Chapter 1: The Science of Anatomy and Physiology

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1.1 Anatomy and Physiology Compared

Describe the science of anatomy and physiology.

2. List the subdivisions in both microscopic and gross anatomy and physiology.
Anatomy is the study of structure and form
Microscopic anatomy: the study of anatomic materials using the microscope
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Cytology - is the study of body cells and their internal structure

Histology - is the study of tissues

Gross anatomy: the study of structures visible to the unaided eye

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Systemic anatomy studies the anatomy of each functional body system

Regional anatomy examines all of the structures in a particular region on the body as a
complete unit
Surface anatomy focuses on both superficial anatomic markings and the internal body
structures that relate to the skin covering them
Comparative anatomy examines similarities and the differences in the anatomy of
different species
Embryology is the discipline concerned with developmental change occurring from
conception to birth
Pathologic anatomy examines all anatomic changes resulting from disease
Radiographic anatomy investigates the relationships among internal structures that may
be seen by scanning

Physiology is the study of function of the body parts

Many specific physiology subdisciplines focus their study on a particular body system
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Cardiovascular physiology examines the functioning of the heart, blood vessels, and
blood
Neurophysiology examines how impulses travel throughout the nervous system and how
the organs work
Respiratory physiology studies how respiratory gases are transferred by gas exchange
between the lungs
Reproductive physiology how the regulation of reproductive hormones can
drive/influence the system
Pathophysiology investigates the relationship between the functioning of an organ
1.2 Anatomy and Physiology Integrated

system and disease

1. Examine how the studies of form and function are interrelated.
Anatomists focus on the form and structures of the organs of body systems
Physiologist focus on the function of the organs of body systems
1.3 The Bodys Level of Organization
1. List the characteristics common to all living things.
2. Describe the levels of organization in the human body.
3. Compare the organ systems of the human body.
Several properties are common to all organisms:
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Organization
Metabolism
Growth and development
Responsiveness
Regulation

Chapter 1: The Science of Anatomy and Physiology

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Reproduction

Several levels of organization in the human body:

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Chemical level (smallest)

> Atoms smallest unit of matter
> Molecules two or more atoms joined
> Macromolecules some proteins and DNA molecules
> Organelles two or more macromolecules
Cellular level
> Cells smallest living structure
Tissue level
> Tissues groups of similar cells that perform common functions
Epithelial tissue covers exposed surfaces and lines body cavities
Connective tissue protects, supports, and binds structures and organs
Muscle tissue provides movement
Nerve tissue conducts nerve impulses for communication
Organ level
> Contains related organs that work together to achieve a common function
Organism level (highest level)
> All body systems functionally independently in an organism, which is a living being

Organ Systems
Integumentary System: provides protection, regulates body temperature, site of cutaneous
receptors, synthesizes vitamin D, and prevents water loss.
Skeletal System: provides support and protection, site of hemopoiesis (blood cell production),
stores calcium and phosphorus, provides sites for muscle attachments.
Endocrine System: consists of glands and cell clusters that secrete hormones, which regulate
development, growth and metabolism; maintain homeostasis of blood composition and volume,
control digestive processes, and control reproduction.
Cardiovascular System: consists of the heart and blood vessels; the heart moves blood through
blood vessels in order to distribute hormones, nutrients, gases, and pick up waste products.
Muscular System: produces body movement, generates heat when muscles contract.
Nervous System: a regulatory system that controls body movement by initiating responses to
muscles, processes, and responds to stimuli. Also responsible for consciousness, intelligence, and
memory.
Lymphatic System: transports and filters lymph (interstitial fluid transported through lymph
vessels) and participates in an immune response when necessary.
Respiratory System: responsible for exchange of gases (O 2 and CO2) between blood and the air in
the lungs.
Urinary System: filters blood and removes waste products from blood, concentrates waste
products in the form of urine, and expels urine from the body.
Digestive System: mechanically and chemically digests food materials, absorbs nutrients, and
expels waste products.
Male Reproductive System: produces male sex cells (sperm) and male hormones (testosterone),
and transfers sperm to the female.
Female Reproductive System: produces female sex cells (oocytes) and female hormones
(estrogen and progesterone), receives sperm from male, site of fertilization of oocyte, site of
growth and development of embryo and fetus, produces and secretes breast milk for
nourishment of newborn.

Chapter 1: The Science of Anatomy and Physiology

1.

1.4 The Language of Anatomy and Physiology

Describe the anatomic position and its importance in the study of anatomy.
2. Describe the anatomic sections and planes throughout the body.
3. Define the difference anatomical directional terms.
4. Identify the major regions of the body, using proper anatomic terminology.
5. Describe the body cavities and their subdivisions.
6. Explain the role of serous membranes in the ventral cavities.
Anatomical Directional Terms
Direction
Relative to front or back of
the body

Relative to the head or

bottom of the body

Relative to the midline or

center of the body
Relative to point of
attachment of appendage
Regional Anatomy

Body Cavities and Membranes

Term
Anterior
Posterior
Dorsal
Ventral
Superior
Inferior
Cranial (cephalic)
Caudal
Rostral
Medial
Lateral
Deep
Superficial
Proximal
Distal

Meaning
In front of; towards the front surface
In back of; towards back surface
At the back of the body
At the belly side of the body
Closer to the head
Closer to the feet
At the head end
At the rear/tail end
Towards the nose or mouth
Towards the midline of the body
Away from the midline of the body
On the inside; internal to another structure
On the outside
Closest to point of attachment to trunk
Furthest from point of attachment to trunk

Chapter 1: The Science of Anatomy and Physiology

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1.5 Homeostasis: Keeping Internal Conditions Stable
Define
the

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3.
4.
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components of a homeostatic system.

Be able to recognize each of the components in representative systems.
Define negative and positive feedback.
Explain how homeostatic mechanisms regulated by negative and positive
feedback detect and respond to environmental changes.
Define

Components of a Homeostatic Control Mechanism

1. Stimulus changes in a variable that is regulated (temperature, stretch in muscle)

Chapter 1: The Science of Anatomy and Physiology

2. Receptor structure that detects the stimulus (sensory neurons in the skin stretch
receptors in muscles)
3. Receptor sends input information to the control center (if receptor and control center are
separate structures)
4. Control Center - integrates input and initiates change through the effector (usually the
brain or endocrine gland)
5. Control center sends output information to an effector
6. Effector - structure (muscle/gland) that brings about a change to the stimulus
7. Homeostasis restored!
Negative Feedback
When a variable is regulated by negative feedback, the variable fluctuates around a set point.
Example: Negative feedback mechanism for regulating body temperature.
Body temperature falls below normal:
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Stimulus cold temperatures lower body temperature below normal

Receptors sensory receptors in skin detect cold and send information to brain
Control center hypothalamus of brain sets body temperature at 37 degrees Celsius
send info to effector
Effector blood vessels in skin constrict; sweat glands become inactive; skeletal
muscles shiver to generate and conserve heat
Homeostasis Body temperature returns to normal

Body temperature rises above normal:

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Stimulus vigorous exercise or hot temperatures raise body temperatures above

normal
Receptors sensory receptors in skin and other organs detect heat
Control center - hypothalamus of brain sets body temperature at 37 degrees Celsius
Effectors blood vessels in skin dilate; sweat glands secrete sweat, which, if
evaporated, will cool the skin
Homeostasis body temperature returns to normal

Positive Feedback
The stimulus here is reinforced to continue in the same direction until a climatic event occurs,
following the climatic event the body returns to homeostasis.
Example: Positive feedback while breastfeeding
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Stimulus baby suckles at breast

Receptor sensory receptors in the skin of the breast detect the suckling; sends
impulses to hypothalamus
Control center hypothalamus signals posterior pituitary to release oxytocin
Effector - oxytocin released into blood stimulates milk ejection from the breast
Milk is released and baby feeds and continues suckling
1.6 Homeostasis, Health, and Disease

Homeostasis is a term that describes the many physiologic processes to maintain the health of
the body
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They are dynamic

The control center is generally the nervous or endocrine system
There are three components: receptor, control center, and effector
They are typically regulated through the negative feedback to maintain a normal value or
set point
It is when these systems fail that a homeostatic imbalance or disease results; ultimately
threatening the individuals survival