ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to express our gratitude to all those who through their assistance,
encouragement and comments have made the completion of this project possible.

We thank our principal Prof.D.N.Venkata rao for providing us with excellent

laboratory facilities for carrying out our project work.

We are highly indebted to Smt.Kusumanand head of the department of

electronics for helping as in for brining out project report successfully.

We are extremely greatful to Sri.SANJEEV.s lecture in the department of

electronics who has guided us in the successful complection of this project and
also would like to thank all the faculty members of the department of electronics
for extending
Their maximum support in the completion of this project

CAPACITORS
A capacitor is an electronic component for storing electrical energy by allowing
electrons to accumulate on a metallic surface. Two conductors separated by an insulating
medium form a capacitor or a device that exhibits phenomenon of capacitance.
Capacitance is the property of a system of conductors and dielectrics that permits the
surface of electrical charges when potential difference is applied across the conductors.
The insulating medium may be air, paper, mica, ceramic, plastic foils, vacuum, etc An
electric field is established in dielectric with little or no leakage current.
The property of a capacitor to store electric charges when its plate is at different
potentials is deferred to as its capacitance.

Unit of Capacitance:
The unit of capacitance is farad. The capacitance of a conductor is said to be one
farad if one coulomb of charge is given to a conductor to raise its potential by one volt.

Symbol of a capacitor:

Types of capacitors:
The capacitors are commonly classified on the basis of dielectric material used.
Capacitors are either fixed or variable.
Fixed Capacitors:
1. Paper Capacitors
2. Mica Capacitors
3. Ceramic Capacitors
4. Electrolytic Capacitors
5. Polyster Capacitors
6. Glass Capacitors

Variable Capacitors:
1. Gang Capacitors
2. Trimmers and Padders Capacitors

DIODES

The schematic symbol of a

Semiconductor diode is shown in the
figure. The p-side of the diode is
called the anode and the n-side is
called is called the cathode. The
arrow in the symbol of the diode shows that
conventional current flows from p-region to n-region. If the positive terminal of the
battery is connected to the p-side and the negative terminal to the n-side, the junction
diode is said to be forward biased.

If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-side and negative terminal to
p-side, the junction diode is said to be reverse biased. Fig(b)

Ideal diode: An ideal diode is one which acts as a perfect conductor or a short circuit
when forward biased and as a perfect insulator or an open circuit when reverse biased. An
ideal diode has infinite resistance when reverse biased and infinite conductance when
forward biased.

Specifications:
1. Peak inverse voltage (PIV): It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to
the diode without destruction.
2. Average Forward Current ( If(avg) ) : It is the continuous forward current which the
diode can pass at the normal temperature.

3. Forward Surge Current ( Ifs ) : It is defined as that large current which a diode can
safely take for a very short time.

4.Maximum Forward Voltage (VFM) : It is the maximum forward voltage that the diode
can have without burnout.

5. Forward Voltage ( VF ) : It is the forward voltage of the diode at a given temperature

and for a specific value of forward current.

6. Reverse Current ( IRM ) : It is the maximum reverse saturation current at the maximum
reverse voltage at a given temperature.

7. Reverse Recovery time ( trr ) : It is the maximum time taken by the device to switch
from ON to OFF state.

8. Power dissipation ( PD ) : For a forward biased diode it is given by PD = VF * IF .

Similarly, power dissipation for a reverse biased diode ie PD =VR* IR. The maximum
value of power that a diode can dissipate without failure is called power rating. If the
power dissipation exceeds the power

LED
The light emitting diode is a P-N junction diode that will give off visible light
when energized (forward biased). The most important substances for most visible LEDs
are the alloys gallium arsenide ( GaAs), Gallium phosphide (GaP), Gallium arsenide
phosphide (GaAsP). The schematic symbol of a light emitting diode is as shown in the fig
(a). The arrow pointing away from the diode symbol indicates that the light is emitted by
the P-N junction.

The basic structure of light diode is shown in the fig(b).

An n-type Layer is grown on a p-type substrate by a diffusion process. Then a thin

p- type layer is grown on the n-type layer. The metal connections to both the
Layers
make cathode and anode terminals as shown

RESISTOR
A resistor is an electronic components which has been manufactured with a specific
value of resistance. Any material that offers resistance to the flow of electric current
is called resistor. The resistor can conduct current in both the direction, at the same time
convert a part of the electrical energy into heat.
A resistor is used in the circuit to

Limit the current

Provide a desired voltage drop of protection, operation or controlling of the circuit.
Divide voltage to different values from single source
Discharge energy from a capacitor.

Resistivity:
Law of resistance

Length
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the length.
Area of cross-section
The ristance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its area of cross section.
Nature of the material
The resistance of a conductor depends on its material.
Temperature
The resistance offered by conductor depends on its temperature.

Types of Resistors
There are 3 types of resistors:

Fixed resistors

1. Carbon composition
2. Thin film resistor
3. Thick film resistor
4. Wire wound resistor

Semi conductor resistor

Variable resistor

Color Coding For a Resistor

Color

1 Band
1 Significant

2 Band
2 Significant

3 Band
Multipliers

No. of zeros to
be Added

Black

None

Brown

10

Red

100

00

Orange

1000

000

Yellow

10000

0000

Green

100000

00000

Blue

1000000

000000

Violet

10000000

0000000

Gray

100000000

00000000

White

1000000000

000000000

Gold

0.1

+5%

Silver

0.01

+10%

No Band

+20%

IC 555 EXPLANATION

I
C
5
5
5

The 555 timer is an integrated circuit. It can be used as an astable, bistable

multivibrator and also for many applications. It is available as a eight pin metal package
or as a eight mini dual-in-package. It is used in a wide Varity of applications such as DC
to AC converters, voltage controlled oscillators, waveform generators, analog frequency
meters and voltage regulators.
Figure shows the internal block diagram of the 555 timer. The IC555 timer
basically consists of two comparator as shown in the figure. The output of the two
comparators drives an R-S flip flop. Three resistor connected in series provide the
reference voltage levels for the two comparators. It is clear from the figure that 2/3 Vcc
will appear across
the inverting terminal of comparator1 where as 1/3 Vcc will appear across the non
inverting terminal of comparator2.

THRESHOLD (6): The non inverting terminal of comparator1 is the threshold. When
the voltage at this pin goes above 2/3Vcc.The output of the comparator goes high. This
sets the flip flop. The output of the flip flop their by forced to go HIGH. As a result the
output of the timer goes LOW because of the inverter in the output stage.

TRIGGER (2): When the voltage at the trigger input is less than 1/3 Vcc, the comparator
goes HIGH. This forces the flip flop to go LOW. As a result the output of the timer goes
high.

CONTROL VOLTAGE (5): By enforcing a suitable voltage to this pin the threshold
level of 2/3 Vcc can be altered. In other words the output can be made to go LOW, even
for a voltage less then 2/3 Vcc. The output is said to be RESET. When not in use the
control pin is bypassed ground with a capacitor of suitable value. This is done to prevent
noise problems.

RESET (4): The timer can be independently reset by applying a negative voltage to this
pin. When not in use, this pin is connected to +Vcc.

DISCHARGE (7): This pin is connected to the transistor Q1 as shown in the figure.Pin1
is grounded and pin8 is connected to +Vcc.

IC555 AS A BI STABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

Figure shows the circuit of a bistable multivibrator. Both the states of this
multivibrator are stable. When a trigger is applied the device flips from one stable to the
other. When the next trigger arrives the circuit flips back to the original to the stable state.
For this reason the device is popularly known as flip flop
.Let us assume that when the power is first applied the transistor Q1 conducts a
little more heavily then Q2.This derives the collector of Q1 more negative then that of
Q2.As a result collector current of Q1 decreases. The voltage at the collector of Q2 is
driven more positive. This positive charge is coupled by R1 to the base of Q1.This
increases the collector current in Q1 and drives the base of Q2 more negative. This
regenerative feed back action continuous.
In a very short interval of time Q1will be conducting at saturation with its collector
voltage nearly zero. As a result the effective voltage divider providing the base emitter
bias to Q1 drives the base of Q2 negative with respect to the emitter. Their by Q2 is
driven to cut off. The circuit action then stops, in other words the device gets into a stable
state with Q1 ON and Q2 OFF.

If an external positive trigger is applied at the base of Q2 the state of conduction

described above can be reversed so that Q1 turns OFF and Q2 turns ON. The trigger that
is thus applied must be of sufficient amplitude to cause the collector of Q2 to start
drawing current. When this happens the collector voltage of Q2 is driven in a negative
direction. This negative voltage change is coupled by R1 to the base of Q1.This reduces
the collector current in Q1 and drives the collector voltage of Q1 more positive. This
positive voltage change is coupled by R2 to the base of Q2.The collector current in Q2 is
their by increases. In a brief interval; of time Q2 is turned ON and Q1 is turned OFF.

TRANFORMER
Transformer is an electrical device which converts a low Ac Voltage of high current
to a high Ac voltage of low current and vice versa. The former is called the step-up
transformer and the later is the step down transformer.
A transformer is primarily used to transfer energy from one circuit to another by
electro magnetic induction using mutual inductance between two coils .The energy is
always transferred without a change in frequency, but usually with changes in voltage
and current.
A Transformer consists of two coli8s each of which is wound on an iron core as
shown in figure. These two coils are insulator from each other and the iron core. One of
the coils is connected to a source of alternating voltage. This coil is the primary of the
transformer. The other ids called the secondary across which out put A/C voltage is
taken. Any of the two coils can act as primary while the other as secondary. The
alternating EMF in one coil induces an alternating EMF in the second coil. The presence
of iron core in the primary and secondary provides flux linkage between the two coils
efficiently. The alternating EMF in the primary coil produces changing magnetic flux in
the iron core. This varying flux gets linked with the secondary coil and produces an
induced EMF in it.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF TRANSFORMER.

Types of Transformer:
Transformers used in radio and TV equipments are broadly classified as

1.
2.
3.
4.

Power Transformers
Audio Frequency Transformers
Radio Frequency transformers
Auto Transformers

If the number of turns in the primary coil is grater than the number of turns in the
secondary coil and the secondary voltage will be lower than the primary voltage than that
is called as a step down transformer.
If the number of turns in the secondary coil is greater than the primary coil and secondary
voltage will be greater than the primary voltage than such transformers are called as step
up transformers.

TRANSFORMER LOSSES:
In a practical transformer, the out put power is always slightly less than the input power
because of losses in the transformer itself. These losses appear in the form of heat.
The following are the various losses that occur in a transformer:
1. Copper Losses: This is due to resistance of the wire from which the coils are made.
These losses can be minimized using thicker wires.
2. Core or Iron Losses: The Induced EMF sets up small local circular currents (Eddy
Currents) which circulates in the core. These local circular currents produce a loss
equal to I2R loss. This loss can be minimized by using laminated wires.
3. Flux or Magnetic Losses: Since all the magnetic lines associated with primary coil
do not pass through the secondary coil, there is always some leakage of magnetic flux
resulting in the loss of energy.

Relay
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil
of the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the
switch contacts. The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch
positions and they are double throw (changeover) switches.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF RELAY

Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be

completely separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can
use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection
inside the relay between the two circuits, the link is magnetic and mechanical.

RELAYS
The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V
relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower
voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually
used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value required for the relay coil.
The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these
devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification.

1.RAMAKANTH GAYAKWARD

2.BASIC ELECTRONICS
- BASAVARAJ