Seminar Report

Stealth Fighter

ABSTRACT
Stealth or low observability (as it is scientifically known) is one of the most
misunderstood and misinterpreted concepts in military aviation by the common
man. Stealth aircraft are considered as invisible aircraft, which dominate the skies.
With an additional boost from Hollywood action movies, stealth is today termed as
the concept invincibility rather than invisibility. Though, the debate still continues
on whether stealth technology can make an aircraft invincible it was found that
stealth aircraft are detectable by radar.
The motive behind incorporating stealth technology in an aircraft is not just to avoid
missiles being fired at is but also to give total deniability to covert operations. This
is very much useful to strike targets where it is impossible to reach. Thus we can
clearly say that the job of a stealth aircraft pilot is not to let others know that he was
ever there.

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Stealth Fighter

1. INTRODUCTION
Stealth means now observable. The very basic idea of Stealth Technology in the
military is to 'blend' in with the background. The quest for a stealthy plane actually
began more than 50 years ago during World War II when RADAR was first used as
an early warning system against fleets of bombers. As a result of that quest, the
Stealth Technology evolved. Stealth Technology is used in the construction of
mobile military systems such as aircrafts and ships to significantly reduce their
detection by enemy, primarily by an enemy RADAR. The way most airplane
identification works is by constantly bombarding airspace with a RADAR signal.
When a plane flies into the path of the RADAR, a signal bounces back to a sensor
that determines the size and location of the plane.
Other methods focus on measuring acoustic (sound) disturbances, visual contact,
and infrared (heat) signatures. Stealth technologies work by reducing or eliminating
these telltale signals. Panels on planes are angled so that radar is scattered and no
signal returns. Planes are also covered in a layer of absorbent materials that reduce
any other signature the plane might leave. Shape also has a lot to do with the *
invisibility1 of stealth planes. Extreme aerodynamics keeps air turbulence to a
minimum and cut down on flying noise. Special low-noise engines are contained
inside the body of the plane. Hot fumes are then capable of being mixed with cool
air before leaving the plane. This fools heat sensors on the ground. This also keeps
heat-seeking missiles from getting any sort of a lock on their targets. Stealth
properties give it the unique ability to penetrate an enemy's most sophisticated
defenses and threaten its most valued and heavily defended targets. At a cost of $2
billion each, stealth bombers are not yet available worldwide, but military forces
around the world will soon begin to attempt to mimic some of the key features of
stealth planes, making the skies much more dangerous.

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2. HISTORY OF STEALTH AIRCRAFT

With the increasing use of early warning detection devices such as radar by militaries
around the world in the 1930's the United States began to research and develop aircraft
that would be undetectable to radar detection systems. The first documented stealth
prototype was built out of two layers of plywood glued together with a core of glue and
sawdust. This prototype's surface was coated with charcoal to absorb radar signals from
being reflected back to the source, which is how radar detection systems detect items in
the air.

Jack Northrop built a flying wing in the 1940's. His plane was the first wave of stealth
aircraft that actually flew. The aircraft proved to be highly unstable and hard to fly due
to design flaws. The United States initially orders 170 of these aircraft from Northrop
but cancelled the order after finding that the plane had stability Flaws. Then in 1964,
SR-71 the first Stealth airplane launched. It is well known as "black bird'. It is a jet
black bomber with slanted surfaces. This aircraft was built to fly high and fast to be
able to bypass radar by its altitude and speed. The Blackbird was developed primarily
for the Cold War between the United States and the U.S.S.R. SR-71 Aircraft is shown
in figure 2.2.1.

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Then in 1982, the first F-117A (Fig 2.2.2) was delivered. It is world's first operational
aircraft designed to exploit low observable Stealth Technology.

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Stealth Fighter

Then world's most advanced Stealth fighter, B-2 delivered by 1988. A B-2 Spirit multirole bomber is shown in figure 2.2.3

Fig 2.3. B-2 SPIRIT MULTI-ROLE BOMBER

Fig 2.2. F-117A NIGHT HAWK

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3. HOW DOES STEALTH TECHNOLOGY WORK?

The idea is for the radar antenna to send out a burst of radio energy, which is then
reflected back by any object it happens to encounter. The radar antenna measures the time
it takes for the reflection to arrive, and with that information can tell how far away the
object is.
The metal body of an airplane is very good at reflecting radar signals, and this makes it
easy to find and track airplanes with radar equipment.
The goal of stealth technology is to make an airplane invisible to radar. There are two
different ways to create invisibility:
> The airplane can be shaped so that any radar signals it reflects are reflected away from
the radar equipment.
> The airplane can be covered in materials that absorb radar signals.

4. AIRCRAFT DETECTION METHODS

The most common methods used today to detect an aircraft are,
4.1 RADAR
Currently the way to detect and even identify an aircraft is the use of RADAR (radio
detection and ranging). This system invented during World War II, simply works by
constantly sending bursts of radio waves of certain frequencies and measures the echoes
of each burst. Objects are reflecting parts of the energy of radio waves. Depending on the
material the object is made of, this echo is stronger or weaker, but there is an echo. By
measuring the reflected energy as a function of position and time, computers can
calculate what it is that reflects the energy, where it is in 3D space and also in what
direction it moves. To get a proper overview of an area with RADAR, the transmitting
and receiving antenna should rotate in angles of 360 degrees. RADAR works on the
principle of echo and Doppler shift. Echo is the repetition of a note after the original note

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Stealth Fighter

is dead. Doppler shift is the phenomenon of apparent change in the frequency of the radio
wave whenever there is a relative motion between the source and the object.

4.1.1 SOURCES OF RADAR REFLECTION

A-10Warthog
a) Gaps and breaks in surface
b) Unshielded cockpit
c) External weapons
d) Exposed engines
e) Large, right-angled tail surfaces
f) Right-angle wing design

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4. I .2 RADAR CROSS SECTION (RCS):

The Radar Cross Section of a target is the area intercepting that amount of power which,
when scattered equally in all directions, produce an echo at radar equal to that from the
target.
RCS of various objects:

Contributions to RCS for a conventional aircraft

RCS depends on aircraft shape, aspect angle or orientation with respect to radar line of
sight (LOS), ratio of radar wavelength to target size, polarization of transmit and receive
antennae, surface quality of target, and constitution of the target.
The RCS of an aircraft is determined by the magnitudes of two distinctly different
contributions:

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1. its size and shape, both overall and in detail

2. the electromagnetic properties of airframe materials aircraft shaping is useful over a
wide range of radar frequencies but over a limited range of aspect angles. Typically, for
fighter aircraft, a forward cone of angles is of greatest interest and hence, large returns
can be shifted aircraft can be shaped to ensure that most radar waves will be scattered and
not reflected back to the transmitter. Leading and trailing edges of wings, control
surfaces, inlet lips, door gaps, etc. can be aligned to ensure that the energy that is
concentrated into a few spikes. This will give the opposing radar one good return when
the alignment is ideal, but a much weaker return on subsequent sweeps.
Major contributor to RCS for a conventional aircraft
> Engine compressor faces (forward) and turbines (aft) due to Doppler signature.
> Air inlets for engines.
> External stores, including missiles seeker heads.
> Wing leading edge, especially if unswept.
> Corner reflections at intersections of horizontal and vertical tails.
> Wing from directly below/above.
> Cockpit, including cavity effect due to a large number of corner reflectors.
> Engine nozzle if viewed from rear.
> Flat, slab-sided fuselage when viewed from side.
4.2 HEAT DETECTION
Another way of detecting if an aircraft is flying somewhere is by measuring the heat it
radiates. Normally this heat is produced by the plane engines. There are two significant
sources of infrared radiation from air-breathing propulsion systems: hot parts and jet
wakes. By modern heat image sensors (Infrared sensors) the difference can be seen
between a flying object itself and the surrounding cold air. This is the same for the jet
engine exhaust gases.

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4.3 TURBULENCE DETECTION

Shape also has a lot to do with the 'invisibility' of stealth planes. Extreme aerodynamics
keeps air turbulence to a minimum. Sophisticated Laser controlled turbulence sensors,
which can measure paths of disturbed air, generated by an aircraft, which just passed.
4.4 VISUAL DETECTION
The exhaust of aircraft i.e., the white line in the sky caused by high- flying planes makes
it easier to detect the aircraft even with the naked eye. Also the color of the aircraft is an
important factor.
4.5 ACOUSTIC DETECTION
A very obvious source of detection is the noise, generated by jet engines. Several systems
have been designed in the meantime to reduce the sound of jet engine exhausts to a
minimum, making them harder to detect by just measuring sound waves.

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5. REQUIREMENTS TO BE STEALTHY
To make a stealthy aircraft, designers had to consider six key in gradients:
1. They need to reduce the imprint on the radar screen.
2. Turn down the heat of its infrared picture.
3. They need to reduce muffling noise.
4. They need to reduce the turbulence.
5. Making the plane less visible.
6. Stifle radio emissions.
5.1 RADAR ECHO REDUCTION
5.1.1 SCATTERING
The airplane can be shaped so that any RADAR signals it reflects are deflected away
from the RADAR equipment. Most conventional aircraft (fig2.3.1) have a rounded
shape. This shape makes them aerodynamic, but it also creates a very efficient radar
reflector. The round shape means that no matter where the radar signal hits the plane,
some of the signal gets reflected back:

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Fig 5.1.1.1.Conventional Aircraft-Very efficient radar reflector

A stealth aircraft (fig.2.3.2), on the other hand, is made up of completely flat surfaces and
very sharp edges. When a radar signal hits a stealth plane, the signal reflects away at an
angle, like this:

Fig.5.1.1.2.Stealth Aircraft-Radar signal reflect away at an angle

In addition, surfaces on a stealth aircraft can be treated so they absorb radar energy as
well. The overall result is that a stealth aircraft like an F-117A can have the radar
signature of a small bird rather than an airplane. The only exception is when the plane
banks there will often be a moment when one of the panels of the plane will perfectly
reflect a burst of radar energy back to the antenna.

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5. I .2 REDUCTION BY RAM:
A second way of stopping RADAR reflections is by coating the plane with material that
soaks up Radar energy. Radar absorbing coatings can be applied to the surface of the
body, which effectively drain the energy of the radar signal. For example, Radar
Absorbent Material (RAM), coatings designed to suck in and dissipate the
electromagnetic energy of radar wave instead of reflecting it back to the source.

RADAR ABSORBENT MATERIAL

(RAM)

As its name implies, RAM is intended to reduce the scattered signal by absorbing some
part of the incident radiation. Microwave energy is converted into heat energy with
hardly any noticeable temperature rise because the energies involved are extremely small.
Various kinds of materials can be made to absorb microwave energy by impregnating
them with conducting materials such as carbon and iron.
In the main, there are two currently used kinds of absorbers, called di-electric RAM and
magnetic RAM. Addition of carbon products in an insulating material introduces electric
resistance and changes the electrical properties. Hence carbon-based absorbers are called
dielectric RAM. The most familiar examples are pyramidal absorbers found in anechoic
chambers. Dielectric RAM is usually too bulky and fragile and not attractive where space
is limited and severe mechanical vibrations exist. Magnetic RAM uses iron products such
as carbonyl iron and iron oxides called ferrites. Iron effectively dissipates radar waves
and has been used in aircraft paint. It is quite effective against the high frequency radars
used in modern fighters. Unlike dielectric RAM, magnetic RAM is compact, thin and of
adequate strength to withstand loads and an abrasive environment. Nevertheless, its
thickness does rob volume from volume limited aircraft. Some important RAM's used
today are,
(A)SALISBURY SCREEN:
Its construction consists of a conductive carbon coated "lossy" fabric, separated from a
conductive ground plane by a low dielectric foam core.
(B)FOAM MATERIALS:

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Different foam materials are,

a) single layer foam
b) multi layer foam-made of 3 single layers
c) reticulated foam
d) weather proof foam
(C)MAGNETIC ABSORBERS:
The

magnetic

absorbers are

elastomeric

moulded

sheets loaded with magnetic

filler. The use of the magnetic filler provides the best performance at the minimum
thickness. Different magnetic absorbers are,
a) tuned frequency magnetic absorbers
b) surface wave absorbers
c) multiband absorbers
(D)CORE MATERIAL:
Core material is a broadband microwave absorbing honeycomb core. Normally uses
either aramid or fiberglass honeycomb core and applies a lossy coating to it
.
(E)PIFRAM (POLY CRYSTALLINE IRON FIBRE RAM):
It is the only electromagnetic Radar Absorbing Material that may be retrofitted to existing
material because of its low weight and very low thickness.
5.2 ECHO CANCELLATION
Metal component such as the engine, which produces significant radar reflections, can be
shielded using a metal and plastic sandwich whose layers are spaced in such a way as to
create a standing wave, canceling out any radar reflections.
5.3 HEAT RADIATION REDUCTION
Infrared radiation (heat) should be minimized by a combination of temperature reduction
and masking. The main body of the airplane has its own radiation, heavily dependent on
speed and altitude, and the jet plume can be a most significant factor, particularly in after

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burning operation. The engines are buried deep in the fuselage These have got shallow
'platypus' exhausts, which cool and deflect the exhaust gases upward to minimize heat
emissions.
5.4 TURBULENCE DETECTION REDUCTION
By optimizing the aerodynamics of the stealth plane, the eye visible turbulence trail in the
air, can be kept to a minimum. This way it becomes harder for the very special laser
equipment to detect the trail and trace it back all the way to the plane which created it.
5.5 VISUAL DETECTION REDUCTION
5.5.1

HIDING SMOKE CONTRAILS (JET WAKE)

Reducing smoke in the exhaust is accomplished by improving the efficiency of the

combustion chambers. Tests have been done using exotic chemicals to be inserted in to
the engine outlet gases to modify infrared signature as well as to force water molecules in
the exhaust plume to break up in to much finer particles, thus reduce or even eliminate
contrails. One of the chemicals used for this was chloro-fluoro-sulphonic acid.
5.5.2 Low VISIBILITY
An aircraft at low to medium altitudes tends to be a black dot against the background of
the sky. To avoid this, the plane is given a special medium gray color. The gray, when
combined with light scattering at low to medium altitudes ensures about as low
observability as can be possible or a reduction to 30% in visibility.
5.5.3 Low LEVEL FLIGHT
Another technique used by aircraft to avoid radar is to fly at very low levels where there
is a great deal of "ground clutter'...radar reflections given off by buildings and other
objects. Low level aircraft can go undetected by most radar systems.

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6. THE COST OF SIGNATURE CONTROL

The requirement for aircraft to be stealthy results in unconventional configurations, the
producability, performance controllability and maintainability of which contain a large
number of unknowns. However, the overriding requirement for any future aircraft if
affordability. This affects the availability of aircraft as well as reliability, maintainability,
survivability.
The probability of a kill:
PK

= PD * PA/D * PH/A * PH/K

where
PA/D

PD

= probability of detection

= probability of acquisition given detection

PH/A

= probability of a hit given

acquisition PH/K = probability of kill given a hit

History shows that it is easy to turn a good idea into an unaffordable one. The F-22 is a
solution to the problem but probably it is unaffordable by all except the US. Some of the
adverse effects of the RCS reduction are
> increased cost
> additional maintenance
> added weight and volume
leading to performance penalties.
In addition the stealth brings with it "special access' security which is costly in terms of
both time and money and if applied without careful thought, can become an impediment.
The A-12 security was so tight that the US navy and DoD did not subject the program to
normal reviews and were late in learning of weight, schedule and cost problems.

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7. PERFORMANCE PENALTIES
Because the advantages of "stealth" technology outweigh the disadvantages, the latter are
considered necessary evils when a "stealth" aircraft is built. The aerodynamic problems
posed by stealthy aircraft, especially if they are inherently unstable, are :
1. stability and control due to reduction/removal of control surfaces and the limited area
of control surfaces all ensuing from stealthy considerations. The need for tailless designs
places a great deal of emphasis on the flight control system(FCS) and may require thrust
vector control to downsize the vertical tails. Currently the F-22s two dimensional exhaust
nozzle, used for signature reasons, is around 20% heavier and more expensive than an
equivalent 3D one.
2. the effect of controllability of novel considerations.
3. the effect on aircraft and engine performance of inlet duct positioning and shaping,
due to the stealth requirements. The loss of available installed thrust due to air inlet and
nozzle shaping for IR and RCS controlled can be a major penalty. The insistence of 100%
LOS blockage to the engine fails to reduce RCS, with the engine face offset 0.7-1.2
diameters from that of the inlet throat, will via a long S-duct, mean losses in stagnation
pressure recovery that increase markedly with throat Mach number.
4. the effect of novel configurations on drag, buffet and ride quality
5. the problems of weapon release and weapon bay aerodynamic loading caused by
internal carriage of stores.
6. Increased empty weights result from the addition of external radar-absorbent coatings,
from engines that are buried inside the structure to reduce the amount of heat they
generate, and from exotic and sophisticated engine exhaust nozzles that also help reduce
heat generation. Finally, a full complement of heavy and

space-consuming

electronic

countermeasures equipment, which is part of the aircraft's defenses, adds to its weight.
All of these add weight that otherwise would not be an encumbrance;

and

weight

equates to penalties in speed, range, and altitude performance.

7.

Because range is reduced by many of "stealth's" physical constraints, "stealth"

aircraft sometimes need to be bigger than designers would like in order to carry sufficient
fuel. "Stealth" aircraft cannot be equipped with external fuel tanks because doing so

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would increase their radar reflectivity. All external protrusions, such as the edges of the
landing gear doors, must be perfectly matched to prevent radar energy from being
reflected. Because of this, the detail work entailed in the design and construction of a
"stealth" aircraft is much more exacting than in conventional aircraft. Even the smallest
oversight in panel matching can make a "stealth" aircraft vulnerable to radar. Such
exacting requirements increase engineering, manufacturing, and maintenance costs of the
"stealth" aircraft so that they are several times as expensive as conventional aircraft.
All of these modifications, however, hurt the plane's performance, adding weight,
affecting aerodynamics, and altering the structure of the aircraft. The advantages of
stealth technology must always be weighed against its disadvantages.

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8. LIMITATIONS
There are limits to the utility of stealth techniques. Since the radar cross-section of an
aircraft depends on the angle from which it is viewed, an aircraft will typically have a
much smaller RCS when viewed from the front or rear than when viewed from the side or
from above. In general stealth aircraft are designed to minimize their frontal RCS. But it
is not possible to contour the surface of an aircraft to reduce the RCS equally in all
directions, and reductions in the frontal RCS may lead to a larger RCS from above. Thus
while a stealth aircraft may be difficult to track when it is flying toward a ground-based
radar or another aircraft at the same altitude, a high-altitude airborne radar or a spacebased radar may have an easier time tracking it.
Another limitation of stealth aircraft is their vulnerability to detection by bi-static radars.
The contouring of a stealth aircraft is designed to avoid reflecting a radar signal directly
back in the direction of the radar transmitter. But the transmitter and receiver of a bi-static
radar are in separate locations indeed, a single transmitter may be used by radar
receivers scattered over a wide area. This greatly increases the odds that at least one of
these receivers will pickup a reflected signal. The prospects for detection of stealth
aircraft by bi-static radar are further improved if the radar transmitter is space-based, and
thus viewing the aircraft from above, the direction of its largest radar cross section.
Several analysts claim stealth aircraft such as the ATF will be vulnerable to detection by
infrared search and track systems (IRST). The natural heating of an aircraft's surface
makes it visible to this type of system. The faster and aircraft flies, the warmer it gets,
and thus, the easier to detect through infrared means. One expert asserts "if an aircraft
deviates from its surroundings by only one degree centigrade, you will be able to detect it
at militarily useful ranges." Stealth aircraft are even more vulnerable to multiple sensors
used in tandem.

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9. STEALTH FEATURES OF SOME AIRCRAFT

9. I SR-71 BLACKBIRD

Fig 9.1.1 SR-71 BLACKBIRD

Thirty years after its first flight, the SR-71(Fig 2.4.1.1) Blackbird is still unmatched in
height and speed. The Blackbird can fly at an altitude of 100,000 or more and can go as
fast as Mach 3.5 or 2,500 MPH.
The SR-71 is the fastest known aircraft. It was the only aircraft that could fly its entire
mission at supersonic speeds. The only aircraft that even approaches the Blackbird's
speed is the Mig 25, and it can only sustain Mach 3 for a few minutes.
The Blackbird operates at the extreme edge of Earth's atmosphere and pilots are required
to wear space suits like astronauts in the event of an emergency. The Blackbird's paint is

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highly sophisticated: it is formulated to radiate excess heat as well as to disrupt incoming

radar energy. It changes to blue at operating temperatures and altitudes. The Blackbird's
tires are filled with nitrogen and impregnated with powdered aluminum to enable them to
withstand heat. The Blackbird's airframe is 90% titanium to withstand the friction
generated at Mach 3. The friction can cause the Blackbird's skin to heat up to 400 degrees
Fahrenheit.
The component parts of the Blackbird fit very loosely to allow for expansion at high
temperatures. At rest on the ground fuel leaks out constantly, since the large tanks in the
fuselage and wings only seal at operating temperatures. There is little danger of fire,
however, since the fuel is very stable with an extremely high flash point.
It took a lot of effort to keep the Blackbird in the air, an estimate has put the cost of flying
the Blackbird at more the $200,000 per hour. The plan was taken by Lockheed Aircraft
Company's genius Kelly Johnson.
An aircraft at Mach 3 would have to sustain a high temperature. The Blackbird would
reach 326 degrees on the cockpit windshield and 426 degrees on the wing areas, which is
hot enough to melt lead.
The electric switches and wires were gold-plated to increase conductivity at high
temperatures. Tires were filled with nitrogen instead of air to prevent them from
exploding as heat builds up in flight. The Blackbird was painted black to lower the
temperature, as black is a good radiator. Radar absorbing materials were applied to the
leading edges of the wings and the fuselage sloped outwards. By doing this, they were
creating the first stealth aircraft, nearly invisible to radar.
9.2 F- I I 7 A NIGHTHAWK STEALTH FIGHTER ATTACK AIRCRAFT

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Fig.9.2.1 F-117 A NIGHTHAWK STEALTH FIGHTER

The F-117A Nighthawk Stealth Fighter (2.4.2.1) attack aircraft was developed by
Lockheed Martin after work on stealth technology, and the predecessor test demonstrator
aircraft, Have Blue, was carried out in secret from 1975. Development of the F-117A
began in 1978 and it was first flown in 1981, but it was not until 1988 that its existence
was publicly announced. The Nighthawk is the world's first operational stealth aircraft.
Of the 59 Nighthawks procured by the US Air Force, 52 are still in service.

DESIGN:
The surfaces and edge profiles are optimized to reflect hostile radar into narrow beam
signals, directed away from the enemy radar detector. All the doors and opening panels
on the aircraft have saw-toothed forward and trailing edges to reflect radar. The aircraft is
mainly constructed of aluminum, with titanium for areas of the engine and exhaust

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systems. The outer surface of the aircraft is coated with a radar-absorbent material
(RAM). The radar cross-section of the F-117 has been estimated at between 10-100cm2.
The entire stealth fleet will be stripped of the sheet-coated, radar-absorbing materials on
the wings, rudders and fuselage. The first F-117 to undergo modification was delivered to
Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico, in April 2000.The Air Force expects to have the
whole fleet resurfaced in five years.
The F-117A has four elevens on the inboard and outboard trailing edge of the wing. The
V-shaped drag parachute is used.
ENGINES:
The F-117A is powered by two low-bypass F404-GE-F1D2 turbofan engines from
General Electric. The rectangular air intakes on both sides of the fuselage are covered by
gratings, which are coated with radar-absorbent material.
The wide and flat structure of the engine exhaust area reduces the infrared and radar
delectability of the aft section of the engine. The two large tail fins slant slightly outwards
to provide an obstruction to the infrared and radar returns from the engine exhaust area.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS:

Primary Function: Fighter/attack

Contractor: Lockheed Aeronautical Systems Co.
Power Plant: Two General Electric F404 non-afterburning engines
Speed: High subsonic
Range: Unlimited with air refueling
9.3 B-2 SPIRIT STEALTH BOMBER

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Fig 9.3.1. B-2 SPIRIT STEALTH BOMBER

The 6-2(2.4.3.1.) provides the penetrating flexibility and effectiveness inherent in
manned bombers. Its low-observable, or "stealth," characteristics give it the unique
ability to penetrate an enemy's most sophisticated defenses and threaten its most valued,
and heavily defended, targets. The B-2 Spirit is a multi-role bomber capable of delivering
both conventional and nuclear munitions. The saga of the B-2 began in the late 1970s
when the United States commenced a top secret program to construct a fleet of radarevading bombers dubbed "Stealth." Development of the B-2 program began in 1981.
Initially, the Pentagon sought to acquire 132 planes. The first B-2 was publicly displayed
on Nov. 22, 1988.

DESIGN
The revolutionary blending of low-observable technologies with high aerodynamic
efficiency and large payload gives the B-2 important advantages over existing bombers.
Its low-observability provides it greater freedom of action at high altitudes, thus

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increasing its range and a better field of view for the aircraft's sensors. Its unrefueled
range is approximately 6,000 nautical miles (9,600 kilometers).
The B-2's low observability is derived from a combination of reduced infrared, acoustic,
electromagnetic, visual and radar signatures. These signatures make it difficult for the
sophisticated defensive systems to detect, track and engage the B-2. Many aspects of the
low-observability process remain classified; however, the B-2's composite materials,
special coatings and flying-wing design all contribute to its "stealthiness."
The B-2's flat, narrow shape and black coloration help it fade into the night. Even in the
daytime, when the B-2 stands out against blue sky, it can be hard to figure out which way
the plane is going. The B-2 emits minimal exhaust, so it doesn't leave a visible trail
behind it.
As with most planes, the B-2's noisiest component is its engine system. But unlike a
passenger jet or B-52, the B-2's engines are buried inside the plane. This helps muffle the
noise. The efficient aerodynamic design helps keep the B-2 quiet as well, because the
engines can operate at lower power settings.
The engine system also works to minimize the plane's infrared (heat) signature. Infrared
sensors, including those on heat-seeking missiles, typically pick up on hot engine
exhaust. In the B-2, all of the exhaust passes through cooling vents before flowing out of
the rear ports. Putting the exhaust ports on the top of the plane further reduces the
infrared signature, since enemy sensors would most likely scan below the plane.
The B-2 has two major defenses against radar detection. The first element is the plane's
radar-absorbent surface. The radio waves used in radar are electromagnetic energy, just
like light waves. In the same way that certain materials absorb light very well (black
paint, for example), some materials are particularly good at absorbing radio waves.

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The B-2's body is mainly composed of composite material combinations of various

lightweight substances. The composite material used in the B-2 bomber is specifically
designed to absorb radio energy with optimum efficiency. Parts of the B-2, such as the
leading edge, are also covered in advanced radio-absorbent paint and tape. These
materials are very expensive, and the Air Force has to reapply them regularly. After every
flight, repair crews have to spend many hours examining the B-2 to make sure it's fit for
stealth missions.
Highly reflective metal components, such as the plane's engines, are all housed inside the
composite body. Air flows into the intake ports, though an S-shaped duct and down to the
engines. The bombs are also mounted inside the plane, and the landing gear fully retracts
after take-off.
The second element in radar invisibility is the plane's shape. Radio waves bounce off
planes in the same way light bounces off a mirror. A flat, vertical mirror will bounce your
image straight back to you you'll see yourself. But if you tilt the mirror 45 degrees, it
will reflect your image straight upward. You won't see yourself; you'll see an image of the
ceiling. A curved mirror also deflects light at an angle. If you were to aim a laser pointer
at a curved mirror, the laser beam would never bounce straight back to the pointer, no
matter how you positioned it.
The stealth bomber's peculiar shape deflects radio beams in both ways. The large flat
areas on the top and bottom of the plane are just like tilted mirrors. These flat areas will
deflect most radio beams away from the station, presuming the station isn't directly
beneath the plane.
The plane itself also works like a curved mirror, particularly in the front section. The
entire plane has no sharp, angled edges every surface is curved in order to deflect
radio waves. The curves are designed to bounce almost all radio waves away at an angle.
The B-2 is designed to contain its own radio signals, the electromagnetic energy
generated by onboard electronics. The plane does emit radio energy when using its radar

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scanner or communicating with ground forces and other aircraft, but the radar signal is
small and highly focused, making it less susceptible to detection.
ENGINE
The aircraft is powered by four General Electric F118-GE-100 turbofan engines
internally mounted in the body of the wings. The engines have an exhaust temperature
control system to minimize thermal signature.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Primary function: Multi-role heavy bomber

Prime Contractor: Northrop Grumman Corp.
Power Plant: Four General Electric F-118-GE-100 engines
Speed: High subsonic
Range: Intercontinental, unrefueled
Crew: Two pilots
Date Deployed: December 1993
9.4 THE BIRD OF PREY

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Fig 9.4.1. THE BIRD OF PREY

With stabilizers smoothly blended into the wing and an inlet entirely masked from the
front, the Bird Of Prey (Fig 2.4.5.1) is clearly aimed at very low RCS levels.
It is a single seat, single engine design and with a reported maximum altitude of 6100
metres (20,000 feet). Its top speed is a relatively sedate 480 km/h (300 mph).
The unconventional configuration of the Bird of Prey suggests it has been designed to be
highly agile and stealthy. But even though the aircraft itself has been revealed to the
public, the stealth systems designed to suppress acoustic, infra-red, radar and even visual
signatures are likely to be as highly classified as ever.
Sources suggest they may include active camouflage systems to reduce visibility by using
panels or coatings that change color or luminosity. This could allow safe combat missions
in daylight, rather than being restricted to night flying. Many features of the Bird of Prey
support the hypothesis that it was designed for unprecedented RCS levels: possibly an
RCS of -70dBsm, or rather smaller than a mosquito.
The shape of the aircraft, too, is - accidentally or intentionally - laid out to avoid
shadows. This suggests strongly that the Bird of Prey is a demonstrator for visual stealth
technology.
A key aspect of the project was that the aircraft would be inexpensive to build. Phantom
Works engineers say they used disposable tooling and 3-D virtual reality for its design
and assembly.
It has not been confirmed whether the Bird of Prey was ultimately intended to be manned
or unmanned. The project formally started in 1992.

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7 . CONCLUSION
Imagine you can electronically change the color of a given surface in such a way it can
match the terrain below it. Looking from above, the surface appears to match the terrain.
Fly over forest, and the surface takes on a green like hue. A cloudy day adds clouds to
match what sensors see underneath and the aircraft becomes a chameleon and disappears.
This may sound like science fiction, but then think of the LCD display of notebooks and
it may not seem so far fetched all of a sudden. This is not a new idea; in fact several
military fiction writers have already come up with the idea, in one particular instance
having the aircraft continually modifying top and bottom like a magician's mirror box
making the aircraft totally invisible. More technologies are currently under development
and will be closely monitored. But likewise the F-117, we may not hear about that until
the first smart bomb coming out of nowhere has made a successful hit!

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7. REFERENCES
RAY WHITFORD,

Designing

For Stealth

In

Fighter Aircraft, CRANFIELD

UNIVERSITY
www.fas.org
www.airforce-technology.org www.janes.com www.discovery.com

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