Conduct a survey for a study on

1) Smoking Habits
Objective: To estimate the prevalence and the socioeconomic and demographic correlates of
tobacco consumption in India.
Design: Cross sectional, nationally representative population based household survey.
Subjects: 315 598 individuals 15 years or older from 91 196 households were sampled in
National Family Health Survey-2 (199899). Data on tobacco consumption were elicited from
household informants.
Measures and methods: Prevalence of current smoking and current chewing of tobacco were
used as outcome measures. Simple and two ways cross tabulations and multivariate logistic
regression analysis were the main analytical methods.
Results: Thirty per cent of the population 15 years or older47% men and 14% of women
either smoked or chewed tobacco, which translates to almost 195 million people154 million
men and 41million women in India. However, the prevalence may be underestimated by almost
11% and 1.5% for chewing tobacco among men and women, respectively, and by 5% and 0.5%
for smoking among men and women, respectively, because of use of household informants.
Tobacco consumption was significantly higher in poor, less educated, scheduled castes and
scheduled tribe populations. The prevalence of tobacco consumption increased up to the age of
50 years and then leveled or declined. The prevalence of smoking and chewing also varied
widely between different states and had a strong association with individuals socio cultural
characteristics.

Conclusion: The findings of the study highlight that an agenda to improve health outcomes
among the poor in India must include effective interventions to control tobacco use. Failure to do
so would most likely result in doubling the burden of diseasesboth communicable and noncommunicableamong Indias teeming poor. There is a need for periodical surveys using more
consistent definitions of tobacco use and eliciting information on different types of tobacco
consumed. The study also suggests a need to adjust the prevalence estimates based on household
informants
In India, tobacco consumption is responsible for half of all the cancers in men and a quarter of all
cancers in women, in addition to being a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases and chronic
obstructive pulmonary diseases. India also has one of the highest rates of oral cancer in the
world, partly attributed to high prevalence of tobacco chewing. Forms of tobacco chewing
include pan (piper betel leaf filled with sliced areca nut, lime, catechu, and other spices chewed
with or without tobacco), pan-masala or gutkha (a chewable tobacco containing areca nut),
andmishri (a powdered tobacco rubbed on the gums as toothpaste).
The World Health Organization predicts that tobacco deaths in India may exceed 1.5 million
annually by 2020. However, considerable research is required to comprehend the actual trends.
Nationally representative and reliable prevalence data on tobacco consumption are
scarce.1 Similarly, the socio demographic predictors of tobacco smoking and chewing are poorly
understood. The existing studies on prevalence of tobacco use are based on non-representative
sample surveys or have been conducted in localizedmostly urbangeographical areas as
reviewed in table 1. WHO estimated a prevalence of tobacco consumption of all forms at 65%
and 33%, respectively, among men and women, based on small scale studies conducted in the
past (table 1).
2

Review of literature on prevalence of tobacco consumption in India

The 52nd of National Sample Survey (52nd NSS) conducted by the National Sample Survey
Organization in 199596 was the first nationally representative household survey to collect data
on tobacco consumption for population 10 years and older using surrogate household informants.
Two questions were asked to elicit data on tobacco consumption: whether the household
member regularly consumes biri/cigar/cigarette/hukka? and whether the household member
regularly consumes tobacco?. The second question was very ambiguous and did not explicitly
ask about chewing tobacco. Though the prevalence estimates from the survey were not
published, the authors calculated a prevalence rate of tobacco consumption of any form of
tobacco consumption at 51.3% for men and 10.3% for women 15 years and older (table 1),
which was lower than that estimated by WHO and other small studies based on special
population groups in small geographical areas. The review of the prevalence studies in table 1
also points to the dearth of representative prevalence estimates in India.
This study uses data from National Family Health Survey (NFHS-2) to provide nationally
representative estimates of prevalence, and socioeconomic and demographic correlates of current
tobacco consumptionboth smoking and chewingamong individuals 15 years and older in
India. The findings of the study will help in designing tobacco control strategies and
understanding epidemiology of tobacco related health burden in India.
DATA AND METHODS
The data for the study came from the household questionnaire fielded under NFHS-2a
nationally representative, cross sectional, household sample survey conducted in 199899
covering 99% of Indias population living in 26 states (the administrative divisions in India). The
survey did not cover 1% of the population living in union territories (the administrative divisions
3

directly under the control of central government) of India. A uniform sample design was adopted
in all the states, which is described elsewhere in detail. Briefly, in each state the sample was
selected in two stages: the selection of villages and urban blocks (primary sampling units) with
probability proportional to size in the first stage, followed by random selection of households
within each primary sampling unit in the second stage. The sample was stratified according to a
number of variables in each state. These included regions, sub-regions, village size, percentage
of males in the non-agricultural sector, percentage of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, and
female literacy.
The sample size was large enough to provide reliable estimates of prevalence of tobacco
consumption by sex and for different socioeconomic population groups for each of the 26 states.
A sample of 91 196 households yielded 334 553 individuals160 871 men and 154 726 women
15 years and older, which constituted the study population for estimating the prevalence of
tobacco consumption.
The questionnaire was administered face-to-face to the head of the household or to any other
competent adult member of the household. Fifty nine per cent of the household respondents were
female. Majority of the respondents were in age groups 2539 (42.6%) and 4059 years (30.9%);
14.5% of the respondents were 1524 years old while the rest (12.0%) of respondents were 60
years and older. Only 27.8% of the respondents reported themselves to be the head of household.
The respondent to the household questionnaire was first asked to list all the usual residents and
visitors who stayed in the household the night before the interview. Data for tobacco
consumption for each household member 15 years and older including the household respondent
were elicited with the help of two questions: does he or she chews pan masala or tobacco? or
smokes tobacco?. The individuals were classified as chewing tobacco if the household
4

respondent answered yes to the question on chewing tobacco. Similarly, individuals were
categorised as smokers if household respondent answered yes to the question on smoking
tobacco. No questions were asked on the amount or frequency of tobacco consumption and on
the type of tobacco smokedbiris or cigarettes or other forms of smoking prevalent in India
(chutta, hukka, etc), which is an important data limitation of the study.
Socioeconomic and demographic information were sought from the household informant at both
household level (ownership of different assets, caste, religion) and at individual level (for
example, age, sex, education, marital status) for all the household members. Socioeconomic
differentials of tobacco prevalence were assessed with respect to three measures of
socioeconomic statuscaste, education, and household wealth. The caste is the basis of social
hierarchical organization of the Hindu religionthe predominant religion followed in India. The
government of India has identified, in a schedule of the Constitution of India, the castes
occupying the lowest rung of social hierarchy as the most socially disadvantaged, and classified
them as scheduled castes (SCs) and the scheduled tribes (STs). In addition, the government has
identified some occupational castes as socially backward and classified them as other backward
castes (OBCs).
To measure the economic status, we created a household wealth index using principal
component analysis of different household assets and dwelling characteristics (type of floor, roof,
etc) based on methods previously described. The household wealth index was then used to divide
the population into five quintiles.
STATA 7.0 was used to carry out statistical analyses. Univariate analysis was done to assess the
distribution of the sample and to compute overall prevalence of chewing of tobacco/pan
masala and smoking of tobacco. Both point estimates and robust 95% confidence intervals
5

(based on robust standard errors after adjusting for strata and clustering at primary sampling unit
(PSU) level are presented. The sample based prevalence estimates were converted into
population based estimates taking into account the population of India as per the Census 2001.
Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression models were estimated to assess the unadjusted and
adjusted association, respectively, of different socioeconomic (household wealth, years of
schooling, religion, and caste) and demographic characteristics (urban/rural residence, sex and
age) with tobacco consumption. Both bivariate and multivariate regression models were
estimated after applying for sampling weights and adjusting for multi-stage clustered sampling
designs using svy command in STATA 7.0. Collinearity between explanatory variables was
tested using variance inflation factor (VIF) command in STATA, which was found to be
insignificant. MAPINFO software was used to produce thematic maps of male tobacco smoking
and chewing prevalence.
RESULTS
Overall prevalence
Sixteen per cent of the study population (29.3% men and 2.3% women) smoked tobacco; 20% of
the study population (28.1% men and 12.0% women) chewed tobacco/pan masala; and 30% of
the study population (46.5% men and 13.8% women) either smoked or chewed tobacco. Table 2
shows the percentage and approximate number of people who consumed some form of tobacco.
Approximately, 194 million people aged 15 years and older (150 million men and 44 million
women) consumed some form of tobacco. Almost 79% of tobacco consumers lived in rural areas,
slightly more than the share of rural population in the total population (73%).

2) Skill trading option in an economically background neighborhood

6

3) Wearing helmets
Background:Motorcycles account for a large proportion of road traffic accidents in India and the riders of
these vehicles run a high risk of injuries or death. This study aims to explore the determinants of
helmet use among motorcyclists in India.
Methods:
A cross-sectional study conducted in Delhi, India, over a period of six months. 309 motorcyclists
in Delhi were interviewed for this study using a pretested structured questionnaire.
Introduction
With the rapid expansion of motor vehicle use in low- and middle-income countries, road trafficrelated death and injuries are increasing sharply.Projections show that, between 2000 and 2020,
road traffic deaths will decline by about 30% in high-income countries but increase substantially
in low- and middle-income countries. Without appropriate action, by 2020, road traffic injuries
are predicted to be the third leading contributor to the global burden of disease and injury. More
than one million people died from road traffic crashes in low-and middle-income countries in
2000; according to the World Health Organization, that number could nearly double by 2020.
Every day thousands of people are killed and injured in traffic accidents. Millions of people each
year spend many weeks in hospital after severe crashes and many will never be able to make a
living, work or play as in the past. More than half of the people killed in traffic crashes are young
adults aged between 15 and 44 years and often individuals who support their family with their

earnings. Motorcycle accidents account for a large proportion of road traffic accidents in India
and the riders of these motorized vehicles have a high risk of injuries or death. Motorcycle
accidents are associated with a high incidence of head injuries. Health care costs due to head
injuries are not affordable for an average citizen in a country like India where health insurance is
not that common. Evidence exists to suggest that use of helmets can reduce the risk and
occurrence of both head injuries and death due to motorcycle accidents and in turn reduce
hospitalization and morbidity. A study by Moskal et al observed that helmet use significantly
decreased the risk of head and facial injuries. The study also reported that there was however no
association between helmet use and the occurrence of neck or cervical spine injuries. It
concluded that helmets protect users of motorized two-wheel vehicles against head and facial
injury without increasing the risk of neck or cervical spine injury.7 A study among traffic
accident victims in New Delhi by Banerjee et al. revealed that 31% were the victims of head
injury and the study also suggests the need for wearing a helmet as a preventive strategy for head
injury.An important means of increasing the wearing of helmets in low- and middle-income
countries is legislation; where helmet-wearing rates are low and a large number of people use
motorized two-wheelers.
There is considerable evidence to show that helmet use effectively reduces motorcycle-related
head injuries. Helmet use lessens serious injuries, lowers mortality rates and reduces the need for
hospital resources.6 The most specific and most effective way of reducing head injuries and
fatalities resulting from motorcycle and bicycle crashes is the use of helmets. In most low- and
middle-income countries, especially in Asia, a motorcycle is the common vehicle for the
family.9 Helmet use among the motorcycle road users is low. Young motorcycle users in
particular are generally less likely to wear a helmet than those who are older.9 A study in a
9

Brazilian city, for instance, found that those younger than 18 years were less likely than others to
wear a helmet, particularly if they had been consuming alcohol.
But helmets are not uniformly worn by all motorcycle riders in Kerala due to various reasons.
The purpose of the present study was to explore the determinants of helmet use among
motorcyclists and to determine the prevalence of helmet use at the time of the study.
Results:
Among 309 motorcyclists, 80% were less than 40 years of age, and only 24% were females.
Among the total, only 31.4% used a helmet. There was a statistically significant association
between the use of helmet and gender, marital status, drunken driving, use of alcohol and attitude
towards implementing legislative measures. Odds Ratios observed were 5.3 for female gender
compared to male, 4.5 for those with a positive attitude towards the implementation of legislative
measures on helmet use, 3.7 for those who were not drunk while driving and 2.3 for unmarried
compared to married persons.
Method
This cross-sectional study was conducted in the Indian state of Delhi. It has a population of 31.8
million as per the 2001 census report. The state has a literacy rate of 97%, among the highest in
India. According to the 2001 census of India figures, 56% of residents are Hindus, 24% Muslims,
19% Christians and the remaining 1% are of some other faith. This study was conducted over a
period of six months from May to October 2007. A pre-tested structured closed-ended
questionnaire was used for data collection. The questionnaire included socio-demographic
characteristics like age, gender, education, marital status, religion and topics relating to their
10

awareness of helmet use and attitudes towards helmet use and practice. 309 motorcyclists across
Delhi were interviewed for this study. The sample size was calculated by considering the
prevalence of helmet use as 30%, alpha = 0.05 and 20% error, thus the minimum sample size
observed was 235. For the purpose of the study, the state was divided into three regions: south,
central and north. From each region, a minimum of 100 samples were collected by random
procedure. A random point in each region was identified and the motorcyclists riding past were
asked to participate in the study. After obtaining informed consent from the motorcyclists, the
questionnaire was administered. The purpose of the study was explained after providing the
questionnaire to them. The data obtained were analyzed using SPSS 17. Simple and multiple
logistic regression with helmet use as the dependent variable and riders gender, religion, marital
status, education, use of alcohol, use of mobile phone while driving, attitude towards the role of
stringent legislative measures in the use of safety helmets were the independent variables.
Conclusions:
The study concludes that the determinants associated with the practice of helmet use were
gender, drunken driving, marital status and positive attitude towards legal measures.

11

4) Attitudes of road users

Introduction:Today's world is a fast moving world. As consequence it meets with more road accidents.
The growing number of vehicles, population and indiscipline attitude of road users are
some of the concerns for the road accidents and road congestion. In recent years the
number of road accidents growing rapidly. In particular, the victims are the youth of
every country.
Road traffic safety refers to methods and measures for reducing the risk of a person
using the road network being killed or seriously injured. The users of a road
include pedestrians, cyclists, motorists, their passengers, and passengers

of on-

road public transport, mainly buses and trams. Best-practice road safety strategies focus
upon the prevention of serious injury and death crashes in spite of human
fallibility[1] (which is contrasted with the old road safety paradigm of simply reducing
crashes assuming road user compliance with traffic regulations). Safe road design is now
about providing a road environment which ensures vehicle speeds will be within the
human tolerances for serious injury and death wherever conflict points exist.
The basic strategy of a Safe System approach is to ensure that in the event of a crash, the
impact energies remain below the threshold likely to produce either death or serious
injury. This threshold will vary from crash scenario to crash scenario, depending upon the
level of protection offered to the road users involved. For example, the chances of
survival for an unprotected pedestrian hit by a vehicle diminish rapidly at speeds greater
than 30 km/h, whereas for a properly restrained motor vehicle occupant the critical
impact speed is 50 km/h (for side impact crashes) and 70 km/h (for head-on crashes).
International Transport Forum, Towards Zero, Ambitious Road Safety Targets and the
Safe System Approach, Executive Summary page 19

12

As sustainable solutions for all classes of road have not been identified, particularly lowly
trafficked rural and remote roads, a hierarchy of control should be applied, similar to best
practice Occupational Safety and Health. At the highest level is sustainable prevention of
serious injury and death crashes, with sustainable requiring all key result areas to be
considered. At the second level is real time risk reduction, which involves providing users
at severe risk with a specific warning to enable them to take mitigating action. The third
level is about reducing the crash risk which involves applying the road design standards
and guidelines (such as from AASHTO), improving driver behavior and enforcement.
Description of the Hidden Path using Combined Fuzzy cognitive Maps

a) Increase of Number of Vehicle

Increase in growth of population in many countries explodes to growth of more
number of vehicles on roads makes inconsistent for road users.
b) Using of communicative devices
Usage of communicative devices like mobile phones, Bluetooth devices etc., are
common, but dangerous.
c) Noise Pollution
Noises on roads are the most irritating source reported to date is road traffic High
level noise is a disturbance to the human environment.
d) Disobeying Traffic Rules
People mandatorily disobey the traffic rules causes road accidents and road traffic.
e) Improper time Management
Moving from one part of city to another for specific reason to complete the assigned
job in stipulated time. Delayed journey provokes poor time management on roads
f)

gives menace for road users.

Poor Road Maintenance
The economic costs of poor road maintenance are borne primarily by road users.
When a road is allowed to deteriorate from good to poor condition, each dollar saved
on road

g) Lack of seriousness of Pedestrian Walkers

Negligence is known as the primary cause of many pedestrian accidents. A driver or a

pedestrian will be seen as negligent if he performed a reckless action, which caused
13

injuries to others. To be more specific, a person will be guilty of it if he has performed

an action that he is prohibited from doing or if he has failed to perform an action that
he is required to do.
h) Inexperienced Drivers
Inexperienced drivers expose themselves for unnecessary risk result with Loss of live,
damage to vehicle, road collision.

i)

Poor Parking Slots

The traffic problems are due to narrow roads. There are bottle necks created by lack
of civic sense and encroachments by street venders and there should not be jumbling

of business, education, hospital, commercial places or hotels in a single road.

j) Improper Maintenance of Vehicle
The failure to perform needed repairs could lead to asset deterioration and ultimately
asset impairment accounts for health and safety implications. Here it is important to
mention that we do not say we have exhausted all the attributes related to these study
or it is not necessary for one to take all 10 attributes the expert can choose to take
only a few out of them or more attributes. Thus it is purely in the hands of the
investigator to take the related attributes as per his/her wishes. Here the term expert
need not strictly mean an expert: it means someone who gives his views to us and has
an understanding and expertise
Methods

14

Road traffic crashes are one of the worlds largest public health and injury prevention problems.
The problem is all the more acute because the victims are overwhelmingly healthy before their
crashes. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), more than 1 million people are
killed on the worlds roads each year. A report published by the WHO in 2004 estimated that
some 1.2 million people were killed and 50 million injured in traffic collisions on the roads
around the world each year and was the leading cause of death among children 1019 years of
age. The report also noted that the problem was most severe in developing countries and that
simple prevention measures could halve the number of deaths.
The standard measures used in assessing road safety interventions are fatalities and killed or
seriously injured (KSI) rates, usually per billion (109) passenger kilometers. Countries caught in
the old road safety paradigm, replace KSI rates with crash rates for example, crashes per
million vehicle miles.
Vehicle speed within the human tolerances for serious injury and death is a key goal of modern
road design because impact speed affects the severity of injury to both occupants and
pedestrians. For occupants, Joksch (1993) found the probability of death for drivers in multi15

vehicle accidents increased as the fourth power of impact speed (often referred to by the
mathematical term v ("delta V"), meaning change in velocity). Injuries are caused by sudden,
severe acceleration (or deceleration); this is difficult to measure. However, crash reconstruction
techniques can estimate vehicle speeds before a crash. Therefore, the change in speed is used as a
surrogate for acceleration. This enabled the Swedish Road Administration to identify the KSI
risk curves using actual crash reconstruction data which led to the human tolerances for serious
injury and death referenced above.
Conclusion
The Study converges to the people of country on their Well-being and Happiness while on
transportation on roads, to have effective time management and accidents free society. When we
civilians of our country obey traffic rules and control population span prevent us from noise
pollution and accident free zone

16

5) Conservation of electricity
India today has a vast population of more than 1.20 billions out of which nearly 75% are
living in rural areas. Energy and development are inter-related. In order to have
sustainable growth rate. It is imperative to have sufficient energy for systematic
development in various sectors. Energy sector has received top priority in all Five year
pains so far. During seventh Five Year plans 30% of the plan outlay was allotted to this
sector. The installed capacity of electric power has increased from 1362 MW. At the time
of independence to a staggering 70,000 MW. Despite such achievements, the gap
between demand and supply of electrical energy is increasing every year as power sector
is highly capital-intensive. The deficit in installed capacity was nearly 10,000 MW, by the
and of eleventh five year plan. It is estimated that in 2011 alone India has lost above 10.0
billion US$ in manufacturing productivity because for power is projected to grow by 7 to
10% per year for the next 10 years. The working group on power had recommended
capacity addition program of 46,645 MWduring the twelfth plan period along with the
associated transmission and distribution works at a cost of Rs. 12, 26,000 corer. With this
capacity addition there would have been a peak power shortage of 15.3 percent by the
end of the 12th plans. The proven reserves of fossil fuel in India are not very large. A
major share of scarce foreign currency is earmarked for importing petroleum products.
The bill of which is continuously increasing coal reserve likely to be exhausted by the
middle or centaury. Thus a bleak scenario awaits India in future unless absolutely new
strategies are adopted. In spite of huge plan outlay of energy sector in last 60 years, most
of the rural population has not yet been able to reach the threshold of enough energy to
meet their basic human needs. There appears to be something basically wrong in

17

planning. The planners have adopted the western model of centralized energy system
without necessary modification to suit Indian condition.
In future the energy conservation would assume more significance globally on the basis
of the effect of burning fossil fuel on environment, particularly the global warming rather
than the depletion of fossil fuel reserves and other consideration.
Sector wise energy consumption:-

THE SCOPE AND POTENTIAL

The developing countries like India are obliged to maintain a certain growth rate for which
energy is a basic ingredient. Failure to meet the energy demand for the basic needs of the
economy will cause inflation unemployment and socio economic disorder. The major energy
projects are capital-intensive and result in the degradation of the environment and ecology.
Energy efficiency and conservation in the past have been neglected on the assumption of
continuous availability of fossil fuel.
Energy conservation is the strategy of adjusting and optimizing energy using systems and
procedures to reduce energy requirements per unit of output without affecting socio-economic
development. Energy conservation means going with what is available, while in developed
countries 1% increase in G.N.P. needs barely 0.6% increase in energy consumption in whereas in
India the corresponding increase in energy consumption is nearly 1.5%
18

1. Transmission and Distribution Losses

India has a complex transmission and distribution network. The Transmission and distribution (T
& D) losses in Indian Power Systems are rather high. According to Central Electricity
Authority (CEA) statistics, on all India basis the losses are around 20 percent. According to the
estimates of a few other independent agencies, the real T&D losses may be even higher than this
figure power systems with those of more developed In order to estimate the cost effectiveness of
the various modern techniques available for reduction of T&D losses in the context of Indian
environment, it is essential to have an idea regarding the energy losses taking place at the various
stages of transmission and distribution of power as well as a further breakup of the line losses
and transformation losses. The T&D losses can be divided in to two parts, namely. Extra-high
voltage (EHV) /High Voltage (HV) transmission and low voltage distribution. Out of total 15%
T&D losses targeted to be achieved.
2. Long Term Objectives of Energy Conservation
1. To bring attitudinal changes in all energy users so that they strive for maximum energy
efficiency in all products, projects, buildings, processes, domestic and commercial use,
agricultural and transport use in consistent with economic considerations.
2. Take necessary steps to discipline those who fail to fall in line with the above changes.
3. To adopt policies which make energy conservation easy and attractive for being adopted by all
energy users?
4. To take steps to prevent inefficient use of energy in future projects, buildings, products,
processes etc. in every sector of energy use.
19

Areas of Energy Conservation

The main areas where conservation was possible are as follows:1. Improvement in power factor would result in reduction in actual maximum demand on the
system.
2. Improvement in plant load factor results in optimum utilization of plant capacity and
increasing production.
3.80% of the industrial electricity consumption is accounted for by induction motors which are
mostly used for pumping and compressor application, etc.
4. Various furnaces, electrolysis baths and vessels operating at higher temperature are found to
have inadequate insulation. Higher surface temperature means loss of electrical form of energy
by radiation. This can easily be prevented by applying proper insulation to limit the surface
temperature rise above ambient up to 20 C.
New Concepts in Energy Conservation
Energy Conservation offers a practical means of achieving development goals. It enhances the
international competitiveness of industry in world markets by reducing the cost of production. It
optimizes the use of capital resources by diverting lesser amounts in conservation investments as
against huge capital investment in power sector. It helps environment in the short run by
reducing pollution and in the long run by reducing the scope of global climatic changes. Energy
conservation is a decentralized issue and largely depends on the individual unlike decisions of
energy supply which are highly centralized. The housewife, the car driver, the boiler operator in

20

industry and every other individual who consumes energy in some form or other is requiring
participating in energy saving measures.
In order to have energy efficiency strategies really effective some conceptual changes are
imperative.
Conservation must be recognized as a new source of Energy- a benign and clean source End
use management of energy demand should not be met by increased supply only.
Energy efficiency is the most cost effective way to bridge the gap between supply and demand.
In the past the energy planning was based on continuous supply of fossil fuel. What matters to a
consumer of energy is not energy per so but the services it provides cooking. Lighting, motive
power etc. thus the true indicator of development is not the magnitude of per capita energy
consumption, but the level of energy services provided. A stage has reached when developing
countries need not to look at energy consumption per capita as a sign of development and
growth.
The economics of major power projects ignore the time value of money. The gestation period of
the project is ignored. Thus the projects which yield physical benefits after many years are
treated at par with projects that yield immediate benefits. Thus no attention is paid to when the
returns are obtained.

21

22

23

6) Re-harvesting of rain water

Rainwater harvesting is the accumulation and deposition of rainwater for reuse on-site,
rather than allowing it to run off. Its uses include water for garden, water for livestock,
water for irrigation, water for domestic use with proper treatment, and indoor heating for
houses etc. In many places the water collected is just redirected to a deep pit with
percolation. The harvested water can be used as drinking water as well as for storage and
other purpose like irrigation.
Advantage
Rainwater harvesting provides an independent water supply during regional water
restrictions and in developed countries is often used to supplement the main supply. It
provides water when there is a drought, can help mitigate flooding of low-lying areas,
and reduces demand on wells which may enable ground water levels to be sustained. It
also helps in the availability of potable water as rainwater is substantially free of salinity
and other salts. Application of rainwater harvesting in urban water system provides a
substantial benefit for both water supply and wastewater subsystems by reducing the need
for clean

water in water

distribution

system as

well

as

less

generated storm

water in sewer system.

India

In the state of Tamil Nadu, rainwater harvesting was made compulsory for every building
to avoid ground water depletion. It proved excellent results within five years, and every state
took it as role model. Since its implementation, Chennai saw a 50 percent rise in water level
in five years and the water quality significantly improved.

In Rajasthan, rainwater harvesting has traditionally been practiced by the people of

the That Desert. There are many ancient water harvesting systems in Rajasthan, which have
24

now been revived Water harvesting systems are widely used in other areas of Rajasthan as
well, for example the chauka system from the Jaipur district.

Kerala:

At present, in Pune (in Maharashtra), rainwater harvesting is compulsory for any new
society to be registered.

An attempt has been made at Dept. of Chemical Engineering, IISc, Bangalore to harvest
rainwater using upper surface of a solar still, which was used for water distillation[

Thus, rainwater harvesting is a cost effective and relatively lesser complex way of managing our
limited resources ensuring sustained long-term supply of water to the community. In order to
fight with the water scarcity, many countries started harvesting rain. Major players are Germany
(Biggest harvesting system in Germany is at Frankfurt Airport, collecting water from roofs of the
new terminal which has an large catchment area of 26,800 m2), Singapore (as average annual
rainfall of Singapore is 2400 mm, which is very high and best suited for rainwater harvesting
application), Tokyo (as RWH system reserves water which can be utilized for emergency water
demands for seismic disaster), etc. STUDIES CARRIED OUT IN INDIA Today, only 2.5 per
cent of the entire worlds water is fresh, which is fit for human consumption, agriculture and
industry. In several parts of the world, however, water is being used at a much faster rate than
can be refilled by rainfall. In 2025, the per capita water availability in India will be reduced to
1500 cubic meters from 5000 in 1950. The United Nations warns that this shortage of freshwater
could be the most serious obstacle to producing enough food for a growing world population,
reducing poverty and protecting the environment. Hence the water scarcity is going to be a

25

critical problem if it is not treated now in its peanut stage. Elements of Rainwater Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting systems generally consist of four basic elements:
(1) Collection (catchment) area
(2) Conveyance system consisting of pipes and gutters
(3) Storage facility, and
(4) Delivery system consisting tap or pump.
Rainwater Harvesting Practice In India At the rate in which Indias population is increasing,
Rainwater Harvesting is the need of the hour. In the state of Tamil Nadu, rainwater harvesting
was made compulsory for every building to avoid ground water depletion. It proved excellent
results within five years, and every other state took it as role model. Since its implementation,
Chennai saw a 50 percent rise in water level in five years and the water quality significantly
improved. In Rajasthan, rainwater harvesting has traditionally been practiced by the people of
the Thar Desert. There are many ancient water harvesting systems in Rajasthan, which have now
been revived. At present, in Pune (in Maharashtra), rainwater harvesting is compulsory for any
new society to be registered. An attempt has been made at Dept. of Chemical Engineering, IISc,
and Bangalore to harvest rainwater using upper surface of a solar still, which was used for water
distillation. There are good opportunities for Rainwater harvesting in Kerala because Kerala is
located in a geographical area with two rainy seasons. Kerala faces severe water scarcity
between February and mid May every year. During summer, there are drinking water shortages.
During this period drinking water and other water purposes become unavailable. Rain water
harvesting has gained popularity in Kerala through various projects implemented by different
agencies. The Rain Water Harvesting Campaign of the Government and publicity by various
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media are responsible for popularizing rain water harvesting in the state. Rainwater harvesting is
viewed as a water security measure for the State of Kerala, with two broad types of programmes.
CONCLUSION
The effectiveness of rainwater harvesting system lies in its ability to meet the site requirements
and end use preferences. Though simple, these systems are site specific and need to be detailed
out before implementation. With decrease in availability of water, rain water harvesting presents
the best option for times to come.

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