2.

1
Preliminaries & Definitions

C L C L

CD C Dmin K CL2 .

(2.1.1)
(2.1.2)

Remark In (2.1.1), as well as all the following equations, the angle of attack, , is relative to the zero-lift angle of
attack. This is implied in (2.1.1), since the lift coefficient equals zero for 0 . Also, (2.1.1) models lift as a linear
function of . This model may be superseded by an actual graph of the relation.
Definition 2.1 When the net external forces and the pitching moment are both zero, the airplane is said to be in the
condition of longitudinal balance. In particular, balance requires that the pitch moment coefficient Cm 0 . Another term
used for this balance is equilibrium.
Definition 2.2 For an airplane in a longitudinally balanced (or equilibrium) condition, with corresponding angle of attack,
o , (where we will assume only the case o 0 ), suppose that the airplane angle of attack is changed to a value

o . If the resulting non-zero pitch moment, Cm ( ) acts in a manner to tend to bring the angle of attack back
toward o , then the airplane is said to have positive pitch stiffness. If this moment acts in a manner to drive the angle of
attack further away from o , then the airplane is said to have negative pitch stiffness.
Definition 2.4 The aerodynamic center of an airplane is that location (in 3-D space), about which the total longitudinal
pitch moment remains unchanged as a function of the angle of attack, .
Definition 2.5 The neutral point of an airplane is that x-axis location, c hn , such that when the plane cg location, h, lies
there, then the plane has zero pitch stiffness.

2.2
Wing Lift and Pitching Moment:

(NOTE: All equations below ignore propulsion effects)

Cmw ( w ) Cmacw C Lw ( w )(h hnw ) C macw ( aw w )(h hnw )

(2.2.3)

Wing/Body Lift and Pitching Moment:

Cmwb ( wb ) Cmacwb C Lwb ( wb ) (h hnwb ) Cmacwb wb awb (h hnwb ) .

(2.2.4)

Remark 1. The authors note that one result of including the body and nacelles is hnwb hnw .
Tail Lift and Pitching Moment:

Cmt ( t ) C Lt t (h hnwb ) VH (at t ) t (h hnwb ) VH .

S

(2.2.13a)

Remark 2. Since VH lt S t / Sc , (2.2.13a) can also be expressed as:

C mt ( t ) ( at t )( S t / S ) [ h hnwb (lt / c )] .
where

t (1 / | wb ) wb (it 0 ) .

Airplane Lift and Pitching Moment:

C L ( ) a
where
and

and

(2.3.12)

(2.3.16c)

C L
CL
a S

awb 1 t t 1

wb
awb S

aS
wb t t (it 0 ) .
aS

where

(2.2.13b)

(2.3.18)
(2.3.19)

Cm Cm 0 a (h hn ) Cm 0 aK n

(2.3.25b)

aS
Cm 0 Cmacwb atVH (it 0 ) 1 t t 1

aS

(2.3.22a)

hn hnwb

at

VH 1

and where the plane static (stability) margin is: hn h K n

(2.3.23)

(2.3.6)

2.3
2.4 Longitudinal Control Using a Tail Elevator
C L ( , e ) C L C L e e C L ( ) C L e e

(2.4.2a)

Cm ( , e ) Cm0 Cm Cme e Cm ( ) Cm e e

(2.4.2b)

CLt at t ae e
Tailed Plane:

C L ( S t / S )ae

Tailless Plane:

C L e

Cm e aeVH C L e (h hnwb )

(2.4.8)

Cm e Cmac / e C Le ( h hn )

(2.4.9)

C L wb
e

(2.4.4)

ELEVATOR ANGLE TO TRIM

Hence:

etrim Cm ( ) / Cm e .

(2.4.10)

C Ltrim C L trim C L etrim

(2.4.11a)

Remark In (2.4.11) we have used the notation trim , as opposed to .These are one and the same angle of attack. The
subscript is included in order to emphasize the fact that now the plane is in a trimmed condition.

CL
CLtrim CL 1 e
CL

Cm

Cm
e

Cm
0

C
.
L e
trim
Cm

(2.4.15)

Definition. Equation (2.4.15) is called the trimmed lift curve.

Basic ( e 0)

CL

Trimmed ( e 0)

C Le
C L 1
CL

Cm0
C L
e
| C me |

Cm

Cm
e

C L

CL e
Cm0
/ 1
CL
| Cm |
e

C L e
Figure 2.17 on p.37. Plots of aircraft

Cm

Cm
e

(re: zero-lift) versus lift coefficient,

C L for basic and trimmed conditions.

2.4

Cmac

CLt
wb
trim
CL K n C L ( hn hnwb ) VH
C

C
C
L
L e m0 / det .
e
e
e trim
e

trim

where

C L ( K nC Ltrim Cm0 ) / det .

Cmacwb

det C L

C L (hn hnwb ) aeVH .

e

(4a)
(4b)
(2c)

Remark. The term det (which, the authors note, is usually negative) does not depend on K n . From equations (4), we see
that both the aircraft trimmed angle of attack, trim , and the elevator angle, etrim , are linear functions of K n .

etrim (C Ltrim 0) C L Cm0 / det .

d etrim
dC Ltrim

C L K n / det .

(5a)
(5b)

This explains why the plot for h hn (i.e. K n 0 )in Figure 2.18 on p.37 is flat, and why, as K n increases, the slopes
become increasingly steeper.

VARIATION OF etrim WITH SPEED