RESISTANCE:The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is the opposition to the passage of an electric

current through that conductor. The inverse quantity is electrical conductance, the ease with
which an electric current passes. Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the
notion of mechanical friction. The SI unit of

Ohm's law is an empirical law relating the voltage V across an element to the current I through it:

(V is directly proportional to I). This law is not always true: For example, it is false
for diodes, batteries, etc. However, it is true to a very good approximation for wires
and resistors (assuming that other conditions, including temperature, are held constant).
Materials or objects where Ohm's law is true are called ohmic, whereas objects that do not
obey Ohm's law are non-ohmic.

Specifications:-

Nominal Resistance
The nominal resistance is the resistance that can be expected when ordering a resistor. Finding a
range for the resistance is necessary, especially when operating on signals. Resistors do not come
in all of the values that will be necessary. Sometimes resistor values can be manipulated by
shaving off parts of a resistor (in industrial environments this is sometimes done with a LASER
to adjust a circuit), or by combining several resistors in series and parallel.

Tolerances
A manufactured resistor has a certain tolerance to which the resistance may differ from the
nominal value. For example, a 2k resistor may have a tolerance of 5%, leaving a resistor with
a value between 1.9k and 2.1k (i.e. 2k100). The tolerance must be accounted for when
designing circuits. A circuit with an absolute voltage of 5V0.0V in a voltage divider network
with two resistors of 2k5% will have a resultant voltage of 5V10% (i.e. 5V0.1V). The final
resistor tolerances are found by taking the derivative of the resistor values, and plugging the
absolute deviations into the resulting equation.

Power Rating
Because the purpose of a resistor is to dissipate power in the form of heat, the resistor has a
rating (in watts) at which the resistor can continue to dissipate before the temperature
overwhelms the resistor and causes it to overheat. When a resistor overheats, the material begins
to melt away, which will cause the resistance to increase (usually), until the resistor breaks.

Operating Temperature
Related to power rating, the operating temperature is the temperature that the resistor can
continue to operate before being destroyed.

Maximum Voltage
In order to avoid sparkovers or material breakdown a certain maximum voltage over a resistor
must not be exceeded. The maximum voltage is part of a resistor's specification, and typically a
function of the resistor's physical length, distance of the leads, material and coating.
For example, a resistor with a maximum operating voltage of 1kV can have a length in the area
of 2", while a 0.3" resistor can operate under up to several tens of volts, probably up to a hundred
volts. When working with dangerous voltages it is essential to check the actual specification of a
resistor, instead of only trusting it because of the length.

Applications:-

Heaters

Joule heating is the heat created as current passes through a resistor. Often this heat is an
important factor in the selection of a resistor to ensure reliable operation, but in some
applications the purpose of the resistor is to generate heat.
Fuse

Specially designed resistors are commonly used as single use fuses. The conductive element in a
fuse is designed to destroy itself once a certain current threshold is reached, essentially
sacrificing itself to prevent damage to more expensive electronics.
Sensors

Resistors are often used as sensors for a wide range of applications from gas sensors to lie
detectors. A change in resistance can be caused by a large number of factors including water and
other liquids, moisture, strain or flexing, and absorption of gas in to the resistive material. By
selecting the right material and enclosure, the performance of a resistive sensor can be tailored
for a specific application and environment.
Light

Thomas Edison spent years searching for a material that would create a stable electrically
powered light. Along the way he discovered dozens of designs and materials that would create
some light and immediately burn itself out, much like a fuse sacrificing itself. Eventually Edison
found the right material and design that provided a continuous light which became one of the
largest and most important applications of resistors for many decades.

Number of ports:There are two ports in resistor and these are usually called as connecting lead.

Precautions:When an ambient temperature exceeds a rated ambient temperature, resistors shall be applied on
the derating curve by derating the load power. Generally resistors are not combustion- resistant
and are likely to emit, flame, gas, smoke, red heat, etc. under overloads. Flame retardant resistors
generally emit smoke and red heat in a certain power and over but do not emit fire or flame.
When resistors are shielded or coated with resin etc., stress from the storage heat and the resin
are applied to the resistors. So, performance and reliability of resistors should be checked well
before
use.

When a voltage higher than rated is applied in a short time (single pulse, repeated pulses, surge,
etc.), it does not necessarily ensure safety that an effective wattage is not higher than a rated
wattage. Then consult with us with your specified pulse wave shape. Resistors shall be used in a
condition
causing
no
dew
condensation.
Keep temperature from rising by choosing resistors with a higher rated capacity; do not use a
component having the exact load value required. For considerations of safety in extended period
applications, the rating should be more than four times higher than the actual wattage involved,
but
never
use
resistors
at
less
than
25%
of
its
rated
power.
In applications where resistors are subject to intermittent current surges and spikes, be sure in
advance that the components selected are capable of withstanding brief durations of increased
load.

Transistors:A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and
electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit.

Specifications:Term

Definition and details

Type

The type number of the device is a unique identifier given to

number

each type of transistor. There are three international schemes

that are widely used: European Pro-Electron scheme; US
JEDEC (numbers start with 2N for transistors); and the
Japanese system (numbers start with 2S). [see the page on
Transistor and Diode Numbering Codes].

Case

There is a wide variety of case styles. They often start with

leaded devices or SOT for surface mount devices.

Polarity

There are two types of transistor: NPN and PNP. It is

important to choose the correct type otherwise all the circuit
polarities will be wrong.

Material

The two main types of material used for transistors are

germanium and silicon. Other materials are used, but in very
specialised transistors. A knowledge of the type of material
used is important because it affects many properties, e.g.
forward bias for the base emitter junction is 0.2 - 0.3 V for
germanium and ~0.6 V for silicon.

VCEO

Collector to Emitter breakdown voltage. This is the

maximum voltage that can be placed from the collector to the
emitter. It is normally measured with the base open circuit hence the letter "0" in the abbreviation. The value should not
be exceeded in the operation of the circuit otherwise damage
may occur. Note that for circuits using inductors in the
collector circuit, the collector voltage may rise to twice the
rail voltage.

VCBO

Collector to base breakdown voltage. This is the maximum

collector base voltage - gain it is generally measured with the
emitter left open circuit. This value should not be exceeded
in the operation of the circuit.

IC

Collector current, normally defined in milliamps, but high

power transistors may be quoted in amps. The important
parameter is the maximum level of collector current. This
figure should not be exceeded otherwise the transistor may
be subject to damage.

VCEsat

The collector emitter saturation voltage, i.e. the voltage

across the transistor (collector to emitter) when the transistor
is turned hard on. It is normally quoted for a particular base

and collector current values.

Hfe

This is the current gain of the transistor. It is effectively the

same as b.

FT

Frequency Transition - the frequency where current gain falls

to unity. The transistor should normally be operated well
below this frequency.

Ptot

Total power dissipation for the device. It is normally quoted

for an ambient external temperature of 25C unless other wise
stated. The actual dissipation across the device is the current
flowing through the collector multiplied by the voltage
across the device itself.

Applications:Transistor as a switch
Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, both for high-power applications such
as switched-mode power supplies and for low-power applications such as logic gates.
In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as the base
voltage rises, the emitter and collector currents rise exponentially. The collector voltage drops
because of reduced resistance from collector to emitter. If the voltage difference between the
collector and emitter were zero (or near zero), the collector current would be limited only by the
load resistance (light bulb) and the supply voltage. This is called saturation because current is
flowing from collector to emitter freely. When saturated, the switch is said to be on.

Transistor as an amplifier

The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that a small change in voltage (Vin) changes the
small current through the base of the transistor; the transistor's current amplification combined
with the properties of the circuit mean that small swings in Vin produce large changes in Vout.
Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are possible, with some providing current
gain, some voltage gain, and some both.

Number of ports:The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a current controlled valve. The3 terminals are named
base, collector and emitter.
Transistors are manufactured in different shapes but they have three leads (legs).
The BASE - which is the lead responsible for activating the transistor.
The COLLECTOR - which is the positive lead.
The EMITTER - which is the negative lead.
The diagram below shows the symbol of an NPN transistor. They are not always set out as shown
in the diagrams to the left and right, although the tab on the type shown to the left is usually
next to the emitter.

Precautions:

Test equipment and soldering irons should be checked to make certain there is no leakage
current from the power source. If leakage current is detected, isolation transformers
should be used.

Always connect a ground between test equipment and circuit before attempting to inject
or monitor a signal.

Ensure test voltages do not exceed maximum allowable voltage for circuit components
and transistors. Also, never connect test equipment outputs directly to a transistor circuit.

Ohmmeter ranges that require a current of more than one milliampere in the test circuit
should not be used for testing transistors.

Battery eliminators should not be used to furnish power for transistor equipment because
they have poor voltage regulation and, possibly, high-ripple voltage.

The heat applied to a transistor, when soldered connections are required, should be kept
to a minimum by using a low-wattage soldering iron and heat shunts, such as long-nose
pliers, on the transistor leads.

When it becomes necessary to replace transistors, never pry transistors to loosen them
from printed circuit boards.

All circuits should be checked for defects before replacing a transistor.

The power must be removed from the equipment before replacing a transistor.

Using conventional test probes on equipment with closely spaced parts often causes
accidental shorts between adjacent terminals. These shorts rarely cause damage to an
electron tube but may ruin a transistor.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope:Cathode-ray oscilloscope, electronic-display device containing a cathode-ray tube (CRT) that
generates an electron beam that is used to produce visible patterns, or graphs, on a
phosphorescent screen. The graphs plot the relationships between two or more variables, with the
horizontal axis normally being a function of time and the vertical axis usually a function of the
voltage generated by the input signal to the oscilloscope. Because almost any physical
phenomenon can be converted into a corresponding electric voltage through the use of
a transducer, the oscilloscope is a versatile tool in all forms of physical investigation. The
German physicist Ferdinand Braun developed the first cathode-ray oscilloscope in 1897.

Specifications:Bandwidth specification
One important oscilloscope specification is related to the speed of the waveforms that can be
measured. This is determined by the bandwidth of the oscilloscope and it is found that the
capability of the oscilloscope to accurately display the waveform falls off with increasing
frequency. The way in which this is specified can be seen in IEEE 1057 which defines electrical
bandwidth as the point at which the amplitude of a sine wave input is reduced by 3 dB (i.e.
attenuated to 70.7% of the true value of the signal - a fall of approximately 30%) relative to its
level at a lower reference frequency.
Vertical DC gain accuracy
It is important when measuring the amplitude of signals, to know the accuracy of the
measurement that is being made. As oscilloscopes are not intended to be used instead of digital
multimeters, it is not anticipated that the voltage elements of the oscilloscope specification will
be as accurate.
Vertical DC gain resolution
Today, many oscilloscope use all digital techniques, converting the incoming vertical or X axis
voltage to a digital format. It is therefore important to know what the resolution of this scale is.
Resolution and dynamic range determine, respectively, the "granularity" of measurements and
the largest measurement that can be made without clipping the waveform. Most digital
oscilloscopes have 8-bit resolution. Eight bits provides 256 digitizing levels (2 to the 8th power)
over the dynamic range.

Checking the resolution within the oscilloscope specification will ensure that the instrument will
offer the correct dynamic range and resolution.
Rise time specification
Another important oscilloscope specification which needs to be accommodated is the rise time of
the oscilloscope. This is a particularly important specification for any digital circuits where the
edges on square waves and pulses are often of great importance. The oscilloscope must have a
sufficiently fast rise time to capture the rapid transitions accurately, otherwise important
information may not be displayed and the results could be misleading.

Applications:In a laboratory, a cathode ray oscilloscope can used to

1.
2.
3.

display different types of wave form.

measure short time interval
measure potential difference (as a voltmeter)

Displaying Wave Forms

1. A cathode ray oscilloscope can be used to display different types of waveform by connecting
a power supply to the Y-input.
2. Figure below shows a few types of waveform displays on an oscilloscope.

Precautions:1. Set the input sensitivity to the highest voltage range before connecting the probe.
2. Don't allow the ground clip to contact high voltage points.
3. Calibration may be a consideration if you've gotten a used one, but you may verify it
accurately
.
4. Use any reliable time standard and a known voltage source to check out your unit.
A meter and a frequency counter should provide all of the correlation you'd need, for most
functions

5. Vertical input stage is very sensitive to voltage and it can be destroy by static electricity ( set it
into 1mV range and touch its probe with a few thousands volt static charge) if yours is a semiconductor type scope. The old type used all electronic tubes does not has this trouble.

Function Generator:A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to generate
different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the most
common waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine, square, triangular and
sawtooth shapes.

Specifications:

Waveforms: Function generators generally produce sine wave, square wave, pulse,
triangular and sawtooth or ramp waveforms. It is worth checking the specifications

o Sine wave distortion: Analogue function generators create a sine wave from the
triangular waveform using a pair of back to back diodes to shape the waveform.
Although this produces a good representation of a sine wave, the distortion levels
will be higher than sine waves produced by other means. Accordingly the function
generator specification for sine wave distortion needs to be checked if this may be
an issue. Typical levels may be < 2%
o Triangular wave linearity: There will be some departure from a straight line on
the triangular wave. Typically linearity is better than 99% between levels of 10
and 90% of the waveform amplitude.

o Square wave rise & fall times: Another important function generator
specification can be the square wave edge rise and fall times. This can be an issue
when driving some logic chips. Chips that are synchronous and use a clock may
require an edge of a certain speed. Typically a function generator may provide a
rise time of 100ns between 10 and 90% of the waveform. The fall time may also
be of the same order as well, although possibly different to the rise time
o Output symmetry: The function generator specification will give a range over
which the output symmetry can be changed. This might be 20% - 80% 10%.

Output level: The output level on most function generators will be continuously
variable. Often it will be able to easily adjust to so that it is TTL compatible. However
maximum limits will vary from generator to generator. Typical maximum levels may be
10 or 12 Volts peak to peak.

Output impedance: In many instances the load that can be driven by the function
generator is of importance. The figure is measured in ohms, and is typically 50. Any
output level readings will assume this, and at this impedance the output will drop by half
from its no load value.

DC offset: One facility that some function generators provide is a DC offset. This
enables the base voltage level of the signal to be varied over a given range. It may be
variable over a range +5V to -5V for example.

Frequency range: Function generators have a limited frequency range. There are a
number
of
elements
to
the
specification:

o Lower frequency limit: The lower frequency limits tend to be below 1 Hz, often
0.1 or 0.2 Hz. Often the lower limits are able to go well below normal
requirements.
o Upper frequency limit: The upper frequency limit tends to be a headline
specification for the function generator. Limits vary considerably from figures
around 1 MHz up to 20 MHz or more.
o Ranges: There may be several switched ranges to the coverage. Often they tend
to cover a decade in frequency, i.e. 1 - 10. However this specification is dependent
upon the particular function generator.

Frequency stability: The stability of function generators can vary considerably.

Analogue versions tend to be much less stable, but digital ones will use a crystal for the
clock in the generator. Typical figures may be around 0.1% per hour for analogue

function generators, and 500 parts per million for digitally based test instruments. The
specification may be given in terms of the time base stability

Phase lock capability: Some generators may be able to phase lock the signal generator
to an external clock signal. This would enable the function generator to provide a much
more accurate, or synchronised output.

Modulation: Some test instruments may have the capability for the output signal to be
modulated, typically either amplitude or frequency modulation, but this is not true of
many test instruments.

There will naturally be the usual function generator specifications for parameters such as
size, weight and operating temperature. Power supply requirements and power consumption will
also be given.

Applications:1. Troubleshooting: identifying a bad subsystem in a system by injecting a signal into the
first subsystem and checking its output, moving to the next subsystem and repeating.
2. Same as previous, but starting from the last subsystem and working backwards.
3. Measuring the ESR of a capacitor in circuit (can use an AC voltmeter instead of the
scope).
4. Time domain reflectometry: I show scope traces of reflected pulses in a network cable.
5. Response testing by sweeping.
6. Response testing using square waves, pulses, and noise.
7. How to use a power supply to change the DC offset of a function generator.
8. Although function generators cover both audio and RF frequencies, they are usually not
suitable for applications that need low distortion or stable frequency signals. When those
traits are required, other signal generators would be more appropriate.

Precautions:Avoid front end damage by having some idea of the signal generator level output configuration.
Reflection of output signal or external bias connected to signal generator output may overpower
its front end and cause damage to the front end components. Typical max. RF reverse protection
level is 30 dBm (1 W).
Before turning on or turning off the connected equipment or the DUT, reduce the signal level
to the minimum safety level. This should help to prevent unexpected voltage swell or sag
affecting the input or the output of signal generator.
Avoid test system designs that allow DC voltage or RF power to be applied to RF output or I/Q
output connections.
Always use the three-prong AC power cord supplied with the signal generator.

 Proper grounding of the instrument will prevent a build-up of electrostatic charge which may
be harmful to the instrument and the operator.
Do not damage the earth-grounding protection by using an extension cable, power cable, or
autotransformer without a protective

CAPACITOR:A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component

used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. The conductors can be thin films, foils
or sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte, etc. The nonconducting dielectric acts to
increase the capacitor's charge capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air,
vacuum, paper, mica, oxide layer etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in
many common electrical devices.

Specifications:1. Nominal Capacitance, ( C )

The nominal value of the Capacitance, C of a capacitor is the most important of all capacitor
characteristics. This value measured in pico-Farads (pF), nano-Farads (nF) or micro-Farads (F)
and is marked onto the body of the capacitor as numbers, letters or coloured bands.
2. Working Voltage, ( WV )
The Working Voltage is another important capacitor characteristic that defines the maximum
continuous voltage either DC or AC that can be applied to the capacitor without failure during its
working life

3. Tolerance, ( % )
As with resistors, capacitors also have a Tolerance rating expressed as a plus-or-minus value
either in picofarads (pF) for low value capacitors generally less than 100pF or as a percentage
(%) for higher value capacitors generally higher than 100pF.

4. Leakage Current
The dielectric used inside the capacitor to separate the conductive plates is not a perfect insulator
resulting in a very small current flowing or "leaking" through the dielectric due to the influence
of the powerful electric fields built up by the charge on the plates when applied to a constant
supply voltage.

APPLICATIONS:1.Energy storage
This mylar-film, oil-filled capacitor has very low inductance and low resistance, to provide the
high-power (70 megawatt) and high speed (1.2 microsecond) discharge needed to operate a dye
laser.
A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it can be
used like a temporary battery.
2. Pulsed power and weapons
Groups of large, specially constructed, low-inductance high-voltage capacitors (capacitor banks)
are used to supply huge pulses of current for many pulsed power applications
3.Power conditioning
Reservoir capacitors are used in power supplies where they smooth the output of a full or half
wave rectifier.
4. Power factor correction
A high-voltage capacitor bank used for power factor correction on a power transmission system
Polyester film capacitors are frequently used as coupling. In electric power distribution,
capacitors are used for power factor correction. Such capacitors often come as three capacitors
connected as a three phase load.

Number Of Ports:There are two ports in capacitor and these are usually called as connecting lead.

Precautions:Capacitors may retain a charge long after power is removed from a circuit; this charge can cause
dangerous or even potentially fatal shocks or damage connected equipment. For example, even a

seemingly innocuous device such as a disposable camera flash unit powered by a 1.5 volt AA
battery contains a capacitor which may be charged to over 300 volts. This is easily capable of
delivering a shock. Service procedures for electronic devices usually include instructions to
discharge large or highvoltage capacitors, for instance using a Brinkley stick. Capacitors may
also have built-in discharge resistors to dissipate stored energy to a safe level within a few
seconds after power is removed. Highvoltage capacitors are stored with the terminals shorted, as
protection from potentially dangerous voltages due to dielectric absorption.

DIODE:A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor
material with a pn junction connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode has two
electrodes, a plate (anode) and a heated cathode. Semiconductor diodes were the first
semiconductor electronic devices.

Specifications:Semiconductor material: The semiconductor material used in the PN junction diode is of

paramount importance because the material used affects many of the major diode characteristics
and properties.
Forward voltage drop (Vf): Any electronics device passing current will develop a resulting
voltage across it and this diode characteristic is of great importance, especially for power
rectification where power losses will be higher for a high forward voltage drop.

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): This diode characteristics is the maximum voltage a diode can
withstand in the reverse direction. This voltage must not be exceeded otherwise the device may
fail. This voltage is not simply the RMS voltage of the incoming waveform.
Maximum forward current: When designing a circuit that passes any levels of current it is
necessary to ensure that the maximum current levels for the diode are not exceeded. As the
current levels rise, so additional heat is dissipated and this needs to be removed.
Leakage current: If a perfect diode were available, then no current would flow when it was
reverse biased. It is found that for a real PN junction diode, a very small amount of current flow
in the reverse direction as a result of the minority carriers in the semiconductor.

Number Of Ports:+
Electrical conserving port associated with the diode positive terminal
Electrical conserving port associated with the diode negative terminal

Applications:Some of the typical applications of diodes include:

Rectifying a voltage, such as turning AC in to DC voltages
Isolating signals from a supply
Voltage Reference
Controlling the size of a signal
Mixing signals
Detection signals
Lighting
Lasers diodes

Precautions:The following is a list of some of the special safety precautions that should be observed when
working with diodes:
Never remove or insert a diode into a circuit with voltage applied.
Never pry diodes to loosen them from their circuits.
Always be careful when soldering to ensure that excessive heat is not applied to thediode.
When testing a diode, ensure that the test voltage does not exceed the diode's maximum
allowable voltage.
Never put your fingers across a signal diode because the static charge from your body could
short it out.
Always replace a diode with a direct replacement, or with one of the same type.
Ensure a replacement diode is put into a circuit in the correct direction.

DIGITAL OSCILLOSCOPE:-

A Tektronix TDS210 digital oscilloscope

A digital storage oscilloscope is an oscilloscope which stores and analyses the
signal digitally rather than using analogue techniques. It is now the most common type of
oscilloscope in use because of the advanced trigger, storage, display and measurement features
which it typically provides.

Specifications:Bandwidth specification
One important oscilloscope specification is related to the speed of the waveforms that can be
measured. This is determined by the bandwidth of the oscilloscope and it is found that the
capability of the oscilloscope to accurately display the waveform falls off with increasing
frequency.
Vertical DC gain accuracy
It is important when measuring the amplitude of signals, to know the accuracy of the
measurement that is being made. As oscilloscopes are not intended to be used instead of digital
multimeters, it is not anticipated that the voltage elements of the oscilloscope specification will
be as accurate.
Vertical DC gain resolution
Today, many oscilloscope use all digital techniques, converting the incoming vertical or X axis
voltage to a digital format. It is therefore important to know what the resolution of this scale is.
Resolution and dynamic range determine, respectively, the "granularity" of measurements and
the largest measurement that can be made without clipping the waveform.

Another important oscilloscope specification which needs to be accommodated is the rise time of
the oscilloscope. This is a particularly important specification for any digital circuits where the
edges on square waves and pulses are often of great importance.

Applications:DUE TO EXPANDING FUNCTIONS AND CAPABILITIES, DSOs lend themselves to a wider

variety of application areas. Like a computer, the more applications you can use an instrument,
the greater value it has and the easier it is to justify. Here are a few for you to consider:
The most obvious one is to use a DSO as an OSCILLOSCOPE. Typical applications are
electronic circuit design and debug and troubleshooting faulty or intermittent circuits.
Another common application is as the front end of a DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM. DSO's
cost per channel has become very competitive. Many people find that the triggering flexibility,
deep memory, "live" view of waveforms, and fast transfer rates make the DSO a great candidate.
If your experiment is short lived, it is nice to have a DSO when you are done vs. a black box that

gets shelved and forgotten. Typical applications are research experiments, process monitoring,
and flaw detections.
DSOs lend themselves to being fully integrated into ATE SYSTEMS. In this example, the DSO
is under remote control from a host computer and conducts its business by computer command.
Typical applications are incoming Quality Assurance of components, Manufacturing/Production
Functional Test, Final Test, and System Test.
DSOs can be used (card level or portable rack mounted form factors) and can be embedded into
systems that require Analog to Digital conversion and data analysis. Here the DSO is used as a
SYSTEM COMPONENT and eliminates the need and time of engineering custom devices.
DSOs DISPLACE/REPLACE MANY DEDICATED INSTRUMENTS - i.e. DMMs, Spectrum
Analyzers, Impedance Analyzers, Time Interval Analyzers, Frequency Counters, Pulse Counters,
Power Meters, etc.
Some of the common DSO Application fields include:
Aerospace
Automotive Electronics
Avionics
Chemistry
Computer Backplanes/Interfaces
ElectricalComponents
Electric Power
EMP/EMI/EMC
LASERS
Lightning Studies
Magnetic Media
MATE
Medical
NDT
Networks/Communications

Noise/Acoustics
Power Supply Design/Manufacturing
Process Control
RADAR
Semiconductor Design/Manufacturing
SONAR
Telecomm (Switches, Cellular,Telemetry)
Ultrasound Vibration/Mechanical Analysis

Precautions:1. General Safety Rules To ensure your safety & avoid any damages to the product/connected
devices.
2. 3. To avoid any possible dangers, please use this product according to the rules. Use
appropriate power cord.
4. Please use dedicated power cord which is certified in the country/region. Connect/disconnect
properly.
5. Do not plug/unplug when the probe(s)/test lead(s) is connected to the power source.
6. Before you plug/unplug the current probes, please disconnect the power to the circuit-undertest.
7. Observe all terminal ratings.
8. To avoid fire/electric shock, please dont measure signal with DC100V or above, or the device
might be destroyed.
9. Please read the manual carefully to know the detailed info of related ratings before
connection.
10. Please do not operate in humid environment.
11. Please do not operate in inflammable/explosive environment.

MULTIMETER:Definition: An instrument designed to measure electric current, voltage, and usually resistance,
typically over several ranges of value.

Specifications:Operating Principle: Feedback pulse width modulation method.

Sampling Interval: 3 ms to 60 min (7561 and 7562), (1 ms min., 1s at 3s or more)
Maximum Reading: 1999999
Power Requirements: 10 0 or 115, 200 or 230 V AC (must be specified), 50 or 60 Hz.
Power Consumption: 20 VA max.
Weight (Approx.): 3 kg (6.6 lbs).
.

Applications:1.There are different measurement applications in multimeter.

2. Temperature and Environmental Applications
3. Low cost weather station
4. DMM internal temperature
5. Voltage Measurements
6. High and low value DC measurement
7. Peak to Peak and DC average measurement
8. Current Measurements
9. DC current measurement
10. True RMS AC current
11. Resistance Measurement
12. Micro ohm meter

13. Measuring resistance with constant voltage

14. Measuring resistance with constant current
15. Time and Frequency measurement
16 Fast frequency

INDUCTANCE:The key parameter for any inductor is its inductance. The inductance is the property of the
inductor that tends to oppose any change in the current flowing.
The SI unit of inductance is the henry, H. The inductance of a circuit is one henry if the rate of
change of current in a circuit is one ampere per second and this results in an electromotive force
of one volt.
Specifications:
VALUE

VALUE IN TERMS OF MICROHENRIES

1 henry

1 000 000 H

1 millihenry

1 000 H

1 nanohenry

0.001H

DC Resistance

Another important inductor parameter is the DC resistance it exhibits. As inductors are often
manufactured from very thin wire, the DC resistance can sometimes be significant. Even when
thicker wire is used, it is still an important factor because it can significantly affect the overall
performance as an inductor.
Saturation Current
The saturation current is another parameter or specification which is of importance for an
inductor.
The saturation current is generally taken to be the current at which the level of inductance falls
by a specified amount. Figures of 10% are often used for inductors with ferrite cores and 20% for
those with iron powdered cores.
Rated current
Another important inductor parameter is the rated current. This specification is the maximum
continuous current that the inductor can withstand. Generally the limiting factor for this
parameter is the temperature rise of the inductor.

Applications:Filters
Inductors are used extensively with capacitors and resistors to create filters for analog circuits
and in signal processing. Alone, an inductor functions as a low-pass filter, since the impedance of
an inductor increases as the frequency of a signal increases.
Sensors
Contactless sensors are prized for their reliability and ease of operation and inductors can be
used to sense magnetic fields or the presence of magnetically permeable material from a
distance.
Energy Storage
Like capacitors, inductors can be used for energy storage. Unlike capacitors, inductors have a
severe limitation on how long they can store energy since the energy is stored in a magnetic field
which collapses quickly once power is removed. The main use for inductors as energy storage is
in switch-mode power supplies, like the power supply in pc.

TRANSFORMER:: One of the main reasons that we use alternating AC voltages and currents in our homes and
workplaces is that AC supplies can be easily generated at a convenient voltage, transformed
(hence the name transformer) into much higher voltages and then distributed around the country
using a national grid of pylons and cables over very long distances.
The reason for transforming the voltage to a much higher level is that higher distribution
voltages implies lower currents for the same power and therefore lower I2R losses along the
networked grid of cables. These higher AC transmission voltages and currents can then be
reduced to a much lower, safer and usable voltage level where it can be used to supply electrical
equipment in our homes and workplaces, and all this is possible thanks to the basic Voltage
Transformer.

Construction and Applications:

A Typical Voltage Transformer

The transformer does this by linking together two or more electrical circuits using a common
oscillating magnetic circuit which is produced by the transformer itself. A transformer operates
on the principals of electromagnetic induction, in the form of Mutual Induction.
Mutual induction is the process by which a coil of wire magnetically induces a voltage into
another coil located in close proximity to it. Then we can say that transformers work in the
magnetic domain, and transformers get their name from the fact that they transform one
voltage or current level into another.
Single Phase Voltage Transformer

In other words, for a transformer there is no direct electrical connection between the two coil
windings, thereby giving it the name also of an Isolation Transformer. Generally, the primary
winding of a transformer is connected to the input voltage supply and converts or transforms the
electrical power into a magnetic field. While the job of the secondary winding is to convert this
alternating magnetic field into electrical power producing the required output voltage as shown.
Transformer Construction (single-phase)

Where:
VP - is the Primary Voltage
VS - is the Secondary Voltage
NP - is the Number of Primary Windings
NS - is the Number of Secondary Windings
(phi) - is the Flux Linkage

DUAL POWER SUPPLY:

A dual DC power supply is simply the supply of direct current to a machine from two outlets.
And the best part of everything is, it is easy to install. Lets consider what a dual voltage and dual
trace oscilloscope means.
Constant Power
A singlephase circuit, instantaneous power varies sinusoid ally. However, a dual power supply
ensures constant power supply to a device when one power source fails, which could be as a
result of a lot of factors.
Multiplies Supply Frequency
Dual DC power supply multiplies the supply frequency by 2.
Increases Power Output
More power is guaranteed whenever a dual DC power supply is engaged, compared to a single
power source. Just like supply frequency, it multiplies the power supply by 2.
Pocket-Friendly
A dual DC power supply is less expensive. Dual DC power supply is cheaper than running on a
single power supply. It also comes in useful in situations where one needs more power to boost
already available amps. The additional power supply doesn't have to be of a higher wattage as
not much loads need to run on it. For instance, the old power can be used to run the fan and
pumps and the new DC source can power the motherboard and other components of the desktop
computer.
Ease of Installation
Addition of a dual DC power supply to an already existing direct current power supply source is
easy and can be completed in less than 20 minutes. For example, once the spot is identified for
the second power supply, run a cord out of the case to connect the green pin and any black pin
coming from the main power supply to the auxiliary.
Constant Power
A rig that uses dual DC power supply is guaranteed with constant and uninterruptible power
supply. Again, a desktop computer can receive dual power supply, one for the fan and the second
one for the motherboard. This set up ensures that power supply is not compromised whenever a
device is switched on due to fluctuation of voltage. An electricity power supply can fluctuate
whenever we add a load to it. Fluctuation of electric current is one of the major causes of damage
to computer systems.

Convenient Temperature
Extra power supply does not change the case temperature as may logically be expected.
User-friendly
Dual power connection makes it easy to switch off the air conditioning device of an ATM
machine without interrupting the entire power supply during cold weather conditions and saving
up energy in the process.
A dual electric power supply is important for several reasons. Not only does it ensure stable
power supply to a device, but it also helps prevent system damage. It allows for multiple usage
of power by increasing power output. To put short, it ensures regular direct current power supply.
The importance of a dual DC power supply cannot be overemphasized.