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A monolithic structure is something carved or cast from a single piece of a material. Usually
(and literally, from the translation of monolith being "one stone") the material is stone, but it
could equally be applied to a structure cut from a single block of metal, or cast in metal in a
single piece
Page 1
Small and medium cracks in reinforced concrete and masonry structures reduce
their strength considerably to bear the design loads. Thus repair of such cracks
is necessary to restore the designed strength of members.
The repair of small and medium cracks is done by first marking out the critical
damaged zones in concrete members. Then these cracks can be repaired by
injecting cement grout or chemical grouts or by providing jacketing. The smaller
cracks less than 0.75 mm width can be effectively repair by using pressure
injection of epoxy.
The surface of the member near cracks is thoroughly cleaned. Loose materials
are removed and plastic injection ports are placed along the length of crack at
an interval equal to the thickness of the structural member. These ports are
placed on both sides of the member and
secured in placed with the help of epoxy seal.
When the epoxy seal has hardened, the low
viscosity resin is injected into one port at a
time starting from the port at lowest level and
moving upwards. The injection through port is
continued till the resin flows out from the
adjacent port or from the other side of the
member. Then the current injection port is
closed and epoxy injection is continued from
the adjacent port.
Notes
Page 2
1. The surface of cracks or crushed concrete is cleaned and all the loose
materials are removed. These are then filled with quick setting cement mortar
grouts.
2. If the cracks are large, then these cracks are dressed to have a V groove at
both sides of the member for easy placement of grouts.
Fig: Filling of cement mortar and stone chips in large cracks in masonry walls.
3. For cracks which are very large, filler materials such as stone chips can be
used.
4. Additional reinforcement and
shear reinforcements can be used for
heavily damaged concrete members
or wherever necessary based on
requirements.
These additional reinforcement
should be protected from corrosion
by using polymer mortar or epoxy
coatings.
5. For damaged walls and roofs,
additional reinforcement in the form
of mesh is used on one side or both sides of the members. These mesh should
sufficiently tied with existing members.
Notes
Page 3
Fig: Reinforcement meshes in repair of roof slabs and walls. 1. Wire mesh on
front face, 2. Clamps, 3. Wire mesh on back face, 4. Cement plaster, 5. Crack in
member.
6. Stitching of cracks are done to prevent the widening of the existing cracks. In
this case, holes of 6 to 10mm are drilled on both sides of the crack. Then these
drilled holes are cleaned, legs of stitching dogs are anchored with short legs.
The stitching of cracks is not a method of crack repair or to gain the lost
strength, this method is used to prevent the cracks from propagating and
widening.
In this case
Height of the wall along with the mortar = (10 x 3) + [(9 x 12)/25.4] = 34.252
In the above equation
10 = No of Brick Layers
9 = No of layers of Mortar of 12mm each
3 = Brick Height in inches
Width= 4.5
Length of the wall along with the mortar= (5.5 x 9) + [(512)/25.4]
Volume of the wall along with the mortar= LWH
Volume of the wall along with the mortar= 7993.72 cubic inch
Volume of the wall along with the mortar= 4.626 cft
Notes
Page 4
In this case
Height of the wall along with the mortar = (10 x 3 ) + [( 9 x 12 )/25.4] = 34.252
Width of the wall along with the mortar = (9+12/25.4) = 9.472
Length of the wall along with the mortar= (5.5 x 9) + (5 x 12/25.4) = 51.862
Volume of the wall along with the mortar= LWH
Volume of the wall along with the mortar=16826.678 cubic inch
Volume of the wall along with the mortar= 9.7376 cft
Now Number of Bricks= 110
Volume of One Brick= 9/128 cft
Total volume of bricks used= 110 x (9/128) = 7.7344 cft
So
%age of bricks used = (7.7344 / 9.7376) x 100 = 79.43% = 80%
%age of mortar used= 20.57% = 21%
Notes
Page 5
In this case
Height of the wall along with the mortar = (10 x 3) + (9 x 10/25.4) = 33.543
width = 4.5
Length of the wall along with the mortar= (5.5 x 9) + (5 x 10/25.4) = 51.468
Volume of the wall along with the mortar= LWH
Volume of the wall along with the mortar= 4.4959 cft
Now Number of Bricks= 55
Volume of One Brick= 9/128 cft
Total volume of bricks used= 55 x 9/128 = 3.8672 cft
%age of bricks used = (3.8672 / 4.4959) x 100 = 86%
%age of mortar used = 14%
Notes
Page 6
In this case
Height of the wall along with the mortar = (10 x 3) + (9 x 10/25.4) = 33.543
width = (9 + 10/25.4) 9.3937
Length of the wall along with the mortar= (5.5 x 9) + (5 x 10/25.4) = 51.468
Volume of the wall along with the mortar= LWH
Volume of the wall along with the mortar= 9.38513 cft
Now Number of Bricks= 110
Volume of One Brick= 9/128 cft
Total volume of bricks used= 110 x 9/128 = 7.7344 cft
%age of bricks used = (7.7344 / 9.38513) x 100 = 82.4% = 82%
%age of mortar used = 17.6% = 18%
Conclusion
Where in it
W= wall thickness in inches
m= thickness of the mortar in mm
The answer will be the %age of mortar, and for better results round it off.
Its Verification is given below after the example from observation.
EXAMPLE:
If thickness of the wall is 4.5 and that of mortar is 12mm, then what will the percentage of mortar
used in the wall?
Solution:
Notes
Page 7
Brickwork
Brick walls are constructed by joining bricks with cement mortar in arrangements called English
Bond, Flemish Bond or Rat Trap Bond. These bonds give different external appearances to the
wall. All construction systems of brick walls are such devised that vertical cross joints in any
layers are staggered. The bricks thus bonded form a solid mass that does not split when the
wall is loaded with live loads and dead loads.
Third
class
brick
work
Notes
Page 8
Per sq. cm
Mortar
Notes
Page 9
Mortar
is
a
mix
used
to
bind
brick,
stone
etc
to
each
other.
It can thus be seen as a binding material that bonds bricks, stones to make a wall or for cladding
purpose. Normally cement mortar is used in brickwork in present day construction though lime
mortar can also be used but it requires superior craftsmanship and is hence infrequently used.
Cement Mortar
Cement mortar is a mix of cement and sand with water. The cement is binding material which
requires sand as a filler material. This cement mortar mix in wet state is plastic and binds two
materials when it dries. Mortar is generally defined as 1:2 or 1:3 or 1:7 etc. This means that one
part of cement is mixed with 2, 3 or 7 parts of sand.
The quantity of water should be such that the mix can be easily spread over bricks or
applied on a vertical surface. Water more then required quantity may spoil the mix and it
can reduce the strength of masonry.
Notes
The marking of foundations must be absolutely accurate as the location of walls depends
Page 10
on these markings.
The trenches should not be dug in rainy season. The bricks, mortar mix and cement
concrete mix should be as per specifications.
The width and depth of the trenches depends on loading and soil conditions. As the
foundation is an expanded base to distribute the load coming on it over a large area on
ground. The width of the wall foundation depends on whether the wall is a load bearing
wall, a non load bearing wall, a partition wall or a toe wall.
These walls take the load of super structure and transmit it to the ground through
foundation.
These can also serve the purpose of dividing the space into required rooms etc.
Such walls are made in first class bricks and rich mortar.
Notes
Page 11
These walls serve the purpose of dividing the space into required rooms etc.
Non load bearing walls are only partition having no load of super structure so these can
be easily changed whenever required to change the space of the room.
These walls are made 3 inches, 4.5 inches and 9 inches thick as per the requirement of
the site.
Super Structure:
The word super structure used in construction work means/denotes following.
Notes
Page 12
RCC (Reinforced Beam & slab for roof) including M S Steel bars according to the designs.
Tile terracing lay with brick tiles on the top of the roof slab.
Page 13
load which will be Load on COLUMN C1 , for that you have to multiply Pressure load
(in psf ) by area of slab(in ft^2) ,
Area will be Pink Hatched area as shown in Figure
2) Consider Beam now
Above Beams you have Wall Load which is in Kip/ft
Now to Convert that Wall load into point load which will be Load on Column C1 , for
that you have to multiply wall load (in Kip/ft) by half length of beam
As shown in Figure , it is clearly shown that half length of horizontal beam and half
length of vertical beam will be catchment length on column C1
now first find out Horizontal half length and vertical half length and then for
horizontal half length multiply it by Wall load which is in kip/ft and for vertical half
length multiply it by wall load which is in kip/ft , now that will be the Point Load in
Kips on Column C1
Also include Self Weight of Beam
3) Column Self Weight also , means if column height is from floor to floor is 12 feet
and beam depth is 24 inch then column height will be 12 feet - 2feet(24 inch beam
depth)
FOR example
LOAD ON SLABS :
1)
2)
3)
4)
Notes
Page 14
Now you have to calculate Load on Column C1 from Slab and Beam , as i described
above ,
Notes
Page 15
Notes
Page 16
The mix proportion of 1:1.5:3 by dry volume of materials can be expressed in terms of masses
as:
Cement = 1 x 1500 = 1500
Sand = 1.5 x 1700 = 2550
Coarse aggregate = 3 x 1650 = 4950.
Therefore, the ratio of masses of these materials w.r.t. cement will as follows =
= 1 : 1.7 : 3.3
The water cement ratio = 0.45
Now we will calculate the volume of concrete that can be produced with one bag of cement
(i.e. 50 kg cement) for the mass proportions of concrete materials.
Thus, the absolute volume of concrete for 50 kg of cement =
Thus, for the proportion of mix considered, with on3 bag of cement of 50 kg, 0.1345 m 3 of
concrete can be produced.
We have considered an entrained air of 2%. Thus the actual volume of concrete for 1 cubic meter
of compacted concrete construction will be = 1 -0.02 = 0.98 m3.
Thus, the quantity of cement required for 1 cubic meter of concrete = 0.98/0.1345 = 7.29 bags
of cement.
The quantities of materials for 1 m3 of concrete production can be calculated as follows:
The weight of cement required = 7.29 x 50 = 364.5 kg.
Weight of fine aggregate (sand) = 1.5 x 364.5 = 546.75 kg.
Weight of coarse aggregate = 3 x 364.5 = 1093.5 kg.
Notes
Page 17
Notes
Page 18
If concrete is not properly compacted by ramming or vibration the result is a portion of porous
honeycomb concrete. This part must be hacked out and recast. Complete compaction is essential
to give a dense, impermeable concrete.
(f) Segregation
Segregation occurs when the mix ingredients become separated. It is the result of
1. dropping the mix through too great a height in placing (chutes or pipes should be used in such
cases)
2. using a harsh mix with high coarse aggregate content
3. large aggregate sinking due to over-vibration or use of too much plasticizer
Notes
Page 19
Excess water increases workability but decreases the strength and increases the porosity and
permeability of the hardened concrete,which can lead to corrosion of the reinforcement. The
correct water-to-cement ratio for the mix should be strictly enforced.
Notes
Page 20
1- Minimum cement bags are required for cubic yard concrete = 6 bags
2- Maximum water required per cement bag
= 6 gallon
= 6 days
4- Air contents required (if concrete will be subject to freezing and thawing) = 6 %
Notes
Page 21
cube test result will come around 3000 psi, which is referred for slab concrete.
I will estimate materials for 1:1.5:3 ratio concrete. After learning this process you will be able to
estimate materials for any concrete ratio.
Now lets estimate the required materials for the volume of 100 cft concrete of 1:1.5:3 ratio:
Wet volume of concrete = 100 cft.
Dry volume of concrete= 100 x 1.54 = 154 cft.
Sum of ratio 1:1.5:3, 1 + 1.5 + 3 = 5.5.
So, Cement content in concrete = (154/5.5) x 1=28 cft.
Sand content= (154 / 5.5) x 1.5 = 42 cft.
Stone chips = (154/5.5) x 3 = 84 cft.
As we know, Cement is available as 50 kg bag in the market. The volume of 50 kg cement bag is 1.25
cft. So the required cement is 28 divided by 1.25 equal to 22.4 bag.
Summary:
Cement : 22.4 bag,
Sand : 42 cft,
Stone chips: 84 cft.
In this estimation, we use cubic feet as our concrete unit. If you want to use cubic meter, same
method can be applied. But that will be time-consuming. The easiest way to estimate concrete
materials for different unit is, apply the above result as percentage. That means, Cement content for
100 unit of 1:1.5:3 ratio concrete is 28% (unit will be as concrete unit), Sand is 42% and Stone
chips is 84%.
Now lets calculate the water content of concrete. Suppose, water-cement ratio for concrete is specified
0.45. That means, water/cement = 0.45, or W/C = 0.45.
for 1 bag cement, water is, = 0.45 x 1.25 (as we know, 1 bag cement equal to 1.25 cft),
Water = 0.5625 cft.
We know 1 cubic feet water is equal to 28.31685 litre,
So we can write, water = 0.5625 x 28.31685 = 15.92 litre, say, 16 litre.
So One bag cement needs 16 liter of water for 0.45 W/C ratio.
That's it.
Here, one thing should be cleared that someone assume the dry volume of concrete is equal to one
and half times of wet volume. But it is better to use 1.54 for calculating dry volume.
Page 22
Common defects occurring in Brick work are; sulphate attack on mortars, unsound
materials, frost action, corrosion of iron and steel, crystallization of salts, linear
changes resulting from variation in moisture content.
The cause of this attack is the chemical action between the sulphate salts in bricks
and constituents of Portland cement.
Unsound Materials
Unsound materials cause the formation of small pits at the mortar joints. General
expansion and cracking of brick work is visible. Unsoundness in lime is caused by
the presence of un-slaked particles of lime. Similarly un-slaked lime particles may
be present in the bricks also.
Notes
Page 23
Unsound Material
Frost action
Defects due to frost action would cause cracking in brickwork. Prevention of water
accumulation would prevent this defect.
Corrosion of Metals
Brickwork may get opened or cracked or stained due to corrosion of metals lying
adjacent to it. Unprotected iron and steel are liable to get corroded when acted
upon by moisture and they increase in bulk, thereby causing cracks in masonry.
Notes
Page 24
Metal Corrosion
Crystallization of Salt and Efflorescence
This is a prominent defect in brick masonry. In moist climate, in damp places, like
basements or under leaky gutter, masonry often gets disfigured by the formation of
a white deposit called efflorescence. Deposit originates from the mortar and
frequently spreads over a part or entire face of the wall.
Efflorescence
Absorbed water dissolves the salts of sodium, potassium and evaporating, forms a
crystalline deposit on the surface. In addition to unsightly appearance, the
crystallization of salts in the pores of the bricks or mortar may cause disruptive
expansion resulting in disintegration due to cracking.
To avoid Efflorescence do not use porous bricks in contact with limestone. Protect
brickwork against contamination of salt-bearing materials during building
operations. Bricks should be thoroughly soaked during construction. Correct design
of DPC should be used.
Shrinkage Effects
Notes
Page 25
Brick work may crack due to the shrinkage movements arising from changes in
moisture content. This defect is more common with concrete and lime mortars.
Shrinkage Effects
Good quality bricks should be used in dry condition. All of work should be protected
from rain.
In construction of a mega project there is always insightful sort of technicalities
involved which has to be checked / identified technically. The process demands a
sound technical engineering judgment and careful observation. Reinforced Cement
Concrete, despite of other important checks, needs to be checked for rebar against
the provided construction drawings / shop drawings or technical specifications.
It must be kept in mind that the difficulty and cost involved in this activity makes it
vulnerable for shortcomings from the contractors end and
Notes
Page 26
Inspection of
Steel Rebar
No doubt it needs experience and also needs know-how of the steel rebar binding
process. But here are some of the tips from top peers who are doing this in the field
for years :a.
Start from the drawings, one must be well aware of how to read a rebar
drawing. As drawings is a language for engineers one must know how to
communicate with it in the field. Make a habit of reading drawings that will be your
first step towards a successful rebar checker.
b.
Always keep a measuring tape with yourself that will help you in checking the
spacing as well as the splice length or development length.
c.
Always wear plastic gloves while inspection because holding steel with naked
hands will damage the skin of yours badly.
d.
You must be well aware of the physical features of the construction component
i.e. if some sort of drainage pipe or electrical conduit is to be installed or water
stopper to be placed or any other pipes / embedded item to be placed.
e.
Some important things one must check are the rebar diameter You can use
vernier caliper for this purpose, rebar spacing, rebar development length, lap /
splice length, alignment or rebar there must be no sag or buckling in the bars,
couplers if any must be properly fixed tightened, bars must be properly fixed, bars
must not be rusted, clear cover is one very important factor to be checked, no of
bars must be counted and must be equal to given in drawings and must not be less
or more than 2 bars be placed there.
f.
If you are a new comer try to establish a conversation between contractors
foreman or site engineer because they will know how these bars are placed but
never every show to them that you dont know much and are here to learn things.
g.
You must be well aware of the steel quality tests like tensile strength check or
torsion failure strength or coupler tension strength check etc. You must ensure that
the steel being used is from the checked lot and must not be of a failed quality.
Notes
Page 27
h.
No doubt in field a true implementation of the design is very difficult due to
harsh field conditions and difficultly in installation / fixing of rebars but never ever
compromise with the design as it is a driving factor that can even results in collapse
of a building if completely ignored / violated.
i.
One very important factor is the orientation of bars like main rebars are
always below the distribution or temperature rebars you can check this from the
drawings provided to you.
So we can say that in a nutshell one must be very keen observer and should be well
conversant with the design methodology and sound technical knowledge.
Checking of rebars is not difficult neither never testing process so dont get
confused or get upset with your duty enjoy the work and let the structure have its
strength as it is designed.
Notes
Page 28