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Monolithic:

A monolithic structure is something carved or cast from a single piece of a material. Usually
(and literally, from the translation of monolith being "one stone") the material is stone, but it
could equally be applied to a structure cut from a single block of metal, or cast in metal in a
single piece

DEFFERENCE BETWEEN SHELL, MEMEBRANE & PLATE (ETABS)


Hi.. Someone asked here for the differences between shell, membrane, and plate on slab category
using in Etabs and when to apply what. OK.. here I am clearing the fact in details that you can see
from the attached image. In general for Etabs modeling, shell is used but when in practical designing
in high rise structures, we can use membrane as then the moment generated by Etabs for the slab
will be greater, as a result the reinforcement will be increased,hence factor of safety will be increased
but always keep in mind about the economic condition. So, frequently use the shell option. Again,
use the options to take the values for specific parameters.(FACEBOOK)

REPAIR OF SMALL AND


LARGE CRACKS IN
CONCRETE
Repair of small, medium and large
cracks in concrete and repair of
crushed concrete is required to
enhance the strength and
durability of damaged concrete
members.
Repair of small and medium
cracks in concrete:
Notes

Page 1

Small and medium cracks in reinforced concrete and masonry structures reduce
their strength considerably to bear the design loads. Thus repair of such cracks
is necessary to restore the designed strength of members.
The repair of small and medium cracks is done by first marking out the critical
damaged zones in concrete members. Then these cracks can be repaired by
injecting cement grout or chemical grouts or by providing jacketing. The smaller
cracks less than 0.75 mm width can be effectively repair by using pressure
injection of epoxy.
The surface of the member near cracks is thoroughly cleaned. Loose materials
are removed and plastic injection ports are placed along the length of crack at
an interval equal to the thickness of the structural member. These ports are
placed on both sides of the member and
secured in placed with the help of epoxy seal.
When the epoxy seal has hardened, the low
viscosity resin is injected into one port at a
time starting from the port at lowest level and
moving upwards. The injection through port is
continued till the resin flows out from the
adjacent port or from the other side of the
member. Then the current injection port is
closed and epoxy injection is continued from
the adjacent port.

This process is carried out in sequence till all


the ports and cracks are filled with the grout. This method can be used for all
types of structural members such are beams, columns, walls and slabs. This
method can also to repair of small cracks in individual masonry blocks or for
filling large continuous cracks.
Repair of Large Cracks and Crushed Concrete:
Repair of large cracks (cracks wider than 5mm) and crushed concrete and
masonry structure cannot be done using pressure injection or grouting. For
repair of large cracks and crushed concrete, following procedure can be
adopted:

Notes

Page 2

1. The surface of cracks or crushed concrete is cleaned and all the loose
materials are removed. These are then filled with quick setting cement mortar
grouts.
2. If the cracks are large, then these cracks are dressed to have a V groove at
both sides of the member for easy placement of grouts.

Fig: Filling of cement mortar and stone chips in large cracks in masonry walls.
3. For cracks which are very large, filler materials such as stone chips can be
used.
4. Additional reinforcement and
shear reinforcements can be used for
heavily damaged concrete members
or wherever necessary based on
requirements.
These additional reinforcement
should be protected from corrosion
by using polymer mortar or epoxy
coatings.
5. For damaged walls and roofs,
additional reinforcement in the form
of mesh is used on one side or both sides of the members. These mesh should
sufficiently tied with existing members.

Notes

Page 3

Fig: Reinforcement meshes in repair of roof slabs and walls. 1. Wire mesh on
front face, 2. Clamps, 3. Wire mesh on back face, 4. Cement plaster, 5. Crack in
member.
6. Stitching of cracks are done to prevent the widening of the existing cracks. In
this case, holes of 6 to 10mm are drilled on both sides of the crack. Then these
drilled holes are cleaned, legs of stitching dogs are anchored with short legs.
The stitching of cracks is not a method of crack repair or to gain the lost
strength, this method is used to prevent the cracks from propagating and
widening.

Percentage of Bricks and Mortar in a Masonry Wall


Case 1: When thickness of the wall is 4.5 and that of mortar
is 12mm, having the following plan.

In this case
Height of the wall along with the mortar = (10 x 3) + [(9 x 12)/25.4] = 34.252
In the above equation
10 = No of Brick Layers
9 = No of layers of Mortar of 12mm each
3 = Brick Height in inches
Width= 4.5
Length of the wall along with the mortar= (5.5 x 9) + [(512)/25.4]
Volume of the wall along with the mortar= LWH
Volume of the wall along with the mortar= 7993.72 cubic inch
Volume of the wall along with the mortar= 4.626 cft

Notes

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Now Number of Bricks= 55


Volume of One Brick= (9/128) cft
Total volume of bricks used= 55 x (9/128) = 3.867 cft
%age of bricks used = (3.867 / 4.626)*100 = 83.6 = 84%
%age of mortar used= 16.4%

Case 2:When thickness of the wall is 9 and that of


mortar is 12mm, having the following plan.

In this case
Height of the wall along with the mortar = (10 x 3 ) + [( 9 x 12 )/25.4] = 34.252
Width of the wall along with the mortar = (9+12/25.4) = 9.472
Length of the wall along with the mortar= (5.5 x 9) + (5 x 12/25.4) = 51.862
Volume of the wall along with the mortar= LWH
Volume of the wall along with the mortar=16826.678 cubic inch
Volume of the wall along with the mortar= 9.7376 cft
Now Number of Bricks= 110
Volume of One Brick= 9/128 cft
Total volume of bricks used= 110 x (9/128) = 7.7344 cft
So
%age of bricks used = (7.7344 / 9.7376) x 100 = 79.43% = 80%
%age of mortar used= 20.57% = 21%

Notes

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Case 3: When thickness of the wall is 4.5 and that


of mortar is 10mm, having the following plan.

In this case
Height of the wall along with the mortar = (10 x 3) + (9 x 10/25.4) = 33.543
width = 4.5
Length of the wall along with the mortar= (5.5 x 9) + (5 x 10/25.4) = 51.468
Volume of the wall along with the mortar= LWH
Volume of the wall along with the mortar= 4.4959 cft
Now Number of Bricks= 55
Volume of One Brick= 9/128 cft
Total volume of bricks used= 55 x 9/128 = 3.8672 cft
%age of bricks used = (3.8672 / 4.4959) x 100 = 86%
%age of mortar used = 14%

Case 4:When thickness of the wall is 9 and that of


mortar is 10mm, having the following plan.

Notes

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In this case
Height of the wall along with the mortar = (10 x 3) + (9 x 10/25.4) = 33.543
width = (9 + 10/25.4) 9.3937
Length of the wall along with the mortar= (5.5 x 9) + (5 x 10/25.4) = 51.468
Volume of the wall along with the mortar= LWH
Volume of the wall along with the mortar= 9.38513 cft
Now Number of Bricks= 110
Volume of One Brick= 9/128 cft
Total volume of bricks used= 110 x 9/128 = 7.7344 cft
%age of bricks used = (7.7344 / 9.38513) x 100 = 82.4% = 82%
%age of mortar used = 17.6% = 18%

Conclusion

Where in it
W= wall thickness in inches
m= thickness of the mortar in mm
The answer will be the %age of mortar, and for better results round it off.
Its Verification is given below after the example from observation.
EXAMPLE:
If thickness of the wall is 4.5 and that of mortar is 12mm, then what will the percentage of mortar
used in the wall?
Solution:

Notes

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Specification of 'Bricks Walls'


Brick walls are probably the most common building elements in construction of a house in India.
These walls form basic units for creating rooms that make up a house. The walls besides being
space dividers are also structural elements that transfer the load of the roof to the ground. Brick
walls are constructed on strip spread or raft foundations that support the walls. The walls are
constructed using bricks and mortar. These can also be constructed with various structural
qualities and thicknesses.

Brickwork
Brick walls are constructed by joining bricks with cement mortar in arrangements called English
Bond, Flemish Bond or Rat Trap Bond. These bonds give different external appearances to the
wall. All construction systems of brick walls are such devised that vertical cross joints in any
layers are staggered. The bricks thus bonded form a solid mass that does not split when the
wall is loaded with live loads and dead loads.

Classification of Brick Work


The classification of brick work according to the quality of brick is following.

First class brick work

Second class brick work

Third

class

brick

work

First Class Brick Work


First class brick work is made by using first class bricks and cement mortar. This brick work is
used for load bearing walls. It is made in rich mortar in which the cement and sand ratio is from
1:3 to 1: 6.
First class bricks are identified by their uniform color and a ringing sound when struck. The bricks
are equal in size and have even edges and surfaces. These bricks do not chip and dont have any
cracks. First class bricks do not absorb water more than 1/6 of their weight. There is no salty
residue when the bricks are dry. First class bricks have a minimum crushing strength of 105.kg.

Notes

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Per sq. cm

Bricks of first class quality


Second Class Brick Work
Second class bricks work is made by using second class bricks and cement mortar. These bricks
also have the property of first class bricks but are not very regular or even in shape. These bricks
should not be used for load bearing walls for more than two storey buildings. Second class bricks
have minimum crushing strength 70.kg per sq. meter.

Second class quality of bricks


Third Class Brick Work
This type of brick work is made by using third class bricks and cement mortar or mud mortar.
Third class brick work is not made in any Govt. work. Generally this type of brick work is made
for temporary work in private sector.

Mortar
Notes

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Mortar
is
a
mix
used
to
bind
brick,
stone
etc
to
each
other.
It can thus be seen as a binding material that bonds bricks, stones to make a wall or for cladding
purpose. Normally cement mortar is used in brickwork in present day construction though lime
mortar can also be used but it requires superior craftsmanship and is hence infrequently used.

Cement Mortar
Cement mortar is a mix of cement and sand with water. The cement is binding material which
requires sand as a filler material. This cement mortar mix in wet state is plastic and binds two
materials when it dries. Mortar is generally defined as 1:2 or 1:3 or 1:7 etc. This means that one
part of cement is mixed with 2, 3 or 7 parts of sand.

Precaution for mixing cement mortar


The following steps should be taken carefully while mixing materials for cement mortar.

The mix should be made on a dry, clean, flat surface.

The mix should be as per specifications.

The mix should be by volume.

The quantity of water should be such that the mix can be easily spread over bricks or
applied on a vertical surface. Water more then required quantity may spoil the mix and it
can reduce the strength of masonry.

The mix should be used within half an hour of its preparation.

Brick Wall Foundations


Brick
wall
foundations
are
normally
made
as
strip
foundations.
These are continuous along the length of wall and hence called as strip foundations. These form
structural components of construction system by which the load of whole building is transferred
to
the
ground.
Foundations are made in dug out trenches so that a hard stable surface on which the building is
supported can be obtained because the top surface of the ground normally does not have load
bearing capacity to take the load of the building. The other reason is that foundations can by this
method be hidden from view. The architect needs to provide a foundation plan that indicates
exactly where the foundation trenches are to be dug.
The foundation trenches are dug after being marked on center line principle on the site according
to architects drawings. The size of trench varies with the thickness of walls and the load bearing
capacity of the soil. The base of dug trench is rammed to solidify the surface. On rammed
surface a layer of cement concrete is laid. This is normally 6 to 8 inches thick. This base concrete
layer needs to be cured for it attains its expected strength. Base concrete layers or courses of
bricks are laid to create a stepped base that would help in distributing the load over a larger
surface of the foundation.

Precautions during construction of brick wall foundations

Notes

The marking of foundations must be absolutely accurate as the location of walls depends

Page 10

on these markings.

The trenches should not be dug in rainy season. The bricks, mortar mix and cement
concrete mix should be as per specifications.

The width and depth of the trenches depends on loading and soil conditions. As the
foundation is an expanded base to distribute the load coming on it over a large area on
ground. The width of the wall foundation depends on whether the wall is a load bearing
wall, a non load bearing wall, a partition wall or a toe wall.

Load Bearing Walls


The walls that support beams and roof slabs.

These walls take the load of super structure and transmit it to the ground through
foundation.
These can also serve the purpose of dividing the space into required rooms etc.

These are also accommodating door and windows where required.

These are of 9 or more thickness.

Such walls are made in first class bricks and rich mortar.

Notes

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Non Load Bearing Walls

These walls serve the purpose of dividing the space into required rooms etc.

These are also accommodating door and windows where required.

These can be made into thin sections to save the space.

Non load bearing walls are only partition having no load of super structure so these can
be easily changed whenever required to change the space of the room.

These walls are made 3 inches, 4.5 inches and 9 inches thick as per the requirement of
the site.

Super Structure:
The word super structure used in construction work means/denotes following.

Brick work from DPC level to the roof level/slab level.

If columns provided in drawings then RCC columns to be laid.

Rain water pipe is to be embedded in walls.

Notes

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Fixing doors, windows and ventilators frames in walls.

RCC (Reinforced Beam & slab for roof) including M S Steel bars according to the designs.

Tile terracing lay with brick tiles on the top of the roof slab.

Fixing doors and windows shutters.

Fixing cupboard in the rooms and Kitchen etc.

Fixing iron grills for safety of the house.

Providing cement plaster on ceiling and walls.

Laying floors including base coat.

CATCHMENT AREA METHOD


By Catchment Area Method you calculate Column load
HOW TO DO IT ?
1) Suppose you want to calculate load on column c1 AS shown in figure , now as
shown in figure , Purple Hatched one are columns and Blue Hatched one are Beams
and i Have Marked Area with Inclined Pink Lines
Now Catchement means Hatchmed pink line area is Catchment on Column C1 ,
means Half of Slab Area and Half of Horizontal Beam and Half of vertical Beam is
the total catchment area on Column C1
How To Calculate Load on column C1 ?
1) Consider Slab area first
in it You have Live load , finishes load or any other uniform pressure load in psf
now to convert that uniform pressure load (including self weight )in psf into point
Notes

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load which will be Load on COLUMN C1 , for that you have to multiply Pressure load
(in psf ) by area of slab(in ft^2) ,
Area will be Pink Hatched area as shown in Figure
2) Consider Beam now
Above Beams you have Wall Load which is in Kip/ft
Now to Convert that Wall load into point load which will be Load on Column C1 , for
that you have to multiply wall load (in Kip/ft) by half length of beam
As shown in Figure , it is clearly shown that half length of horizontal beam and half
length of vertical beam will be catchment length on column C1
now first find out Horizontal half length and vertical half length and then for
horizontal half length multiply it by Wall load which is in kip/ft and for vertical half
length multiply it by wall load which is in kip/ft , now that will be the Point Load in
Kips on Column C1
Also include Self Weight of Beam
3) Column Self Weight also , means if column height is from floor to floor is 12 feet
and beam depth is 24 inch then column height will be 12 feet - 2feet(24 inch beam
depth)
FOR example
LOAD ON SLABS :
1)
2)
3)
4)

LIVE LOAD = 60 psf


Finishes Load = 36 psf
sunk Load = 90 psf
Slab self weight ( thickness x 0.15(density) = answer in psf

Wall Load on Beam :


1) Height of Wall is 10 feet , thickness of wall is 6 inch then Wall load will be 10 x
(6/12) x 0.144 = 0.72 kip/ft
BEAM SELF WEIGHT ALSO
Size of Column is 6" x 24" , Height of Column is 12 feet from floor to floor and width
of beam is 6 inch and depth of beam is 24 inch , and length of Horizontal Beam is
10 feet and Length of Vertical Beam is 12 feet ,

Notes

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Now you have to calculate Load on Column C1 from Slab and Beam , as i described
above ,

CALCULATE QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS FOR


CONCRETE
Quantities of materials for the production of required quantity of concrete of given mix
proportions can be calculated by absolute volume method. This method is based on the principle
that the volume of fully compacted concrete is equal to the absolute volume of all the materials
of concrete, i.e. cement, sand, coarse aggregates and water.

The formula for calculation


of materials for required
volume of concrete is given
by:

Notes

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Where, Vc = Absolute volume of fully compacted fresh concrete


W =Mass of water
C = Mass of cement
Fa = Mass of fine aggregates
Ca = Mass of coarse aggregates
Sc, Sfa and Sca are the specific gravities of cement, fine aggregates and coarse aggregates
respectively.
The air content has been ignored in this calculation.
This method of calculation for quantities of materials for concrete takes into account the mix
proportions from design mix or nominal mixes for structural strength and durability requirement.
Now we will learn the material calculation by an example.
Consider concrete with mix proportion of 1:1.5:3 where, 1 is part of cement, 1.5 is part of fine
aggregates and 3 is part of coarse aggregates of maximum size of 20mm. The water cement
ratio required for mixing of concrete is taken as 0.45.
Assuming bulk densities of materials as follows:
Cement = 1500 kg/m3
Sand = 1700 kg/m3
Coarse aggregates = 1650 kg/m3
Specific gravities of concrete materials are as follows:
Cement = 3.15
Sand = 2.6
Coarse aggregates = 2.6.
The percentage of entrained air assumed is 2%.

Notes

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The mix proportion of 1:1.5:3 by dry volume of materials can be expressed in terms of masses
as:
Cement = 1 x 1500 = 1500
Sand = 1.5 x 1700 = 2550
Coarse aggregate = 3 x 1650 = 4950.
Therefore, the ratio of masses of these materials w.r.t. cement will as follows =

= 1 : 1.7 : 3.3
The water cement ratio = 0.45
Now we will calculate the volume of concrete that can be produced with one bag of cement
(i.e. 50 kg cement) for the mass proportions of concrete materials.
Thus, the absolute volume of concrete for 50 kg of cement =

Thus, for the proportion of mix considered, with on3 bag of cement of 50 kg, 0.1345 m 3 of
concrete can be produced.
We have considered an entrained air of 2%. Thus the actual volume of concrete for 1 cubic meter
of compacted concrete construction will be = 1 -0.02 = 0.98 m3.
Thus, the quantity of cement required for 1 cubic meter of concrete = 0.98/0.1345 = 7.29 bags
of cement.
The quantities of materials for 1 m3 of concrete production can be calculated as follows:
The weight of cement required = 7.29 x 50 = 364.5 kg.
Weight of fine aggregate (sand) = 1.5 x 364.5 = 546.75 kg.
Weight of coarse aggregate = 3 x 364.5 = 1093.5 kg.

Notes

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POOR CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND


WORKMANSHIP TO AVOID
Poor construction methods and workmanship is responsible for the failure of buildings and
structure. The poor construction methods and workmanship is caused due to negligence and
inadequate quality control at construction site. The effects of some of the poor construction
methods are discussed below:
(a) Incorrect placement of steel
Incorrect placement of steel can result in insufficient cover,
leading to corrosion of the reinforcement. If the bars are
placed grossly out of position or in the wrong position,
collapse can occur when the element is fully loaded.
(b) Inadequate cover to reinforcement
Inadequate cover to reinforcement permits ingress of moisture, gases and other substances and
leads to corrosion of the reinforcement and cracking and spalling of the concrete.
(c) Incorrectly made construction joints
The main faults in construction joints are lack of preparation and poor compaction. The
oldconcrete should be washed and a layer of rich concrete laid before pouring is continued. Poor
joints allow ingress of moisture and staining of the concrete face.
(d) Grout leakage
Grout leakage occurs where formwork joints do not fit together properly. The result is a porous
area of concrete that has little or no cement and fine aggregate. All formwork joints should be
properly sealed.
(e) Poor compaction

Notes

Page 18

If concrete is not properly compacted by ramming or vibration the result is a portion of porous
honeycomb concrete. This part must be hacked out and recast. Complete compaction is essential
to give a dense, impermeable concrete.
(f) Segregation
Segregation occurs when the mix ingredients become separated. It is the result of
1. dropping the mix through too great a height in placing (chutes or pipes should be used in such
cases)
2. using a harsh mix with high coarse aggregate content
3. large aggregate sinking due to over-vibration or use of too much plasticizer

Fig: Seggregation of concrete


Segregation results in uneven concrete texture, or porous concrete in some cases.
(g) Poor curing
A poor curing procedure can result in loss of water through evaporation. This can cause a
reduction in strength if there is not sufficient water for complete hydration of the cement. Loss of
water can cause shrinkage cracking. During curing the concrete should be kept damp and
covered.
(h) Too high a water content

Notes

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Excess water increases workability but decreases the strength and increases the porosity and
permeability of the hardened concrete,which can lead to corrosion of the reinforcement. The
correct water-to-cement ratio for the mix should be strictly enforced.

Concrete Mix Proportion Materials


Dry Volume and Wet Volume:
Dry Volume : Bulk Volume with air spaces etc.
Wet Volume : Real Volume to be used.
In dry mix volume empty spaces between particles in bulk material are filled with air. When we add
water to concrete the empty spaces are filled with water, So the reduction in volume from dry to wet
is not by shrinkage of material.
For example100kg of each material, their dry volume and wet volumes typically are:
Cement: Dry V - 66L, Wet V - 32 L
Sand: Dry V - 62L, Wet V - 38 L
Coarse aggregate: Dry V - 59L, Wet V - 38L
The factor of 1.54 to convert dry volume is just approximate. For each batch of materials we have to
measure dry volume and actual density to accurately convert.

Cement Concrete Rule of 6


A good concrete depends on proper quantities of its gradients like cement, crush, sand and water.
Here is a simple rule for proper quantities ratio is the rule of 6's!

Notes

Page 20

1- Minimum cement bags are required for cubic yard concrete = 6 bags
2- Maximum water required per cement bag

= 6 gallon

3- Minimum curing days required to keep moisture

= 6 days

4- Air contents required (if concrete will be subject to freezing and thawing) = 6 %

How to calculate materials for different-ratio


concrete
Mix design is commonly referred by mix proportion in a selective zone where same materials are used
in concrete. Suppose, in Bangladesh, most of the structural designers refer concrete mix design as
ratio in drawing. Because materials of same properties are used in all over the Bangladesh.
The question is,
How do we estimate materials for different ratio concrete?
The most common ratio referred here in Bangladesh for column concrete 1:1.5:3 and for slab 1:2:4.
When we mix cement, sand and stone chips at 1:1.5:3 ratio, the concrete strength of 28 days cube
test's result comes around 3500 psi. If we mix cement, sand and brick chips at 1:2:4 ratio the 28 days

Notes

Page 21

cube test result will come around 3000 psi, which is referred for slab concrete.
I will estimate materials for 1:1.5:3 ratio concrete. After learning this process you will be able to
estimate materials for any concrete ratio.
Now lets estimate the required materials for the volume of 100 cft concrete of 1:1.5:3 ratio:
Wet volume of concrete = 100 cft.
Dry volume of concrete= 100 x 1.54 = 154 cft.
Sum of ratio 1:1.5:3, 1 + 1.5 + 3 = 5.5.
So, Cement content in concrete = (154/5.5) x 1=28 cft.
Sand content= (154 / 5.5) x 1.5 = 42 cft.
Stone chips = (154/5.5) x 3 = 84 cft.
As we know, Cement is available as 50 kg bag in the market. The volume of 50 kg cement bag is 1.25
cft. So the required cement is 28 divided by 1.25 equal to 22.4 bag.
Summary:
Cement : 22.4 bag,
Sand : 42 cft,
Stone chips: 84 cft.
In this estimation, we use cubic feet as our concrete unit. If you want to use cubic meter, same
method can be applied. But that will be time-consuming. The easiest way to estimate concrete
materials for different unit is, apply the above result as percentage. That means, Cement content for
100 unit of 1:1.5:3 ratio concrete is 28% (unit will be as concrete unit), Sand is 42% and Stone
chips is 84%.
Now lets calculate the water content of concrete. Suppose, water-cement ratio for concrete is specified
0.45. That means, water/cement = 0.45, or W/C = 0.45.
for 1 bag cement, water is, = 0.45 x 1.25 (as we know, 1 bag cement equal to 1.25 cft),
Water = 0.5625 cft.
We know 1 cubic feet water is equal to 28.31685 litre,
So we can write, water = 0.5625 x 28.31685 = 15.92 litre, say, 16 litre.
So One bag cement needs 16 liter of water for 0.45 W/C ratio.
That's it.
Here, one thing should be cleared that someone assume the dry volume of concrete is equal to one
and half times of wet volume. But it is better to use 1.54 for calculating dry volume.

Defects in Brick Work and their Remedies


"sulphate attack on mortars, unsound materials, frost action, corrosion of iron and
steel, crystallization of salts, linear changes resulting from variation in moisture
content"
While doing brickwork and after the brick is completed there are certain defects
which has to be faced, these defects they must be avoided and remedial measure
must be taken. These defects not only ruins the physical quality and aesthetics of
the project but also ruins its structural strength. So to avoid any mishap and loss we
must know what are certain defects in brick work and how to avoid them.
Notes

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Common defects occurring in Brick work are; sulphate attack on mortars, unsound
materials, frost action, corrosion of iron and steel, crystallization of salts, linear
changes resulting from variation in moisture content.

Sulphate attack on mortars


Sulphate attack leads to expansion of mortar, thereby causing cracking of
brickwork, spalling of brick edges, deterioration of mortar, wide horizontal and
vertical cracks in the plaster and falling of the plastered surface.

The cause of this attack is the chemical action between the sulphate salts in bricks
and constituents of Portland cement.

Sulphate Attack on Bricks


This action is rapid in the presence of water and hence wherever moisture
penetrates, excessive dampness occurs. This type of defect may be prevented by
preventing moisture penetration. It will avoid the defect to a large extent. Bricks of
low sulphate content and the sulphate resisting cement should be used.

Unsound Materials
Unsound materials cause the formation of small pits at the mortar joints. General
expansion and cracking of brick work is visible. Unsoundness in lime is caused by
the presence of un-slaked particles of lime. Similarly un-slaked lime particles may
be present in the bricks also.

Notes

Page 23

Unsound Material
Frost action
Defects due to frost action would cause cracking in brickwork. Prevention of water
accumulation would prevent this defect.
Corrosion of Metals
Brickwork may get opened or cracked or stained due to corrosion of metals lying
adjacent to it. Unprotected iron and steel are liable to get corroded when acted
upon by moisture and they increase in bulk, thereby causing cracks in masonry.

Corrosion of Bricks due to Metals


Protecting the metal surface with cement mortar up to a layer of 1 to 2 cm thick is
essential to prevent corrosion. Partially embedded steel or iron members should be
surrounded with bituminous compound for portions not embedded in mortar.

Notes

Page 24

Metal Corrosion
Crystallization of Salt and Efflorescence
This is a prominent defect in brick masonry. In moist climate, in damp places, like
basements or under leaky gutter, masonry often gets disfigured by the formation of
a white deposit called efflorescence. Deposit originates from the mortar and
frequently spreads over a part or entire face of the wall.

Efflorescence
Absorbed water dissolves the salts of sodium, potassium and evaporating, forms a
crystalline deposit on the surface. In addition to unsightly appearance, the
crystallization of salts in the pores of the bricks or mortar may cause disruptive
expansion resulting in disintegration due to cracking.
To avoid Efflorescence do not use porous bricks in contact with limestone. Protect
brickwork against contamination of salt-bearing materials during building
operations. Bricks should be thoroughly soaked during construction. Correct design
of DPC should be used.
Shrinkage Effects

Notes

Page 25

Brick work may crack due to the shrinkage movements arising from changes in
moisture content. This defect is more common with concrete and lime mortars.

Shrinkage Effects

10+ FIELD TIPS FOR INSPECTION OF REBARS OR


REINFORCEMENT

Good quality bricks should be used in dry condition. All of work should be protected
from rain.
In construction of a mega project there is always insightful sort of technicalities
involved which has to be checked / identified technically. The process demands a
sound technical engineering judgment and careful observation. Reinforced Cement
Concrete, despite of other important checks, needs to be checked for rebar against
the provided construction drawings / shop drawings or technical specifications.
It must be kept in mind that the difficulty and cost involved in this activity makes it
vulnerable for shortcomings from the contractors end and

Notes

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it needs to be rectified / adjusted by a


sound
consulting firm deputing on the
inspection of
execution.

Inspection of
Steel Rebar

No doubt it needs experience and also needs know-how of the steel rebar binding
process. But here are some of the tips from top peers who are doing this in the field
for years :a.
Start from the drawings, one must be well aware of how to read a rebar
drawing. As drawings is a language for engineers one must know how to
communicate with it in the field. Make a habit of reading drawings that will be your
first step towards a successful rebar checker.
b.
Always keep a measuring tape with yourself that will help you in checking the
spacing as well as the splice length or development length.
c.
Always wear plastic gloves while inspection because holding steel with naked
hands will damage the skin of yours badly.
d.
You must be well aware of the physical features of the construction component
i.e. if some sort of drainage pipe or electrical conduit is to be installed or water
stopper to be placed or any other pipes / embedded item to be placed.
e.
Some important things one must check are the rebar diameter You can use
vernier caliper for this purpose, rebar spacing, rebar development length, lap /
splice length, alignment or rebar there must be no sag or buckling in the bars,
couplers if any must be properly fixed tightened, bars must be properly fixed, bars
must not be rusted, clear cover is one very important factor to be checked, no of
bars must be counted and must be equal to given in drawings and must not be less
or more than 2 bars be placed there.
f.
If you are a new comer try to establish a conversation between contractors
foreman or site engineer because they will know how these bars are placed but
never every show to them that you dont know much and are here to learn things.
g.
You must be well aware of the steel quality tests like tensile strength check or
torsion failure strength or coupler tension strength check etc. You must ensure that
the steel being used is from the checked lot and must not be of a failed quality.
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h.
No doubt in field a true implementation of the design is very difficult due to
harsh field conditions and difficultly in installation / fixing of rebars but never ever
compromise with the design as it is a driving factor that can even results in collapse
of a building if completely ignored / violated.
i.
One very important factor is the orientation of bars like main rebars are
always below the distribution or temperature rebars you can check this from the
drawings provided to you.

So we can say that in a nutshell one must be very keen observer and should be well
conversant with the design methodology and sound technical knowledge.

Checking of rebars is not difficult neither never testing process so dont get
confused or get upset with your duty enjoy the work and let the structure have its
strength as it is designed.

Notes

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