1234567890, JPaestpreornJeolhlna,
A Wiggin13, IGeekiHackiMatt, Limefrost Spiral, JIMMYRUSELL9876, Gronkrestone, Waylonovervig, DiggerNick8d, System Preferences, Kuyi123w, Comp.arch, Ray Lightyear, Ugog Nizdast, Charmlet, THX1136, Ginsuloft, 1645a, Furjo, Quenhitran, Jianhui67,
AdamLechowicz, Rabidz77, Thisisatest124, Param Mudgal, Epic Failure, Jonshsgst, Mattblack2020, Ireadlotsofbooks, Jsr515, Meloname37, Mlpricewikip, Lor, Qwertyxp2000, Madiisaloser, Martyv123, PieCrafted, Swag 123swager, Crazoo100, Swimers234, Jerry.Cow,
Seanzhang2001, BenefactorDubsta, Oscar joiner, Padmavatif, BlissFrissTriss, Cacti77, BarryWatchesAnime, Cheeseburgerguy, Trollerbobtheaxeman and Anonymous: 2151
IBM PC compatible Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM%20PC%20compatible?oldid=644805158 Contributors: Damian Yerrick,
Brion VIBBER, Uriyan, The Anome, Koyaanis Qatsi, Amillar, Aldie, SimonP, Mintguy, Edward, Willsmith, Lexor, Mahjongg, Nixdorf, Liftarn, Tannin, Arpingstone, Julesd, Ugen64, Cyan, Nikai, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Dmsar, Zoicon5, Quux, Lee Cremeans,
Sigma902, Itai, Nv8200p, Ed g2s, Wernher, Dpbsmith, Pakaran, Jusjih, Robbot, Chealer, Boy b, Psychonaut, Stewartadcock, Jre,
Sieler, Blainster, Roscoe x, Zidane2k1, Mushroom, Anthony, DocWatson42, Lproven, Marcika, Peruvianllama, Everyking, SterlingNorth,
Brona, Emacsuser, AlistairMcMillan, VampWillow, Wmahan, Kjetil r, J3, Andrew Kanaber, Chris Ducat, Marc Mongenet, Sam Hocevar, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Abdull, Zondor, Adashiel, Inj, Grstain, Mernen, Alkivar, Twinxor, Hydrox, Naive cynic, Warpyght, R.123,
BuzzBomber, Paul August, Kbh3rd, Ylee, CanisRufus, PPGMD, Parklandspanaway, Tverbeek, Sietse Snel, Trixter, Liquidhot, Matt Britt,
Diceman, Trevj, Themindset, James Foster, Ocrho, Shoka, LegolasGreenleaf, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Guy Harris, Andrewpmk, A.M., ABCD,
Seancdaug, Fourthords, Wtshymanski, Emvee, Suruena, Harej, Tweedy7736, Woohookitty, LOL, PoccilScript, Ae-a, Pol098, Ntg, Tabletop, WikianJim, Sega381, M100, Zpb52, Alrik Fassbauer, Kesla, JiMidnite, Cuvtixo, Kbdank71, Reisio, Erebus555, Isaac Rabinovitch,
Titoxd, StuartBrady, SchuminWeb, Felixdakat, Morleyevans, Tegsirat, Threner, Marlow4, Chobot, Rapido, Calamari, OtherPerson, TheDoober, Pigman, Gardar Rurak, Gaius Cornelius, Wgungfu, Cryptic, Akhristov, Herbertxu, LodeRunner, Tertulia, Allynnc, Emersoni,
Robertbyrne, Wknight94, Simon80, Lt-wiki-bot, TheMadBaron, Pb30, Petri Krohn, Tomoyo, Fram, JLaTondre, Rwwww, SmackBot,
Thomas Ash, David Kernow, Pkpatel88, CrazyTerabyte, Darklock, Mikoyan21, Slo-mo, Bluebot, Dananimal, Octahedron80, Nbarth, Midnightcomm, Postagoras, LeoNomis, Ohconfucius, AThing, Harryboyles, JzG, Kuru, Peyre, Beefyt, Ahhwhereami, BSI, Pipedreambomb,
Eluchil404, DAMurphy, Ioannes Pragensis, Mellery, CmdrObot, Wingman310, Futureobservatory, Pascal.Tesson, SymlynX, Thijs!bot,
GeneralDuke, Al Lemos, SouthernMan, Bobblehead, Dark Enigma, Nick Number, M Nabil, Andi Saleh, Widefox, Isilanes, Dylan Lake,
Xadith12, NapoliRoma, Albany NY, Rdht, Bongwarrior, Swpb, Sloclops, BilCat, Vox Rationis, Blueck, DarkFalls, Jutiphan, MKoltnow,
STBotD, Remember the dot, Nimrand, Onkelringelhuth, VolkovBot, ReddShadoe, Cireshoe, TXiKiBoT, KonstableSock, Alexdragon,
Nono le petit robot, Sarenne, Obafgkm, Martin451, Zchri9, ^demonBot2, BotKung, Autodidactyl, WinTakeAll, PlayStation 69, Andy
Dingley, Drutt, Jimmi Hugh, Runewiki777, SieBot, AS, Yo man bob, Theaveng, Lightmouse, SimonTrew, Fratrep, ImageRemovalBot,
Rumping, Poterxu, SuperHamster, Alexbot, Sun Creator, GeekOfDeath, A plague of rainbows, Nickvailas10, PCHS-NJROTC, Petchboo,
Addbot, Stentie, JanusK, Scientus, Fireaxe888, Yobot, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, Galoubet, Zingwaddie, Xqbot, ChildofMidnight, Maddie!, RibotBOT, SassoBot, AntiAbuseBot, Ableu, Surv1v4l1st, Kwiki, PigFlu Oink, RedBot, Smatrese,
Waskoma, RjwilmsiBot, Nenuco1971, EmausBot, Dcirovic, Tanner Swett, Wackywace, Aclpeach, Deutschgirl, ClueBot NG, Pantergraph,
Shaddim, Dougmcdonell, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wbm1058, Ausgoth, Joeyderond, CitationCleanerBot, NotWith, BattyBot, YFdyh-bot, Electricmun11, TheJJJunk, Khazar2, Greenstruck, Someone not using his real name, OMPIRE, Fghjbvv and Anonymous: 205
X86 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86?oldid=644876026 Contributors: Carey Evans, Derek Ross, Uriyan, Robert Merkel, Zundark, The Anome, Christian List, PierreAbbat, Roadrunner, SimonP, Maury Markowitz, Heron, Camembert, Edward, PhilipMW, Tim
Starling, Modster, Mahjongg, DIG, CesarB, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, Mac, Lovely Chris, Nikai, Cimon Avaro, Smay, Emperorbma,
Crusadeonilliteracy, Dysprosia, ShaunOfTheLive, Snickerdo, Doradus, Timc, Furrykef, SHeumann, Wernher, Optim, AnonMoos, Jerzy,
Robbot, Chealer, Benwing, Dittaeva, Samrolken, Sunray, Pengo, Hooloovoo, Rik G., David Gerard, Enochlau, Matt Gies, Centrx, Giftlite,
Brouhaha, var Arnfjr Bjarmason, Zuxy, Codepoet, Ausir, Curps, Jdavidb, Philgp, Yekrats, AlistairMcMillan, Uzume, Golbez, AlanCox, PeterC, Gadum, Gdr, Beland, Clister1, Rdsmith4, Hgfernan, Bbbl67, Austin Hair, Urhixidur, Imjustmatthew, Mschlindwein,
Sonett72, Abdull, Zondor, Moxfyre, Mecanismo, YUL89YYZ, Alistair1978, Demitsu, Dyl, Bender235, Evice, CanisRufus, Joanjoc, Diomidis Spinellis, Femto, Afed, Bobo192, Mike Schwartz, R. S. Shaw, Bad Byte, Larry V, Jakew, Beinsane, Alansohn, PaulHanson, Guy
Harris, Gblaz, Mrholybrain, Denniss, Alinor, Angelic Wraith, Suruena, NJM, Max Naylor, Opterongeek, Alai, Bookandcoee, Dan100,
Kbolino, Feezo, Woohookitty, Uncle G, MattGiuca, Ruud Koot, Scootey, Eyreland, Alecv, Sin-man, Graham87, Kbdank71, KamasamaK,
Wiarthurhu, NeonMerlin, ScottJ, StuartBrady, FlaBot, Mirror Vax, Zarano, Fresheneesz, Simishag, GreyCat, Epitome83, Chobot, Stefan B, Tene, Shardsofmetal, Jpkotta, Burnte, Estr4ng3d, Aluvus, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, Hairy Dude, Mongol, RussBot, Rowan
Moore, Koeyahoo, Steeltoe, Markpeak, Jengelh, Yuhong, Ihope127, Txuspe, CarlHewitt, Nick L., Thalter, Dugosz, Maxeld, CecilWard, Jeh, Adicarlo, Chris S, Mike92591, Anon2, Richardcavell, Zzuuzz, Ninly, Iambk, Pb30, Andyluciano, Fsiler, Markustwofour, Aren,
AGToth, Benandorsqueaks, Triskelios, Bitterpeanut, SmackBot, Mmernex, Henriok, Cthompson, Anastrophe, Thunder Wolf, LuisVilla,
Vugluskr, SmackEater, PJTraill, Teemu Ruskeep, DiThi, TimBentley, King Arthur6687, Jerome Charles Potts, Letdorf, Torzsmokus,

40.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

461

William Allen Simpson, Scalene, Otus, Dethme0w, SheeEttin, Meetabu, Frap, AcidPenguin9873, Joshua Boniface, JonHarder, Binrapt,
Jwy, CTho, HarisM, Morio, Sigma 7, Luigi.a.cruz, Hkmaly, Anss123, Rory096, Harryboyles, DHR, HeroTsai, Sosodank, Edwy, Ckatz,
BioTube, Loadmaster, Hiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii, Robert Bond, Henke, Johnruble, Iridescent, Cprussin, Arto B, Courcelles, Joemofo619, Alexthe5th, FleetCommand, Sakurambo, Haxor, CmdrObot, Raysonho, Wleara, Jesse Viviano, HenkeB, Neelix, Linuxrocks123, Singerboi22,
MarkusQ, Saaya, Ntsimp, Mblumber, Wordbuilder, Vezhlys, Thijs!bot, Ultimus, Woody, Electron9, X201, Peashy, Luna Santin, A.M.962,
Spencer, Oddity-, Carewolf, JAnDbot, Fellix, MER-C, AshCokeandDash, Arch dude, Jed S, Magioladitis, Jhansonxi, VoABot II, JamesBWatson, Virtlink, Calltech, Thompson.matthew, An Sealgair, Gwern, Paracel63, Quanticles, R'n'B, Nono64, Public Menace, Jesant13,
KeepItClean, Cspan64, Austin512, SparsityProblem, SJP, Leidegren, KylieTastic, Slreynolds, Halmstad, Remi0o, Celtic Minstrel, RingtailedFox, Dogbertwp, LokiClock, Benbucksch, DanMatthewsUK, Xandell, TXiKiBoT, Dojarca, Sarenne, Nxavar, Koopa turtle, Timmh,
IsaacGS, WinTakeAll, PlayStation 69, Andy Dingley, JakFrost273, Tonkatsu182, Shornby, Thunderbird2, Jimmi Hugh, Doktorspin, Howlingmadhowie, Ponyo, SieBot, Fnagaton, Moonriddengirl, AlphaPyro, Bachcell, Josh the Nerd, Ham Pastrami, Jerryobject, Universalcosmos, Tazpa, Pac72, Lightmouse, Joeycbulk, Eouw0o83hf, Svick, Eeppeliteloop, MaetlSan, Martarius, ClueBot, C xong, LAX, Dead10ck,
Sjgooch, Compellingelegance, MikeVitale, Ajonlime, The.dvincent, Kin kad, Goodone121, Da rulz07, Vivio Testarossa, Sun Creator,
NevemTeve, Resuna, A8802001e, LobStoR, Callmejosh, Phlar, HumphreyW, Theking2, DumZiBoT, Jdwinx, BarretB, Doru001, Abdulshafy, Dsimic, Addbot, Ramu50, Mortense, Scientus, Roadstaa, AnnaFrance, Jasper Deng, Balabiot, Jarble, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
Newportm, Pcap, Evaders99, Nyat, 4th-otaku, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, RokerHRO, Xqbot, CoolingGibbon, , Jushmai, Genxius, Miyagawa, FrescoBot, Abed pacino, Joe.dolivo, TruthinQuest, Michael93555, Spectatorbot13, Alliumnsk, Tetraedycal,
, Arndbergmann,
PigFlu Oink, Winterst, Elockid, Aizuku, MondalorBot, SpaceFlight89, Wazithegreat, Ale And Quail, Dinamik-bot, PleaseStand, Rahuloof, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Jfmantis, Eleolar, Instigate cjsc (Narine), Gf uip, EmausBot, John of Reading, Acather96, WikitanvirBot, Itavis,
Dewritech, GoingBatty, Mex Ray Trex, Slightsmile, Dcirovic, Tanner Swett, Kkm010, ZroBot, Josve05a, Boatmurdered, Drtaylor175,
H3llBot, BrokenAnchorBot, Sbmeirow, Inka 888, MainFrame, ClueBot NG, Jimbo1qaz, HongxuChen, LiamMCSHERRY, Mmore, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wbm1058, BG19bot, Compfreak7, Tom Pippens, Ianteraf, BattyBot, Khazar2, SimonBramtt, Codename Lisa, Makecatbot, Jrmrjnck, OglaSungutay, Comp.arch, , Oranjelo100, Monkbot, Rtoesarn, Nileshvpawar, Soa Koutsouveli, Chathurangaonnet,
Gegigie, Fghjbvv, Computerfaner and Anonymous: 507
Computer hardware Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer%20hardware?oldid=645876559 Contributors: Bearcat, Jondel, Ukexpat, Xrchz, Discospinster, Guy Harris, Wtmitchell, BD2412, RussBot, Geertivp, NawlinWiki, David Biddulph, Rwwww, BenBurch, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Octahedron80, Nick Levine, Richard001, Kuru, Optakeover, NickW557, DumbBOT, Ebraminio, MasterNetHead,
Magioladitis, Faizhaider, Thompson.matthew, Blacksqr, Jesant13, NewEnglandYankee, KylieTastic, Treisijs, Idioma-bot, DoorsAjar,
Technopat, Oxfordwang, BotKung, BloodDoll, Bentogoa, Flyer22, Chaitanya bhima, Elassint, Takeaway, Resoru, Johnuniq, Dthomsen8,
Addbot, CanadianLinuxUser, LaaknorBot, Luckas Blade, Kartano, Fraggle81, Rubinbot, Materialscientist, FrescoBot, Zilgs, Pinethicket,
I dream of horses, Ftckyman, SchreyP, DixonDBot, Lotje, Jamietw, Tbhotch, EmausBot, Super48paul, Dewritech, Solarra, Ali.eblis1,
Wikipelli, K6ka, FunkyCanute, Bollyje, Bamyers99, Kilopi, Junip, ChuispastonBot, Senator2029, Rocketrod1960, Petrb, ClueBot NG,
JetBlast, Satellizer, Widr, Soulcedric, HMSSolent, Wbm1058, DBigXray, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, MKar, Fylbecatulous, Tutelary,
Mikkytopfem, HueSatLum, Sathyasri, Teammm, EuroCarGT, Jethro B, Ducknish, Harsh 2580, Dexbot, Cerabot, TwoTwoHello, Numbermaniac, NAVEEN VENKAT, Zaldax, Frosty, Jamesx12345, Sriharsh1234, Wywin, Anna1994, Reatlas, Jvpreethi, Dave Braunschweig,
Simonstone1695, Theos Little Bot, Rui24114, PWNGWN, Melonkelon, Sandshark23, Babitaarora, Melody Lavender, Dannyruthe, Sarahanne.1, Margcphelan, JaconaFrere, Sam Hollingsworth, Markoolio97, Shnuce, Miljan1994, Lagoset, Wwesam01, Trackteur, Sccr4u69,
JoeHebda, MonkeyWithGlasses44, Maritalaairuk, Amortias, NianFav, Techyknowsbest, LittleMissRich, Kartikmittal1995, Zaraman,
Kyleb8181, Mediavalia, JStock89 and Anonymous: 162
Personal computer Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal%20computer?oldid=645426796 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Magnus
Manske, Mav, The Anome, Tarquin, Stephen Gilbert, Taw, Andre Engels, Christian List, Aldie, Ortolan88, William Avery, Ben-Zin,
David spector, Fonzy, Volker, Edward, Patrick, Kchishol1970, Michael Hardy, Fred Bauder, Lexor, Norm, Blueshade, Mahjongg, Pnm,
Liftarn, Tannin, Cyde, TakuyaMurata, Arpingstone, Gaz, KAMiKAZOW, Haakon, Nanshu, Julesd, Lupinoid, Cyan, Nikai, Cimon
Avaro, Mxn, Crusadeonilliteracy, Revolver, Andrevan, RickK, Dmsar, Ww, Vancouverguy, Furrykef, Ed g2s, Wernher, Mang kiko,
Morn, Bloodshedder, Rohan Jayasekera, Riddley, Robbot, Moriori, Fredrik, Boy b, RedWolf, Donreed, Nurg, Modulatum, Pingveno,
Rursus, Bkell, Hadal, Iain.mcclatchie, Tobias Bergemann, Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, Graeme Bartlett, DocWatson42, Andries, DavidCary,
Kim Bruning, Philwelch, Inter, Kenny sh, Obli, Peruvianllama, Curps, Mboverload, Siroxo, Marcusvox, Jaan513, Edcolins, Chowbok,
Bact, Nova77, Knutux, LiDaobing, Antandrus, Beland, MistToys, Wikimol, Cb6, DragonySixtyseven, PFHLai, Necrothesp, Icairns,
Ktvoelker, JulieADriver, Neutrality, Hellisp, Cab88, Trevor MacInnis, Millisits, Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite,
Pak21, Pie4all88, Chad okere, Chowells, LindsayH, Mani1, Deelkar, Martpol, Paul August, Stereotek, Dyl, Kbh3rd, Kaisershatner, Plugwash, MaxPower, PPGMD, Hayabusa future, Shanes, Grue, Vanished user sdfkjertiwoi1212u5mcake, Func, BrokenSegue, Brim, Matt
Britt, Mkapor, Davelane, Giraedata, Juzeris, SpeedyGonsales, Kjkolb, Nk, Woodsjay, Martinultima, PochWiki, Notnoisy, Maximusnukeage, Mdd, Espoo, Stephen G. Brown, Poweroid, Alansohn, Guy Harris, Arthena, Diego Moya, Andrewpmk, MarkGallagher, Lightdarkness, Jaw959, Denniss, Hu, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Melaen, Velella, VanillaDeath, KingTT, Rebroad, Wtshymanski, Max Naylor, RainbowOfLight, Mikeo, NicholasJones, Versageek, Mattbrundage, Stinger, Kirev, Dtobias, Firsfron, Mel Etitis, Woohookitty, TigerShark,
Rocastelo, Ae-a, TomTheHand, WPPWAH, MattGiuca, JeremyA, MONGO, Gengiskanhg, Wikiklrsc, Hotshot977, Bbatsell, Mangojuice,
Frungi, Sega381, SDC, Waldir, Toussaint, Karam.Anthony.K, Emerson7, Mandarax, Gettingtoit, LimoWreck, Graham87, Cuvtixo, Magister Mathematicae, Keeves, BD2412, Melesse, Reisio, Vanderdecken, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Wikibofh, Vary, Loudenvier, Hiberniantears, JoshuacUK, Tangotango, Bruce1ee, Dcsutherland, Gudeldar, ElKevbo, SeanMack, DirkvdM, Harda, FlaBot, CAPS LOCK,
RobertG, The.valiant.paladin, Master Thief Garrett, Ysangkok, Who, Nivix, SuperDude115, RexNL, Ewlyahoocom, TeaDrinker, Diza,
Hibana, Vchapman, King of Hearts, Chobot, Fourdee, DVdm, Random user 39849958, Bgwhite, Hahnchen, Simesa, Mr.Do!, Roboto
de Ajvol, The Rambling Man, Wavelength, Eraserhead1, Sceptre, OtherPerson, Retodon8, DMahalko, Amckern, Fabartus, The Storm
Surfer, Pigman, Yuhong, Hydrargyrum, Stephenb, David Woodward, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Alvinrune, Rsrikanth05,
Neilbeach, SamJohnston, Thane, Gustavb, Ricree101, NawlinWiki, ENeville, Wiki alf, Msikma, Aeusoes1, Grafen, Welsh, Oberst, DarthVader, Cholmes75, PhilipO, Allynnc, Tony1, Ospalh, Mysid, Wangi, Brat32, PS2pcGAMER, Jeh, Oliverdl, Groink, Lllll, Robertbyrne,
Searchme, Rwxrwxrwx, LarryLACa, EAderhold, J S Ayer, Zzuuzz, I kant spel, StuRat, Ageekgal, Covington, Arthur Rubin, KGasso, Eric
Jack Nash, DynaBlast, JuJube, Pablo2garcia, Petri Krohn, GraemeL, Mike1024, Kevin, HereToHelp, Anclation, JLaTondre, ArielGold,
ViperSnake151, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, Junglecat, Captain Proton, Paul Erik, Rwwww, MansonP, Roger wilco, Nippoo, DVD R W,
Kimdino, Veinor, AndersL, A bit iy, SmackBot, Kellen, Thomas Ash, Classiclms, Schyler, Benjaminb, Anarchist42, Am, KnowledgeOfSelf, VigilancePrime, Hydrogen Iodide, McGeddon, Pgk, C.Fred, Blue520, Bomac, Jagged 85, RenOfHeavens, Colin99, KVDP,
Delldot, Darklock, CapitalSasha, Onebravemonkey, Edgar181, Lakhim, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Oscarthecat, Skizzik, Mushroom
King, Slo-mo, Chris the speller, Master Jay, Jethero, Thom2002, Ian13, MK8, Thumperward, Miquonranger03, Nobloodyname, Mdwh,
EdgeOfEpsilon, DHN-bot, Cassivs, Colonies Chris, Para, Hallenrm, Darth Panda, Janipewter, Gsp8181, Stanthejeep, Can't sleep, clown

462

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

will eat me, Shalom Yechiel, Flibbert, Boomeringue, OrphanBot, Azio, Cyber rigger, SundarBot, Flyguy649, Theonlyedge, Cybercobra, Nakon, T-borg, Valenciano, The Pondermatic, SpacemanAfrica, Warren, Weregerbil, DenisRS, Andrew c, A gx7, Acdx, Sigma 7,
Luigi.a.cruz, LeoNomis, ISeeYou, Candorwien, Xufem, Clicketyclack, Chickenofbristol, Kkailas, Ed@islandnet.com, Lambiam, Gailim,
Lester, Harryboyles, Rklawton, KLLvr283, Oskilian, Pkalaher, Statsone, Danorux, JH-man, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Leksey, Shadowlynk, Minna Sora no Shita, IronGargoyle, Ckatz, Slakr, Werdan7, Tasc, Beetstra, Optimale, Kondspi, Xiaphias, Optakeover,
Waggers, TastyPoutine, Kvng, ShakingSpirit, Hans Bauer, DabMachine, SimonD, Typelighter, Smoothtofu, Iridescent, BrainMagMo,
Kaarel, JoeBot, TimTIm, Aeons, Audiosmurf, Radiant chains, FairuseBot, Tawkerbot2, Daniel5127, Pithecanthropus, ChrisCork, TheHorseCollector, Ryt, Andrs Djordjalian, Eastlaw, Coolman435, Ale jrb, Raysonho, W guice, KyraVixen, Page Up, Baiji, Lmcelhiney,
Pasten, Green caterpillar, Bungalowbill, Blackbox77, Karenjc, AndrewHowse, Jac16888, Cydebot, Atomaton, Reywas92, Meno25, Gogo
Dodo, ST47, Pascal.Tesson, Roketjack, Clovis Sangrail, Gvil, Christian75, Mallanox, Quadrius, Kozuch, Editor at Large, DalekClock,
Omicronpersei8, Eb42, JodyB, Landroo, Gimmetrow, Satori Son, FrancoGG, Mattisse, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Kubanczyk, ChunkySoup,
O, Mojo Hand, Oliver202, Headbomb, James uk, Marek69, A3RO, Kathovo, X201, Tellyaddict, Not Diablo, Avitaltr, OrenBochman,
Cooljuno411, CTZMSC3, M Nabil, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, MrMarmite, Majorly, Luna Santin, Widefox, Seaphoto, Prolog, Jj137,
Sooriyank, Kristoferb, LibLord, Spencer, Jwisser, Jenny Wong, Wahwahpedal, Stokelake, Leuqarte, JAnDbot, Leuko, Jimothytrotter, Stanleyozoemena, TigerK 69, NapoliRoma, Thomleno, Arch dude, Blakwyte, Db099221, Plm209, Peachey88, Andonic, Greensburger, Bookinvestor, Kerotan, Robert Buzink, LittleOldMe, Geniac, DataMatrix, Magioladitis, Waterchan, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Harryjohnston,
JamesBWatson, Soulbot, Tobogganoggin, Ecksemmess, Pixel ;-), Nikevich, BilCat, A3nm, Frotz, FrederikVds, Glen, DerHexer, GermanX,
Pappa11, Alwol55, Gwern, FisherQueen, AVRS, Rustyfence, MartinBot, Bboyskidz, Akbeancounter, Vanessaezekowitz, D thadd, Paracel63, Rettetast, Mike6271, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Snozzer, Technolust, The Anonymous One, Tgeairn, J.delanoy,
Svetovid, AstroHurricane001, WarthogDemon, Cpiral, Davidm617617, WikiBone, Katalaveno, McSly, Gurchzilla, Jon83m, 97198, Mle-mot-dit, Alecperkins, Slashs-tophat, NewEnglandYankee, DadaNeem, Cobi, KCinDC, Matman00, Redskins99, Cmichael, Cometstyles,
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Roiba803, Scientus, MrOllie, Cpall, Luxinalibaba, PROTOTYPE10, Wot2the, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, Abo-Bakr, Tassedethe, Tide rolls,
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DARTH SIDIOUS 2, The Utahraptor, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Rahul ram bhat, Larry.europe, Ripchip Bot, VernoWhitney, Bing Widder,
Hajatvrc, MANGEJ KUMAR, Balph Eubank, Yojoisbob, EmausBot, John of Reading, Brian S. Elliott, MrFawwaz, Immunize, Gfoley4, Ajraddatz, Angrytoast, Senorclean1212, Dewritech, Golfandme, Shannon Bradley, Minimacs Clone, RenamedUser01302013, Vanished user zq46pw21, F1tutorials, Mo ainm, Zaixionito, K6ka, Thecheesykid, Kkm010, MithrandirAgain, Wackywace, Allforrous, Lateg,
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Ajjuddn, Nanainthebutt, Helpful Pixie Bot, Thomas tom99, HMSSolent, Titodutta, Wbm1058, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Ciscoh,
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Provacitu74, Idel1, Captain Conundrum, Syamsunders, Haephrati, Muhammadbabarzaman, Hldavis17, Nordsen, Bsbingam, KapitanCookie, Connor Waes, Hn1711, Daftano, LieutenantLatvia, Zahrazohre, My name is not dave, Waiben, Ginsuloft, Kahtar, Dannyruthe,
Zynerd, SouthGal62, Sharmin.h, ScotXW, JaconaFrere, Nycee79, Monkbot, Finskipojki, In Ratio Veritas, Mickung, Ninjabob25, Tman
the wiki troll, Gmoney12345, Thebookman2, Shahean Cozad, Mcswaggins999, UglowT, SurealGod, Julianhopkins, Cgadis, PieCrafted,
Artcrunchy, RoboticGoatse, Patrykq, CyanLights, GeorginaMat, Japones123, VortexJasper, Kingtantan, Junaid sipra, Dhdhdhdx, Nilsgunnar27, Ggfdzr, Fghjbvv, Ffdddsf and Anonymous: 1242

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464

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478

CHAPTER 40. PERSONAL COMPUTER

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Contributors: Self-taken screenshot. Original artist: ?
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File:Windows_95_Desktop_screenshot.png
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height='25'
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Original artist: File:Windows 8 logo and wordmark.svg: Multiple editors; see image description page

40.12. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

479

File:Windows_logo_and_watermark_-_2012.svg Source:
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and_wordmark_-_2012.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This le was derived from: Windows 8 logo and wordmark.svg
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src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Windows_8_logo_and_wordmark.svg/131px-Windows_
8_logo_and_wordmark.svg.png' width='131' height='25' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Windows_8_
logo_and_wordmark.svg/199px-Windows_8_logo_and_wordmark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/
fe/Windows_8_logo_and_wordmark.svg/261px-Windows_8_logo_and_wordmark.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='459' data-le-height='88'
/></a>
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40.12.3

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