CHAPTER 2

WATER SUPPLY

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Outlines

Water demand
Water supply planning
Transportation of water
Distribution Systems
System Configurations
Distribution System Components
System Requirements
Design of Water Distribution Systems
Distribution Reservoirs and Service Storage
Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Water demand
Water demand is commonly
Expressed in cubic meter
Per hour (m3/h) or per second
(m3/s), liters per seconds (L/s)
Mega liter per day (Ml/d) or liter
Per capita per day
(l/c/d or lpcpd).
Typical imperial units are
Cubic feet per second (ft3/s)
Galion per minute (gpm) or
Mega gallon per day (mgd)

Flows in water supply system

(source - introduction to urban water distribution)

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Water demand
The design of water supply facility begins with determination of
design capacity. This is a function of water demand.
Determination of water demand consist of:
(1) Selection of a design period
(2) Estimation of the population, commercial, and industrial
growth,
(3) Estimation of the unit water use
(4) Estimation of the variability of the demand.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

 Design period
The design period (also called the design life)
is the length of time it is estimated that the facility
will be able to meet the demand (design capacity).
The life expectancy of a facility or piece of equipment
is determined by wear and tear.
Typical life expectancies for equipment range from
10 to 20 years. Buildings, other structures, and
pipelines are assumed to have a useful life of 50
years or more.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

The number of years selected for the design period is

based on the following:
1. Regulatory constrains
2. The rate of population growth.
3. The useful life of the structures and equipment.
4. The ease or difficulty of expansion.
5. Performance in early years of life under minimum
hydraulic load.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Table 2.1 Design Period for Water Works

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Unite water use

Local factors affecting unit demand
Due consideration must be given to the following local factors:
1. Climate: is the most important factor influencing unit
demand. People require more water in hot climates.
2. Industrial activity: Small rural and suburban communities will
use less water per person than industrialized communities.
3. Meterage : Meterage imposes a sense of responsibility not
found in unmetered residences and businesses. This sense of
responsibility reduces per capita water consumption because
customers repair leaks and make more conservative wateruse decisions almost regardless of price.
Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Local factors affecting unit demand

4. System management: If the water distribution system is well
managed, per capita water consumption is less than if it is
not well managed. Well managed systems are those in which
the managers know when and where leaks in the water main
occur and have them repaired promptly.
5. Standard of living: Per capita water use increases with an
increased standard of living. Highly developed countries use
much more water than less developed nations. Likewise,
higher socioeconomic status implies greater per capita water
use than lower socioeconomic status.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Variability of demand
The unit demand estimates are averages. Water consumption
changes with the seasons, the days of the week, and the
hours of the day.
The variation in demand is normally reported as a factor of
the average day (e.g., U.S. national average factors are:
maximum day = 2.2 x average day; peak hour = 5.3 x average
day).
when the proposed project is in a community with an existing
community supply, the community's historic records provide
the best estimate of water use.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

 Pumping facilities and distribution system piping are designed

to carry the peak hour flow rate.
When municipalities provide water for fire protection, the
maximum day demand plus fire demand is used to estimate
the peak hour flow rate.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Population forecasting
Population estimates for the operation and design of water
supply and waste treatment works may be:
1. Short-term estimates in the range of 1 to 10 years
2. Long- term estimates of 10 to 50 years or more.

Trend Based Methods

Most short-term estimates are made using trend-based
methods. They often follow segments of a typical population
growth as shown on Figure 2.1.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Population forecasting

Figure 2.1 Population growth curve

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Population forecasting
Forecasts are often based on past census records for the area,
or on the records of what are consider to be similar
communities.
Methods used include:
1) Arithmetical progression
This method of estimation is based on a constant increment
of increase.
2.1
Where Y = Population
Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

= population at the census preceding the last census

(time t1)

Y2 = population at last census (time t2 )

t = the end of the forecast period

2) Constant-percentage growth rate

For equal periods of time, this procedure assumes constant
growth percentages. If the population increased from 90,000
to 100,000 in the past 10 years, it would be estimated that the
growth in the ensuing decade would be to 100,000 + 0.11 x
100,000, or 111,000.
This can be expressed mathematically and integrated to:

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

2.2

Where
Kp = a constant percentage increase per unit
time.
2.1
The other variables are defined as in 7.1

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Water supply planning

Basic in water supply planning:
1. Estimate the demand for water the volume of water
required for a certain period of time.
2. Locate a suitable water source.
3. Determine quantity ( this related to water demand, surface
water and ground water hydrology) and quality ( this related
to water pollution, quality management and water
treatment).
4. Determine if water can be treated economically to meet
water quality standards.
5. Design water supply, water treatment and water distribution
system.
Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Transportation of
water
Water is
transferred by
gravity
pumping
Combination of
both

First stage Conveyance

of water from
the
Source to the
treatment
plant

Second stage Conveyance of

treated water
from the
treatment plant
to the
distribution
System

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

by pumping
into an
overhead
tank and then
supplying by
gravity

by pumping
directly into
the water
main for
distribution.

Water supply facilities

Figure 2.2 water supply facilities addressed by the uniform

Technical guidelines (UTG) (Source SPAN)
Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Figure 2.3 typical external reticulation system for single

Development area (Source SPAN)
Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Example 2.1
A reservoir has a capacity of 0.9 x 10 12 gallons. How many
years would this supply a city of 100,000 population, if
evaporation is neglected.
Assume a use rate of 180 gallons per capita per day.

Example 2.2
If the minimum flow of stream having a 12.39 x 10 6
gallons/day. What is populations number could be supplied
continuously from the stream? Assume water usage rate is
175 gallons/capita.day.
Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Example 2.3
A community having a population of 250,000 in 2000
estimates that its population will increase to 400,000 by the
year 2020. The water treatment facilities in place can process
up to 55 million gallons per day (mgd).The 2000 per capita
water use rate was found to be 160 gpcd. Estimate the water
requirements for the community in2020 assuming that the
per capita use rate remains unchanged. Will new treatment
facilities be needed to accommodate this growth in
population? If revised plumbing codes were adopted during
the period of growth and if these changes resulted in an
overall reduction in the communitys water use by 15 %, what
would the water requirement be in 2020? Could expansion of
treatment facilities be deferred until after year 2020 under
these conditions?
Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Distribution Systems
Water distribution systems are designed to satisfy the water
requirements of domestic, commercial, industrial, and fire
fighting purposes.
The system should be capable of meeting the demands placed
on it at all times, and at satisfactory pressures.
Pipe systems, pumping stations, storage facilities, fire
hydrants, house service connections, meters, and other
appurtenances are the main elements of the system

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

System Configurations
Water distribution systems may be classified as grid systems,
branching systems, or a combination of the two. The
configuration of the system is influenced by street patterns,
topography, degree and type of development of the region to
be served, and location of treatment and storage works
(Figure 2.4)
Grid systems are usually preferred to branching systems,
Since they can supply a withdrawal point from at least two directions.
Minimized loss of pressure.
Ensure uninterrupted water supply in case of maintenance requirements.

Branching systems do no permit this type of circulation,

because they have numerous terminals or dead ends.
Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Figure 2.4.1 Types of water distribution systems (a) Branching

(b) Grid (c ) combination
Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Figure 2.4.2 Types of water

distribution systems- serial and
branch network configuration

Figure 2.4.3 Types of water distribution

systems- looped configuration
Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Distribution System Components

A water distribution network is a collection of links connected
together at their end points called nodes (Fig.2.5).
Links may include pipes, pumps, and valves.
Nodes may be points of water withdrawal (demand
nodes),locations where water is introduced to the network
(source nodes), or locations of tanks or reservoirs (storage
nodes).

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Figure 2.5 Network Components

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

System Requirements
Pressures should be great enough to meet consumer and
firefighting needs. At the same time, they should not be
excessive, since the development pressure head is an
important cost consideration.
For commercial areas, pressures in excess of 60 pounds per
square inch, gauge (psig) are usually required.
Adequate pressures for residential areas usually range from
40 to 50 psig.
In tower buildings, it is often necessary to provide booster
pump to elevate the water to upper floors. Storage tanks are
usually provided at the highest level and distribution is made
directly from them.
Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

 The capacity of the distribution system is determined on the

basis of local water needs plus fire demands.
Once the flow has been determined, pipe sizes can be
selected by assuming velocities of from 3 to 5 fps.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Needed fire flow

Needed fire flow (NFF) is the rate of water flow required for
fire fighting to confine a major fire to the buildings within a
block or other group complex with minimal loss.

Practical Limits of Fire flow

Withdrawal of a large quantity of water from a water system
is not the preferred method of fire suppression. For many
buildings, automatic sprinkler systems are more effective in
protection of life and property than relying solely on the
distribution system to provide fire protection.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Needed fire flow

The minimum fire flow for buildings without
sprinklers is 500 gpm (32 l/s) at a residual pressure of
20 psi (140 kpa).
The maximum fire flow is 3500 gpm (220 l/s)
The flow requirement for the sprinkler system is in
the range of 150 to 1600 gpm (10 to 100 l/s).
Need fire flows for single family and two family are
shown in table 2.2

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Table 2.2 (source: water and wastewater

technology by Hammer & Hammer)

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Duration
The required duration for fire flow is 2 hr for up to
2500 gpm and 3 hr for fire flows of 3000 gpm and
3500 gpm.
The period may be five, three, or two days
depending on the system component under
consideration and the anticipated out- of- service
time required for maintenance and repair work

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Layout of distribution system

Supply mains, arteries, and secondary feeders should extend
throughout the system properly spaced-about every 3000 ft
(910 m) and looped for mutual support and reliability of
service.
Gridiron pattern of small distribution mains supplying
residential districts should consist of mains at least 6 in. (150
mm) in diameter.
Where long lengths are necessary, exceeding about 600 ft
(180 m), 8-in. (200-mm) or larger intersecting mains should be
used.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Layout of distribution system

A distribution system is equipped with a sufficient
number of valves located so that a pipe-line break
does not affect more than 1/4 mile of arterial mains,
500 ft (150 m) of mains in high-value districts, or 800
ft (24O m) of mains in other districts.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Design of Water Distribution Systems

1. The flow must be segregated to individual sub areas of the
system
2. A system of interlocking loops must be laid out.
3. The segregated flows are then assigned to the various nodes
of the system.
4. The design then involves determination of the sizes of the
arterials, secondary lines, and small distribution mains
(secondary distribution system)required to ensure that the
pressures and velocities desired in the system are maintained
under a variety of design flow conditions.
5. These design conditions are based on the maximum daily
flow rate plus one or more fires, depending on the size of
community.
Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Water reticulation design for secondary

distribution system
The secondary water distribution system is used as a link
between the main distribution pipes and the house
connections including the fire hydrants.
The design must achieve the sufficient pressure and quantity
of water in the most cost effective manner.
Sluice valve and shut-off valves are strategically located such
that when the pipe repairs and maintenance are necessary,
the portion of the pipe involve are isolated with minimum
disruption to water supply to nearby area.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Water reticulation design for secondary

distribution system
Pressure reducing valve (PRV) is provided at the tapping point
to reduce the available pressure to the allowable maximum of
pressure as required by Guideline (National Water Services
Commission (SPAN)).

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Steps to design water reticulation for secondary

distribution system
1. Determine the tapping point and get the available pressure
(this obtained from water authority).
2. Determine the design parameters from the guideline uniform technical guidelines (UTG)- water reticulation and
plumbing (SPAN). Design parameters such as: peak flow
factor (2.5), Hazen William Coefficient C, Min residual head (
peak and average flow case), Residual pressure at Highest
Supply Level HSL, minimum residual head from platform level
(average flow case), static pressure at any point on supply
line, fire flow, maximum hydrant spacing, Head loss for Peak
flow case, Maximum velocity in Peak flow case, Maximum
velocity in Average + Fire Flow Case, allowable head loss,
etc (refer to page 34, UTG)
Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Steps to design water reticulation for secondary

distribution system
3. Layout of water reticulation network.
4. Calculation of water consumption based on Table 6.3. for
both cases - peak flow case and average flow + fire flow.
5. Analysis of reticulation network based on two cases, i.e.,
peak flow case and average flow + fire flow.
Determination of pipe size, flow in each pipe, velocity, and
head loss for each line. William Hazen method of analysis is
used for this purpose using software - EPANET.
Free download
http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/wswrd/dw/epanet.html

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Table 2.3 Tabulation of

Estimated Water Demand Rate
for Planning of External Water
Reticulation System (SPAN)

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Table 2.3 - continue

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Example 2.4
A development area consists of 250 units of
double storey terrace houses, Surau for 200
persons and hospital with 200 beds.
Determine the water demand required for the
design of the secondary water reticulation
system.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Single-Path Adjustment (P) Method (Hardy

cross method)
General procedure:
An initial set of flow rates that satisfy continuity at each
junction node is selected.
A flow adjustment factor is computed for each path to satisfy
the energy equation for that path. Continuity is maintained in
this process.
Step 2 is repeated, building on improved solutions until the
average correction factor is within an acceptable limit.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Flow Adjustment Factor

Flow correction can be calculated by equation 2.3
2.3

Where Q = flow through the pipe

H = friction head loss in the pipe
n = constant = 1.85
Application of this equation involves an initial assumption of
discharge and a sign convention for the flow. Either clockwise
or counterclockwise flows may be considered positive, and
the terms in the numerator will bear the appropriate sign.
Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

 The denominator, however, is the absolute sum without

regard to sign convention. The correction Q has a single
direction for all pipes in the loop, and thus the sign
convention must also be considered in applying the
correction.
The nomograph for the Hazen-Williams formula can be used
to determine the head loss in the single pipe, if Hazen
Williams coefficient C is equal to 100.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Hazen-Williams equation
The most common pipe flow formula used in the
design and evaluation of water distribution system is
the Hazen-Williams equation.

.2.4
Where
= flow rate, gallons per minute
C = coefficient, Table 2.4
D = diameter of pipe, inches
S = hydraulic gradient, feet per foot
Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Table 2.4 values of coefficient C for the

Hazen-Williams formula.

The nomograph shown

in Figure 5.1 solve the
equation for coefficient
equal 100, representing
15 to 20 years old,
ductile- iron pipe.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Example 2.5
For the pipe network shown below, carry out Hardy cross
analysis using spreadsheet to determine the direction and
magnitude of flow in each pipe. Assume that the HazenWilliams coefficient c is 100.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Solution for Example 2.5

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Distribution Reservoirs And Service Storage

Distribution reservoirs provide service storage to meet
fluctuating demands often imposed on distribution systems,
to accommodate firefighting and emergency requirements,
and to equalize operating pressures.
They may be elevated or below ground level.
The main categories are surface reservoirs, standpipes, and
elevated tanks.
Standpipes or elevated tanks are normally employed where
the construction of a surface reservoir would not provide
sufficient head.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Distribution Reservoirs And Service Storage

Distribution reservoirs should be located strategically for
maximum benefit. Normally, the reservoir should be near the
center of use, but in large metropolitan areas a number of
distribution reservoirs may be located at key points.
service storage must be high enough to develop adequate
pressures in the system they are to serve.
Total storage should be calculated based on:
Requirements for firefighting
Emergency storage that to sustain the communitys needs
during periods when the inflow to the reservoir is shut off
The equalizing or operating storage requirement.
Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Distribution Reservoirs And Service Storage

Example 2.5
Calculate the total amount of storage required for a
residential area based on the following information:
Number of population = 8000, average use rate = 150 gpcd,
expected emergency period = 3 days, fire flow = 2750 gpm for
10 hr.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Solution
Emergency storage for 3 days:

Firefighting storage :

Required Equalizing or operating storage:

Determination of this volume can be obtained as shown in
table 6.3

= 1.47 mil gal

Total amount of storage = 3.6 +1.65+ 1.47 = 6.72 mil gal
Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Table 2.5 hourly demand for the maximum day

( source water supply and pollution control,
by Viessman& Hmmer)

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima