CHAPTER FIVE

POWER TRANSFORMERS AND CONNECTIONS

1.0

Introduction
The transformer is an electro-magnetically coupled circuit, which
transforms power from one level of voltage and current to another. It is
a vital link in a power system, which has made possible the power
generated at lower voltages (11KV) to be transmitted over long
distances at higher voltages (330KV, 132KV, etc.)

2.0

Theory
In its simplest form, a transformer consists of a laminated core about
which are wound two sets of windings; one called the primary and the

other the secondary.

When a voltage is applied to the primary, it produces a magnetic flux

in the core and the relationship between flux and voltage is given by:

82

- n d
dt

where e and are the instantaneous values of voltage and flux and n
the number of turns.
This flux lags behind applied voltage by 90o
Thus if
e

Em Sint

m Cost

Substituting in eqn. 1 we have:

- n d (m Cost)
dt

Em Sint

Em Sint

n m Sint

Em

2f n m

2 E =

2f n m

(where E

rms value =
2

2 x 3.14 f n m
2

4.44 m n f volts

4.44 Bm A n f

(where Bm A

(where = 2f)

1 Em)

maximum flux density)

83

Thus if Ep is the voltage applied to the primary, np the number of the

turns in
the primary winding, then:
Ep

4.44 Bm A np f

This flux produced by voltage Ep links with the secondary winding of ns

turns and similarly produces a voltage, i.e.
Es

4.44 Bm A ns f

Dividing eqn. 2 by 3 we have:

Ep
Es

4.44 Bm A np f
4.44 Bm A ns f

Ep
Es

np
ns

There is also a relationship between current and the flux, which is

given by:

where n
l

number of turns

the length of the magnetic circuit

nI
l

Thus if the secondary winding delivers a current Is to the load, then a

flux s is produced which is given by:

ns Is
l

84

Thus flux s links with the primary winding and causes a primary
current Ip to be drawn from the source such that:

np Ip
l

Equating 6 and 5 we have:

or

or

np Ip =
l

ns Is
l

np Ip =

ns Is

Ip
Is

ns
np

Is
Ip

np
ns

Thus combining eqns. 4 and 7 we have:

Ep
Es

np
ns

Is
Ip

This is the equation of an Ideal Transformer.

But in practice if Ip' is the primary current then
Ip

Ip' (primary load current) - Io

where Io is the primary no load current

85

So that
or

Ip Np =

Is Ns

Np
Ns

Is
Ip

Similarly the secondary load voltage Vs is given by:

Vs
where Es

Es - (IsRs + IsXs)

secondary induced e.m.f

(IsRs + IsXs)

voltage drop due to secondary load

current in
secondary windings.
The voltage Es is transformed by primary voltage Ep and
Ep
Es

Np
Ns

But the primary applied voltage Vp is given by:

Vp

where IpRp + IpXp

Ep + (IpRp + IpXp)
=

voltage drop due to primary load current

in primary
windings
Hence

Vp

=
Es

Np
Ns

Vs
And

Vp
Vs

Ep

The above relationships are explained by the phasor and circuit

diagrams shown below

86

3.0

Three-phase unit versus single-phase units:

Since the transmission system is 3-phase, transformers may be built as
3-phase single units or as three single-phase units into delta and star
combinations or groups.

3.1

Advantages of 3 phase units

They occupy less space

No extra support equipment is required to form a 3-phase Delta or Star

connection.

They are cheaper

They can be transported from factory as a compact unit, erected and

commissioned at site quickly

Compact on-load tap changing (OLTC) gear can be provided as a built

in unit.
87

3.2

Disadvantages of 3 phase units

Problem of transportation in case of large capacity units weighing more
than 100 tons.

Takes time in assembling, erecting and commissioning if parts are

dismantled and sent to site.

The cost of one spare 3-phase transformer is more.

Change of connections from star to delta or vice-versa cannot be done.

If reconditioning is undertaken then the complete unit has to be taken

out of service and this becomes a problem if no spare capacity is
available.

3.3

Advantages of Single-Phase Units

The cost of a spare transformer is the cost of a single-phase unit, which
is comparatively very much less than the cost of a complete spare 3phase unit.

They can be transported to site as completely assembled units and

commissioned quickly.

Reconditioning can be undertaken on individual units with a minimum

outage time.

It is possible to obtain different possible pairs of connections between

the primary and secondary.

88

3.4

Disadvantages of Single-Phase Units

They occupy more space

They require additional support structure to form 3-phase connections.

Expenditure on civil engineering works is more

The problem of providing on-load tap changing gear and even if

provided the cost of providing tap changing gear on each unit works
out costlier by at least 50% when compared to a compact unit in a 3phase transformer.

3.5

Considering all the above, there is little argument in favour of the

adoption of single-phase units as compared to 3-phase units. Singlephase units are the only choice where 3-phase units cannot be
transported because of their weight and dimensions and also if there
are

no

facilities

at

site

for

the

assembly,

preparation

and

commissioning of the 3-phase units.

4.0

Types of Transformers
This is dealt with in reference to units normally installed in a power
utility like NEPA.

4.1

Power Transformers
These are transformers of high rating of generally not less than 5MVA
and 33KV and the rating also increases with the voltage rating. They
may be of the step-up type installed at generating stations or of the
step-down type installed at substations. They have a high utilisation
factor, which means that they are arranged to work at a constant load
89

equal to their rating. Hence their maximum efficiency is designed to

be at or near full load.

Such power transformers installed in

substations are provided with OLTC gear to regulate the voltage to be

within permissible limits during peak load and off peak load hours.
However, generator step-up power transformers are provided with only
off circuit taps.
4.2

Distribution Transformers
These are transformers installed in H.V. distribution feeders to meet
consumer voltage requirements.

These are generally rated at 11KV

and have a rating not exceeding 1000KVA.

These transformers are

characterised by an intermittent variable load, which is usually

considerably less than the full load rating. They are therefore designed
to have their maximum efficiency at between half and three quarter of
full load. These transformers are not provided with any OLTC gear but
with only off circuit taps.

4.3

Auto Transformers
An Auto Transformer is a transformer with a common winding for both
primary and secondary. They are used in place of two winding power
transformers where the ratio of transformation does not exceed 2 as
they are cheaper than two winding transformers such as in a
132KV/66KV system or 66KV/33KV system.

90

They are used in distribution systems for improvement of voltage by

boosting or bucking of supply voltage by a small amount.

Typical

connections of their use are shown below:

4.4

Instrument Transformers
This is dealt with exhaustively in a separate chapter.

5.0

Three Phase Transformer connections or Vector group

Three phase transformers are divided into four groups depending upon
the phase displacement between the primary and secondary terminals.
These groups are:

1. No phase displacement (0o)

91

2. 180o phase displacement

3. - 30o phase displacement
4. + 30o phase displacement
These vector groups; their symbols and connections are shown in the next
page

92

93

6.0

Parallel Operation of Transformers

6.1

The following conditions must be strictly observed in order that 3phase transformers may operate in parallel.

(a) The secondaries must have the same phase sequence or the same
phase rotation.
(b) All corresponding secondary line voltages must be in phase.
(c) The same inherent phase angle difference between primary and
secondary terminals.
(d) Same polarity.
(e) The secondaries must give the same magnitude of line voltages.
In addition, it is desirable that:
(f) The impedances of each transformer, referred to its own rating should
be the same, i.e. each transformer should have the same percentage
or per unit resistance and reactance.
6.2

If conditions (a) to (e) are not complied with, the secondaries will
simply short-circuit one another and no output will be possible.

6.3

If condition (f) is not complied with, the transformers will not share the
total load in proportion to their ratings and one transformer will
become over-loaded before the total output reaches the sum of the
individual ratings. It is difficult to ensure that transformers in parallel
have identical per unit impedance and this affects the load sharing.

6.4

It follows from the vector group connections indicated in paragraph

5.0, that if a pair of 3-phase transformers belong to the same group

94

provided conditions (a) to (e) are fulfilled, then they can be paralleled
with each other by connecting together terminals which correspond
both physically and alphabetically.

Thus, taking the case of two, 3-

phase transformers belonging to vector group 1 with vector symbols Yy

0 and Dd 0, then these can be operated in parallel by connecting the
terminals A21, B21 and C21 of the of the first transformer with
terminals A21, B21 and C21 of the second transformer and similarly by
connecting terminals a21, b21 and c21 of the first transformer with the
second.
6.5

Sometimes it may be required to operate a 3-phase transformer

belonging to one group with another 3-phase transformer belonging to
another group.

This is only possible with groups 3 and 4 by

interchanging the external connections. The -30 o phase shift can be

corrected to +30o and vice-versa by interchanging the external primary
connection of any one of the two transformers. However, this is not
possible with groups 1 and 2 or with groups 1 or 2 with 3 and 4.
6.6

Phase shift in Delta-Star/Star-Delta Transformations

(Vector groups 3 and 4)

95

From triangle ANC, we have:

VA
Sin 1200

Va___
Sin 300

VA

Va Sin 1200
Sin 300

Va Cos 300
Sin 300

Va___
tan 30o

3 Va

VA

Va
1
3

Also VA is displaced from Va by 30o as shown

Similarly for the other three phases as follows:

Combining the three phasor diagrams 1, 2 and 3 we have:

96

Similarly it can be shown for DY 1 group as follows:

The above phase shift can also be explained as follows with reference

to DY 11
Delta voltage VA transformed to secondary star voltage Va is given by:
VA

Va

VAB - VCA

3 Va

VAB - VCA
3

1 [VAB - VAB (240o)]

3

1 [VAB - VAB (- 1 - j 3)]

3
2
2

97

1 [VAB (1 + + j 3)
3
2

1 VAB (1 + + j 3)
3
2

1 VAB (3 + j 3)
3
2
2

3 VAB (3 + j 3)
3
2
2

1 VAB [33 + j 3]
3
2
2

VAB (
3 + j )
2

VAB 30o

Similarly it can be shown for the other phases and vector group DY 1.
6.7

Parallel Operation of DY 11 and DY 1 Transformers

The parallel operation of these transformers is done by changing the
primary connections to any one of the two transformers as shown.

98

7.0

Procedures in Parallel Operation

7.1

While paralleling two transformers the following checks are to be

conducted:
(a) Measurement of terminal voltages of each transformer - done
individually.
(b) Checking the phase sequence of each transformer individually.
(c) Phasing out the terminal voltage between each of the phases of the
two transformers.
7.2

The following methods are employed for carrying out the above checks

(a) By the use of phasing sticks.

(b) By the use of an external low voltage supply.
(c) By the use of voltage transformers.
7.3

Using Phasing Sticks

(a) Phasing sticks are high voltage insulated sticks with built in condensers
to reduce the voltage to an acceptable value as can be measured by
normal indicating instruments.
(b) These sticks are available in ratings of 5 to 33KV. They are also used
to indicate if a line is alive or not.
(c) In the diagram shown below A1, B1, C1 and A2, B2, C2 are the three
phase secondaries of two transformers 1 and 2 to be paralleled. From
the same supply both the transformers are energised keeping the CB
or switch open

99

(d) Three sticks are used to determine the phase sequence. These sticks

are labelled (1), (2) and (3) if no colour or other distinguishing marks
are available. Two sticks are used to measure the voltages.
(e) The individual voltages are measured and recorded as follows by
connecting a voltmeter to the low voltage end of the two phasing
sticks (1) and (2).
Phasing Stick connection Terminal at which
line end
voltage is measured

Magnitude of
voltage
measured

Stick 1

Stick 2

A1

B1

A1 B1

Say 110V

B1

C1

B1 C1

110V

C1
A2

A1
B2

C1 A1
A2 B2

110V
110V

B2

C2

B2 C2

110V

C2

A2

C2 A2

110V

Adjust the voltage taps of any one of the two transformers if the
voltages of transformer (1) are different from those of transformer (2).

100

(f) The next step is to determine the phase sequence. A phase sequence
meter is connected to the low voltage end of the three phasing sticks
such that terminals R, Y, B of phase sequence meter are connected to
sticks (1), (2) and (3) respectively. The line ends of sticks (1), (2) and
(3) are held to terminals A1, B1, and C1 and the phase rotation
observed and recorded as positive if anticlockwise and negative if
clockwise. Similarly, the phase rotation is observed by holding sticks
(1), (2) and (3) to terminals A2, B2 and C2. The phase sequence should
be the same in both cases and if not; change any two of the primary
connections of any one of the two transformers. Repeat the check and
observe phase sequence to be the same.
(g) The last step is to phase out the two supply voltages. Stick (1) is held
to source A1 and stick (2) is held to source terminals A2, B2, and C2 in
succession and the voltages are recorded as follows:
Phasing Stick connection Terminal at which
line end
voltage is measured
Stick 1
A1

B1

C1

Magnitude of
voltage
measured

Stick 2
A2

A1 A2

B2

A1 B1

190

C2

A1 C2

190

A2

B1 A2

190

B2

B1 B2

C2

B1 C2

190

A2

C1 A2

190

B2

C1 B2

190

101

C2

C1 C2

From the above it indicates that terminals A1, B1 and C1 correspond to

terminals A2, B2, C2 and the CB or switch can now be safely closed to
parallel the two sources. However, during the above test, if A1 - B2, B1
- C2 and C1 - A2 show zero voltages as against A1 - A2, B1 - B2 and C1
- C2 respectively then, the phases B2, C2, and A2 must be paralleled
with A1, B1, and C1 respectively by interchanging the secondary
terminals.
7.4

By the method of an external supply source

(a) This method is employed where phasing sticks are not available and
also if V.T.s are not available.
(b) The supply used is generally 400 volts, 3-phase supply from which
both the transformers are energised keeping the CB or paralleling
switch open.
(c) Checks as mentioned in paragragh.7.3 (e), (f) and (g) are conducted
for paralleling.
7.5

By the use of Voltage Transformers

(a) This is by far the method always employed in 330KV, 132KV and other
substations for paralleling of transformers and for paralleling of two
different sources of supply.
(b) Two sets of V.T.s are essentially required for this method. The checks
are explained with reference to the diagram appended below.

102

(c) Transformer 1 is energised by closing breaker 52HT1 and keeping

52LT1, 52LT2 and 52HT2 open. The phase sequence and voltages at
the secondary of VT1 are measured and recorded as stated in
paragraph 7.3 (e) and (f). Next 52LT2 is closed to energise VT2. The
phase sequence and voltages at secondary of VT2 are measured and
recorded as per paragraph 7.3 (e) and (f). The V.T. secondaries of VT1
and VT2 are also phased out as per paragraph 7.3 (g).
This test is to ensure that both the V.T.s have the same polarity,
connecting secondary voltages, ratio and phase sequence. Breakers
52LT2, 52LT1 and 52HT1 are now opened out.
(d) The test as per paragraph (c) above is repeated for transformer (2) by
closing 52HT2 and keeping 52LT2, 52LT1 and 52HT1 open. This test is
103

to ensure again that both the V.T.s have the same polarity,
connections, secondary voltages, ratio and phase sequence.
(e) If the V.T.s have a difference in phase sequence, polarity etc., then
these have to be suitably corrected and tests (c) and (d) repeated.
(f) The last step is phasing out the two secondary voltages. For this test,
breakers 52LT1 and 52LT2 are kept open. Both the transformers are
energised through breakers 52HT1 and 52HT2 and the voltages phased
out through the secondaries of the two VTs as enumerated in
paragraph 7.3 (g).
(g) If there is a duplicate bus system provided with bus V.T.s for each bus,
then each bus is charged from the secondary of each transformer with
the bus coupler breaker open for conducting the necessary checks
before paralleling.
8.0

Case studies on paralleling of Transformers

8.1

Paralleling of Transformers of unequal ratings and same

percentage impedances
Data

(KVA) 1

Rating of Transformer No.1

(KVA) 2

Rating of Transformer No.2

Z1

% impedance of Transformer No.1

Z2

% impedance of Transformer No.2

It

Total load current

I1

Load current shared by Transformer No.1

I2

Load current shared by Transformer No.2

104

Basically the problem is one of two impedance connected in parallel as

shown.
Here:

I1 Z1 =

And:

It

I1 + I2

I1

I2 Z2
Z1

It

I2 Z2 + I2
Z1

I2 (Z2 + Z1)
Z1

I2 Z2

From eqn. (1)

Or I2 =

It (Z1)____
(Z1 + Z2)

105

Similarly I1 =

It (Z2)___
(Z1 + Z2)

Multiply eqn. (2) on both sides by V the secondary load voltage

We now have
VI2

Or VI2
1000

VIt
(Z1)___
1000 (Z1 + Z2)

(KVA) 2

(KVA) t (Z1)___
(Z1 + Z2)

(KVA) t (Z2)___
(Z1 + Z2)

Similarly (KVA) 1

8.2

VIt (Z1)
(Z1 + Z2)

Problem: To find the load shared by 2Nos. of 132/33KV Transformers

of rating 15 MVA and 25 MVA with % impedances of 10% and 6%
respectively.
Total load current = 700 A
Transformer No.1 - 15MVA, 132/33KV; 10% impedance
Ifl

15 x 103
3 x 33

262.5 A

Transformer No.2 - 25MVA, 132/33KV; 6% Impedance

Ifl

25 x 103
3 x 33

437.5 A

106

Assume MVA base = 100.

The per unit impedances of the transformers is given by:
Zpu (1)

Zpu (2)

0.1 x 100
15

0.67 p.u

0.06 x 100
25

0.24 p.u

Load current shared by Transformer No.1

I1

It

(Z2)___
(Z1 + Z2)

700 (0.24)____
0.67 + 0.24

700 x 0.24
0.91

184.6A

Load current shared by Transformer No.2

I2

It

(Z1)__
(Z1 + Z2)

700 (0.67)
0.91

515.4A

107

It can be observed that transformer No.2 is already overloaded while

transformer No.1 is lightly loaded.
This shows that with unequal % impedances, the load will not be
shared in proportion to their ratings.
8.3

Paralleling of Transformers with unequal % Impedances

Problem: To find the load shared by 2 Nos. of 132/33KV 15 MVA
Transformer of equal rating but with unequal % impedances of 10%
and 10.2%.
Total load current = 500 A
Load current shared by Transformer No.1 (Impedance 10%)
=

500 x (10.2)_____
(10 + 10.2)

500 x 10.2
20.2

252.5 A

Load current shared by Transformer No.2 (Impedance 10.2%)

=

500 x 10.0
20.2

247.5 A

This shows that the transformer with higher impedance shares less
load than the transformer with lower impedance. In such a case, the
loading should be such as not to exceed the full load current.
8.4

Paralleling of Transformers with unequal secondary voltages

108

Let

E1

secondary phase voltage of Transformer No. (1)

E2

secondary phase voltage of Transformer No. (2)

Z1

impedance of Transformer No. (1)

Z2

impedance of Transformer No. (2)

The unequal secondary voltages will cause a circulating current I c to

flow.
The magnitude of this current is given by the equation:
Ic

E1 - E2_
Z1 + Z2

(E1 > E2)

The current in transformer (1) will be (I 1 + Ic) and that in transformer

(2) will be (I2 - Ic). Since Z1, Z2 are small in magnitude, the difference
(E1 - E2) must also be small as otherwise a large circulating current will
flow overloading the transformers.
Problem

- To find the load shared by 2 Nos. of 5MVA; 33/11KV

transformers of equal % impedance of 6% but with unequal secondary

voltages of 11.2KV and 11.0KV. Total load current = 500 A

109

Secondary full load current of each transformer will be:

Ifl

5 x 106 __
3 x 11 x 103

262.5 A

Impedance Z of each transformer will be:

=

Vph x % Z
Ifl x 100

11000 x 6
3________
262.5 x 100

Z1 = Z2 = 1.45 ohms
Ic

E1 - E2
Z1 + Z2

(11.2 - 11.0) x 103

3__
1.45 + 1.45

39.8 A

Current in transformer 1

I1 + Ic

It (Z2) + Ic
(Z1 + Z2)

=
=

500 (6) + 39.8

12
250 + 39.8

289.8 A

110

This is greater than the full load current of 262.5 A. Hence it is not safe
to operate the two transformers in parallel with unequal secondary
voltages. But the transformers may be operated in parallel provided
that the current in each transformer does not exceed the full load
current.
9.0

Three Winding Power Transformers

9.1

In a large EHV substation there will be at least three high voltage

systems from the low-tension auxiliary supplies. In some substations
there may be even four or five high voltage systems.

Although

transformers with four high voltage windings are being manufactured,

such transformers are not extensively used, because there is no
advantage in having four different voltage systems in the same tank as
the risk of a fault on any one voltage system involves all the voltage
systems.
9.2

An example of an EHV substation having three different voltages is a

330KV substation with voltages at 330KV, 132KV and 11KV.

9.3

A comparison is now made as whether to have two winding

transformers

of

330/132KV

and

132/11KV

or

three

winding

transformers of 330/132/11KV in an EHV substation with three

voltages. The 11KV load in such a substation is to meet the local loads
around the substation and also for the requirements of the station
auxiliary supplies. This load may be around 10 to 15MVA.
The two schemes are shown by single line diagrams as follows:

111

Scheme (A)
Two winding transformers

Scheme (B)
Three

winding

transformers

9.4

Comparing scheme (B) with scheme (A) we have the following merits
and demerits

112

Merits
(a) The number of transformers, circuit breakers, CTs, isolators and
control panels is reduced to a minimum.

There is therefore a

considerable saving in the cost of equipment required.

(b) There is considerable saving in the cost of civil engineering and
structural works because of the fewer equipment.
(c) The layout is simple and occupies less space because of the fewer
equipment
and operation is also simple.
(d) There is saving in energy because of the reduced transformation
losses.
(e) Besides, it is inevitable to provide a third winding in a star-star
connected power transformer. This third winding in such transformers
is also called a `Stabilizing Winding' or Tertiary Winding. This winding
is connected in a closed delta to provide a circulating path for the third
harmonic voltages and zero sequence currents or ground fault
currents.
It is pertinent to note here that a star-star connection is almost always
resorted to in the case of EHV transformers of 132KV and above such as
in 330/132KV transformers.

The reason being that the cost of such a

transformer is cheaper because the windings need be insulated for only

1/3 times of the line voltage instead of for the full line voltage of 3
times the star voltage with a delta winding. Such a closed delta winding

113

can be made use of for the third voltage, without the necessity of having
a separate transformer.
Demerits
(a) The main disadvantage is the increased fault level at 11KV because
the voltage is directly transformed from 330 to 11KV.

Hence 11KV

switchgear of adequately higher rupturing capacity will have to be

installed.
The cost of such switchgear may be much more than that of such
switchgear installed in the secondary of a 132/11KV transformer.
(b) Since the third winding is a closed delta, an artificial neutral has to be
necessarily
created by the use of earthing transformers. This is a disadvantage as
it adds to the initial cost.
(c) The other disadvantage is that the units are exposed directly to the
short circuit stresses because of faults on 11KV lines.

The 11KV

overhead networks, particularly if carried into rural areas are quite

long and extensive. These lines are carried on pin insulators and are
therefore susceptible to frequent faults. Such frequent faults, stress
the windings and reduces the life of the transformer.

If the 11KV

winding feeds an urban network through an underground cable

system, then this arrangement would prove to be the best and the fear
of the transformer being exposed to short circuit stresses is not there.

114

(d) The capacity of the third winding is generally limited to 1/3 rd of the
capacity of the main transformer. Hence if there is a rapid increase in
the growth of the 11KV load, augmentation of the 11KV capacity to
meet this load becomes a problem unless another two winding
132/11KV transformer is added at the substation.
problems

in

load

sharing

and

parallel

operation

This creates
because

the

impedance of the third delta winding is very much low when compared
to the impedance of a similar voltage in a two winding transformer.
10.0 Cooling of transformers and Cost Comparison of the cooling
methods
10.1 The B.S.S. recognises three cooling methods for transformers namely
Air, Mineral oil and Synthetic liquid.

Since almost all of the power

transformers are mineral oil cooled, the method of cooling by mineral

oil is only dealt with here. The methods of cooling with oil immersed
transformer is classified as follows:
10.2 Oil Immersed Natural Cooled - Type ON
Cooling is by circulation of oil under natural thermal heat only. In large
transformers the surface area is not sufficient for dissipation of heat by
radiation. As such additional surface area is provided for the cooling
fins; also called radiators.
10.3 Oil Immersed Air Blast - Type OB
Cooling is similar to type ON except that air circulation is done by
external fans mounted below the radiators.

115

The advantage is the reduction in the size of the transformer for the
same rating and consequently a saving in the cost.
10.4 Oil Immersed Water Cooled - Type OW
An internal cooling coil or tubing is mounted through which water is
circulated. This requires a free and abundant supply of water. Cooling
is by convection.
10.5 Forced Oil Natural Air Cooled - Type OFN
It is similar to type ON except that a cooling pump is installed in the oil
circuit for better circulation of oil.
10.6 Forced Oil Air Blast Cooled - Type OFB
It is a combination of type OB and type OFN.
10.7 Forced Oil Water Cooled - Type OFW
It is similar to type OW except that a cooling pump is added in the oil
circuit for forced oil circulation into a heat exchanger in which water is
allowed to flow.
10.8 It must be noted here that transformers with type OFB and type OFW
cooling will carry no load if air or water supply is cut off.
109 It is quite common to select large power transformers of 15MVA and
above with two or more systems of cooling namely ON/OFB or ON/OB
or ON/OB/OFB. These determine the type of cooling and permissible
loading and as soon as the loading exceeds a preset value, fans/pumps
are switched on automatically. An indication of the operation of the
fans/pumps is given in the Transformer control panel.

The rating of

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such a transformer with ON/OB cooling will be written as for example

45/60MVA, which means that up to 45 MVA load, the fans will not be
working. The fans will be switched on automatically when the load
exceeds 45MVA.
10.10

The type of cooling has a bearing on the cost of the Transformer.

The approximate relationship on the cost with different methods of

cooling is mentioned below.
Type of cooling

ON

% Cost

100

10.11

OFN ON/OB
95

90

ON/OFB
85

OFB OFW
80

75

The ON cooling is the simplest method of cooling with no fans or

pumps or auxiliary motors. It is used in all distribution transformers

and in power transformers up to 15MVA. The saving in cost in power
transformers of up to 15MVA in changing the cooling from ON to other
types is negligible.
10.12

The OFW cooling is only employed in transformers installed at

hydroelectric power stations where an abundant supply of cooling

water is assured. But at other stations, special arrangements have to
be made for water supply and disposal of hot water, which may
increase the cost of the transformer.
11.0 Requirements and characteristics of insulating oil
11.1 The mineral oil in transformers is used not only as an insulating
medium but also as a heat-transferring medium to dissipate the heat
produced in the windings and the core.

The life of a transformer is

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dependent on the quality of the insulating oil and as such it is very

necessary to use insulating oil of a high quality or standard.
11.2 The essential qualities required of the insulating oil are:
(a) High dielectric strength
(b) Permits good transfer of heat
(c) Low specific gravity - suspended particles settle at bottom of tank
rapidly.
(d) Low viscosity - better cooling rate
(e) Low pour point
(f) High flash point - prevents vaporisation of oil
(g) Chemical stability
11.3 There

are

various

national

and

international

standards

on

characteristics of oil. These are characterised by:

(a) Sludge value (Max) - %
(b) Acidity after oxidation - mg KOH/g
(c) Flash point (min) - oF or oC
(d) Viscosity at 70 oF or 21.1oC (Max) centistakes or ... secs.Redwood
(e) Pour point - oF or oC
(f) Electric strength - KV rms for 1 minute
(g) Acidity Neutralisation value

Total - mg KOH/g

Inorganic

(h) Saponification value (max) - mg KOH/g

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(i) Copper discoloration - +ve or ve

(j) Specific Gravity
(k) Volume resistivity - ohms/cm3
(l) Water content ppm
(m)

Tan delta or loss angle

12.0 Tests on Transformers

These are governed by various national and international standards.
Most of these standards recommend the following tests.
12.1 Routine tests
(a) Measurement of winding resistance
(b) Ratio, polarity and phase relationship
(c) Impedance voltage
(d) No load losses and no load current.
(e) Load losses
(f) Insulation resistance
(g) Separate source voltage withstand test
12.2 Type tests
(a) Impulse voltage withstand test
(b) Temperature rise test
13.0 Field tests and Commissioning
These tests are conducted at the time of commissioning on a
completely assembled transformer after necessary drying out of the
winding core and filtering of oil.

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(a) Measurement of insulation resistance and Polarisation Index

(b) Ratio test on all the tap positions
(c) Open circuit test, no load current and no load losses
(d) Short circuit test and load losses
(e) Oil test
(f) Operation of tap changer manually and electrically on local and remote
(g) Operation of cooling fans/pumps and motors
(h) Measurement of earth resistance of transformer grounds namely;
neutral and body
(i) Operation of Bucholtz relay for alarm/tripping
(j) Measurement of loss angle of EHV bushings
14.0 Maintenance of Power Transformers
Normally, every manufacturer lists out the maintenance procedures to
be followed during the lifetime of a transformer in service. However,
the

commonly

recommended

measures

in

almost

all

power

transformers are the following:

Hourly: Recording readings of:

(i)

Load current

(ii)

Load KW

(iii)

Temperature

(iv)

Voltage

Half Yearly/Yearly:
(i)

Insulation resistance

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(ii)

Oil test for breakdown voltage, water content and acidity.

Periodically: Changing the silica gel when the colour has changed from
blue to pink.

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