PgDip/MSc Energy Programme/Subsurface

Sedimentary Basins

Sedimentary Basins
Review
In this topic the student is introduced to the different types of
sedimentary basins and their importance to the petroleum
industry.

Content
The Habitat of Petroleum
A sedimentary basin is an area of the Earths crust where sedimentary
sequences are much thicker than those found in surrounding areas. Oil
and gas commonly occur in sedimentary basins, whilst being absent from
intervening metamorphic and igneous rocks. Most sedimentary basins
cover tens of thousands of square kilometres, and may occur as part of a
mountain chain, beneath a continental peneplain or under an ocean.
There are more than 600 sedimentary basins Worldwide and over a
quarter of them produce petroleum. Figure 1 shows the global
distribution of the major basin areas and the major oil producing regions.

Figure 1. Sedimentary Basins Around the World (From THE DYNAMIC

EARTH by B.J. Skinner and S.C. Porter, copyright 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This
material is used by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.).

There are five essential requirements for the formation and preservation
of oil and gas. For these five requirements, a sedimentary basin with a
thickness of at least 2500 to 5000m of sediment is needed to ensure that
the source rocks are mature to the oil generation threshold. The magic
five are:

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1. a source rock: fine grained shale or limestone with a minimum of

0.5% petroleum producing organic matter;
2. heat is required to generate petroleum from the organic matter.
The oil window is from 60 C to 120 C for the production of oil and
up to 180 C for the production of gas;
3. a reservoir rock that is both porous and permeable and of
sufficient thickness, sandstone and limestone;
4. an impermeable cap rock or seal composed of fine grained shales
or evaporite;
5. a trap, structural, stratigraphic, combination or hydrodynamic,
where the migration of petroleum is barred. The trap must have
been emplaced before the migration. Once trapped the oil must
not be buried too deep that it is destroyed or be allowed to escape
by subsequent faulting.
Any thick sedimentary sequence may contain these ingredients and are
thus important for petroleum exploration. As a general rule we can
expect to find gas in the deepest parts of the basin, light oils in the
intermediate zone and heavier oils in the basin margins. Hydrocarbon
distribution within a basin is related to both the thermal maturation of
the source beds and the permeable migratory paths. For example, gas
requires higher temperatures for formation and will therefore be more
prevalent at depth unless allowed to migrate. A mixture of oil and gas
that is allowed to migrate up and across a basin will fill traps as it travels.
Gas is less dense and will therefore spill from a trap after the oil. As a
result deeper traps will contain gas, and shallower traps, oil. As always,
however, local conditions will produce exceptions to this, the Niger Delta
being an example.

Sedimentary Basin Formation

Formation of a sedimentary basin of sufficient size to produce and trap
hydrocarbons can occur via several mechanisms. The formation of a
topographic basin itself, however, does not mean that it will fill with
sediment. This will be dictated by local conditions. The shape of the
basin, the position of the thickest sediments within, and the type of those
sediments, will depend upon whether the deposition occurred at the
same time as the basin or before, and upon the method of sediment
transfer to the region. For example, a basin may be filled with sediment
as it is formed, or, as it may form at a time after deposition of sediments
in that region (Figure 2). This will relate to the type of trapping structures
likely to occur within the basin, when they were formed in relation to
kerogen maturation, and hence the probability of finding oil. The method
of sediment transfer will influence sediment topography. Deltaic
sediments will tend to advance in a linear fashion, for example, and the
greatest thickness may not necessarily coincide with the maximum basin
depth.

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Figure 2. Sediment Thickness and Sediment Type in Relation to

Deposition Time (after Selley, 1998).
Basins can be classified according to their mode of genesis, although, as
in other areas of geology, this serves only as a guide and is not a strict
scientific classification system. Additionally, the history of a particular
basin is likely to be complex, and it may have changed from one type to
another over time.
Basins form in four main ways and can be found both at plate margins
and within continents:

crustal tension (constructive and transform margins);

crustal compression (convergent and transform margins);

in response to vertical crustal movements (temperature and phase

changes below the lithosphere);

due, rarely, to loading by deposited sediments (deltaic deposits

over oceanic crust).

From these, the most significant basins in relation to the petroleum

industry are formed by crustal thinning and rifting. Figure 3 illustrates
basic examples of the three main mechanisms. Due to the complexity of
basin formation the details of these mechanisms are still areas of
scientific debate, and as such, well outside the scope of this text. Three
different models are commonly accepted as being valid for rift drift
sequences for example (Figure 4), although many more have been
suggested. Of these, the McKenzie model receives particular attention
within the oil industry, as it predicts heat flow, and can therefore be used
to model petroleum maturation. The following sections, therefore, aim to
illustrate the main types of sedimentary basins with relation to their basic
genesis and occurrence, rather than act as a definitive guide.

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Figure 3. Various Types of Basin Formation (after Selley, 1998).

Figure 4. Three Common Models for Rifting (after Selley, 1998).

Basins Associated with Divergent Margins

Rift-drift basins are formed at diverging constructive margins and are
associated with major fault systems. They account for over 80% of
petroleum occurrence in basins. Grabens are bounded by two sets of
faults, and half grabens, one set. Several general stages can be
recognised in rift basin formation, independent from the driving
mechanisms and deformation characteristics:
Stage 1: Magma is pushed up from the molten mantle into the older crust
on top. This crust is weakened and uplifted leading to faulting.

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Stage 2: The weakening of the crust will often result in the formation of a
graben or rift valley. The uplifted area will be exposed to erosion and the
resulting sediment will be transported and deposited in the low lying
basin areas of the rift valley. These basins tend to be relatively small and
away from the source rock formations. Traps are not normally well
developed and volcanoes can be associated with the rifting. Volcanic ash
deposits mixed with sediment will reduce the available pore space and
permeability in potential reservoir rocks. Small fields are exploited in the
Rhine graben of Germany.
Stage 3: As the spreading of the plates continues the rift will widen and
develop further. Faulting and dropping of the blocks will continue until
eventually the sea will inundate the basin (Gulf of Suez). Volcanic
interference has disappeared and there is generally now an abundance of
organic matter for the generation of potential source rocks. Wave and
tide action will sort sediment derived from the eroded uplifted areas to
provide potential reservoir sands. The formation of combination traps is
likely as fine muds are deposited over the tops of earlier faulted,
collapsed and tilted blocks (Argyll Field). The formation of evaporites is
also possible.
Stage 4: Eventually the magma will force through the crust and the new
oceanic crust will be formed.
Stage 5: The continental margins away from the centre of spreading are
stable. They cool and subside creating wide continental shelves. Thick
sequences of sediment will accumulate.
Petroleum generation, migration and accumulation will depend on
localised factors: potential formation of source rocks, reservoir rocks and
the creation of traps. Delta formations at the head of major rivers provide
suitable habitats. Deltaic sand deposition provides the reservoir and
organic rich source rocks (Niger and Mississippi Deltas). This rift drift
sequence, continuing today along several active mid ocean ridges, may
stop at any point. The North Sea graben is an example of a rift which
failed to grow beyind the initial stages.
Sedimentary sequences also tend to follow a regular pattern, not
surprisingly. When the rift is still above sea level, sediments are
composed of continental clastics, often of volcanic origin. As sea level is
reached, the formation of evaporites is favoured due to vertical oscillation
and flowing of the sea in and out of the rift area. On final immersion,
organic rich marine muds will be deposited within the still restricted
trough area. Finally, as the rift opens into the wider ocean, open marine
sediments such as carbonate shelves and clastic wedges from the
surrounding continental shelf may be deposited.

Basins at Converging Margins

Convergent margins can occur as continent-continent, continent-oceanic
or oceanic-oceanic crust collisions. As one plate is subducted under the
other the crust is subjected to compressional forces. The resultant form
of the boundary will vary with the type of collision, but several
characteristics are common. At the boundary itself a trough will form as
one plate sinks below, and drags, on the other. Wedges of compressed

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sediments and faulting may produce a non-volcanic island fore-arc. On

the overriding plate a rise in the crust due to compression leads to island
arc or mountain range formation (orogeny), often with associated
volcanic activity. In turn, behind this, a drop in height will lead to a backarc plane or trough. Sedimentary basins may form in either the fore-arc
or back-arc troughs (Figure 5). Extremely high compressional forces and
volcanic activity are not conducive to petroleum formation. Occurrences
are more prevalent in back-arc troughs, or in broadly shelving fore-arc
troughs.
Back-arc troughs or basins tend to be asymetric, with sediment thickness
increasing towards the arc. Deposits largely consist of carbonates,
shallow marine shales and mature tidal shelf sands with some nonmarine sediments. The majority of sands are produced by weathering and
extensive re-working of the crust, mainly in high energy marine
environments. The resultant deposits therfore tend to be mineralogically
mature, well sorted, and to have good porosity and permeability. All
conditions favourable for reservoir rock formation. During the later
stages, however, detritus (erosional or volcanic) tends to be deposited
from the arc as it rises further. These deposits will be less mature and
less well sorted than those deposited previously, and therefore less likely
to produce a good reservoir.
In addition to good reservoir rock potential, back-arc basins have
conditions favourable for source rock deposition. Extensive marine
shelves combined with deposition of clays during periods of marine
transgressions and uplifting of the arc (environment isolation) all combine
to form potential source environments. Trapping structures are also
varied. Anticlines and other structural traps can form near the thrusted
regions, whilst further away, conditions are favourable for the formation
of many different stratigraphic traps. Back-arc basins therefore have a
high potential for hydrocarbon production.

Figure 5. Common Features Associated with Fore-arc and Backarc Basins.

Fore-arc basins are much more complex in both physical structure and
geological facies. Sediments can come from a wide range of
environments from continental to deep marine. Sands will be eroded from
the volcanic arc and tend to be immature. If the arc shelves steeply
deposition will be rapid and there will not be time for mineralogical

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maturation or sorting. Shallow, broad shelves, conversely, will allow

some maturing and sorting before depostion, so are more favourable for
reservoir rock formation (Cook Inlet, Alaska). Formation of an outer arc
by thrusting of fore-arc sediments will also deposit sediments into the
basin as it rises. Sands from this process, as with volcanic deposits from
the main arc, tend to be immature and may be deposited rapidly. Forearc basins, therefore, tend to be less conducive to reservoir formation
than back-arc basins.
Source rocks may however be abundant due to occurrence of deep,
restricted, sea floor environments. The depth of the oil window however
may be deeper than expected, as the subducting plate cools the
surrounding rocks, at depth, resulting in a decreased isothermal gradient
within the basin.
Traps in fore-arc basins tend to be structural due to the extensive folding
and faulting present. As a result, fields may be complex, and individual
pools may be small and hard to locate.

Basins at Transform Margins

Transform margins are characterised major wrench faults. Movement is
not normally completely transverse. Areas of compression and tension
will exist which, due to the nature of the fault, may change from one to
the other. This leads to the formation of rift basins that are normally
small, deep, subside rapidly and have high heat flow. They are often
asymmetric with alluvial and submarine conglomerates along the active
fault boundary. Sedimentary sequences tend to be thick and consist of
rapidly buried clastics varying from deep sea to continental deposits.
Source rocks may be extremely rich due to the deep oceanic deposits.
Traps tend to be within faulted anticlines.
An important petroleum habitat along a transform margin: California,
where approximately 35 small basins lie on either side of the San
Andreas Fault.

Basins within Continents

Basins formed within normally stable continental crust, away from faults,
are termed cratonic, and may be split into intracratonic (wholly on
continental crust) and epicratonic (bordering oceanic crust). They are
usually circular in nature and may contain horst and graben structures
within but major rifting is absent. Formation mechanisms are poorly
understood, but phase changes within the mantle, mentioned earlier,
have received particular interest. The most popular proposes that a hot
spot produces doming of the crust, leading, in turn, to erosion of the
uplifted rocks, followed by cooling and collapse. Collapse will initially be
rapid, leading to rifting, followed by a period of gentler sagging or
subsidence. Conversely, mantle cold spots have been proposed as the
source. In this scenario cooling will lead to downwelling and gentle
sagging of the crust. Faulting of the basement rocks due to crustal
extension during a failed rifting period has also been suggested. All
studies are generally based on a particular region or collection of regions

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and it seems likely therefore that a variety of mechanisms are

responsible.
A cratonic basin will become important to the petroleum industry
depending on when the basin was formed (the type of organic deposits
and length of possible maturation time), the local environment at the
time and throughout its development (land or sea), and its resultant
depth (conducive to the oil) window. Intracratonic basins tend to be
broad, shallow, saucer shaped basins, whereas epicratonic basins tend
to take on the form of an embayment from the oceanic crust into the
continental crust (Figure 6).
Their sediments may be dominated by continental clastics (termed
terrigenous) or carbonates (marine or evaporitic). Changes in sea level
over time can vary the sequences contained to a large degree and
change the dominant sediment type. Any classifications based on
sediment type therefore are only based on historical differences rather
than any structural differences.

Figure 6. Intracratonic (left) and Epicratonic (right) Basins

(Selley, 1998).

Relative Importance of Sedimentary Basins

Several studies have attempted to classify sedimentary basins and their
relative importance around the globe. One scheme developed by Klemme
(1980) attempted to classify them by structure. He split basins into eight
types (Figure 7). Again this is a guide rather than a strict classification
system.

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Sedimentary Basins

World's proven oil reserves (%)

2.6
Type VIII. Tertiary deltas

World's basin area (%)

6
3.7

Type VII. Molasse

2.5
7.1

Type VI. Fore-arc and

Back-arc

7.5
18.2

Type V. Coastal rifts

0.5
17.5

Type IV. Continental

borderland down warp

47
5.4

Type III. Rifts

10
27.3

Type II. Epicratonic basins

25
18.2

Type I. Intracratonic basins

1.5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Figure 7. Distribution of Basin Types and their Relative Reserves

(figures from Klemme, 1980).
Figure 7 of course shows known reserves. Reserves located within
tertiary deltas and offshore basins are likely to increase as exploration
techniques become more cost effective. Note also that the Arabian Gulf
has a major influence on Type IV (47%) as 38% of the Worlds known
reserves are in this one area.

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