Linguistica Aplicada Ensino Ingles Joverns Adultos PDF

Lingustica Aplicada
ao Ensino do Ingls
para Jovens e
Adultos
Rosa Maria Neves da Silva
Lingustica Aplicada
ao Ensino do Ingls
para Jovens e
Adultos
Montes Claros/MG - 2012
- EDITORA UNIMONTES - 2012

Universidade Estadual de Montes Claros
REITOR
Joo dos Reis Canela
Luci Kikuchi Veloso

Maria Cristina Ruas de Abreu Maia
Maria Lda Clementino Marques
Ubiratan da Silva Meireles
VICE-REITORA
Maria Ivete Soares de Almeida
DIRETOR DE DOCUMENTAO E INFORMAES
Huagner Cardoso da Silva
EDITORA UNIMONTES
Conselho Editorial
Prof. Silvio Guimares Medicina. Unimontes.
Prof. Herclio Mertelli Odontologia. Unimontes.
Prof. Humberto Guido Filosofia. UFU.
Prof Maria Geralda Almeida. UFG
Prof. Luis Jobim UERJ.
Prof. Manuel Sarmento Minho Portugal.
Prof. Fernando Verd Pascoal. Valencia Espanha.
Prof. Antnio Alvimar Souza - Unimontes
Prof. Fernando Lolas Stepke. Univ. Chile.
Prof. Jos Geraldo de Freitas Drumond Unimontes.
Prof Rita de Cssia Silva Dionsio. Letras Unimontes.
Prof Maisa Tavares de Souza Leite. Enfermagem Unimontes.
Prof Siomara A. Silva Educao Fsica. UFOP.
REVISO LINGUSTICA
ngela Heloiza Buxton
Arlete Ribeiro Nepomuceno
Aurinete Barbosa Tiago
Carla Roselma Athayde Moraes
REVISO TCNICA
Admilson Eustquio Prates
Cludia de Jesus Maia
Josiane Santos Brant
Karen Trres Corra Lafet de Almeida
Kthia Silva Gomes
Marcos Henrique de Oliveira
DESIGN EDITORIAL E CONTROLE DE
PRODUO DE CONTEDO
Andria Santos Dias
Camilla Maria Silva Rodrigues
Clsio Robert Almeida Caldeira
Fernando Guilherme Veloso Queiroz
Francielly Sousa e Silva
Hugo Daniel Duarte Silva
Marcos Aurlio de Almeida e Maia
Magda Lima de Oliviera
Sanzio Mendona Henriques
Tatiane Fernandes Pinheiro
Ttylla Ap. Pimenta Faria
Vincius Antnio Alencar Batista
Wendell Brito Mineiro
Zilmar Santos Cardoso
CATALOGADO PELA DIRETORIA DE DOCUMENTAO E INFORMAES (DDI) - UNIMONTES

Dados Internacionais de Catalogao na Publicao (CIP)
Este livro ou parte dele no pode ser reproduzido por qualquer meio sem autorizao escrita do Editor.
EDITORA UNIMONTES
Campus Universitrio Professor Darcy Ribeiro
s/n - Vila Mauricia - Montes Claros (MG)
Caixa Postal: 126 - CEP: 39.401-089 - Telefone: (38) 3229-8214
www.unimontes.br / editora@unimontes.br
Ministro da Educao
Aloizio Mercadante
Chefe do Departamento de Cincias Biolgicas

Guilherme Victor Nippes Pereira
Presidente Geral da CAPES

Jorge Almeida Guimares
Chefe do Departamento de Cincias Sociais

Maria da Luz Alves Ferreira
Diretor de Educao a Distncia da CAPES

Joo Carlos Teatini de Souza Clmaco
Chefe do Departamento de Geocincias

Guilherme Augusto Guimares Oliveira
Governador do Estado de Minas Gerais

Antnio Augusto Junho Anastasia
Chefe do Departamento de Histria

Donizette Lima do Nascimento
Vice-Governador do Estado de Minas Gerais

Alberto Pinto Coelho Jnior
Chefe do Departamento de Comunicao e Letras

Ana Cristina Santos Peixoto
Secretrio de Estado de Cincia, Tecnologia e Ensino Superior

Nrcio Rodrigues
Chefe do Departamento de Educao

Andra Lafet de Melo Franco
Reitor da Universidade Estadual de Montes Claros - Unimontes

Joo dos Reis Canela
Coordenadora do Curso a Distncia de Artes Visuais

Maria Elvira Curty Romero Christoff
Vice-Reitora da Unimontes
Maria Ivete Soares de Almeida
Coordenador do Curso a Distncia de Cincias Biolgicas

Afrnio Farias de Melo Junior
Pr-Reitora de Ensino
Anete Marlia Pereira
Coordenadora do Curso a Distncia de Cincias Sociais

Cludia Regina Santos de Almeida
Diretor do Centro de Educao a Distncia

Jnio Marques Dias
Coordenadora do Curso a Distncia de Geografia

Janete Aparecida Gomes Zuba
Coordenadora da UAB/Unimontes
Maria ngela Lopes Dumont Macedo
Coordenadora do Curso a Distncia de Histria

Jonice dos Reis Procpio
Coordenadora Adjunta da UAB/Unimontes

Betnia Maria Arajo Passos
Coordenadora do Curso a Distncia de Letras/Espanhol

Orlanda Miranda Santos
Diretor do Centro de Cincias Humanas - CCH

Antnio Wagner Veloso Rocha
Coordenadora do Curso a Distncia de Letras/Ingls

Hejaine de Oliveira Fonseca
Diretora do Centro de Cincias Biolgicas da Sade - CCBS

Maria das Mercs Borem Correa Machado
Coordenadora do Curso a Distncia de Letras/Portugus

Ana Cristina Santos Peixoto
Diretor do Centro de Cincias Sociais Aplicadas - CCSA

Paulo Cesar Mendes Barbosa
Coordenadora do Curso a Distncia de Pedagogia

Maria Narduce da Silva
Chefe do Departamento de Artes

Maristela Cardoso Freitas
Autor
MA in Linguistics and Specialization in TEFL (Ball State University, USA) as a

Fulbright Grantee; Specialization in ESP (University of Lancaster, England);
Teaching License in Portuguese and English (FUPAC, Barbacena, MG); Retired
Associate Professor from UFMG; English Linguistics Teacher PREPES/
PUCMG; Visiting Professor of Portuguese and Brazilian Culture (Portland State
University, USA); Publications: Glossrio Bilngue de Tecnologia e Negcios
(1998, Editora Nova Fronteira), Glossrio de Termos Parlamentares - bilngue
(Assemblia Legislativa de Minas Gerais), Leitura de Textos em Ingls: uma
abordagem instrumental (co-author); Language Specialist for Undergraduate
Courses Assessment at Conselho Estadual de Educao de Minas Gerais;
Professional Translator.
Sumrio
By way of presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
UNIT 1
What is applied linguistics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 The Object of Teaching and Learning: Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
UNIT 2
What does it mean to learn a foreign language? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.1 The Learning Process: Core Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Learning Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3 Learning Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4 Your new self . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
UNIT 3
What does it take to teach a foreign language? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.1 Approaching Language Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 Learning assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
UNIT 4
How is the foregoing material applicable to the classroom? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

4.1 Sample unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.2 General task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Learning Activities - AA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
UAB/Unimontes - 8 Perodo
APPENDIX
Annex 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Annex 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Annex 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Annex 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Annex 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Annex 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Annex 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Letras/Ingls - Lingustica Aplicada ao Ensino do Ingls para Jovens e Adultos
By way of presentation
Welcome back to a new school term! During this term you will be introduced to a new
field of study, one which is of the utmost importance to yourself as an English learner and a
prospective English Language Teacher: Applied Linguistics. Through the next units you will read
about this subfield of Linguistics mainly as connected to foreign/second language teaching. The
readings are complemented with a number of varied activities and practical examples aimed
to combine theory and practice. In the 'clues', 'glossaries', and 'learn more' sections you will
find additional explanation and guidelines, and the references offer you a selection of reliable,
useful sources of material to expand your knowledge I am sure you will profit from every lesson
and agree to the importance of this tool to your learning and teaching. I invite you to read and
study and carefully complete all the activities proposed for each of the four units of this 90-hour
course. Hope you enjoy this course. Happy learning!
The objectives for this course are:
Provide the student with an insight into the scope, means and purposes of Applied
Linguistics.
Provide the student with a discussion of the concepts of learning and teaching.
Provide the student with an overview of major approaches and methods to foreign
language teaching.
Provide the student with the opportunities to apply those concepts and teaching
approaches and methods.
Provide the student with a discussion of language learning assessment.
Provide the student with an actual sample a communicative lesson aiming to
demonstrate the applicability and usefulness of the Applied Linguistics concepts, teaching
approaches and methods.
After completing the readings and activities proposed here, the student/prospective
teacher is expected to
Have a better understanding of the concepts, scope, means and purposes
of
Applied
Linguistics.
Have a better understanding of the impact of developing the various competencies
involved in foreign language learning.
Have a better understanding of the implications of learning and teaching.
Have a better understanding of the cultural implications of foreign language teaching and
learning.
Be able to make better informed decisions concerning approaches, methods, activities,
procedures to adopt for their English classes.
Have a better understanding of the communicative approach and its implications
advantages and disadvantages to teaching English as a foreign/second language.
As a teacher, manage to design meaningful reading comprehension, speaking and writing
activities, or select such activities from reliable sources to meet the objectives of teenager
and young adult foreign language learners.
As a teacher, manage to design appropriate, valid and timely assessment questions
and activities compliant to the teaching methodology selected, the content and the
objectives of the course.
The Author
UNIT 1
What is applied linguistics?

1.1 Background
Applied Linguistics (term derived from the American language teaching program
developed during and after the Second World War and based on Leonard Bloomfields Outline
Guide for the Practical Study of Foreign Languages (1942) has been defined in many ways, not
always satisfying. The term applied implies a relation with some type of support theory, in this
case, Theoretical Linguistics.
The Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language defines Applied Linguistics as
linguistics applied to the study and improvement of language teaching and learning, language
planning, intergroup communication, speech therapy and speech impairment management,
communication systems, translation and interpretation and lexicology.
Despite the controversy arising from the various attempts to define Applied Linguistics,
most studies in this field so far concentrate on language teaching and learning, including the
learning process and learning results.
Applied linguistics is often said to be concerned with solving or at least
ameliorating social problems involving language. The problems applied
linguistics concerns itself with are likely to be: How can we teach languages
better? How can we diagnose speech pathologies better? How can we improve
the training of translators and interpreters? How can we write a valid language
examination? How can we evaluate a school bilingual program? How can we
determine the literacy levels of a whole population? How can we helpfully
discuss the language of a text? (DAVIES & ELDER, 2004, p.1)
As you can see, Applied Linguistics accounts for a number of issues, all of them involving
language, so to those questions I would add: How can foreign language users achieve proper
interaction? What level of competence should we expect from foreign language learners? How
does the choice of methodology impact actual language learning?

Applied linguistics is an area of work that deals with language use in
professional settings, translation, speech pathology, literacy, and language
education; and it is not merely the application of linguistic knowledge to
such settings but is a semiautonomous and interdisciplinary domain of work
that draws on but is not dependent on areas such as sociology, education,
anthropology, cultural studies, and psychology. (PENNYCOOK,2001, s/p)

Pennycook somehow repeats Davies and Elder (2004) and other authors like Moita Lopes
(1996) view of Applied Linguistics, and clearly stresses its interdisciplinary nature which renders
it as not entirely autonomous, but combined to other fields of study.
As you go on reading and learning about this field of study, you will see that authors agree
in one point, that is, that Applied Linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of investigation just as
Pennycook had pointed - which offers the necessary theoretical and descriptive foundations for
the investigation and solution of language-related problems, mainly those concerning language
teaching and learning. It also tries to understand and explain how communication is actually
carried out in real life, while identifying difficult contexts and challenging issues.
Particularly in Brazil, Applied Linguistics developed to include case studies on the language
learning process, error analysis and foreign language reading aimed both at understanding the
teaching/learning process and modifying the conditions of the language classroom to achieve
the objectives proposed. To accomplish this task the teachers are expected to have some good
knowledge of language theories and language teaching approaches as well so that they can
develop extensive and in-depth research on the language learning process, foreign language
learning and learning results in actual formal contexts, that is, the classroom.
CLUE
All cartoons and figures
from the Web used
in this textbook are
copyright-free, allowed
for free download and
use.
TASK
Read Chapter 1: Afinal,
o que Lingustica
Aplicada? In MOITA
LOPES, L.P. da Oficina
de Lingustica Aplicada:
A natureza social
e educacional dos
processos de ensino/
aprendizagem.
Campinas, SP: Mercado
das Letras, 1996.
and
CELANI, M.A.A. Afinal
o que Lingustica
Aplicada? In:
PASCHOAL, M.S.Z. &
CELANI, M.A.A. (org.)
Lingustica Aplicada:
da aplicao de
lingustica lingustica
transdisciplinar. So
Paulo: EDUC.
List the main points of
agreement between
those authors.
11
CLUE
The following
abbreviations are
largely found in
the literature and
very useful to you:
ESL(English as a
second language),ESOL
(English for speakers
of other languages),
andEFL(English as a
foreign language)
all refer to the use
or study of English
by speakers of other
languages.
More recently, this
new abbreviation has
been added to the list
above: EIL (English
as International
Language),
identifying English
as an intercultural,
multicultural,
intervarietal form of
language that allows
wider communication
between nations and
region inside nations,
and is the language
currently used for
science, technology
and international trade.
ELT(English
language teaching),
TESL(teaching English
as a second
language),TESOL
(teaching
English to speakers of
other
languages),
andTEFL (teaching
English as a foreign
language)
12
Outside the field of language teaching and learning, Applied Linguistics is also concerned
with problems of translation and interpretation; bilingualism and multilingualism; computermediated communication; conversation analysis; corpus linguistics; critical discourse analysis;
discourse analysis and pragmatics; forensic linguistics; language assessment; language for
special purposes; lexicography; literacy; multimodal communication; rhetoric and stylistics.
According to Brown, K. (2005), teaching is still a major concern of Applied Linguistics in
various parts of the world, where applied linguists approach issues like speech pathologies
and the levels of literacy of social groups, language processing and communicative differences
between social/cultural groups.
Simply put, and for the purposes of this course, we will accept that Applied Linguistics is a
subdivision of Linguistics which developed into an independent interdisciplinary field of science.
It is of particular interest to language teachers in what concerns the implications of foreign/
second language teaching and foreign/second language learning/acquisition and the solution of
language-related problems in specific situations of the real world.
Some authors make a clear distinction between Applied Linguistics and Linguistics-Applied
studies. Among those, Davies & Elder (2004) understand that Applied Linguistics engages
in trying to explain social issues concerning the use of language, while the aim of LinguisticsApplied studies is more abstract to explain and test theories on language.
In this course we will not engage in theoretical discussions about what Applied Linguistics
is or is not; on theoretical controversies arising from the viewpoints of different authors, but yet
on what most directly interests you as a student and a prospective English teacher. From now on,
that is how I intend to address you as a prospective English teacher, as you are taking a Curso de
Letras. By the way, lets start by asking: How would you introduce yourself to an American, saying
that you are um (a) aluno (a) do Curso de Letras? So, the next sections will offer you insights
on the many aspects that I find useful for you to develop as a proficient learner and a teacher
prepared to offer the best English teaching job when you start performing your classroom
activities. My purpose is to make this course as much resourceful and helpful as possible for you
to meet your needs and goals.
Let me remind you that learning to be a teacher depends equally, among others, on
developing your knowledge of English syntax, phonology, morphology and semantics, and
your understanding of the culture underlying the English language. Then remember to refer to
the other textbooks provided for your course Anglo-American Culture, Morfologia da Lngua
Inglesa, Fonologia da Lngua Inglesa, Introduo Lngustica, Gramtica da Lngua Inglesa - as they
will be very helpful in many ways.
1.2 The Object of Teaching and

Learning: Language
In this section you will learn about a number of core concepts which support the concerns
of Applied Linguistics towards language teaching and learning, mainly foreign or second
language teaching and learning. The first question proposed by Davies & Elder- How can we
teach languages better? - as seen on page 07 above, somehow summarizes the focus of this
discipline and triggers the descriptions you will find in the next section on language concepts.
Let us start with a discussion of what language is. Considering that language is the sole
object of our work as teachers, the more we understand what it is, how it works, the easier it is
for us to do our job. A classical and primary definition of language goes that language is a mental
faculty which allows human beings to engage in linguistic behavior to acquire, produce and
understand utterances; a learned symbolic, flexible communication system.
Language the linguistic code the most representative of the forms of communication,
exclusive to human beings, is by nature chaotic in what it reveals the cultural, ethics, moral,
social, religious, political and institutional standards of diverse human groups. Through language
human beings express their emotions, feelings, viewpoints and share them with others. A
language reflects the culture of a community, and yet this same culture mirrors the language
of that community. This means that social life is permeated by language at every level, from the
most common to the most complex and significant activities.

Among the various fields of human knowledge, the linguistic code stands as the most
important carrier of information, the most forceful social/political interaction tool, the most
effective means for the disclosure of technology and science advancements, the core tool in
education. Without language you would not have the literature or theater you enjoy so much.
The linguistic code combines linguistic items organized in three levels: semantic, syntactic and
phonological, and which is used by human beings only.
Here is how some authors define language:
G. Trager (1949) states that a language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used by specific
social groups to interact according to their particular culture. The arbitrariness of language, as
Trager states, stands for the belief that there is no natural reason why a particular sign should be
attached to a particular concept. For example, there is no natural reason for an r (the letter) to be
attached to the sound /r/, as in rat. Linguistic signs are imposed on real life sounds and concepts:
a real ball could have been identified by any other word but ball. A baby who is about to start
speaking would call a ball apple or shoe if all the people around him would always refer to the
ball as apple or shoe. There is no logical reason for the round object used in soccer games, the
ball, to have been assigned the word ball to name it.
This reminds us of Shakespeares Whats in a name? That which we call a rose by any other
name would smell as sweet which has been interpreted as indicating that the names of things
do not really matter; what matters is what things are; names are merely arbitrary.
Michael Haliday (1973) views language as a source of open-ended options for linguistic
behavior that are available to the individual as a member of the society. He says that the cultural
context creates an environment for the selection of such options, and defines those options.
Finally, the context of situation provides the conditions for the speakers choice among those
options. Halliday clearly indicates the functional and creative nature of language an openended set of options. Comprising extensive vocabulary and rules of grammar combined, a
language allows the user to as much creative and productive as he wants and needs. Although
limited by a close set of rules, any language allows the user to make an infinite number of
combinations of words to express feelings, emotions, perceptions, ideas, and talk about
everything they want to. The more you know about a language, the more vocabulary you have,
the more creative and productive you can be.
Sapir (1921) acknowledges language is a purely human and non-instinctive; a tool for
communication that makes use of voluntarily produced symbols. Purely human reminds you
that only human beings can make use of language; animals are out. Forget about parrots. They
cannot be linguistically creative, they do not increase their language production by themselves.
All they do is repeat a small number of frozen words or short phrases they hear. Sapir also
acknowledged language as being a product that is mainly cultural or social, and which as such is
to be understood.
Saussure (1916) stresses the social nature of language made possible from a typically
human faculty, that is, our inherent ability to produce and creatively combine a set of meaningful
sounds, hold a grammatical system existing in everyones mind and in the minds of groups of
individuals. As he puts it, this human faculty only makes sense as a tool shared by a group of
people, for it would be of no use for the individual alone. Here we find a most valuable argument
for our understanding of the importance of learning and teaching a language.
Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary-makers, but
is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of
humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground. (WALT WHITMAN, 1892, p. 4)
I would summarize by saying that language is as much a part of human beings as are their
mind, heart and soul, a tool both for self expression and communication.
It is also interesting to learn about some specific types or typical forms of language. Let us
go back to our own Brazilian history and think about those large vessels navigating the ocean
from Africa, filled with hundreds of African slaves from different regions, speaking different
languages. Those slaves had to stay together for months inside those ships. How could they
communicate? Under those conditions, human beings start creating some kind of hybrid
language by combining a limited amount of vocabulary and grammar derived from the various
languages around them. Initially a mumbo jumbo an unintelligible mix of vocabulary and
grammar -, this strange combination develops into a code called pidgin allowing those people
to communicate to some extent. Supposing that the same group of people finally settle in
a community, such pidgin may, over the generations, develop into a creole, then the native
language of that community. In general, creoles include traces of languages like Spanish, French,
GLOSSARY
CORPUS LINGUISTICS:
The study of language
based on real world
samples from which
a set of rules on that
particular language
is derived. Before the
computer was available
to linguists, researchers
used to interview a
group of pre-selected
people to collect
language samples;
the interviews were
recorded on tape. The
advent of the computer
allowed for a larger,
automated collection
of real life samples.
INTERDISCIPLINARY:
What is said of: 1.
a discipline which
combines concepts,
approaches and
views from other
two or more fields
of study; 2. Research
using methods and
insights from various
established fields of
study.
LINGUISTICS Linguistics is the
science of human
language.
LEXICOGRAPHY:
Editing or making
of dictionaries; the
principles and practices
guiding dictionary
making.
LITERACY: Ability to
read and write about
printed material
coherently and
critically.
STYLISTICS: The study
of the use of language
style elements, like
metaphors in specific
contexts; the study
and interpretation of
texts from a linguistic
perspective.
13
LEARN MORE
Foreign language
is understood as
language learned in
a community that
has another mother
tongue, and therefore
is not used for everyday
conversation by the
learners outside the
classroom, e.g., English
learned in Brazil.
Second language is
the language learned
by immigrants while
living in a foreign
country, where that
language is used in
everyday life, e.g.,
English learned in the
US by Brazilians living
there.
For a broader
understanding of
Corpus Linguistics,
you should refer to
this article by Daniel
Krieger: Corpus
Linguistics: What It
Is and How It Can Be
Applied to Teaching,
at http://iteslj.org/ The
Internet TESL Journal,
Vol. IX, No. 3, March
2003.
And for a better
understanding of what
Applied Linguistics is
about, read
http://www.filologia.
org.br/revista/40suple/
introdao_a_
linguistica%20.pdf
where you find this
article in Portuguese:
Introduo
Lingustica Aplicada
e sua utilidade para
as pesquisas em sala
de aula de lngua
estrangeira, by Doris de
Almeida Soares.
On Error Analysis, refer
to Contribution of Error
Analysis to Foreign
Language Teaching, by
Vacide ERDOAN, at
*http://efd.mersin.edu.
tr/dergi/meuefd_2005_
001_002/pdf/
meuefd_2005_001_
002_0261-0270
_erdogan.pdf
14
English or Portuguese colonial European languages combined with vocabulary and grammar
of the colonized people. Most creoles have now disappeared, but some survive, for example, in
the Caribbean and Western Africa. Inthe island nation ofHaiti, a French-African pidgin became
the creole language.
As a foreign language speaker you are not expected to produce a mumbo jumbo type of
language or discourse, or else you will not make yourself understood, and as a teacher, you will
have to provide your students with some coherent language.
Finally, let us have a quick look at dialects. A dialect is a variant of a language. Within your
broader language community, that is, your country, you find a variety of regional speeches
marked by the diversity of vocabulary, that is words that are typical of a specific area, or words
that are attached different meanings depending on the region they are used. Dialects of this
type are called regional dialects. Dialectal boundaries called isoglosses (fronteiras dialetais) do not match political or geographic boundaries. Therefore, do not expect to find differences in
the pronunciation of the r in porta only because you have crossed the border between So Paulo
and Rio de Janeiro, for example. Isoglosses function somehow like the sound waves you see here:
the changes in language move slowly across geographic borders.
Figure 01: Sound waves
Source: Targethd.net, disponvel em
http://targethd.net/2009/03/19/gadgets-fita-adesiva-sonora-voce-conhecia-isso/.
Acesso em: 02 abr. 2012.
Additionally, social dialects identify the linguistic status of speakers within a society.
In our own communities, we are aware of forms that are considered better or worse, words
and grammar forms that are used only by educated people, people who speak the standard
form of the language, people who did not receive much language education, people whose
pronunciation is typical of certain social groups. In the United States, particularly in Charleston,
South Carolina, r-less speech, that is, not pronouncing the r in words like bear and court is
associated with aristocratic, high-status groups, therefore a mark of linguistic prestige; in New
York City, however, the same r-less speech is typical of working-class, low-status people.
1.2.1 Competencies
The quotes above include such terms like society, culture, context of situation,
communication. In any foreign language setting language learning has one and only purpose:
enable the individuals to dive into a new culture and interact in contexts of situation which
may also be entirely new. To do so, language users have to develop their communicative
competence, or how language is used by members of a speech community to accomplish their
social interactional purposes. The diagram below shows elements comprising communicative
competence as viewed by Canale and Swain (1980).
According to Hymes (1972), communicative competence requires the speaker to have
proper control of the following interacting systems:

grammatical - what is provided by the rules of the language

psycholinguistic whatever feasible through human information processing
psycho-cultural - the social meaning or value of a given utterance
probabilistic - what actually occurs during the interaction

Figure 02: Model of communicative
competence by Canale and Swain
Source: CANALE and SWAIN (1980).
In sum, to make it easier for you to understand it, you can say that communicative
competence involves the Whs of communication: when to engage in a conversation, speak,
what to say or talk about, whom to talk to, when, where, in what manner, or how to say
something or be silent.
For proper interaction in contexts of situation which may be entirely new, the foreign
language speaker must develop their grammatical competence, cultural competence,
sociolinguistic competence, strategic competence all together contributing to what is called
communicative competence. It is the task of foreign language teachers to give their students
opportunities to develop these multiple competencies aimed to prepare them to properly
use their most important human communication tool. Let us then learn more about such
competencies.
One day an English grammar teacher was looking ill.
A student asked, Whats the matter?
Tense, answered the teacher, describing how he felt.
The student paused, then continued, What was the matter? What has been the matter?
What might have been the matter... ?
This joke, at this point used as merely motivational, is a good example of how simple
language, easy words put together may create interesting forms of misunderstanding.
LEARN MORE
This paper on
Diversidade e Unidade:
A Aventura Lingustica
do Portugus, by Rosa
Virgnia Mattos e
Silva, provides a very
interesting analysis of
language variance. I
highly recommend its
reading as knowledge
of our own language
is a valuable support
for our learning of a
foreign language. It
is available at http://
cvc.instituto-camoes.
pt/hlp/biblioteca/
diversidade.pdf .
Another reading I do
recommend is this
book by Henriette
Walter, A aventura das
lnguas no ocidente,
Mandarim, 1997, where
you will find useful,
curious, interesting
and sometimes
funny information
about languages like
Portuguese, French,
Italian, Spanish, Danish,
German, English, and
others.
TASK:
TASK 1
Identify what caused the misunderstanding in the previous conversation.
Research and list

10 examples of
pronunciation or use of
Portuguese vocabulary
representative of
different social groups
in your community.
2. Then refer to http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Regional_vocabularies_
of_American_English
read the page and
select 10 examples
from the various
regional words and
comment on them.
Grammatical competence involves the identification of the set of rules which governs a
persons understanding of what is and is not correct and acceptable in the language they speak.
It therefore implies
mastering the morphology, the vocabulary and the mechanics of pronunciation (letters,
syllables words), intonation and stress of a language, e.g.,
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
recognizing a verb in a sentence and a subject independent of the syntactic configurations
in which they occur, e.g.,
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
15
using proper agreement of two or more items: they agree if they are both marked for the
same grammatical distinction, e.g.,
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
telling which of a set of non-adjacent words in a sentence go together and which do not, e.g.,
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
identifying reference in a sentence, that is, what a specific word refers to, e.g.,
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
identifying how one sentence relates to another semantically (e.g. different words or
arrangement, same meaning) or syntactically (e.g. different words, same structure), e.g.,
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
TASK - 1
The previous marked items are all followed by e.g., but no actual examples were provided. Your task is to
provide two English examples for each of the five implications above.
TASK 2
Figure 03: What
snapping can do!
Source: The Funny Times.
Disponvel em
http://pewari.may.
be/2011/03/21/when-english-teachers-snap/.
Identify and correct the grammar error in the cartoon (Figure 3) by providing two different forms of
asking the same thing.
2. What cultural aspects are shown in the cartoon?
Sociolinguistic competence, as the name implies, involves knowledge of the social

context, roles of the interlocutors, functions of the interactions in which the language is used
as well as the information shared in such interactions. It also involves recognizing instances of
code switching, that is, the concurrent use of more than one language variety (formal/informal
register) in conversation.
Formal English is used in official documents, books,
news reports, articles, business letters or official speeches
while informal English is used in everyday conversations
and in personal letters. Despite this definition, it is not
always easy for foreigners to identify formal from informal
language. Reading different types of texts, watching movies
attentively, watching interviews with different types of
people and news reports on TV are tools the teacher may
recommend so that the language learner can observe and
retain various levels of register, which, in fact range from
informal to semi-informal and formal, as you can see in this
example taken from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/
resource/608/02/.
Formal (Written to an unknown audience): I am
applying for the receptionist position advertised in the local
paper. I am an excellent candidate for the job because of
my significant secretarial experience, good language skills,
and sense of organization.
Semi-formal (Written to a well-known individual):I
am applying for the receptionist position that is currently
open in the company. As you are aware, I have worked
16

as a temporary employee with your company in this position before. As such, I not only have
experience and knowledge of this position, but also already understand the companys needs
and requirements for this job.
Informal (Incorrect):Hi! I read in the paper that yall were looking for a receptionist. I think
that I am good for that job because Ive done stuff like it in the past, am good with words, and am
incredibly well organized.
Many authors agree that the language user shows discourse competence if he approaches
language with both coherence and cohesion in a large repertoire of structures and discourse
markers to express ideas, show relationships of time, and indicate cause, contrast and emphasis
(SCARCELLA & OXFORD, 1992, p. 207).
According to H.P. Grice (1975), conversation is based on a cooperative principle by which
the interlocutors share specific goals and have already agreed ways of achieving them. This
agreement seems to be implicit in natural development of the conversation, and any successful
dialogue would depend on the interlocutors including these four elements:

Quantity - say neither too little or too much than needed
Relation make sure what is said is relevant to the conversation
Manner - be clear and coherent; avoid ambiguities and obscurities
Quality use enough evidence to support what you say and avoid whatever may be felt as
false, unimportant for the purpose of the conversation.
Figure 04:Talking balloons
Source: Disponvel em http://www.stcare.com/
serendipity/exercise.html. Acesso em: 02 abr.
2012.
TASK
Identify which of these
utterances are formal
and which are informal.
1. I feel real good.
I feel really good.
2. As the final price
of ten dollars was
reasonable, I decided
to accept it.
It was, like, ten bucks,
so I said okay.
3. You can find out all
about the survey in
chapter 10.
Details of the survey
are to be found in
chapter 10.
The number of
infected patients is
increasing.
4. The number of
infected patients is
going up.
TASK
Both the cartoon on the figure 5 and
the text are good examples of language and
discourse misuse, filled with obscurities,
ambiguities, incoherence. Of course, it takes
some language and cultural knowledge for
the reader to identify the various types of
misuse in those authentic texts, which native
speakers do easily.
1. Pick up the grammar error in Lulas text
and find what is obscure or ambiguous
in the text.
2. Pick up five examples of misuse in Bushs
text, including incoherence.
Figure 05: Making progress

Fonte: www.simontaylor.com.br.
17
Can the English language survive after Bush? Here is a collection of George Bushs
quotes:
The vast majority of our imports come from outside the country.
If we dont succeed, we run the risk of failure.
One word sums up probably the responsibility of any Governor, and that one word is to be
prepared .
I have made good judgments in the past. I have made good judgments inthe future.
The future will be better tomorrow.
We have a firm commitment to NATO, we are a part of NATO. We have a firm commitment
to Europe. We are a part ofEurope.
Public speaking is very easy.
A low voter turnout is an indication of fewer people going to the polls.
We are ready for any unforeseen event that may or may not occur.
For NASA, space is still a high priority.
Quite frankly, teachers are the only profession that teach our children.
It isnt pollution thats harming the environment. Its the impurities in our air and water that
are doing it.
Its time for the human race to enter the solar system.
(Email running on the Internet)
GLOSSARY
COHERENCE: The
quality or state of
cohering, especially
a logical, orderly,
and aesthetically
consistent relationship
of parts; logical or
natural connection
or consistency (www.
thefreedictionary.com).
COHESION: Proper use
of linguistic elements
to make a discourse
semantically coherent.
According to Canale and Swain (1980), strategic competence comprises a number of

verbal and non-verbal communication strategies that the speaker uses to offset his insufficient
competence or common performance variables. This means the various ways a speaker handles
language vocabulary, forms, or varieties to express his feelings, emotions, personal traits to
achieve his communicative goals. Choosing to be more or less emphatic, use formal or informal
language, polite expressions, metaphors, slang, gestures or facial expressions, pauses, all these
are strategic means of achieving communication.
For Duquette et al (1988) strategic competence is the ability to use communication
strategies to keep the communication channel open maintaining the interaction between
the interlocutors and the conversation according to the speakers intentions. Their definition
assumes that the speaker sets a communicative goal and modifies what they say depending on
what they intend to say.
All this is certainly not new to you, as any speaker, in any language, including yourself when
speaking Portuguese, uses similar strategies. In fact, some strategic strategies are to some extent
international. What is important here is to remember that when teaching, you have to make this
clear to your students so that they use them appropriately when conversing in English.
Figure 06: Following

cultural standards
Source: http://
pt.dreamstime.com/foto-de-stock-royalty-free-executivos-na-reuni-ampatildeo-do-globo-do-mundo-nos-e-u--image5255005.
18

Cultural competence or cross-cultural awareness involves understanding the life
and institutions, beliefs and values, everyday attitudes and feelings of the foreign society as
expressed by language and by paralinguistic features like dressing, gestures, facial expressions,
stance and movements. According to Tomalin and Stempleski (1996), for the purposes of
communication, cultural competence summarizes as having:
awareness of ones own culturally-induced behavior;
awareness of the culturally-induced behavior of others;
ability to explain ones own cultural standpoint.
Foreign language teachers must be aware of the fact that teaching a language is teaching
a culture; values and presuppositions about the nature of life, about what is good and bad in
it, which are implicit in any normal use of a language; crosscultural communication requires
crosscultural understanding.
Let me remind you that another important aspect to remember is that the language
is generally accompanied by non-linguistic, or paralinguistic elements, that is, gestures,
movements, gestures, facial expressions which may be very different from those used in the
learners native language. In fact, the type and amount of those paralinguistic elements vary
from culture to culture, and you must be careful when using them with a foreign language. As a
teacher, remember that teaching communicatively requires observing such aspects as well.
Still another type of competence that would very much help foreign language users interact
in a cross-cultural environment is pragmatic competence, that is, the ability to perceive and
understand speakers intended meaning, which many times is difficult when we use our own
native language. Metaphors, irony, ambiguities, puns (trocadilhos), neologisms, all these just add
to the difficulty in conversation, mainly for foreign speakers. It is the task of the language teacher
to find ways to minimize such difficulty by exposing the learner to as much real life language as
possible. You will read more about pragmatics in the next section.
Enjoy an interesting example of total miscommunication in this fictional conversation between
State Secretary Condolezza Rice and President George Bush in the Oval Office White House.
Hu is on First?
George: Condi! Nice to see you. Whats happening?
Condi: Sir, I have the report here about the new leader of China.
George: Great. Lay it on me.
Condi: Hu is the new leader of China.
George: Thats what I want to know.
Condi: Thats what Im telling you.
George: Thats what Im asking you. Who is the new leader of China?
Condi: Yes.
George: I mean the fellows name.
Condi: Hu.
George: The guy in China.
Condi: Hu.
George: The new leader of China
Condi: Hu.
George: The Chinaman!
Condi: Hu is leading China.
George: Now whaddya asking me for?
Condi: Im telling you Hu is leading China.
George: Well, Im asking you. Who is leading China?
Condi: Thats the mans name.
George: Thats whos name?
Condi: Yes.
George: Will you or will you not tell me the name of the new leader of China?
Condi: Yes, sir.
19
George: Yassir? Yassir Arafat is in China? I thought he was in the Middle East.
Condi: Thats correct.
George: Then who is in China?
Condi: Yes, sir.
George: Yassir is in China?
Condi: No, sir.
George: Then who is?
Condi: Yes, sir.
George: Yassir?
Condi: No, sir.
George: Look, Condi. I need to know the name of the new leader of China. Get me the
Secretary
General of the U.N. on the phone.
Condi: Kofi?
George: No, thanks.
Condi: You want Kofi?
George: No.
Condi: You dont want Kofi.
George: No. But now that you mention it, I could use a glass of milk. And then get me the
U.N.
Condi: Yes, sir.
George: Not Ya ssir! The guy at the U.N.
Condi: Kofi?
George: Milk! Will you please make the call?
Condi: And call who?
George: Who is the guy at the U.N?
Condi: Hu is the guy in China.
George: Will you stay out of China?!
Condi: Yes, sir.
George: And stay out of the Middle East! Just get me the guy at the U.N.
Condi: Kofi.
George: All right! With cream and two sugars. Now get on the phone.
(Condi picks up the phone.) Condi: Rice, here.
George: Rice? Good idea. And a couple of egg rolls, too. Maybe we
should send some to the guy in China. And the Middle East. Can you get Chinese food in the
Middle East?
Source: Email circulating on the Internet
In the cartoon (FIG. 07) and in the text you have just read you may find interesting examples
taken from an English-speaking culture, namely, the American culture. Observe how one simple
cartoon offers a good amount of cultural information, and is therefore a rich source of teaching
material, starting from reading and understanding the text.
Figure 07: Culture tips

Source: The Funny Times.
Disponvel em http://
www.funnytimes.com/.
20

I bet that after learning about those concepts you are now asking yourself: Can language
teachers help the students develop all those types of competence? Is one type of competence
more important than another? Should the teacher give priority to one or more competences in
relation to the others? How does the choice of methodology impact the development of those
competencies? What level of competence should be expected from the learner?
You will find the answers by yourself after reading all the material selected for this course
and completing the activities proposed. Questions are good to make you think!
References
BLOOMFILED, Leonard. Outline Guide for the Practical Study of Foreign Languages, 1942.
BROWN, K. (Editor) Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. 2. ed. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005.
DAVIES, Alan & ELDER, Catherine ( Editors). The Handbook of Applied Linguistics, Blackwell
Publishing, 2004.
DUQUETTE, L. La crativit dans les pratiques communicatives in A. M. Boucher, A. M.
Duplantine, R. Leblanc, Pdagogie de la communication dans lenseignement dune
language trangere. Bruxelles: De Boeck-Wesmael, 1988.
GRICE, H.P. Logic and conversation In Cole, P. & Morgan, J. (eds.) Syntax and Semantics,
Volume 3. New York: Academic Press. pp. 41-58, 1975.
HALLIDAY, M.A.K. Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and
Meaning. London, Edward Arnold, 1978.
HYMES, D.H. On Communicative Competence In: J.B. Pride and J. Holmes (eds) Sociolinguistics.
Selected Readings. Harmondsworth: Penguin, pp. 269-293.(Part 2),1972.
KRIEGER, Daniel Corpus Linguistics: What it is and how it can be applied to teaching,
available at The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. IX, No. 3, March 2003.
SAPIR, Edward Sapir Language.New York: Harcourt Brace, p.8, 1921.
TASK 1
Read the text contained
in the cartoon above.
Identify the cultural
aspects and the
language items used to
indicate them. How do
those aspects compare
to the Brazilian culture?
2. Refer to http://www.
fujishima-h.ed.jp/
teacher/materials/
American%20Gestures.
pdf - American
Gestures: A Lesson for
Elementary Students.
Read it carefully then
make a list of the
gestures commonly
used by Americans and
compare them with the
gestures used in Brazil,
if any, for the same
contexts.
LEARN MORE
For a more detailed
understanding of
the role of culture
in foreign language
teaching and learning
refer to the textbook
on Anglo American
Culture, by Helena
Maria Gramiscelli
Magalhes, 2011.
SELINKER, L. Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 209-241, 1972.

TRAGER, G. The Field of Linguistics.Norman, OK: Battenberg Press. 1949.
GLOSSARY
UTTERANCE (enunciado) - A string
of words produced
on a particular event
of oral interaction;
a complete unit of
speech in conversation,
in general bounded by
silence.
21
UNIT 2
What does it mean to learn a

foreign language?
Figure 08: The joy of

learning
Source: Sangrea.net. Disponvel em http://inglesiesollosgrandes.blogspot.
com.br/2010_06_01_archive.html. Acesso em: 02
abr. 2012.
2.1 The Learning Process: Core

Concepts
A first distinction you must learn is the
one between learning and acquisition. In
the context of language learning, learning is
understood as the conscious, formal process
developed in the classroom which includes
grammar explanation, memorization of
rules and vocabulary, activities, tasks, and
exercises involving the four skills, and testing.

Acquisition is the informal, unconscious,
out-of-class process that involves the
actual exposure to language in real life
environments: English as a second language is
acquired by Brazilians who have not attended
English classes in Brazil and move to an
23
LEARN MORE
Metalanguageis the
language statements or
language symbols used to
describe language itself,
that is, use English sentences or symbols to describe
the grammar, syntax,
semantics and phonology
of the English language.
English speaking country where they do not

take English classes. However, you are going to
see in the material supplied for this course that
some authors do not apply this distinction
and use both acquisition and learning
The language learning/acquisition process basically implies going through the stages of:
retrieval of information.
processing of information.
transfer or encoding of information.
In doing so, the foreign/second language
learner develops some kind of intermediate,
self-contained, specific form of language,
termed interlanguage, as proposed by
Larry Selinker (1972). This interlanguage
creates a language system with grammar
rules and vocabulary that, in general, do
not belong to either his native language
or the foreign/second language being
learned. What is created is then some kind
of third language marked by mechanisms of
transfer or interference (negative transfer),
overgeneralization, simplification, avoidance,
overuse and fossilization. These mechanisms
are all learning strategies that the learner uses
in an attempt to master the rules of the new
language.
Transfer occurs when a rule of the
native language is successfully used in the
foreign language, that is, it is acceptable
and also correct in that language, e.g., verb
agreement, like in Ele gosta (not Ele gosto)*
He likes (not He like). Interference (negative
transfer) occurs when the student selects a
rule from his native language which does
not apply to the foreign language, therefore
producing an ungrammatical sentence, e.g.,
* I like of oranges. Interference also occurs
when the learner uses the so called false
friends, that is, false cognates, words like
advocate or actual, for example, which he
erroneously believes to mean *advogado
or *atual, for their graphic or phonological
similarity with Portuguese words. The Hu
is on First? gives you a good example of
phonological interference leading to a lot
of misunderstanding. Overgeneralization
is the broad application of a specific rule of
the foreign language itself in situations in
which a native speaker would not, e.g., use
plural suffix s for all nouns, irrespective of
exceptions in English. Simplification implies
keeping general, simple forms of language,
like the adjectives good and nice, instead of
more specific which are applied in multiple
contexts; or child-like speech, somehow
indicating that the speaker has not yet
mastered proper target forms. Avoidance
24
interchangeably. In fact, this is quite the case

for other linguistic terms: selecting language
terms or statements to describe language
itself is sometimes difficult.
may occur in the form of structures removed

from the learners interlanguage when he
does not feel able to master them, or as a
pragmatic, communicative strategy. In this
case, it may happen because the speaker
finds that a specific word or sentence is too
difficult to use in certain circumstances or it
is too formal, or too informal for the context
of situation. Overuse indicates the recurrent,
repetitive use of some language forms instead
of other for fear of making errors when trying
newly learned forms. You yourself as a foreign
language user certainly tend to use words like
nice and good in a number of contexts. They
are easy and seem to fit well in those contexts,
for example, when answering questions
like How was your trip? However, you can
show better proficiency if you use more
specific terms, like comfortable, profitable,
pleasant, satisfying, etc. When in doubt as
to the adequacy of these words to answer that
question, you avoid using them in favour of
nice/good.
Concerning the process of foreign
learning, Selinker (1972) developed the
concept of fossilization, a mechanism by
which the learner seems to stop improving
his interlanguage and some rules, structures,
strategies and words are kept frozen in that
interlanguage no matter the amount of
instruction the learner receives. The language
fossilized can originate from either the native
language or the foreign language, including
errors or only correct forms.
All in all, as a prospective English
language teacher, you must be aware that
any or all of those mechanisms will be present
in the students interlanguage during the
process of learning, no matter which approach
and method is adopted to teaching. It is the
task of the teacher to identify them and help
the student minimize the errors/mistakes
and maximize their positive results. An error
occurs when the language user has not yet
mastered a rule, or because he has not yet
been taught that rule, therefore not being
competent to use it accordingly. An error
has to do with competence, that is, the

more competent the language user is the
fewer errors he will make. A mistake occurs
notwithstanding the level of competence
of the speaker and is due to non linguistic
factors, like tiredness, distraction, etc. This
means that the speaker is competent enough
to correct his own mistake. A mistake has to
do with performance, that is, with the actual
use of language.
As far as the actual use of language
is concerned, Pragmatics is the sub-field
of Linguistics which develops the study of
language in use by observing how the context
of situation, the social and the cultural context
contribute as well to meaning in conversation.
Pragmatics investigates the implications
of language interaction and studies how
the transmission of meaning depends
not only on the linguistic competence of

the interlocutors, but also on a number of
other factors besides the above mentioned
contexts, like the manner, place and time of
the utterance, the status of the interlocutors
and the understanding of the speakers
intended meaning, as well as the causes of
miscommunication.
In the Appendix to this textbook you
find this excerpt attached as Annex 1 - When
Yes means No or Maybe-- Avoiding CrossCultural Misunderstandings in Global Business
- which is an example of what may occur
in a cross-cultural interaction and provides
some advice on how to avoid cross-cultural
misunderstandings, in this case, in the critical
context of global business.
2.2 Learning Styles

Figure 09: The knot
Source: Cartoon by Bill
Browning, from his webpage:
http://www.mnispi.org/
cartoon/2001/index.htm.
In this next section we will describe

a set of learning styles and language
learning concepts which run across teaching
approaches and methodologies, together
with a discussion of said approaches and
methodologies. We will start by defining
learning in general.
Learning is a natural ability of human
beings, who are driven by curiosity, by an
internal drive to seek knowledge through
experiencing the surrounding world. It may

occur consciously or unconsciously. Sight,
hearing, touch smell and taste are the
tools human beings use to grasp concrete
information; our abstract ability allows us
to use our imagination, our intellect and
our intuition to identify hidden meanings,
discover subtle implications in messages,
develop imaginative contexts and grasp
novel ideas. Our mind then organizes the
25
TASK
Refer to ANNEX 2 Motivating Learners:
Understanding
Language Acquisition.
Read it and produce a
brief summary of the
main points of the text.
This task allows you to
exercise your listening
comprehension and
your writing skills.
information
randomly,
spontaneously
sometimes, and orderly, in a linear sequence
otherwise. This type of learning is also termed
informal learning, somehow synonymous to
acquisition, or learning by natural exposition
to the real world.
Formal learning, on the other hand,
results from the implementation of
knowledge, skills or practices offered by
school instruction or study, which add to
our behavior, attitudes, viewpoints. In the
language classroom, the learning that arises
from explanations, exercises, tests, drills, case
studies, guided and free activities involving
the English grammar, semantics, phonology
and related culture. In this type of setting,
particularly in your language classroom,
you can identify a variety of learning styles.
In Figure 09 you find a student who is selfidentified as Abstract-Sequential. What does
that mean? This type of learner is researchoriented, logical, systematic, usually viewed
as a nerd. Abstract learners tend to acquire
information through observation, thinking
and analysis while concrete learners demand
doing, feeling, acting, therefore having some
kind of direct experience with the information
provided.
As a teacher, the more you identify your
students learning style the easier it is for
you to find the right activities to propose to
them. Among your students you will find, for
instance, active learners, those who enjoy
teamwork, retain and understand information
more quickly by discussing or applying it,
and reflective learners, who like to work
alone while thinking about the information
provided in class. These learners exercise their
receptive skills (listen and read) as a tool to
learn, contrary to active learners who feel they
have to be more productive, that is use their
productive skills (speak and write) to learn.
Sensing learners are distinct from
intuitive learners; they enjoy learning facts
rules of grammar, and feel safe following
well-established rules. Intuitive learners, on
the other hand, prefer to discover possibilities
and relationships, for example, learning

grammar from intuition, by observing varied
occurrences in texts.
Other types of learners include visual
learners, those who learn better and faster
from what they see pictures and diagrams
are helpful, written texts help them memorize
graphic forms; verbal learners are satisfied
with spoken explanations and written texts
for comprehension; active learners, those
who make sense of an experience through the
immediate application of the new information;
reflective learners, who have to think and
reflect about the information received to
make sense out of it.
Are you really aware of the type of learner
that you are?
What
are
the
implications
of
understanding these various learning styles
for your own learning and later for your
teaching?
Here it is:
Identifying individual learning styles
facilitate your own learning and your
work as a teacher;
No one teaching method will effectively
reach all learners;
Different learning styles require different
teaching strategies.
Both as a learner and a teacher, one
thing that you must keep in mind is that
every person can learn one way or another
and that what is sometimes felt as unlearning
is only a human learning strategy, a
mental, unconscious process, some form of
selecting, discarding unwanted, unnecessary,
unimportant information that all of us go
through to organize information in our mind.
Also as an English learner you may have felt
sometimes that the pace of your learning
seems to have slowed down, that you do not
understand or remember some aspects of
language as easily as you used to. This is only
a natural part of the learning process. You are
not unlearning.
2.3 Learning Difficulties

The 1960s and early 1970s witnessed
the development of Contrastive Analysis, a
systematic study aimed to identify structural
differences and similarities between a native
and a foreign language. The idea behind
the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis was
26
to explain why some structures are more

difficult than others to learn. Following the
Behaviorist belief prevailing at the time, that
language learning depended basically on
habit formation, it seemed logical to conclude
that when a foreign structure or sound is

similar to the native structure or sound it is
easier to master. On the other hand, diverse
structures or sounds are harder to acquire.
This position was defended by Robert Lado in
his Linguistics Across Cultures (1957, p.21):
Those elements which are similar to [the
learners] native language will be simple for
him, and those elements that are different
will be difficult. Following this statement,
teachers would create their lesson plans
accordingly, proposing specific teaching
strategies and tasks for those areas considered
more difficult, being able to preview possible
learners errors. However, it was soon clear
that many errors could not be anticipated and
that it was not entirely true that differences
between languages were the sole responsible
for learning difficulties. Anyway, Contrastive
Analysis, together with error analysis, provided
a valuable tool for subsequent proposals, like
the Audio-Lingual method.

In the Brazilian educational environment
it is still easy to find teachers who believe
some English structures are definitely difficult
to all learners, for example, phrasal verbs,
prepositions and the present perfect tense.
Teachers must remember that generalizations
of this type are dangerous and not real.
Moreover, many times those supposed
difficulties are determined a priori, reflecting
the teachers own difficulty to deal with such
items or find an appropriate teaching strategy.
Learning difficulties are individual: what is
difficult to one learner may be easy to another:
learning difficulties depend on a number
of factors and vary greatly from learner to
learner, from individual abilities to the teaching
methodology applied. Therefore, learning
difficulties must be addressed on an individual
basis.
2.4 Your new self

While you are mastering a foreign
language you are building a new self
rebuilding your identity, giving a new
significance to yourself as an individual by
engaging in a new cultural environment,
however preserving your native identity. To
incorporate this new self, you have to retrain
your ears to receive, perceive and produce
new sounds as close as possible to the foreign
sounds being learned (listening/speaking),
graphic combinations (read and write) and
discourse strategies. A foreign language learner
has to be prepared to perform multiple roles
in different linguistic and cultural settings
and actually use that new self. Exercising the
foreign language promotes the alignment
between native and foreign concepts, ethics,
habits, discipline while developing the
intellectual abilities of the language user.
So, when you are learning a language
you are acquiring a new linguistic skill, while
growing, advancing as a social being. You
have this extraordinary chance to navigate
across the richness of the diverse worlds of
peoples dialects, idiolects the speech of the
individual - and registers language levels
of formality. You are sharing another culture,
trying to see the world through a different
linguistic experience, finding similarities in
the expected differences. In the end you
will find that learning a foreign language
gives you an opportunity to see that such
differences and similarities only contribute
to the overall quality of the individuals. As a

learner and prospective language teacher you
can profit from the knowledge of your own
native language and culture to compare and
contrast its strategies to those of the foreign
language and culture, and further your own
(and later your students) understanding and
tolerance, that is, appreciation of diversity
and the ability to live and let others live
according to their principles. In conclusion,
you now see that learning a language is
more than merely mastering grammatical
structures, memorizing vocabulary, or training
pronunciation. None of these alone will make
you properly use a foreign language.
In the Brazilian context, for the purposes
established in the Parmetros Curriculares
Nacionais de Lngua Estrangeira and the
Contedo Bsico Comum de Lngua Estrangeira
do Ensino Fundamental do 6 ao 9 Ano, foreign
language learning means to provide the
learner with a chance to sharpen his curiosity,
develop his critical perception of his social
environment, exercise critical reasoning, get
rid of bias, realize that whatever perverted
view the language user may have of other
cultures, languages, races or people is only the
result of prejudice, discrimination, and should
not be encouraged. There are similarities and
differences between languages, as there are
similarities and differences between cultures.
There is no one culture better than another.
Finally, there is this question which you
27
may have many times asked yourself: Why
learn languages? The answer for yourself is
the same you should have for your students,
who most certainly must be convinced and
motivated to learn. First, let us remember
that the ability to learn languages is not
limited by economic background, ethnic
background, nationality, gender, race, religion,
or age. Despite the individual differences
concerning abilities and strengths, everyone
can develop language ability to some degree.
Learning another language not only adds to
your general knowledge, but also expands
upon the knowledge and understanding you

have of your native language and culture.
Learning another language is not only
learning new grammar concepts, memorizing
a new vocabulary and different sounds, but it
provides you with insights into other cultures,
helps create a more positive attitude towards
differences and have a better understanding
of the difficulties faced by people who have
to move out of their countries. In the world
of today, learning another language prepares
you to find more professional opportunities,
expand your social and cultural life activities.
References
MINAS GERAIS. Contedo Bsico Comum de Lngua Estrangeira do Ensino Fundamental do
6 ao 9 Ano. Belo Horizonte: 2008.
LADO, Robert Linguistics Across Cultures. University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor. 1957.
BRASIL. Mistrio da Educao. Parmetros Curriculares Nacionais de Lngua Estrangeira.
Braslia: 1998.
SELINKER, L. Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 209-241. 1972.
28
UNIT 3
What does it take to teach a

foreign language?
3.1 Approaching Language
Teaching
Now that you have improved your knowledge of what learning is all about, of learning
styles and of the creation of that new self when you learn a foreign language, let us move to the
front of the classroom and talk about teaching.
Figure 10: Regular
classroom, regular class
Source: http://srhabay.wikispaces. com/15 +CLASSROOM +COMMANDS.
Language teaching can be approached

in many ways, both explicitly and implicitly.
The most common, traditional mode that
you know is the explicit mode of teaching,
which includes explanations about how
the language works, direct teaching of
concepts, academic language and reading
comprehension strategies as well as
memorization of rules and forms. In this case,
the content and messages of sentences and
utterances is given second place. This teaching
tends to be structural in nature.
Implicit teaching, on the other hand,
is made by guiding the learner to identify
grammar patterns in samples of authentic
use while keeping a focus on the message/
content. Some of the advantages of the
implicit teaching include the immediate

applicability of grammar patterns to
real life contexts, therefore being more
communicative and creative than explicit
teaching based on grammar explanation and
structural exercises. However, a combination
of both explicit and implicit teaching seems to
be a positive tool for the teacher.
Implicit teaching can be performed
through activities that demand observation
and identification applied to a number of
situations. Let us remember that this type of
teaching is especially valuable for intuitive
learners, who will profit the most from them.
In this type of teaching, learners are exposed
to demonstrations of language in use little
with no grammar explanation, as used in
29
LEARN MORE
An important
distinction must
be made between
grammatical/syntactic
functions subject,
predicate, object
and complement
- and communicative
functions - apologize,
describe, invite, reason,
comment, criticize and
a number of others.
traditional methods. The activities have an

immediate applicability to the learners lives
or cultural backgrounds; they are usually
motivational and the learner has more
possibility of self-correction of mistakes.
Anyway, whatever type of teaching you
choose should include cooperative strategies
for the learners to share, compare and discuss
their results. This is particularly important
as learners with different learning styles can
profit from a proper combination of these
styles.
What this also means is that the teacher
has the options of emphasizing either of the
learners productive skills, that is, speaking
or writing, or their receptive skills listening
and reading. The foreign language itself can
be approached from its structure, grammar,
vocabulary, or as a tool for communication.
The techniques, or types of activities
proposed to teaching will vary according
to the approach chosen. Considering the
needs of the Brazilian learners in general, the
Parmetros Curriculares Nacionais de Lngua
Estrangeira and the Contedo Bsico Comum de
Lngua Estrangeira do Ensino Fundamental do 6
ao 9 Ano defined the teaching objectives for
our children, teenagers and young adults in
formal education in terms of a communicative
approach. What this means is that the syllabus
must stress the social nature of language
to empower the learner as a social actor.
Therefore, the teaching material, including
textbooks, learning and evaluation activities
must be adequately selected so as to provide

the learner with the necessary tools to
develop their communicative competence.
Although
the
terms
approach
and
method
are
sometimes
used
interchangeably, there is a basic distinction
between approaches and methods. A method
is fixed teaching system comprising a set of
stages, orderly organized, including activities,
procedures, techniques and practices; a plan
for the presentation of the language material
to be learned. Approaches are said to be
teaching philosophies, which are interpreted
and applied in different ways - the methods
in the classroom. Since the beginning of
the last century a number of methods were
proposed for foreign language teaching,
including, among others, Grammar Translation
Method; Cognitive Approach; Audio-Lingual
Method; Direct Method; Presentation,
Practice, Production (PPP); The Silent Way;
Suggestopedia; Total Physical Response (TPR);
Community Language Learning (CLL); Total
Immersion Technique; Task-based Learning;
The Lexical Approach; English for Specific
Purposes (ESP). From this list you can see that
the words approach and method are used
interchangeably, as some authors believe that
that term method should be avoided in favor
of the term approach.
These methods/approaches can be
classified in three main categories, or types:
(a) structural, (b) functional and (c) interactive
methods.
3.1.1 The Structural Approach

TASK
Instead of referring
you to the Internet,
I attached this text
about the Audio
Lingual Method to this
textbook as ANNEX 3 so
that you do not run the
risk of having it deleted
from the Web.
The complete, detailed
text is available at
http://faculty.ksu.
edu.sa/fallay/Pages/
ChapterFourTheAudioLingualMethod.aspx
Structural approaches to foreign

language teaching give first priority to
exploring and mastering the grammatical
and phonological patterns of the language.
Most of the so-called traditional methods
focused on sentence structure giving first
priority to particular grammatical points,
grammatical functions, like subject and
predicate, word order and the memorization
of word lists. Activities in general included
repetition and memorization. The best
known purely structural method, developed
on an oral approach, is the Audio-Lingual
method characterized by the use of the
foreign language itself never the learners

mother tongue - to explain the grammar and
new words of the target language, drills and
memorization of sentence structures to create
some kind of conditioning, so that the student
could finally overcome their native language
habits and acquire new habits to use those
structures naturally,
The Audio-Lingual method innovated
when an audio-visual lab was added to the
teaching practice as its most important tool.
The Audio-Lingual method was a milestone in
the history of foreign language teaching.
3.1.1.1 The Audio-Lingual Method
30
The Audio-Lingual Method, an oralbased approach, drills students in the use
of grammatical sentence patterns and is

supported by a strong theoretical base in

linguistics and psychology. The assumption
behind this method is that the understanding
and retention of sentence patterns by
the learners occurs through conditioning,
responding to stimuli, and that learners could
form new habits after overcoming the habits
of their native language.
The method makes use of

drills of various types: repetition drill,
chain, substitution, addition, expansion,
transformation,
completion,
translation,
sentence formation, replacement, question
and answer. Practice, mainly understood as
repetition, is intensive and extensive.
3.1.2 The Communicative Approach

Interaction is a basic feature of teaching
and learning. Any regular class demands
asking and answering questions, receiving
and returning tasks, discussions, etc. This
interaction is intensified and extended in the
so called Communicative Approach to foreign
language teaching. The Communicative
Approach draws on Michael Hallidays (1973)
account of language as being functional.
Language strategies are then a tool to the
realization of communicative functions, like
getting things done, informing, inviting,
convincing, reasoning, requesting, etc. The
approach also includes the constructivist
conception of learning as experimental
response to real world events and as a socially
mediated process.
Within the communicative approach to
foreign language teaching:
language is viewed mainly as a tool to
communication;
classroom activities develop around
authentic, meaningful communication;
fluency is essential to communication;
communication requires the integration
of various language skills;
actual
communication
demands
creativity based on the testing of
hypotheses;
trial and error is a part of language
learning;
actual language learning requires
contextualization;
culture cannot be dissociated from
language;
practice is essential;
competence is built through use;
language has to be adequate to the social
context.
Being
an
umbrella
term,
the
communicative
approach
typically
encompasses a number of trends, methods,
practices, procedures, activities, all of them
with a view to prepare the learner to use
language effectively in the real world.
The approach acknowledges the socialinteractional nature of language, its role as an
intervening tool for social relations, a mirror
for an underlying culture.
By now you have already mastered a
number of concepts and may be wondering
which methods, practices, activities to adopt
for your teaching. The Parmetros Curriculares
Nacionais (PCN) lngua estrangeira (1998),
clearly stress the communicative scope of
foreign language teaching in the Brazilian
context. Under the provisions of the PCN, our
schools must then adopt methods/trends that
provide the learner with activities, procedures,
tasks to allow them to develop their
productive and receptive skills accordingly,
therefore being prepared for perform his role
in the society.
To meet the provisions of the PCN for
the Brazilian schools the foreign language
learner is expected to be able to understand
the social-interactional nature of language,
identify and apply simple culture-specific
patterns in conversation; develop appropriate
pronunciation and intonation; reapply
grammar forms and vocabulary to appropriate
contexts; identify and apply the levels of
language register formal, semi-formal and
informal; infer word and sentence meanings;
understand the general and specific meanings
of written texts; create simple meaningful
chunks; produce short, coherent texts.

LEARN MORE
Go to ANNEX 3 and
read about the Audio
Lingual Method for
features and scope,
then suppose you
teach in a school where
the audio lingual is
the method to be
used in your English
classes. Create a set
of drills based on the
description of typical
Audio-Lingual Method
drills.
GLOSSARY
DRILL: A drill is defined as
a learning exercise aimed
at perfecting facility and
skill, especially by regular
practice.
LEARN MORE
CONSTRUCTIVIST
LEARNING - Learning
is viewed as an active,
contextualized process
of constructing
knowledge based on
personal experiences
and hypotheses of
the environment,
and on the previous
knowledge and
experiences of the
learner. This view of
learning was supported
by a number of works
by Vygotsky and
Piaget, among which I
suggest that you read,
if you are interested in
those theories, PIAGET,
Jean. A Linguagem
e o Pensamento na
Criana. Trad. Manuel
Campos. Rio de Janeiro:
Fundo de Cultura,
1959; VYGOTSKY,
Lev Pensamento e
linguagem. So Paulo:
Martins Fontes, 1987.
3.1.2.1 Functional Approaches

Contrary to the proposal of the
structural methods, functional approaches
include methods proposing that structures

must be presented and mastered in those
31
situations in which they could be used. It
emphasizes the processes of learning or
receiving knowledge, memorizing knowledge
by repetition and start practicing it when
such knowledge becomes a personal skill
and habit. To achieve this, students learn
vocabulary and practice reading skills.
LEARN MORE
PHATIC EXPRESSIONS
are those expressions
used to establish a
mood of sociability,
introduce some
conversation
while not actually
communicating
information or ideas.
When you meet
someone and say
How are you?, for
example, you do
not really want the
other person to give
you any information
about him or her, but
simply to have it as
an introduction to a
conversation, or merely
a general form of
greeting.
Learning is then viewed as habit formation,

where mistakes are to be avoided; language
skills are presented orally first; word meanings
are learned in context, both linguistic and
cultural; oral practice is emphasized.
3.1.2.1.1 The notional-functional approach

Developed in Europe in the early 1970s,
this approach focused on semantic and
performance criteria: (a) notions, like quantity,
manner, time and place, and emotions,
and (b) communicative functions, like
apologize, describe, invite, reason, comment,
criticize. The procedures do not provide for
grammar and vocabulary explanation and
memorization of rules, therefore relying

on the assumption that the student has
already mastered those aspects of the
language. Teaching materials in general did
not include a list of functions or notions.
Anyway, the concept underlying the proposal
was useful and valuable for the subsequent
communicative trends in teaching.
3.1.2.2 Interactive Methods

Language teaching methods tend to
be more and more interactive, leading the
learner to be more active, therefore focusing
on the development of both the productive
and receptive skills and allowing the learner to

be more creative instead of merely repetitive.
Below are some examples of how some major
interactive methods work.
3.1.2.2.1 Strategic Interaction: focus on speaking

For Di Pietro (1987), human conversation
always involves a turning point after a first
stage when phatic, expected, meaningless
utterances used are meant to establish a
mood of sociability. That turning point then
triggers the actual intended conversation,
filled with surprises. An easy example is when
you meet a friend in the street. You exchange
Figure 11: (Em)Phatic
talking!
Source: http://www.
brainstuck.com/tag/
beard/. Acesso em: 02 abr.
2012.
32
greetings this is expected, and whatever

you say is accepted as greeting. Then you
may hear something like Did you hear that
my husband was awarded a prize for his latest
urban development project? At this point
what Di Pietro says is that language teachers
fail when they prepare their students only
to memorize greetings, phatic expressions

instead of preparing them for that unknown,
unexpected bit of the conversation coming
with that decision moment, that turning
point when the speaker has to resort to their
creativity and competence to move on with
the conversation.
To help the teacher with their task
he proposes a pragmatics-centered, learnercentered method that makes use of strategic
interactions based on real-life scenarios
created by the teacher. The scenarios can
involve two or more speakers/interlocutors.
Although speaking is given first priority, the
four language skills are involved, starting
from reading comprehension. Reading,
listening and writing activities support the
development of the speaking skill.
Here is a sample scenario I produced for
you:
Group A
You are an exchange student in the USA.
After your first term in school you have
made some new friends. One of them is going
to be 19 next Saturday and you have
been invited to his birthday party. As most
students, you live on a tight budget.
Anyway, you want to buy him a present, so
you go to a shopping mall. After doing
some window shopping, you decide that a tie
will be a good present as your friend
will be working in an office in the summer.
Besides, a tie is not so expensive and
suits your budget quite well.
Group B
You are a salesperson in a gift shop of a
well-known shopping mall. At work this
morning, you were instructed to do your best
to sell some Calvin Klein belts which
were left from the last season. The store
manager told you that for each belt sold
the salesperson in charge will receive an extra
sales commission. At this exact m o m e n t
somebody is entering the shop. Be prepared
to help your customer.
In this scenario the basic communicative
functions practiced are argumenting /
convincing/ asking.
The procedures, always based on
teamwork, are developed in three stages:
rehearsal, performance and debriefing.
During rehearsal the students prepare
the conversation based on the script they
received for the scenarios and supported by
research, discussion and experimentation.
They are allowed to research whatever
means they may have concerning grammar,
lexicon and culture. Performance is the stage
when the actual conversation occurs. It
encourages the learner to take risks and feel
self-confident as they learn that there
is no pre-determined or a one-and-only
language form or communicative strategy
in conversation. During performance, the
teacher takes notes and does not interfere. It
is during debriefing that the teacher discusses
the pertinent occurrences observed during
performance and guarantees the solution of
the problems and mistakes observed during
the performance.
3.1.3 The Lexical Approach

Proposed by Michael Lewis (1993), the Lexical Approach develops various of the basic
principles of the Communicative Approach highlighting the nature and importance of
lexis to language teaching. You will be surprised to learn that Lewis describes language as
grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar. This means that language teaching should
give first priority to the mastering of lexical chunks over grammar. Lexical chunks are defined
as any pair or group of content words commonly found together, like good morning, foreign
language, low price. Lewis makes a distinction between vocabulary and lexis, lexis including
not only individual words but also the word combinations that he termed lexical chunks.
TASK
Provide a list of 10
collocations, 10 frozen
expressions and 10
semi-fixed expressions
in English.
Chunks can occur as:

collocations: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs which go together, like fast track, head
hunting, speak slowly.
frozen (fixed) expressions: expressions which cannot be changed; idiomatic
expressions, like I beg your pardon.
Semi-fixed expressions: expressions which allow for at least one word to be
replaced with others, like How are you doing?
33
LEARN MORE
Go to http://www.
kenlackman.com/files/
LexicalActivities
Book102.pdf
for more information
on the The Lexical
Approach.
According to Lewis, as much language consists of multi-word chunks, teaching should

develop the learners proficiency with the lexicon. It is by mastering a set of frequently used
combinations, or chunks that the learner develops his perception of the grammar, and not the
other way around. This view contradicts those traditional views of language learning that place
grammar as the basis of language, and mastery of the grammatical system as a prerequisite for
effective communication. Additionally, some authors agree that, in communication, a lexical
mistake generally results in misunderstanding, while a grammar mistake only rarely does.
However unpopular it is with teachers, language which contains grammatical
errors is unlikely to be misunderstood in context, but with lexical errors
misunderstanding, incomprehension, or in rare cases even offence, are quite
likely. Recognizing the lexical nature of language, and the centrality of lexis to
the creation of meaning, and consequently to communicative power, demotes
grammar and in particular, the often unnatural, inaccurate grammar of
standard EFL to a subsidiary role. (MICHAEL LEWIS 1997, p.37)
GLOSSARY
COLLOCATION:
a lexical pair of
content words like
in communicative
approach, pretty girl,
speak fluently. Groups
of words like by the
way or get up do not
fit into the concept
because they include
both function and
content words. In
English, some words
naturally collocate (go
well together) with
others.
CONTENT WORD
or FULL WORD, or
LEXICAL WORD - any
word belonging to the
open class of words,
that is, words which
carry meaning in a
sentence: noun, verb,
adjective.
FUNCTION WORD or
GRAMMATICAL WORD
- (palavra gramatical) a
word belonging to the
closed class of words,
that is, words which do
not carry content and
are used as a syntactic
(or construction)
marker. In the examples
above, the words by,
the, up.
TARGET LANGUAGE
The foreign/second
language being
learned.
34
It is clear, however, that Lewis is not saying that you, as a teacher, should not correct your
learners errors, or give less attention to grammar. Remember that fluency requires a certain
level of accuracy. What he proposes is giving first priority to the lexicon instead of grammar. So
you can make your classes more interesting by leaving grammar rules to be learned inductively,
primarily from observation. Essentially, learning should follow the sequence observe create
hypotheses experiment, instead of the traditional sequence present practice produce.
As you can see, this is primarily a constructivist/communicative proposal, centered on the
learner. The learner himself observes specific language strategies, creates his hypotheses about
them and tries his own forms based on those hypotheses. In fact, when engaging in conversation,
the speaker has to risk using creative forms of language; when reading a foreign text the reader has
to observe and create hypotheses about the content of the text to achieve understanding.
Figure 12: Hold your
teeth!
Source: http://www.proz.
com/forum/fun_with_
images/221038-how_
to_pronounce_the_th_
sound_in_english.html.
3.1.4 A Reading Approach

Traditionally in our foreign language
teaching practice learn a language was
achieved by studying its vocabulary, grammar
and sentence structure, and reading was
reduced to sentences and paragraphs
produced by textbook writers and teachers.
The reading of authentic materials was limited
to literary works and only offered to advanced
learners, those who supposedly had already
developed the language skills required for
them to understand those texts. This clearly
shows that learning did not occur through
actual reading.
The advent of the communicative

approach to language teaching provided
the teachers with a different understanding
of the role of reading in language teaching
and the types (genre) of texts that could be
used in the classroom. For the purposes of
developing communicative competence,
any type of materials related to everyday life,
like newspaper articles, advertising leaflets,
interviews, website texts are appropriate
provided that they are of interest to the
learners. When selecting a text to read
you have a purpose for your reading: get

information, leisure, improve knowledge,
curiosity Language learners must see a clear
purpose in reading in class. An interesting
text is motivational, reading promotes
implicit learning, provides cultural content,
and displays the intricacies of the language
grammar. As a teaching tool, texts must
provide the reader with cognitive challenges
that give them opportunities to process
meaning effectively.
Normal readers do not read all text types
in a magazine or newspaper with the same
interest, so learners are not expected to read
whatever text presented in the classroom with
the same interest. Sometimes you read only for
main ideas, sometimes for details, and the way
a reader approach the text is determined by the
purpose they set for reading. This means that

the focus of the reader varies accordingly: while
scanning a list of prices for sneakers you may
not give attention to that additional note on
colors available. Reading is focus-selective.
The specific knowledge, skills, and
strategies that a reader has to use to achieve
comprehension, depend on the purpose
set for reading and the specific type of text
selected. Text comprehension competence
is achieved through practicing extensive
and intensive reading, integrating the reader
previous knowledge into the new information,
being motivated to read, relying on the
interaction of different skills and strategies,
like recalling, inferring, experimenting,
guessing.
LEARN MORE
Refer to http://www.
powershow.com/
view/147203- ZGM3Z/
Teaching_Techniques_
and_Strategies_in_
Foreign_Languages_
flash_ppt_presentation
and to
Richards, Jack C. &
Rodgers, Theodore
Approaches and
Methods in Language
Teaching. Cambridge
University Press, 2001
to read about foreign
language approaches
and methods.
TASK
TASK
After reading, refer to ANNEX 4 - Teaching Reading: Strategies for Developing Reading Skills and
produce a short lesson based on the following text:
Go over the main

features of the
methods discussed and
produce a comparative
account of such
features. Then, after
learning more about
the Communicative
Approach decide if
one of those methods
or a combination of
methods better match
the objectives of your
teaching and give five
reasons for your choice.
Since 1977, Bollywood movies have been staged and filmed at 16 air-conditioned studios spread
over 520 acres in a place called Film City, located in the northern Mumbai suburb of Goregaon.
Now the Maharashtra government thinks its time to make Bollywoods office a state-of-theart, one-stop-shop for filmmakers as well as a major tourist attraction.
Future tourists will have access to shoots and sets and theres a Bollywood museum also
being planned on Film City premises.
According tonews reports, special sections will be built on sets to allow tourists to watch
shoots in progress through mirrored walkways that will ensure minimal interference.
Production houses will be offered discounts if they hold shoots on sets that are along the
virtual tour route.
We want the Film City to become one of the best places for filmmaking, Film City public
relations officer Saini told media.
We also want it to become a sought after tourist spot. However, we wont open the entire Film
City for tourism purposes. There will be just few places that will be open to the general public.
We have decided to work on this plan because we used to get many requests from people
so we thought why not do something so that people can see what happens inside a film set and
get a closer look at Bollywood? he added.
Mumbais Film City to open to tourists
Plan has visitors allowed onto actual film sets and able to see shoots in progress
Source:http://www.cnngo.com/mumbai/visit/mumbais-film-city-open-tourists911279?hpt=hp_bn10 on Sept.13, 2011.
Rethinking education for the 21st Century, Colombian philosopher and educator Bernardo
Toro (1997 Colombia) clearly states that there is no democracy without a quality education to
enable the child to understand the surrounding context and this has to start from developing
the reading comprehension and writing skills of children.
Initially Toros giving first priority to reading and writing may appear simply as
acknowledgment of the usefulness and recurrence of reading in todays world. The code is,
however, a call to the accountability of the reader, their responsibility for misinterpreting texts,
reading superficially, which may lead to dangerous results. What Toro does is to authenticate
the status of the written text as the most important and enduring documentary record ever
created. His Code also reminds of that reading is the primary form of achieving a comprehensive
understanding of the world, and this gives us reason enough to choose teaching a foreign
language through reading.
35
Teaching through reading enables the teacher to reach a larger number of learners at the
same time while offering the learners equal learning opportunities; enables learners to develop
the other skills for language as a whole is a natural combination of oral and written elements and
writing and oral activities result from the text content and comprehension. Reading in a foreign
language implies allowing the reader to enjoy a psycholinguistic guessing game (GOODMAN,
1967). Of course, when you read you do not guess all the time, but this is one of the strategies
readers use to grasp the meaning of the text. Anyway there is clearly an interaction between
thought and language while developing the abilities to infer, preview, create and confirm
hypotheses, draw conclusions, and guess!
The linguistic content acquired through the written text must inevitably be reapplied to
other communicative contexts and situations. In fact, reapplication to real life is a key element
of the actual objective of language learning. As reading is a receptive skill, the receptive
competence acquired becomes the semantic and structural content of the productive skills, that
is, speaking and writing, therefore creating what I call a boomerang effect.
It is clear then that the option to give first priority to a specific skill, in this case reading,
does not mean to exclude the other skills. Human languages are not realized through one skill
only; human beings do not develop the four skills equally. If I asked you about your Portuguese,
you would probably tell me that you are better at speaking than at writing, or better at reading
than at speaking. So why expect something different from yourself or your students, moreover
when learning a foreign language? In fact all this only reflect the natural, necessary balance of
human nature. Being aware of this balance only adds to a better understanding of the learners
difficulties while contributing to reduce the teachers anxiety and concerns.
Finally here is a note on reading in the real world and reading in the instructional
context. Basically, the distinction between these two types of reading is saying that one is
reading for pleasure while the other is reading for information. However, a good selection
of texts can provide the learner with pleasant information! Krashen argued that pleasure
reading is an important source of comprehensible input for language acquisition, and that
the basic requirement
is that the story or main idea be comprehensible and the topic be
something the student is genuinely interested in, that he would read in his
first language (Krashen, 1982)
3.1.4.1 ESP (English for Specific Purposes)

ESP is one of the various trends under the
umbrella term communicative approach.
An extended research developed in Brazil
in the 1990s identified reading as the most
frequently used of the four skills among
Brazilian teenagers and young adults and
professionals. The research accounted for the

difficulties, needs and wants of learners and
schools alike as well as for the educational
objectives established by the Brazilian
educational authorities. In Annex 5 you find a
detailed discussion of ESP.
3.1.4.2 What about writing?
36
A first step in the process of teaching

writing must always be to review the
concept of writing and redefine the scope
of writing in the Brazilian educational
environment for teenagers and young
adults. Writing in fact starts with the simple
copy of words. Although English makes use
of the alphabet that we know, combining
characters to produce English words, that is,
spelling is very particular of that language
and not always logical from the viewpoint
of a Brazilian speaker. Simple activities
like copies and dictation can be valuable
tools for beginners, mainly if the learner

copies meaningful chunks instead of single
words. Together with writing, learners
develop memorization and listening to
pronunciation.
For beginners, copies can be enough as
a first step to develop writing. Other activities
like transforming active sentences into passives,
paraphrasing and transforming direct discourse
into indirect speech, reordering jumbled
sentences, these are all forms of practicing
writing, a guided exercise of the productive skill
of writing. Guided/controlled writing should

precede creative writing and can be supported
by visual aids: pictures, graphs, and others.
Creative, free writing, on the other hand involves
a number of stages, and requires the writer
alone to pick up a topic, plan, outline, organize,
draft and revise the text. In the teenager/young
adult classroom, creative writing should include
the production of short poems, simple stories,
personal letters, blogs, and others.
Writing in a foreign language is somehow
complex and it has to follow the cultural
conventions and linguistic patterns of the
English variant selected: British English or
American English, for example, for each text
type or genre. As much as there is no variant
better than another, speaking and writing
must reflect the requirements of that variant.
Levels of formality, presentation, even size of
certain texts vary from one variant to another.
Simple uses, like valedictions - word or phrase
of farewell used to end a letter or message
vary from one variant to another. Yours
sincerely is typically used in British English
while American English uses Sincerely yours
or Sincerely in formal correspondence.
What is important is that whatever
methods, techniques, procedures, activities
are chosen for a given course should reflect
the core concepts developed in Applied
Linguistics and meet the communicative
objectives established in the provisions of the
PCNs. As I see it, this is what a communicative
teaching should include:
Value both individual and cooperative
work by calling for both the individuals
creativity and the reaching of a common
ground.
Place the teacher as an orchestrator
of activities, a research pal, one who
shares information and interacts with
the learners, controlling the instructional
process but not dominating over the
learners efforts to succeed in the
acquisition of the target
language.
View linguistic and cultural elements as
live bodies which have to combine to
produce actual communication.
Promote a balance between learners
fluency and accuracy.
Trigger the learners building of a new
linguistic self in accordance with the
foreign environment.
View the occurrence of mistakes as a
necessary step in the learning process

and use it as a tool for the teaching /
learning of specific linguistic aspects.
Track the learners process of building the
various stages of their interlanguage.
Use extra material and extensive tasks
according to individual needs and wants.
Rely on a balance between those
protocols
dictated
by
cultural
conventions and
the
strategies
formulated by the individuals intention.
Exercise the four language skills while
clearly setting priorities according to the
objectives of the course, the school and
the education authority regulations.
Develop the communicative competence
with
the
balanced
support
of
the grammatical, semantic, phonological,
strategic, functional competencies.
Observe individual learning styles.
Observe and value the diverse
development of the four skills for
individual learners.
Reach a satisfying predetermined
teaching goal or conclusion.
Continuously and adequately assess
learning quantity and quality using the
same language teaching strategies.
Be motivational, thus not boring to either
teachers or students.
LEARN MORE
Access the page below
for more information
on creative writing.
http://www.
teachingenglish.org.
uk/articles/creativewriting-languagelearners-teachers
and
http://www.learnnc.
org/lp/pages/672 for
writing and Second
Language Teaching
TASK
Go to
http://elpweb.com/
materials/wp-content/
uploads/2006/03/
Writing_3_Activity_1.
pdf and
http://elpweb.com/
materials/wp-content/
uploads/2006/04/
L2%20W%20task1%20
activity3.pdf
and complete the
exercises.
These are interesting
examples of how to
propose simple guided
writing activities.
The learners are expected to

Profit from any type of previous linguistic
knowledge - native or another foreign
language - they may have
Understand the social-interactional role
of language
Make appropriate and recurrent use
of the communicative functions: ask,
answer, invite, discuss, describe, reason,
explain...
Make adequate selection and use of the
lexicon
Identify linguistic variants
Make appropriate use of register in
relation to the context of situation
Interpret the content and message of
written texts
Apply the language learned in various
modes of interaction
Produce short, coherent written texts of
selected genres
37
3.2 Learning assessment

By many considered the most difficult
area of teaching, learning assessment,
understood as collecting information on a
learners language ability or achievement,
has been a controversial area, the scope
and forms of which not always being clearly
defined. Within the traditional school context,
learning assessment has been cumulative and
reductionist, distant from learning in time
and many times making use of activities and
strategies not used for teaching.
As I see it, language learning assessment
must aim to advance learning, be continuous,
recurrent, balanced and parallel to teaching,
a systematic, strategic observation of the
development and moment of learning;
progressive while accounting for the
various levels of the learners interlanguage;
constructive and positive, so that errors and
mistakes are viewed as an essential part of
learning and every bit of learning is accounted
for.
Effective assessment depends on the
teacher understanding some core concepts.
Language use is not only a matter of
determining what is right or wrong, but also
what is standard and non-standard (dialectal);
formal, semi-informal and informal; used and
not used in certain contexts or by certain
speakers; grammatical or ungrammatical;
Figure 13: The
unmaking of English
Source: www.chrismadden.co.uk/. Disponvel em
http://www.jesslaccetti.
co.uk/labels/learning%20
styles.html. Acesso em: 02
abr. 2012.
38
acceptable or not acceptable; typical of

certain social groups; frequently used or
not; error or mistake Understanding these
concepts will help the teacher have a better
evaluation of learners results. Many times
learners come out with unexpected answers,
which are, in fact, correct, good occurrences
in the language although not the ones
the teacher wanted to have. To avoid this
attention must be given to the directions for
each question or activity that should clearly
state the objectives of the activity.
Considering that no human being
develops the four language skills or show the
same level of performance, you should expect
yourself to be better at one skill and not
another and, when assessing your students,
remember this and value whatever skill your
student has developed. Something else to
consider is that what is difficult for the teacher
may not necessarily be difficult for your
student.
Assessment can take a number of forms,
use various types of activities and questions,
but these should always be compatible
with the teaching strategies used. It should
provide useful, clear information on students
strengths and weaknesses in such a way as
to give the teacher an insight on suitable
materials and activities to use in teaching;
determine the student readiness for a further
stage of learning; provide feedback on the
effectiveness of a teaching program, method,
approach or procedure. Grades should be
assigned on achievement, not on failures.
Within a communicative teaching
context, learners who are exposed to
performance-based environments, who are
used to completing activities that give them
the ability to actually use the target language
in simulated real-life situations must also be
evaluated for their linguistic performance
if the teacher is to gain a fair and accurate
picture of what they know and are able to
do with the foreign language. Performance
assessment enables the learner to show the
specific skills and competencies they have
mastered while applying to life like situations.
Teaching
communicatively
presupposes
assessing communicatively otherwise it would
not be fair to the learner.
References
PENNYCOOK,Alastair Critical Applied Linguistics: A Critical Introduction. Routledge, 2001.
CANALE, M. and SWAIN, M., Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second
language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics 1:1-47. , 1980.
Di PIETRO, R. J. Strategic interaction: Learning languages through scenarios. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1987.
GOODMAN, K.. Reading: A psycholinguistic guess game. Journal of the Reading Specialist,
May, 126-135. 1967.
HALLIDAY, M.A.K.Explorations in the Functions of Language. London: Edward Arnold, 1973.
KRASHEN, S. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition, Pergamon, 1982.
LEWIS, Michael. The Lexical Approach: The State of ELT and a Way Forward, LTP Language
Teaching Publication, 1993.
MAGALHES, Helena Maria Gramiscelli. Anglo American Culture. Caderno da UAB, 2011.
RICHARDS, Jack C. & RODGERS, Theodore. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.
Cambridge University Press, 2001
Scarcella, R.C., & Oxford, R.L. The Tapestry of Language Learning: The Individual in the
Communicative Classroom. Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1992.
TOMALIN, B. and STEMPLESKI S., Cultural Awareness. Oxford University Press, 1996.
http://elpweb.com/materials/wp-content/uploads/2006/03/Writing_3_Activity_1.pdf
http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/672
http://elpweb.com/materials/wp-content/uploads/2006/04/L2%20W%20task1%20activity3.pdf
39
UNIT 4
How is the foregoing material

applicable to the classroom?
4.1 Sample unit
In this unit you are provided with a sample lesson resuming the concepts and proposals you
learned in the previous units. It is meant to show you how you can profit from those concepts
and proposals by offering your students a set of individual and group activities, triggered by
reading comprehension. The four skills are developed in those lessons, which always include a
final section on applicability to the real world.
This sample unit was taken from Neves da Silva Magalhes (2001). Reading the World:
COMPREHENSIVE COLLABORATIVE INTERACTION (2001). It was prepared to meet the provisions
of both the Parmetros Curriculares Nacionais de Lngua Estrangeira and the Contedo Bsico
Comum de Lngua Estrangeira do Ensino Fundamental do 6 ao 9 Ano, therefore starting with
reading comprehension.
Lessons that follow this pattern are based on a tripod including:

Communicative functions: inform, reason, describe, narrate, explain
Linguistic strategies: selected syntactic structures and vocabulary
Contexts of situation (topics): technological innovation, business, everyday situations, sports
4.2 General task

1. Your task is to go through the sample lesson and complete the activities
proposed.
2. Then, based on what you read in the previous units, comment on how the sample lesson
reflects or not the Applied Linguistics concepts learned.
3. Now it is your turn do prepare a similar unit.
Theme Unit
Make them hear you
Communicative Functions: reasoning, justifying, stating facts, informing about personal
conditions, expressing anguish and fear, asking for help...
Linguistic strategies: simple past narrative, discourse markers of time and place, linking
words, modals used to indicate possibility and advice, regular and irregular verb forms used to
express feelings and conditions.
Context of Situation: diplomacy and the citizen in trouble.
41
Competencies to be achieved: use specific language to write letters, use modals to
indicate possibility and advice, describe specific conditions and express anguish and fear.
Applicability: Be able to produce formal letters for a specific purpose and in different
contexts of situation.
TASK 1: READ THE TEXT

Diplomacy and the citizen in trouble.
IN: Diplomacy A COURSE OF STUDY FOR ENGLISH FOR PROFESSIONALS
Washington, D.C. 1979
A Letter from Jail
October 20
To Whom It May Concern:
I am writing on behalf of my husband, his brother, and myself. We are three American
citizens who are in jail in Santa Maria, Tacaremba. We were arrested on the border for a crime
which we did not commit. The van that we were riding in was driven by a Canadian man who,
we later found out, was smuggling cocaine. We knew nothing about the cocaine. We were
hitchhiking and we accepted a ride from this man.
When we got to the border, the police found thousands of dollars worth of cocaine which
was hidden in the van. We couldnt believe it. The man seemed to be so nice. He confessed that
he was smuggling the drug. He explained to the police that we knew nothing about the cocaine.
But they didnt believe him. They think we are part of a dope smuggling ring. Perhaps because
we have an Italian name, the police think we were sent by the Mafia to smuggle dope, and that
we just disguised ourselves as hippies.
We are in two very small cells. My husband and I were separated he is in a cell with his
brother and the Canadian smuggler, and I am with some strange women. We are frightened and
confused. We arent sure what our legal rights are.
Can you help us get a lawyer? And can you notify our families? Most of all, could you send
an American official to visit us, so that we can talk to someone who understands this situation
and can give us some advice?
Thank you for your help.

Sincerely,
Nicole Monte
Michael Monte
Peter Monte
TASK 2: WORK ON TEXT ORGANIZATION

a. Take out from the text discourse markers that carry the ideas of:
place duration of time addition purpose cause alternative
42
CLUE
Functional Grammar Recall
Narrative in the past
Narratives are usually written in the simple past tense of verbs. The simple past is used
whenever we tell stories, tell of events in a sequence and mention a single event that was
completed in a past time.
Example: The kidnappers agreed to release the hostages when the family paid the
ransom.
Note: The simple present can equally be used in narratives.
b. Rewrite paragraph 2 using simple present narrative.
c. Rewrite these affirmative and negative statements of facts using the simple present
1. We knew nothing about this cocaine.
____________________________________________________________________________
2. The man seemed to be so nice.
____________________________________________________________________________
3. They didnt believe me.
____________________________________________________________________________
4. He explained to the police that we had nothing to do with that smuggling.
____________________________________________________________________________
5. The van that we were riding in was driven by a Canadian.
____________________________________________________________________________
d. Match the columns to find the words or expressions that are similar in meaning.
1. a small truck
2. authority
3. dope smuggling ring
4. on behalf of
5. hidden
6. asking for a ride
7. confessed

8. frightened

____
____
____
____
____
____
____
____
hitchhiking
van
concealed
official
scared
people who smuggle drugs
for
admitted
e. The word smuggle means bring drug into a country illegally. Other words can be formed
from smuggle by adding suffixes. Lets practice using them accordingly.
Example: Smuggling is a crime.
1. The van driver was a ________________.(smuggler, smuggling, smuggle, smuggled)
2. He was used to _______________ cocaine.(smuggler, smuggle, smuggling, smuggle)
3. The police questioned them for hours: Did you __________that cocaine? (smuggler,
smuggle, smuggling, smuggled)
4. Colombians are famous for ____________ drugs. (smuggling, smuggler, smuggled,
smuggle)
5. He ___________________ drugs for years. Although illegal, that activity made him a
rich man. (smuggling, smuggle, smuggled, smuggler)
43
CLUE
GRAMMAR RECALL
Relative Clauses
Relative clauses are used to explain, describe, specify, detail a situation, express
concepts and viewpoints. Who, whom, what, which, where, when or that introduce a
relative clause and refer to a word previously expressed:
The kidnapper, who was arrested, pleaded guilty.
who was arrested = relative clause
who = the kidnapper
communicative function = detail a situation
The city where the police caught them is named Tacaremba.
where the police caught them = relative clause
where = the city
communicative function = indicate place
Relative clauses can be paraphrased by simple sentences containing an adjective.
The kidnapper, who is very intelligent, claimed innocence.
The intelligent kidnapper claimed innocence.
f. Lets practice by completing the sentences below. Use the verbs in parentheses.
Communicative function: expressing concepts.
A cocaine smuggler is a person ____________________________ (smuggle).
Hitchhikers are travelers ____________________________________ (hitchhike).
Prisoners are criminals___________________________________________ (jail).
A policeman is an officer________________________________________ (arrest).
An ambassador is a diplomat _________________________________ (represent).
g. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate relative pronoun: that, what, when, where, who,
whom, which.
The couple in jail said: Smuggling is a crime ________ we did not commit.
A kidnapper is a person _______ takes people as hostages.
The American couple says that they didnt know the friend with___________ they were
travelling was a criminal.
Tourists are now used to visiting the jail ____________ the smugglers were kept.
The van ________ we were riding in was driven by a Canadian man.
Springtime is the time ________ most tourists go to Tacaremba.
44
TASK 3: WORK ON TEXT COMPREHENSION
1. Indicate the paragraphs where these ideas are found so that you have a general mapping
of the text: Paragraph 1, 2, 3 ou 4
Ms. Monte describes the situation in detail. ( )
She explains the reasons for the arrest of the Americans. ( )
The sender asks the Embassy authorities for help. ( )
The sender describes where they are arrested. ( )
Nicole asks the authorities to inform her family about their condition. ( )
The American lady explains how the suspects met the driver of the van.( )
Mr. Montes wife introduces the subject. ( )
Guided Writing
The jumbled text below is the letter the Consul General wrote in reply to the prisoners
request for help. Organize it to produce the actual letter.
Very truly yours, Grant Moore Zimmer. We understand your concern and will do our best to
assure you of a fair trial. Consul. October 22, 1998. At that time, I will give you a list of lawyers.
We shall also try to notify your family. In reply to your letter of October 20, Im writing to let you
know that we have contacted Emlio Gonzles, the Director General of Tacaremba Security. Dear
Ms. Monte. He has arranged for me to visit the prison where you are being held on Monday of
next week. American Embassy. Tacaremba.
Imagine that you are a foreigner in trouble abroad. Write a letter to the Embassy of your
country describing the situation and asking for help. (15 to 20 lines)
TASK 4: WORK ON APPLICABILITY

Task This theme unit has been dealing with diplomatic issues. The text you read covers the
context of situation diplomacy and the citizen in trouble. Search for other contexts of situation
covered by the diplomatic work.
Task one: read the texts
Stretch your legs
1. THE KIDNAPPING GAME HOW NOT TO BE KIDNAPPED
Among the sentences below you can find some that advise you on how to avoid being
kidnapped. Arrange them logically creating your list of dos and donts.

Keep to a specific routine at the office or when on holiday.

Always travel in isolated areas.
Keep a low profile.
Carry identification papers and medical records.
Park in protected areas.
Wear jewelry in risk areas of the city.
Carry bags with your name and address on them.
Ignore the possibility of danger to your wife (husband) and children.
Stop regularly at the same restaurant or bar on your way home.
Tell your family and friends where youre going.
From time to time change your route to and from work.
Let people see you carry large dollar bills in your wallet.
When travelling alone, phone home as soon as you have arrived at destination.
Arrange covert codes to use with your family on phone, in e-mails, when ringing the
door bell or blowing your car horn.
45

Be suspicious of people you do not know.

Think kidnapping will never happen to you.
Keep you car doors locked and windows closed.
Find about the safety conditions of the city or country youre visiting,
2. Country Profile
Imagine a nation bearing the conditions described below. Based on the information
supplied, how would you rate such a country?
The country is largely dependent on mineral resources and agricultural production.
Men are responsible for family support. Many are not professionally prepared to start a
business of their own.
Women still have domestic roles and some are not allowed to work outside home.
Birth rate is high. Life expectancy: 60 years. Health services are inadequate.
55% literate. Few schools are in the rural areas.
Monetary unit has been slightly devaluated but inflation has been somehow under control
in recent years.
Political prisoners have been recently released but strikes abound and illegal political
movements are still active.
Crime rates are high. Drug abuse is a reality among teenagers and children.
Traffic is a mess. The country does not have a car industry and has lowered the
number of imported cars in recent years.
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor

Appalling
Use the stars above to rate the country for each of its aspects. Now justify your answers.
Select from the words next to the stars and the others below to create your sentences: because,
as, moreover, however, although, due to.
Teamwork: Using the information in activities I and II, create a profile of your country. Be
prepared to justify your choices.
Source: Neves da Silva, Rosa Maria & Magalhes, Helena Maria Gramiscelli. Reading the
World: COMPREHENSIVE COLLABORATIVE INTERACTION, 2001.
Key to exercises in ANNEX 6
References
NEVES DA SILVA , Rosa Maria & MAGALHES, Helena Maria Grramiscelli. Reading the world:
comprehensive collaborative interaction, 2001.
46
Summary
UNIT 1
This unit contains:
An overview of the concepts, scope, means and purposes of Applied Linguistics;
A discussion about the various definitions of the object of teaching and learning language,
including the nature and scope of language supported by quotes from well-known
researchers.
A brief overview of regional and social dialects.
A discussion of the implications of the various competencies involved in foreign language
learning.
A discussion of the various types of competencies: communicative, grammatical, strategic,
pragmatic, cultural, sociolinguistic.
Activities based on selected texts and cartoons aimed to give you an opportunity to apply
and exercise the foregoing discussions.
UNIT 2
This unit contains:
A broad discussion of the core concepts of learning
A discussion of acquisition and learning as some form of informal and formal foreign
language learning
A discussion of learning and performance strategies used by foreign language learners,
like interference, transfer, overgeneralization, avoidance, overuse, fossilization, error and
mistake, pragmatics.
A discussion of the various learning styles as used by foreign language learners, including
visual, verbal, active, reflective, sensitive and intuitive learners.
A discussion of learning difficulties including an overview of Contrastive Analysis and its
contribution to lesson planning, understanding and previewing learners errors
A discussion of the setting of a new self experienced by foreign language learners,
as a result of having to adjust to a new culture and use proper communicative strategies.
Activities based on selected texts and cartoons aimed to give you an opportunity to apply
and exercise the foregoing discussions.
UNIT 3
This unit contains:
A discussion of the basic notions of approaches, methods, activities, procedures.
A description of the Structural Approach, followed by a detailed overview of the
foundations and scope of the Audio-Lingual Method showing its contribution to foreign
language teaching, the types of activities included: drilling, repetition, gap filling, and the
introduction of the audio-visual lab.
A discussion of the foundations and scope of the communicative approach; communicative
approach as un umbrella term, recommendations of the PCNs,
47
A discussion of interactive methods including an overview of the foundations and scope of
Strategic Interaction, as proposed by Robert Di Pietro, including a sample scenario; priority
given to speaking while developing the other skills as support to speaking.
A discussion of the foundations and scope of The Lexical Approach, as proposed by ichael
Lewis; the notion of meaningful chunks; the notion of language as grammaticalized lexis
and not lexicalized grammar; the notion of collocation.
A discussion of a reading approach including the pedagogical reasons supporting the
recommendations of the PCN for the choice of a reading approach to English teaching in
Brazilian schools.
A brief overview of ESP (English for Specific Purposes) as one of the trends under the
Communicative Approach
A discussion of writing, including guided and free writing followed by a suggestion
of activities.
Activities based on selected texts and cartoons covering the various approaches and
methods presented, aimed to give you an opportunity to apply and exercise the foregoing
discussions.
UNIT 4
This unit contains:
A sample lesson prepared to meet the provisions of the PCNs, following the Communicative
Approach, where you learn by completing the activities, preparing a similar unit, and
commenting on the lesson.

48
References
Basic
BRASIL. Secretaria de Ensino Fundamental/MEC. Parmetros Curriculares Nacionais lngua
estrangeira. Braslia, 1998.
JORDO, Clarissa Menezes A lngua estrangeira na formao do indivduo. Paran: UFPR,
2004.
LOPES, Luiz Paulo M. A nova ordem mundial, os parmetros curriculares nacionais e o ensino
de ingls no Brasil: a base intelectual para uma ao poltica. In: BARBARA & RAMOS OLIVEIRA,
Marta Kohl de. Jovens e Adultos como sujeitos de conhecimento aprendizagem. Faculdade
de Educao/USA. XXII Reunio Anual da ANPED, 1999.
Supplementary
BROWN, K. (Editor). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. 2. ed. Oxford: Elsevier, 2005.
BROWN, H.D. Principles of language learning and teaching. New York, Longman,2000.
CANALE, M. and SWAIN, M., (1980), Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to
second language teaching and testing. In: Applied Linguistics 1:1-47.
CORDER, S.P.. Error Analysis and Interlanguage. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987.
CORDER, S.P.. Introducing applied linguistics. Middlesex: Penguin, 1973.
DAVIES, Alan & ELDER, Catherine (Ed.) The Handbook of Applied Linguistics. Blackwell
Publishing, 2004.
De SAUSSURE, Ferdinand. Cours de linguistique gnrale. Compiled by Charles Bally and
Albert Sechehaye, 1916.
Di PIETRO, Robert J. Strategic Interaction: Learning Languages through Scenarios. Cambridge
Language Teaching Library, 1987.
GOODMAN, K. (1967). Reading: A
theReadingSpecialist, May, 126-135.
psycholinguistic
guess
game. Journal of
GRICE, H.P. Logic and conversation In: COLE, P. & MORGAN, J. (Eds.) Syntax and Semantics.
Volume 3. New York: Academic Press, 1975.
HALLIDAY, M.A.K. Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and
Meaning. London: Edward Arnold, 1978.
HALLIDAY, M.A.K. Explorations in the Functions of Language. London: Edward Arnold, 1973.
KLEIMAN, A.B. Afinal o que Lingustica Aplicada? In: Intercmbio. So Paulo: LAEL/PUC, 1990.
KRASHEN, S. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition, Pergamon, 1982.
LACKMAN, Ken. Lexical Approach Activities: A Revolutionary Way of Teaching, available at.
Disponvel em: http://www.kenlackman.com/files/LexicalActivitiesBook102.pdf. Acesso em: 02
abr. 2012.
49
LEWIS, Michael. The Lexical Approach: The State of ELT and a Way Forward. LTP Language
Teaching Publication, 1983.
LEWIS, Michael. Implementing the Lexical Approach: Putting Theory Into Practice. Hove:
Language Teaching Publications,1997.
MAGALHES, Helena Maria Gramiscelli. Anglo American Culture. Caderno Didtico da UAB, 2011.
NEVES DA SILVA, Rosa Maria & MAGALHES, Helena Maria Gramiscelli Reading the World:
comprehensive collaborative interaction, 2001.
NUNAN, David. Collaborative language Learning and Teaching. Cambridge University Press,
1992.
NUNAN, David. Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge University
Press, 1989.
PENNYCOOK, Alastair.Critical Applied Linguistics: a critical introduction. Routledge, 2001.
RICHARDS, Jack C. & RODGERS, Theodore. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.
Cambridge University Press, 2001.
SCARCELLA, R.C., & OXFORD, R.L.. The Tapestry of Language Learning: The Individual in the
Communicative Classroom. Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1992.
SELINKER, L. Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 209-241, 1972.
STREVENS, P. Applied Linguistics: an overview. In: GRABE, W.; KAPLAN, R.B. Introduction to
Applied Linguistics. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, p.13-31.1991.
TOMALIN, B. and Stempleski, S. Cultural Awareness. Oxford University Press, 1996.
TORO, Jos Bernardo. Os cdigos da modernidade. Trad. e adaptao: Antonio Carlos da Costa.
Colmbia: Fundacin Social, 1997.
TRAGER, G. The Field of Linguistics.Norman: Battenberg Press, 1949.
Additional
SOARES, Doris Almeida. Introduo Lingustica Aplicada e sua utilidade para as
pesquisas em sala de aula de lngua estrangeira. Available at: http://www.filologia.org.br/
revista/40suple/introdao_a_linguistica%20.pdf
CELANI, M.A.A. Afinal o que Lingustica Aplicada? In: PASCHOAL, M.S.Z. & CELANI, M.A.A. (Org.)
Lingustica Aplicada: da aplicao de lingustica lingustica transdisciplinar. So Paulo: EDUC.
ERDOAN, Vacide. Contribution of Error Analysis to Foreign Language
Teaching.
Available
at:
http://efd.mersin.edu.tr/dergi/meuefd_2005_001_002/pdf/
meuefd_2005_001_002_0261-0270_erdogan.pdf.
MATTOS E SILVA, Rosa Virgnia. Diversidade e Unidade: A Aventura Lingustica do Portugus.
Disponvel em http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/biblioteca/diversidade.pdf.
KRIEGER, Daniel, Corpus Linguistics: What It Is and How It Can Be Applied to Teaching.
Available at http://iteslj.org/ The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. IX, No. 3, March 2003.
MOITA LOPES, L.P. da. Oficina de Lingustica Aplicada: A natureza social e educacional dos
processos de ensino/aprendizagem. Campinas: Mercado das Letras, 1996.
PIAGET, Jean. A Linguagem e o Pensamento na Criana. Trad. Manuel Campos. Rio de Janeiro:
Fundo de Cultura, 1959.
50
VYGOTSKY, Lev. Pensamento e linguagem. So Paulo: Martins Fontes, 1987.

WALTER, Henriette. A aventura das lnguas no ocidente. Mandarim, 1997.
WHITMAN, Walt. Slang In America, 1892.
Sites:
Cartoon
Center
for
the
cartoons/2008/10/100308.html
American
Progress:
http://www.americanprogress.org/
http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/hlp/biblioteca/diversidade.pdf .
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_vocabularies_of_American_English
By Steve Kelley,Times-Picayune: http://www.cartoonistgroup.com/
082211 (1) By Nick Anderson: http://www.cartoonistgroup.com/
http://www.rumoatolerancia.fflch.usp.br/node/7 Lingustica e Preconceito
http://www.fujishima-h.ed.jp/teacher/materials/American%20Gestures.pdf
http://youtu.be/7Ehnci3fJXs - Popeye Private Eye
http://www.frugalmarketing.com/dtb/xcultcomm.shtml
http://iteslj.org/
http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/applied-linguistics.htm
http://efd.mersin.edu.tr/dergi/meuefd_2005_001_002/pdf/meuefd_2005_001_002_0261-0270_
erdogan.pdf
http://serc.carleton.edu/images/NAGTWorkshops/earlycareer/teaching/learning_styles.jpg
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/608/02/
http://www.powershow.com/view/147203-ZGM3Z/Teaching_Techniques_and_Strategies_in_Foreign_
Languages_flash_ppt_presentation
http://www.kenlackman.com/files/LexicalActivitiesBook102.pdf
http://esl.about.com/od/smalltalk/Small_Talk.htm
http://www.mnispi.org/cartoon/2001/index.htm
http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/reading/stratread.htm
http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/672
http://elpweb.com/materials/wp-content/uploads/2006/04/L2%20W%20task1%20activity3.pdf
http://www.brainstuck.com/
51
Learning Activities - AA
1) In 500 words provide a brief overview, in English, of what you learned about the scope of
Applied Linguistics.
2) In your opinion, should the teacher give priority to one or more competences in relation to
the others? Explain.
3) Review the concepts of fossilization, interference, transfer, overgeneralization, avoidance,
overuse, simplification and provide five actual English examples of each.
4) How does the choice of methodology impact the development of those competencies?
5) What level of competence should be expected from foreign language learners?
6) How can foreign language users achieve proper interaction?
7) What distinguishes a communicative activity from a non-communicative learning activity?
Create one learning communicative activity and one non-communicative activity that you
could apply in your classroom.
8) Design a communicative lesson giving first priority to speaking.
9) What type of learning evaluation would you propose for your learners? Create a
communicative evaluation activity for your students.
10) Suppose you offer your students this simple question for which you want affirmative
answers: Do you like apples? and you get the following answers:

Yes, I do.
Yes, I like apples.
Yes, I do like apples.
Yes.
Sure.

A lot.
I like apples.
Which answers would you accept if you are using a structural approach to teaching? Which
answers would you accept if you are using a communicative approach to teaching? Are
there right/wrong answers, better/worse, more/less frequently used, more/less formal,
polite/impolite? How would you grade your students?
53
APPENDIX
Annex 1
In this section I have attached a few resources obtained for free download in the Internet.
The idea is to guarantee your access to those resources, as they can be removed from the Web.
When Yes means No or Maybe-- Avoiding Cross-Cultural Misunderstandings in
Global Business
An American businesswoman comes away from a meeting delighted; she finally got her
Japanese supplier to agree to a price. A few days later, she receives questions about price. Its
almost as if she imagined the meeting. Whats going on here? she asks. We agreed on the
price already, didnt we?
The businesswoman recalls all the Um-hmms and Yesses she heard in the meeting. They
agreed to the price, they said yes, she mutters to herself. They even nodded and smiled.
Welcome to the world of intercultural business communication -- a world fraught with
frequent misunderstandings, frayed tempers and mistrust. This American Businesswoman is not
the first or last to feel frustrated in this way. Other people have misunderstood a yes response.
Ways of Communication
The businesswoman needs to understand that irrespective of language, different cultures
communicate in different ways. Good communication American style is to say what you mean
precisely, in as straightforward a manner as possible. Be direct, get to the point, say what the
bottom line is. For other cultures, this style is rude, abrasive and self-centered.
Many cultures--including Japanese, go to great lengths not to be direct. The risk of
disharmony with other group members is too great to be outspoken. Its better to agree to
somebody face and negotiate with them afterwards than to blatantly disagree. In our opening
scenario, the Japanese supplier appeared to say yes, but continued to negotiate a price, days
after the supposed agreement. Direct communicators like Americans in general, consider this
indirectness deceptive, two-faced and lacking in integrity. What do you think?
Goals of Communication
The goals of communication vary across culture and languages. In the US, speech is often
used to demonstrate eloquence, power or lack thereof. The presidential debates are good
examples of this. So too are the expressions For the sake of argument or Ill play the devils
advocate and... But in many Asian cultures, the goal of communication is to achieve consensus
of opinion and to promote group harmony. Yes can mean no, maybe, or even weve got to
think a little more about this and we dont want to fall out with you.
Styles of Communication
So how do you know when yes really means no? Simply listen to the silent messages and
read the invisible words. US culture, with its long tradition of rhetoric, values verbal messages
greatly. Other cultures are more sensitive to non-verbal means of communication, such as:
Body posture;
Hand gestures;
Facial expressions;
Eye contact;
How close people stand to each other.

Misunderstandings and blunders result from failing to recognize and understand many
forms of non-verbal communication. Going back to our opening scenario, the businesswoman
remembers the nods and smiles. But what did they mean in the context of that business
meeting? Not what the American businesswoman thought. They meant disagreement,
displeasure, uncertainty. The lesson to be learnt here is that similar gestures and facial
expressions are often used differently across cultures. The meaning of a smile is not universal.
Neither is a frown. So, avoid misunderstandings in communicating across cultures:
Be conscious of body language and non-verbal messages
55
What message is communicated in the smiles, frowns, head movements or silence?
Watch eye contact
Reserve judgment on the correct amount of eye-contact. Some cultures encourage plenty,
others frown upon it. You may have to adjust the amount of eye contact according to the status
of the person youre talking to.
Listen without interrupting
Americans are often considered too talkative. People from other cultures may interpret
many interruptions as disrespectful.
Summarize what you hear often
Keeping in mind point #3, clarify what you think you have heard, rephrasing as simply as
possible.
Speak slowly, enunciate and avoid idioms
Only 5% of the world population speaks English as a first language. You may be doing
business with a person who speaks fluent English but who has difficulty understanding your
accent, the idioms, jargon or slang you use. Remember, the simpler the English, the better.
Source: http://www.frugalmarketing.com/dtb/xcultcomm.shtml
Annex 2
56
Motivating Learners: Understanding Language Acquisition

To become engaged learners, students need to understand that learning a language is
not the same as learning about a language. When students think of the language as a school
subject like any other, they may learn a great deal about its vocabulary, grammar, and sentence
and discourse structure, but the language will not become a true medium of communication
for them and wont engage them very deeply. Students need to understand that learning a
language means becoming able to use it to comprehend, communicate, and think as they do
in their first language.
Students also need to recognize that language learning takes place in stages. Interpretive
skills (listening, reading) develop much more quickly than expressive skills (speaking, writing),
and the ability that students covet most -- the ability to speak the second language fluently -requires the longest period of growth.
All language learners have to work through a sequence of approximate versions called
interlanguages (ILs), each of which represents a level of understanding of the target language.
Understanding the features of ILs can help teachers and learners understand and monitor the
language learning process.
Uniqueness: ILs vary significantly from learner to learner in the early stages of language
learning. Learners impose rules of their own on the oral and written input they receive. Each
learner does this differently, combining emerging understanding of the rules of the new
language with ideas derived from the first language and other information that comes from their
individual situations and backgrounds.
Systematicity:As learners begin to develop proficiency in a language, they make errors in
systematic ways. For example, once students learn the inflections for a single class of verbs, they
may apply them to all classes indiscriminately. These errors are based on systematic assumptions,
or false rules, about the language. When students become aware of this aspect of their language
skill development, they often appreciate and even ask for overt error correction from the
instructor.
Fossilization:Some false rules become more firmly imprinted on the IL than others and are
harder for learners to overcome. Fossilization results when these false rules become permanent
features of a learners use of the language.
Convergence:As learners rules come to approximate more closely those of the language
they are learning, convergence sets in. This means that learners who come from different native
language backgrounds make similar assumptions and formulate similar hypotheses about the
rules of the new language, and therefore make similar errors.
Instructors can help students understand the process of language skill development in
several ways.
(a) Focus on interlanguage as a natural part of language learning; remind them that they
learned their first language this way.

(b) Point out that the systematic nature of interlanguage can help students understand why
they make errors. They can often predict when they will make errors and what types of errors
they will make.
(c) Keep the overall focus of the classroom on communication, not error correction.
Use overt correction only in structured output activities. (See Planning a Lesson for more on
structured output.)
(d) Teach students that mistakes are learning opportunities. When their errors interfere with
their ability to communicate, they must develop strategies for handling the misunderstanding
that results.
If you maintain the attitude that mistakes are a natural part of learning, you will create a
supportive environment where students are willing to try to use the language even though their
mastery of forms is imperfect.
Source: http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/motivating/acquisition.htm
Annex 3
The Audio-Lingual Method
1. The Audio-Lingual Method
(1)is an oral-based approach.
(2)drills students in the use of grammatical sentence patterns.
(3)has a strong theoretical base in linguistics and psychology.
2. How has the behavioral psychologyinfluenced the Audio-Lingual Method?
(1)It was thought that the way to acquire the sentence patterns of the
target language was through conditioninghelping learners to respond
correctly to stimuli through shaping and reinforcement.
(2)Learners could overcome the habits of their native language and form
the new habits required to be target language speakers.
3. Define a backward build-up drill (expansion drill). State its purpose and
advantages.
(1) Definition: The teacher breaks down a line into several parts. The students
repeat a part of the sentence, usually the last phrase of the line. Then,
following the teachers cue, the students expand what they are repeating
part by part until they are able to repeat the entire line. The teacher begins
with the part at the end of the sentence (and works backward from there) to
keep the intonation of the line as natural as possible. This also directs more
student attention to the end of the sentence, where new information typically
occurs.
(2) Purpose: The purpose of this drill is to break down the troublesome sentence
into smaller parts.
(3) Advantages:
(a) The teacher is able to give the students help in producing the troublesome line.
(b) Having worked on the line in small pieces, the
students are also able to take note
of where each word or phrase begins and ends in the sentence.
4. Define a repetition drill.

Students are asked to listen carefully to the teachers model, and then they have to repeat
and attempt to mimic the model as accurately and as quickly as possible.
5. Define a chain drill. State its advantages.
(1) Definition:The chain of conversation that forms around the room as students, one-byone, ask and answer questions of each other. The teacher begins the chain by greeting a
particular student, or asking him a question. That student responds, and then turns to the
student sitting next to him.
57
(2)Advantages:
(A)A chain drill gives students an opportunity to say the lines individually.
(B)The teacher listens and can tell which students are struggling and will need more practice.
(C)A chain drill also lets students use the expressions in communication with someone else,
even though the communication is very limited.
6. Define a single-slot substitution drill. State its purpose.
(1) Definition: The teacher says a line, usually from the dialog. Next, the teacher
says a word or a phrasecalled the cue. The students repeat the line the
teacher
has given them, substituting the cue into the line in its proper place.
(2) Purpose: The major purpose of this drill is to give the students practice in
finding and filling in the slots of a sentence.
7. Define a multiple-slot substitution drill. State its purpose.

This drill is similar to the single-slot substitution drill. The difference is that the teacher gives
cue phrases, one at a time, that fit into different slots in the dialog line. The students must
recognize what part of speech each cue is, or at least, where it fits into the sentence, and
make any other changes, such as subject-verb agreement. They then say the line, fitting the
cue phrase into the line where it belongs.
8. Define transformation drill.

Students are asked to change one type of sentence into anotheran affirmative sentence
into a negative or an active sentence into a passive.
9. Define Question-and-answer drill.

This drill gives students practice with answering questions. The students should answer the
teachers questions very quickly.
10. Define contrastive analysis.

Contrastive analysis is the comparison of two languages (a comparison
between the students native language and the language they are studying).
11. What is the importance of contrastive analysis in the Audio-Lingual
Method?

It helps the teacher to locate the places where s/he anticipates her/his students will have
trouble. Also, a contrastive analysis between the students native language and the target
language will reveal where a teacher should expect the most interference.
12. State the main principles of the Audio-Lingual Method.
1. Language forms do not occur by themselves; they occur most naturally within a
context.
2.
One of the language teachers major roles is that of a model of the target language.

3. Language learning is a process of habit formation.

4. It is important to prevent learners from making errors. Errors lead to the formation of
bad habits.

5. Positive reinforcement helps the students to develop correct habits.
6.
Students should overlearn, i.e. learn to answer automatically without stopping to
think.
7. Students should acquire the structural patterns; students will learn vocabulary
afterward.

8. The learning of a foreign language should be the same as the acquisition of the native
language.
9.
Speech is more basic to language than the written form. The natural order of skill
acquisition is: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

10. Language cannot be separated from culture. Culture is the everyday behavior of the
people who use the target language.
58

13. What are the goals of teachers who use the Audio-Lingual Method?
(1) Teachers want their students to be able to use the target language communicatively.
(2) Students need to overlearn the target language.
(3) Students need to learn to use the target language automatically without stopping to think.
(4) Students achieve this by forming new habits in the target language and overcoming the
old habits of their native language.
14. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?
(1) The teacher is like an orchestra leader, directing and controlling the language behavior
of her students.
(2) The teacher is also responsible for providing students with a good model for imitation.
(3) Students are imitators of the teachers model or the tapes the teacher supplies of model
speakers.
(4) Students follow the teachers directions and respond as accurately and as rapidly as possible.
15. What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?
(1)New vocabulary and structural patterns are presented through dialogs.
(2)The dialogs are learned through imitation and repetition.
(3)Drills are conducted based upon the patterns present in the dialog.
(4)Students successful responses are positively reinforced.
(5)Grammar is induced from the examples given; explicit grammar rules are not provided.
(6)Cultural information is contextualized in the dialogs or presented by the teacher.
(7)Studentsreading and written work is based upon the oral work they did earlier.
16. What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of studentstudent interaction?

There is student-to-student interaction in chain drills or when students take different
roles in dialogs, but this interaction is teacher-directed. Most of the interaction is between
teacher and students and is initiated by the teacher.
17. How is the language viewed? How is the culture viewed?
(1)Every language is seen as having its own unique system.
(2)The system is comprised of several different levels: phonological, morphological, and
syntactic. Each level has its own distinctive patterns.
(3)Everyday speech is emphasized in the Audio-Lingual Method.
(4)The level of complexity of the speech is graded, however, so that beginning students
are presented with only simple patterns.
(5)Culture consists of the everyday behavior and lifestyle of the target language speakers.
18. What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?

(1) Vocabulary is kept to a minimum while the students are mastering the sound system
and grammatical patterns.
(2) A grammatical pattern is not the same as a sentence. For instance, underlying the
following three sentences is the same grammatical pattern:Meg called, The Blue Jays won,
The team practiced.
(3) The natural order of skills presentation is adhered to: listening, speaking, reading, and
writing.
(4) The oral/aural skills receive most of the attention.
(5) What students write they have first been introduced to orally.
(6) Pronunciation is taught from the beginning, often by students working in language
laboratories on discriminating between members of minimal pairs.
19. What is the role of the students native language?

(1) The habits of the students native language are thought to interfere with the
students attempts to master the target language. Therefore, the target language is used in
the classroom, not the studentsnative language.
(2) A contrastive analysis between the students native language and the target language
will reveal where a teacher should expect the most interference.
59
20. How is evaluation accomplished?

It would be discrete-point in nature, that is, each question on the test would focus on only
one point of the language at a time. Students might be asked to distinguish between words
in a minimal pair, for example, or to supply an appropriate verb form in a sentence.
21. How does the teacher respond to student errors?

Student errors are to be avoided if at all possible through the teachers awareness of where
the students will have difficulty and restriction of what they are taught to say.
22. What are the main techniques associated with the Audio-Lingual Method?
23. Discuss as a technique of the Audio-Lingual Method.
1) Dialog memorization
a) Dialogs or short conversations between two people are often used to begin a new lesson.
b) Students memorize the dialog through mimicry.
c) In the Audio-Lingual Method, certain sentence patterns and grammar points are
included within the dialog.
d) These patterns and points are later practiced in drills based on the lines of the dialog.
2) Backward build-up (expansion) drill (see question No. 3)
3) Repetition drill (see question No. 4)
4) Chain drill (see question No. 5)
5) Single-slot substitution drill (see question No. 6)
6) Multiple-slot substitution drill (see question No. 7)
7) Transformation drill (see question No. 8)
8) Question-and-answer drill (see question No. 9)
9) Use of minimal pairs

The teacher works with pairs of words which differ in only one sound; for example, ship/
sheep. Students are first asked to perceive the difference between the two words and later
to be able to say the two words. The teacher selects the sounds to work on after s/he has
done a contrastive analysis.
10) Complete the dialog

Selected words are erased from a dialog students have learned. Students complete the
dialog by filling the blanks with the missing words.
11) Grammar game

Games are used in the Audio-Lingual Method. The games are designed to get students
to practice a grammar point within a context. Students are able to express themselves,
although it is rather limited in this game. There is also a lot of repetition in this game.
24. Highlights of the Audio-Lingual Method.
(1) Language acquisition results from habit formation.
(2) The habits of the native language will interfere with target language learning.
(3) The commission of errors should be prevented as much as possible.
(4) The major focus should be on the structural patterns of the target language.
(5) A dialog is a useful way to introduce new material.
(6) A dialog should be memorized through mimicry of the teachers model.
(7) Structure drills are valuable pedagogical activities.
(8) Working on pronunciation through minimal-pair drills is a worthwhile activity.
60
Annex 4
Teaching Reading: Strategies for Developing Reading Skills
Using Reading Strategies
Language instructors are often frustrated by the fact that students do not automatically
transfer the strategies they use when reading in their native language to reading in a language
they are learning. Instead, they seem to think reading means starting at the beginning and going
word by word, stopping to look up every unknown vocabulary item, until they reach the end.
When they do this, students are relying exclusively on their linguistic knowledge, a bottomup strategy. One of the most important functions of the language instructor, then, is to help
students move past this idea and use top-down strategies as they do in their native language.
Effective language instructors show students how they can adjust their reading behavior
to deal with a variety of situations, types of input, and reading purposes. They help students
develop a set of reading strategies and match appropriate strategies to each reading situation.
Strategies that can help students read more quickly and effectively include
Previewing: reviewing titles, section headings, and photo captions to get a sense of the
structure and content of a reading selection;
Predicting: using knowledge of the subject matter to make predictions about content and
vocabulary and check comprehension; using knowledge of the text type and purpose to
make predictions about discourse structure; using knowledge about the author to make
predictions about writing style, vocabulary, and content;
Skimming and scanning: using a quick survey of the text to get the main idea, identify text
structure, confirm or question predictions;
Guessing from context: using prior knowledge of the subject and the ideas in the text as
clues to the meanings of unknown words, instead of stopping to look them up;
Paraphrasing: stopping at the end of a section to check comprehension by restating the
information and ideas in the text.
Instructors can help students learn when and how to use reading strategies in several ways.
By modeling the strategies aloud, talking through the processes of previewing, predicting,
skimming and scanning, and paraphrasing. This shows students how the strategies work
and how much they can know about a text before they begin to read word by word.
By allowing time in class for group and individual previewing and predicting activities as
preparation for in-class or out-of-class reading. Allocating class time to these activities
indicates their importance and value.
By using cloze (fill in the blank) exercises to review vocabulary items. This helps students
learn to guess meaning from context.
By encouraging students to talk about what strategies they think will help them approach
a reading assignment, and then talking after reading about what strategies they actually
used. This helps students develop flexibility in their choice of strategies.
When language learners use reading strategies, they find that they can control the reading
experience, and they gain confidence in their ability to read the language.
Reading to Learn
Reading is an essential part of language instruction at every level because it supports
learning in multiple ways.
Reading to learn the language: Reading material is language input. By giving students
a variety of materials to read, instructors provide multiple opportunities for students to
absorb vocabulary, grammar, sentence structure, and discourse structure as they occur in
authentic contexts. Students thus gain a more complete picture of the ways in which the
elements of the language work together to convey meaning.
Reading for content information: Students purpose for reading in their native language
is often to obtain information about a subject they are studying, and this purpose can be
useful in the language learning classroom as well. Reading for content information in the
language classroom gives students both authentic reading material and an authentic
purpose for reading.
Reading for cultural knowledge and awareness: Reading everyday materials that are
61
designed for native speakers can give students insight into the lifestyles and worldviews of
the people whose language they are studying. When students have access to newspapers,
magazines, and Web sites, they are exposed to culture in all its variety, and monolithic
cultural stereotypes begin to break down.
When reading to learn, students need to follow four basic steps:
1. Figure out the purpose for reading. Activate background knowledge of the topic in order
to predict or anticipate content and identify appropriate reading strategies.
2. Attend to the parts of the text that are relevant to the identified purpose and ignore the
rest. This selectivity enables students to focus on specific items in the input and reduces
the amount of information they have to hold in short-term memory.
3. Select strategies that are appropriate to the reading task and use them flexibly and
interactively. Students comprehension improves and their confidence increases when
they use top-down and bottom-up skills simultaneously to construct meaning.
4. Check comprehension while reading and when the reading task is completed. Monitoring
comprehension helps students detect inconsistencies and comprehension failures,
helping them learn to use alternate strategies.
Source: http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/reading/stratread.htm
Annex 5
English for Specific Purposes: What does it mean? Why is it different?
Laurence Anthony
Dept. of Information and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering
Okayama University of Science, 1-1 Ridai-cho, Okayama 700, Japan
anthony at ice.ous.ac.jp
1. Growth of ESP
From the early 1960s, English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has grown to become one
of the most prominent areas of EFL teaching today. Its development is reflected in the
increasing number of universities offering an MA in ESP (e.g. The University of Birmingham,
and Aston University in the UK) and in the number of ESP courses offered to overseas
students in English speaking countries. There is now a well-established international journal
dedicated to ESP discussion, English for Specific Purposes: An international journal, and
the ESP SIG groups of the IATEFL and TESOL are always active at their national conferences.
In Japan too, the ESP movement has shown a slow but definite growth over the past few years. In
particular, increased interest has been spurred as a result of the Mombushos decision in 1994 to
largely hand over control of university curriculums to the universities themselves. This has led to
a rapid growth in English courses aimed at specific disciplines, e.g. English for Chemists, in place
of the more traditional General English courses. The ESP community in Japan has also become
more defined, with the JACET ESP SIG set up in 1996 (currently with 28 members) and the JALT
N-SIG to be formed shortly. Finally, on November 8th this year the ESP community came together
as a whole at the first Japan Conference on English for Specific Purposes, held on the campus of
Aizu University, Fukushima Prefecture.
2. What is ESP?
As described above, ESP has had a relatively long time to mature and so we would
expect the ESP community to have a clear idea about what ESP means. Strangely, however,
this does not seem to be the case. In October this year, for example, a very heated debate
took place on the TESP-L e-mail discussion list about whether or not English for Academic
Purposes (EAP) could be considered part of ESP in general. At the Japan Conference on ESP
also, clear differences in how people interpreted the meaning of ESP could be seen. Some
people described ESP as simply being the teaching of English for any purpose that could
62

be specified. Others, however, were more precise, describing it as the teaching of English
used in academic studies or the teaching of English for vocational or professional purposes.
At the conference, guests were honored to have as the main speaker, Tony Dudley-Evans, coeditor of the ESP Journal mentioned above. Very aware of the current confusion amongst the
ESP community in Japan, Dudley-Evans set out in his one hour speech to clarify the meaning of
ESP, giving an extended definition of ESP in terms of absolute and variable characteristics (see
below).
Definition of ESP (Dudley-Evans, 1997)
Absolute Characteristics
1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners
2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves
3. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis,
register, study skills, discourse and genre.
Variable Characteristics
1. ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines
2. ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of General
English
3. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a
professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level
4. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students.
5. Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language systems
The definition Dudley-Evans offers is clearly influenced by that of Strevens (1988), although
he has improved it substantially by removing the absolute characteristic that ESP is in contrast
with General English (Johns et al., 1991: 298), and has included more variable characteristics.
The division of ESP into absolute and variable characteristics, in particular, is very helpful
in resolving arguments about what is and is not ESP. From the definition, we can see that ESP
can but is not necessarily concerned with a specific discipline, nor does it have to be aimed at
a certain age group or ability range. ESP should be seen simple as an approach to teaching, or
what Dudley-Evans describes as an attitude of mind. This is a similar conclusion to that made
by Hutchinson et al. (1987:19) who state, ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all
decisions as to content and method are based on the learners reason for learning.
3. Is ESP different to General English?
If we agree with this definition,, we begin to see how broad ESP really is. In fact, one may
ask What is the difference between the ESP and General English approach? Hutchinson et al.
(1987:53) answer this quite simply, in theory nothing, in practice a great deal. When their book
was written, of course, the last statement was quite true. At the time, teachers of General English
courses, while acknowledging that students had a specific purpose for studying English, would
rarely conduct a needs analysis to find out what was necessary to actually achieve it. Teachers
nowadays, however, are much more aware of the importance of needs analysis, and certainly
materials writers think very carefully about the goals of learners at all stages of materials
production. Perhaps this demonstrates the influence that the ESP approach has had on English
teaching in general. Clearly the line between where General English courses stop and ESP
courses start has become very vague indeed.
Rather ironically, while many General English teachers can be described as using an ESP
approach, basing their syllabi on a learner needs analysis and their own specialist knowledge of
using English for real communication, it is the majority of so-called ESP teachers that are using an
approach furthest from that described above. Instead of conducting interviews with specialists
in the field, analyzing the language that is required in the profession, or even conducting
students needs analysis, many ESP teachers have become slaves of the published textbooks
available, unable to evaluate their suitability based on personal experience, and unwilling to do
the necessary analysis of difficult specialist texts to verify their contents.
63
4. The Future of ESP
If the ESP community hopes to grow and flourish in the future, it is vital that the community
as a whole understands what ESP actually represents. Only then, can new members join with
confidence, and existing members carry on the practices which have brought ESP to the position
it has in EFL teaching today. In Japan in particular, ESP is still in its infancy and so now is the ideal
time to form such a consensus. Perhaps this can stem from the Dudley-Evans definition given in
this article but I suspect a more rigorous version will be coming soon, in his book on ESP to be
published in 1998. Of course, interested parties are also strongly urged to attend the next Japan
Conference on ESP, which is certain to focus again on this topic.
5. References
Dudley-Evans, Tony (1998). Developments in English for Specific Purposes: A multidisciplinary approach. Cambridge University Press. (Forthcoming)
Hutchinson, Tom & Waters, Alan (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A learner-centered
approach. Cambridge University Press.
Johns, Ann M. & Dudley-Evans, Tony (1991). English for Specific Purposes: International in
Scope, Specific in Purpose. TESOL Quarterly 25:2, 297-314.
Strevens, P. (1988). ESP after twenty years: A re-appraisal. In M. Tickoo (Ed.), ESP: State of the
art (1-13). SEAMEO Regional Language Centre.
Source: http://www.antlab.sci.waseda.ac.jp/abstracts/ESParticle.html
Annex 6
Writing and English as a Second Language
Strategies for helping English Language Learners throughout the writing process.
THE WRITING PROCESS AND ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS
The process approach to writing is ideally suited to the second language learner since
listening, speaking, and reading can be so naturally integrated with it.
Pre-writing
Pre-writing is essential for the writer whose first language is not English. Especially at the
lower levels of proficiency, students have a limited lexicon and therefore often have difficulty
expressing their ideas. Therefore, teachers or other students may need to assist second language
students to generate vocabulary and grammatical structures relevant to the topic. Models and
samples are often helpful.
Brainstorming depending on the students level of language, the writing down of ideas
can be done by the teacher or by native English speaking students; the teacher may need to
provide some guidance by asking questions to elicit vocabulary and structures associated
with the selected topic.
Word banks generated by the students or as assigned by the teacher
Drawing and sketching enable students to illustrate ideas for which they do not have the
language
Discussion with native English-speaking peers or with the teacher
Note-taking (often with the use of charts)
Graphic organizers for eliciting, organizing and developing background knowledge
Dictations give learners some alternative models for addressing a writing task
Researching and gather data by viewing videos, reading, talking, interviewing, and
searching reference books or internet
64

Drafting
At the drafting stage students write their ideas down using some of the notes, language,
and structures generated during the pre-writing activities. Second language students especially
need to be aware that their first draft does not have to be perfect and that the purpose of this
activity is to get words on paper. Spelling will often not be accurate and there may be many
grammatical errors. Some students may also insert words in their native language.
Using notes taken during pre-writing activities provides students with a starting point
and a skeleton of ideas; especially useful for second language learners whose ideas are
restricted by their limited vocabulary
Sentence completions may address the different ways to begin or end a paragraph or a
story or may focus on vocabulary needed to describe or narrate a story
Journal writing allows students to take risks and experiment with language; it can
provide a starting point for a longer writing assignment
Revising/editing
Second language learners will also need assistance during the revising/editing stage from
teachers and from other students. Changes in writing will need to address word usage and
clarification of ideas, as well as grammatical accuracy, punctuation, spelling and capitalization. It
is important to remember that second language students may have difficulty recognizing their
own errors or the errors of their peers. A self-assessment checklist may help them monitor their
own writing. However, care should be taken with peer editing groups. In addition, it is important
that correction be done in a comfortable environment.
Peer or group reviews of mixed ELLs and native English speakers
Language expansion and sentence combining activities enable students to move beyond
subject/verb/object format by encouraging students to combine two or three different
statements in various ways to make their sentences more complex
Rearranging words within sentences
Using dictionaries, including personal dictionaries, and other resource materials such as
grammar books and textbooks
Word processing
Second language learners should be encouraged to use word processing programs
throughout the writing process. The programs facilitate the process and are especially helpful
with the composing, revising, and editing stages because they do not require students to
rewrite their work. They help students format their work and produce copies which are clearly
legible and professional looking. These programs are especially helpful for students who are
accustomed to a different alphabet (i.e. Chinese, Russian) and are only beginning to learn to
write using the romanized alphabet for English.
Translating
Translating is the least useful strategy for writing in a second language. There is often
a wide discrepancy between what students can express in their first language and what
their limited foreign language lexicon enables them to do. They frequently resort to using a
dictionary to look up every word and end up with a literal translation that may be completely
incomprehensible and even embarrassing.
RELATING STRATEGIES TO PROFICIENCY
How well English Language Learners can write is directly related to their level of English
language proficiency in writing. It is important to note that language learners often make
mistakes in vocabulary and grammar. As they take risks and experiment, their accuracy level
may be negatively affected. It is important to realize that this is a normal part of the language
development process. If too much attention is placed on accuracy, students will not progress.
The following table indicates what students can do at each level of proficiency.
65
Proficiency Level
Description
Strategies/Activities
Novice
Students can copy words and phrases and

write them from memory. They can identify,
list, and label. They can write one of more
familiar phrases, statements, or questions
in context.
Simple descriptions to accompany

visuals; paragraph completion,
cloze passages, dictations, fillingin forms, poetry, organization of
information on graphic organizers
Intermediate
Students can create statements and

questions well enough to meet practical
needs and limited social demands. They
can write short messages, notes, letters,
paragraphs, and short compositions and
can take simple notes. They can compose
a series of related sentences that describe
or compare. They can narrate a sequence
of events and write one or more sentences
that classify, summarize, or predict.
Descriptions with visuals, cloze

passages, sentence combining,
elaboration, guided descriptions
and narrations, compositions based
on interviews, journals
Advanced
Students can write social and more formal

correspondence, discourse of several
paragraphs, cohesive summaries with
some details, and narrative and descriptive
passages. They can take notes. They can
express feelings and preferences and give
supporting details. They can develop an
organized composition, report, or article of
more than one paragraph. They can explain
their point of view simply.
Detailed descriptions, sentence

combining, elaboration, guided
descriptions and narrations,
compositions with rewrites, free
compositions, dialogue journals
Source: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/672
Annex 7
Key to exercises in Unit 4
Text organization
a. Take out from the text discourse markers that carry the ideas of:
Place - in jail, on the border, in Santa Maria, Tacaremba, in the van, in two small cells, in a cell
duration of time - when
addition - and
purpose - so that
cause because
alternative - perhaps
Guided writing
October 22, 1998.
Dear Ms. Monte.
In reply to your letter of October 20, Im writing to let you know that we have contacted
Emlio Gonzles, the Director General of Tacaremban Security. He has arranged for me to visit the
prison where you are being held on Monday of next week. At that time, I will give you a list of
lawyers.
66

We shall also try to notify your family.
We understand your concern and will do our best to assure you of a fair trial.
Very truly yours,
Grant Moore Zimmer.
Consul.
American Embassy. Tacaremba.
b. Rewrite these sentences in the simple present.
1. We know nothing about this cocaine.
2. The man seems to be so nice.
3. They dont believe me.
4. He explains to the police that we had nothing to do with that smuggling.
5. The van that we are riding in is driven by a Canadian.
c. Match the columns
1. a small truck
2. authority
3. dope smuggling ring
4. on behalf of
5. hidden
6. asking for a ride
7. confessed
8. frightened
__6__
__1__
__5__
__2__
__8__
__3__
__4_
__7__
hitchhiking
van
concealed
official.
scared
people who smuggle drugs
for
admitted
d. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The van driver was a smuggler.

He was used to smuggling cocaine.
The police questioned them for hours: Did you smuggle that cocaine?
Colombians are famous for smuggling drugs.
He smuggled drugs for years. Although illegal, that activity made him a rich man.
e.

A cocaine smuggler is a person who smuggles cocaine.

Hitchhikers are travelers who hitchhike.
Prisoners are criminals who are put in jail.
A policeman is an officer who arrests people.
An ambassador is a diplomat who represents his country abroad.
f. The couple in jail said: Smuggling is a crime that/which we did not commit.
A kidnapper is a person who takes people as hostages.
The American couple say that they didnt know the friend with whom they were
travelling was a criminal.
Tourists are now used to visiting the jail where the smugglers were kept.
The van that we were riding in was driven by a Canadian man.
Springtime is the time when most tourists go to Tacaremba.
Text comprehension
In paragraph 1
In paragraph 2
In paragraph 3
In paragraph 4

Ms. Monte describes the situation in detail. ( 2 )

she explains the reasons for the arrest of the Americans. ( 1 )
the sender asks the Embassy authorities for help. ( 4 )
the sender describes where they are arrested. ( 3 )
Nicole asks the authorities to inform her family about their condition.( 4 )
the American lady explains how the suspects met the driver of the van. (1 )
Mr. Montes wife introduces the subject. ( 1 )
67
Applicability
Diplomacy and international relations
Diplomacy and territory
Diplomacy and population
Diplomacy and crime
Diplomacy and commerce
Diplomacy and technology
Diplomacy and science
Diplomacy and propaganda
68
Diplomacy and international law

Diplomacy and environment
69

Linguistica Aplicada Ensino Ingles Joverns Adultos PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Linguistica Aplicada Ensino Ingles Joverns Adultos PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lingustica Aplicada

Rosa Maria Neves da Silva

Montes Claros/MG - 2012

- EDITORA UNIMONTES - 2012

Luci Kikuchi Veloso

CATALOGADO PELA DIRETORIA DE DOCUMENTAO E INFORMAES (DDI) - UNIMONTES

Chefe do Departamento de Cincias Biolgicas

Presidente Geral da CAPES

Chefe do Departamento de Cincias Sociais

Diretor de Educao a Distncia da CAPES

Chefe do Departamento de Geocincias

Governador do Estado de Minas Gerais

Chefe do Departamento de Histria

Vice-Governador do Estado de Minas Gerais

Chefe do Departamento de Comunicao e Letras

Secretrio de Estado de Cincia, Tecnologia e Ensino Superior

Chefe do Departamento de Educao

Reitor da Universidade Estadual de Montes Claros - Unimontes

Coordenadora do Curso a Distncia de Artes Visuais

Coordenador do Curso a Distncia de Cincias Biolgicas

Coordenadora do Curso a Distncia de Cincias Sociais

Diretor do Centro de Educao a Distncia

Coordenadora do Curso a Distncia de Geografia

Coordenadora do Curso a Distncia de Histria

Coordenadora Adjunta da UAB/Unimontes

Coordenadora do Curso a Distncia de Letras/Espanhol

Diretor do Centro de Cincias Humanas - CCH

Coordenadora do Curso a Distncia de Letras/Ingls

Diretora do Centro de Cincias Biolgicas da Sade - CCBS

Coordenadora do Curso a Distncia de Letras/Portugus

Diretor do Centro de Cincias Sociais Aplicadas - CCSA

Coordenadora do Curso a Distncia de Pedagogia

Chefe do Departamento de Artes

MA in Linguistics and Specialization in TEFL (Ball State University, USA) as a

1.2 The Object of Teaching and Learning: Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.1 The Learning Process: Core Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.2 Learning Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.3 Learning Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.4 Your new self . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3.1 Approaching Language Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.2 Learning assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

4.1 Sample unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

4.2 General task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Letras/Ingls - Lingustica Aplicada ao Ensino do Ingls para Jovens e Adultos

Letras/Ingls - Lingustica Aplicada ao Ensino do Ingls para Jovens e Adultos

What is applied linguistics?

1.2 The Object of Teaching and

Letras/Ingls - Lingustica Aplicada ao Ensino do Ingls para Jovens e Adultos

grammatical - what is provided by the rules of the language

Letras/Ingls - Lingustica Aplicada ao Ensino do Ingls para Jovens e Adultos

Identify what caused the misunderstanding in the previous conversation.

Research and list

Sociolinguistic competence, as the name implies, involves knowledge of the social

Letras/Ingls - Lingustica Aplicada ao Ensino do Ingls para Jovens e Adultos

Figure 05: Making progress

(Email running on the Internet)

According to Canale and Swain (1980), strategic competence comprises a number of

Figure 06: Following

Letras/Ingls - Lingustica Aplicada ao Ensino do Ingls para Jovens e Adultos

Figure 07: Culture tips

Letras/Ingls - Lingustica Aplicada ao Ensino do Ingls para Jovens e Adultos

SELINKER, L. Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 209-241, 1972.

Letras/Ingls - Lingustica Aplicada ao Ensino do Ingls para Jovens e Adultos