Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 152 (2012) 3339

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Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment

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Bioltration of methane emissions from a dairy farm efuent pond

Chris Pratt a, , Adrian S. Walcroft a , Kevin R. Tate a , Des J. Ross a,1 , Ral Roy b , Melissa Hills Reid b ,
Patricia W. Veiga b
a
b

Landcare Research Manaaki Whenua, Riddet Road, Palmerston North, New Zealand
University of Victoria, BC, Canada

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 31 July 2011
Received in revised form 14 February 2012
Accepted 16 February 2012
Keywords:
Biolters
Dairy farms
Efuent ponds
Methane

a b s t r a c t
Dairy farm efuent ponds are a source of methane (CH4 ), a potent greenhouse gas. Bioltration, whereby
CH4 is oxidised by methanotrophic bacteria, is a potentially cost-effective CH4 mitigation technology. We
report on the performance of a eld-scale biolter treating dairy farm efuent pond CH4 emissions for 16
months. This study is the rst to report on the feasibility of using bioltration to mitigate dairy waste CH4
emissions. The 70-L lter comprised a 1:1 volumetric mixture of volcanic soil from a landll and perlite.
Biogas collected in a oating cover on a 4-m2 section of the pond was directed through the biolters
base. Air was pumped through the lter to supply oxygen to the methanotrophs. The lters maximum
CH4 removal rate was 16 g m3 h1 (or 53 g g1 h1 ), which is high compared with literature landll
soil oxidation rates (typically <1 to 40 g g1 h1 ). At the trials conclusion, the lter experienced acid
accumulation, due to oxidation of H2 S in the inlet biogas (evidenced by low pH [3.9] and high sulphate-S
[1079 mg1 kg1 ] at the base of the lter compared with the top [pH = 4.6, sulphate-S = 369 mg1 kg1 ]).
Nonetheless, the lters oxidation rate peaked at the end of the experiment indicating negligible H2 S
impact on overall performance over the 16-month period. The results showed that a 50-m3 lter would be
needed to offset CH4 emissions (approximately 720 g h1 ) from a typical 1000-m2 dairy efuent pond. As
this calculation is based on the efciency of a single experimental lter, eld testing of replicate biolters
is needed to accurately establish full-scale lter sizing. Nonetheless, this study has shown that biolter
technology is feasible to mitigate dairy efuent pond CH4 emissions. Current research is underway to
make the lter more economically viable through design optimisation.
2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Methane (CH4 ) is a greenhouse gas (GHG) with a global warming potential at least 23 times greater than that of carbon dioxide
(CO2 ) (Shindell et al., 2009). Agriculture is the main contributor of
anthropogenic CH4 to the atmosphere, accounting for over 60% of
total emissions (Mosier et al., 1998). Within the agricultural sector, dairy farming is one of the principal sources of CH4 . Enteric
fermentation is the major on-farm CH4 source typically accounting for about 95% of total farm emissions (Mosier et al., 1998;
MfE, 2010). However, enteric CH4 emissions rapidly diffuse into
the atmosphere and, hence, are difcult to intercept.
Another signicant farm CH4 source is waste storage ponds.
These structures are being increasingly adopted on New Zealand
dairy farms to address nutrient, pathogen and organic (i.e., chemical
oxygen demand/biological oxygen demand) loading from efuent

Corresponding author. Tel.: +64 6353 4996; fax: +64 6353 4801.
E-mail address: prattC@landcareresearch.co.nz (C. Pratt).
1
Deceased.
0167-8809/$ see front matter 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.agee.2012.02.011

into waterways (Cronk, 1996; Craggs et al., 2008). However, these

anaerobic treatment systems also produce CH4 -rich biogas, which
escapes to the atmosphere. Waste ponds can account for up to 25%
of total on-farm emissions (Mosier et al., 1998; MfE, 2010) and are
the principal CH4 point-source on New Zealand dairy farms.
Few technologies are available to mitigate dairy CH4 emissions. This is a problem for dairy producers because they will
likely be regulated for their gaseous discharges in the near-future.
For example, in New Zealand the agricultural sector is set to be
included in the Emissions Trading Scheme in 2015. One approach
to mitigate CH4 emitted from dairy ponds is to capture and burn
the gas to produce energy. This option may be viable for largescale operations, with more than 1000 head of cattle (e.g. Martin,
2008). However, average herd sizes on dairy farms across the
Unites States and Europe are approximately 100 (Melse and Van
Der Werf, 2005; US Dairy Industry, 2010), while the typical herd
size for most New Zealand farms is approximately 350 (Livestock
Improvement Cooperation and Dairy NZ, 2008). The CH4 yield from
efuent ponds on these typical-sized farms is only about 20 m3 d1
(McGrath and Mason, 2004; Craggs et al., 2008). Based on cost
estimates provided by NIWA (2010), a New Zealand farmer who

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C. Pratt et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 152 (2012) 3339

opts to capture and recover a CH4 yield of 20 m3 d1 from their

efuent pond will be running at a loss of approximately US$3.9K
(NZ$5K) per annum. Even at a very high CH4 yield of 40 m3 d1 , a
yearly running loss of US$1.2K (NZ$1.5K) would be incurred. This
is additional to the upfront expenditure of US$62K (NZ$80K) for
the recovery system. Simply aring the biogas could be a more
economically viable method to reduce pond emissions, but considerable expenses include ignition unit capital and maintenance
costs. Furthermore, the installation of a purpose-built gas collection cover capable of handling uctuations in biogas ows from
the pond would incur further cost. Thus, biogas capture and burning
may not be the most cost-effective and low-maintenance technique
to deal with dairy efuent pond CH4 emissions. Bioltration, by
which CH4 is converted to CO2 , water vapour and new biomass by
methanotrophic bacteria (CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2 O), offers a potential alternative mitigation approach.
Methane biolters have been used to reduce CH4 emissions from
landlls (e.g., Park et al., 2002; Haubrichs and Widmann, 2006) and
coal mines (e.g., Sly et al., 1993). However, very little information
is available on their use to treat farm emissions. Melse and Van
Der Werf (2005) conducted a study into bioltration to reduce CH4
emissions from piggery waste. They observed 85% removal efciency for a 40-m3 lter treating 1000 m3 of efuent. To date, no
information has been published assessing the potential of biolters
to abate dairy farm CH4 emissions. Here, we provide an assessment
of the utility of bioltration to mitigate CH4 produced from dairy
efuent ponds. The aims of the research are to: (1) assess the performance of a eld-scale biolter treating CH4 emissions from a dairy
efuent pond for 16 months; and (2) provide an estimate of the
size and cost of full-scale lters required to treat emissions from
whole pond systems. It is envisaged that this research will assist
dairy farmers to cope with introduced emissions trading schemes.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Soil collection and preparation
Soil obtained from a landll cap in the central North Island of
New Zealand was used as the source of methanotrophic bacteria in this study. The soil is a ca. 2000 year old volcanic pumice
Andisol (USDA Soil Taxonomy, 2011). Approximately 50 kg of topsoil (010 cm) was collected. The soil was sieved to <5 mm to
remove coarse materials and then wetted to 60% water-holding
capacity, which is in the ideal range for CH4 oxidation (Humer and
Lechner, 1999). Our previous research established the presence of
Type II methanotrophs (predominantly Methylocystis sp.-related)
in these soils (Pratt et al., 2010).
2.2. Field lter
A eld-scale biolter was constructed using stormwater pipe
(1 m 0.35 m diameter). The lter media comprised a 70-L 1:1
(volume basis) mixture of expanded perlite and topsoil from the
landll cap. Expanded perlite is a light-weight alumino-silicate
material and was used to decrease the soils density. Producing a
light-weight lter media is considered essential for full-scale applications to reduce the burden of the lter support structure and
associated costs.
The lter was set-up on the bank of a research dairy farms
efuent pond at Massey University in the Manawatu region of
New Zealand. The farms herd size is 450, the areal dimensions
of the efuent pond are 29 m 32 m (928 m2 ) and its sides are
sloping with a depth in the centre of 4.6 m, giving an overall volume of 2000 m3 . Biogas, emitted from a 4-m2 section of the pond,
was fed into the base of the unit following capture in a gas-tight

Fig. 1. Field set-up.

oating cover (Fig. 1). Methane emissions from the pond surface
were recorded using a purpose-built volumetric ow meter, based
on a design described by Smith and Stckle (2008). Flow rates were
measured continuously by a datalogger and half-hourly averages
were recorded. The lter was sealed, oxygen was supplied to the
lter by an air pump and an outlet hose was inserted into the top
of the lter.
The biogas and air ow rates fed into the lter were continuously monitored and adjusted so that there was always sufcient
O2 to achieve complete CH4 oxidation (i.e. 2 molecules of O2 to
every molecule of CH4 ). Methane/O2 ratios in the gas mixture fed
into the lter were determined by taking the average measured
biogas composition of 80%CH4 /20%CO2 , and an O2 concentration
in air of 20%. The empty bed residence time (i.e. the lter volume
divided by the ow rate, Nikiema et al., 2007) of the gas mixture
in the lter was kept at >2 h (by manually adjusting the air or
biogas ow) to ensure sufcient contact time for CH4 transfer to
the methanotrophs. Gas samples were collected periodically from
the headspace of the closed lter and from the biogas inlet pipe.
Samples were collected in duplicate and sampling times covered
working hours between 9:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m. In order to assess
if CH4 oxidation rates varied outside of these hours, sampling was
conducted hourly over two full-day periods (from 15 to 17 March
2010). Local air temperature and the temperature in the top 5 cm of
the biolter were monitored half-hourly over the experiment. The
eld lter trial was set up as shown in Fig. 1, and run for 16 months.
2.3. Assessing the effect of H2 S on biolter performance
Hydrogen sulphide in biogas oxidises in the presence of water
and air to produce sulphuric acid. A pH reduction, caused by H2 S
oxidation, can inhibit methanotroph growth and activity (Nikiema
et al., 2007). Hence, the pH of the lter media was analysed at the
completion of the experiment in order to determine whether pH
had decreased in the lter over time. Approximately 300 mL of
soil/perlite mixture was collected from the top 20 cm, middle 20 cm
and bottom 20 cm portions of the lter and the pH and sulphate-S
in each layer were measured. Laboratory batch tests were conducted on media from each layer to determine CH4 consumption
rates. In the batch tests, 200 mL of soil/perlite mixture from each
depth layer of the lter was placed into a 1.8 L air-tight glass jar
and 4 mL (2.7 mg at 20 C and 1 atmosphere pressure) of CH4 was
injected into each jar. Samples were drawn from each jar every
half hour over a 2.5 h period and their CH4 and CO2 concentrations
were measured. Methane oxidation rates were determined using
the changing gas concentration proles over time.

C. Pratt et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 152 (2012) 3339

35

2.4. Biolter physicochemical analyses

The soil/perlite mixture from the eld lter was analysed for
its pH, available (Olsen)-P, total C, total N, ammonium (NH4 + )-N,
nitrate (NO3 )-N and moisture content, as these parameters have
been shown to have important impacts on biological CH4 oxidation
(Hanson and Hanson, 1996). Analyses were conducted before and
at the end of the experiment. The top 20 cm, middle 20 cm, and bottom 20 cm sections of the lter obtained at the conclusion of the
experiment were analysed to examine if any depth-partitioning of
soil nutrients had developed. All eld lter monitoring analyses
were performed in duplicate. Moisture was determined by drying the samples for 24 h at 105 C and pH was measured in a 1:2.5
water suspension (Blakemore et al., 1987). Total C and N were measured by combustion in a FF-2000 CNS analyser (LECO Corporation,
St. Joseph, MI, ISA), and sulphate-S by KH2 PO4 extraction and ion
chromatography.
Olsen-P was determined by extraction with bicarbonate (0.5 M
sodium bicarbonate, pH 8.5, 1:20 soil:extractant, 30 min shaking),
and phosphorus concentrations measured in the extracts by the
ascorbic acid/ammonium molybdate/antimony potassium tartrate
colorimetric method on a Lachat FIA 8000. Nitrate-N and NH4 + -N
were extracted using 2 M KCl (1:10 soil:extractant, 1 h shaking),
and measured colorimetrically on a Lachat QuickChem FIA 8000.
Unless otherwise stated, data are expressed on an oven-dry (105 C)
weight basis. The particle density, dry and wet bulk density and
porosity of the landll soil/perlite mixture were calculated following the techniques described by Gradwell (1972).
2.5. Gas analyses
Gas samples were manually collected in the eld and returned to
the laboratory for analysis. Methane, CO2 and N2 O concentrations
in gas samples were measured by gas chromatography (Varian CP3800) using a ame ionisation detector (FID), thermal conductivity
detector (TCD) and electron capture detector (ECD), respectively.
Oxygen concentrations in the gas samples were measured by a
hand-held probe (Apogee, Model 201). Hydrogen sulphide (H2 S)
and NH3 concentrations were analysed in the biogas and the gas
exiting the biolter over two days in the middle of the trial, using
a portable VRAE multi gas monitor (model PGM7800).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Field trial
The performance of the eld biolter was monitored for approximately 16 months, from December 2009 to April 2011. Methane
inux and oxidation rates are shown in Fig. 2. Methane oxidation
rates were calculated by comparing the differences between the
measured exit CH4 concentrations from the biolter and the predicted exit CH4 concentrations if no oxidation was occurring (i.e.,
these differences were used to quantify oxidation). Because of the
ponds variable biogas emission rates, average CH4 inow rates
were used to determine uxes during the residence time of the
biogas in the lter. The accuracy of this method for estimating oxidation rates was tested by lling the lter with sterile media (i.e. an
autoclaved soil/perlite mixture) and measuring ux rates on four
occasions. The observed CH4 uxes for the control tests were within
5% of the predicted theoretical uxes, indicating that the method
adopted for measuring oxidation rates was accurate.
Methane oxidation rates exhibited by the eld lter reached
16 g m3 h1 (53 g g1 h1 ) in summer 2011 (Fig. 2). Carbon dioxide concentrations in the gas exiting the biolter were higher than
inlet values, providing a good indicator of biological activity in the

Fig. 2. CH4 oxidation rates in the eld lter over the 16 month trial. All duplicate
values for CH4 removal are shown in the dataset.

lter. The highest CO2 concentration in the biolter exit gas was
6.4% on 21 February 2011. The theoretical CO2 concentration (i.e.
only biogas-CO2 , with no contribution from the lter medium) in
the same gas sample was 1.4%. By comparison, the observed CH4
concentration in the biolter exit gas at this interval was <0.01%
and the theoretical CH4 value was 4.4%. Hence, the CO2 produced
corresponded very closely with the reduction in CH4 , suggesting
that CH4 oxidation was the principal biological process occurring
in the lter by the end of the trial. The concentration of N2 O in the
undiluted biogas was below the method detection limit (0.1 ppmv)
while the N2 O contents measured in the gas exiting the lter were
consistently negligible, being in the range of atmospheric levels
(0.32 ppmv).
Leading up to November 2010, O2 concentrations were more
than double CH4 concentrations in the biolter exit gas (data
not shown), indicating sufcient O2 for complete CH4 oxidation.
However, on 1 November 2010 O2 concentrations (15.7%) were
commensurate with CH4 values (12.7%) in the exit gas, due to
increased biogas production. This lower O2 :CH4 ratio may have limited CH4 oxidation rates in the lter, which were only 22% on that
day. Hence, the air ow fed through the lter was increased and for
the remainder of the trial O2 values in the biolter exit gas were
adequate to facilitate complete CH4 oxidation.
Diurnal variations in CH4 inux and oxidation rates in the lter
were recorded in March 2010 for 2 days (Fig. 3). The data show
that CH4 inux rates uctuate over the course of a day. This is
not unexpected, as intermittent and irregular biogas eruptions are
frequently observed on dairy efuent pond surfaces. The CH4 oxidation rates responded to this emission variability with higher
oxidation observed at times of higher inux rates (Fig. 3). This

Fig. 3. Hourly variations in CH4 inux and oxidation rates in eld lter over two
day period (1517 March 2010).

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C. Pratt et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 152 (2012) 3339

positive relationship between CH4 inux and oxidation rates has

previously been reported (e.g. Melse and Van Der Werf, 2005). In
our 2-day study in late summer, CH4 removal showed a lag response
in relation to the inux rate, reective of adjusting methanotroph
response to the variable feed dose. The highest CH4 oxidation rates
were observed around midday and in the evening from 6:00 p.m.
to midnight whereas oxidation rates were lowest in the morning
around 9:00 a.m. The sampling times for the 16 month eld trial
ranged between 9:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m. and, based on the data in
Fig. 3, should have captured the majority of the daily variations in
CH4 inux and oxidation rates in the biolter.
The CH4 consumption rates of the lter (16 g m3 h1 or
53 g g1 h1 ) were generally high compared with CH4 removal
rates reported in other studies for methanotroph-rich media. For
example, Melse and Van Der Werf (2005) documented a maximum
CH4 degradation rate of 8 g m3 h1 for a compost/perlite biolter
treating piggery efuent emissions. Kettunen et al. (2006) examined a compost/sand biolter for attenuating landll emissions and
reported a maximum CH4 oxidation rate of 13 g g1 h1 . Scheutz
et al. (2009) in their global review of CH4 oxidation found that
typical removal rates reported for methanotroph-rich soils were
between <1 and 40 g g1 h1 .
The strong CH4 oxidation rates exhibited by the eld lter
in this study indicate a thriving methanotroph community capable of rapid CH4 consumption in an environment conducive to
CH4 oxidation. Our earlier research (Pratt et al., 2010) has shown
that the volcanic landll cap soil used in the lter contains Type
II methanotrophs (Methylocystis sp.-related). Methylocystis sp. is
characterised by a low CH4 afnity/high oxidation rate (Scheutz
et al., 2009) and has been detected in highly concentrated CH4
environments such as landll caps (e.g., Uz et al., 2003; Kumaresan
et al., 2009). In addition to an active methanotroph population, the
favourable physicochemical properties of the lter media (Table 1)
have undoubtedly played a pivotal role in the high CH4 oxidation
rates observed. The high porosity, high moisture content, elevated
available P, total C and N as well as low bulk density and high porosity in the lter media are all conducive to enhanced methanotroph
growth and activity (Hanson and Hanson, 1996; Price et al., 2004;
Nikiema et al., 2007, 2010). By the end of the trial, no slumping or
compaction of the lter media was apparent, indicating that the lters physical properties (bulk density and porosity) were unlikely
to have limited efcient CH4 oxidation (Table 1). Moisture levels
(4060%) were generally ideal for CH4 oxidation (Nikiema et al.,
2007), although there were signs of potential water logging at the
base of the lter by the end of the experiment (Table 1). Moisture
build-up at the base of the lter could be avoided by increasing
the ventilation area at the top of the lter. The only reason the
lter was sealed in this study was to assist with regular gas ux
measurements.
Total C levels increased throughout the lter prole over time
(Table 1), as a result of increased methanotroph biomass. Elevated
soil C content has also been reported to enhance CH4 oxidation
(Nikiema et al., 2007), with C-rich composts generally exhibiting
greater CH4 uptake than soils with lower C contents. Nutrients associated with C in organic matter will be released by mineralisation
and so become available to methanotrophs. Furthermore, C-rich
soils may also support other microorganisms that supply growth
factors which help the development of methanotrophs (Hanson
and Hanson, 1996).
The total N content of the lter media also increased over the
course of the experiment (Table 1), indicating effective N immobilisation from the atmosphere and the biogas by the microbial
population within the lter. Ammonium (NH4 + -N) and NO3 -N levels were monitored as both forms of N have been reported to be
used by methanotrophs (Hanson and Hanson, 1996). AmmoniumN levels decreased slightly over the 16 month period, while NO3 -N

Fig. 4. pH, sulphate-S and CH4 oxidation rates in different depth horizons of eld
lter. Mean of duplicate values and ranges shown.

concentrations decreased considerably, probably indicating incorporation into the soil microbial pool. Olsen-P levels decreased
marginally in the lter media during the trial (Table 1) again likely
due to incorporation into the microbial pool, but these diminishing
P concentrations did not appear to adversely affect methanotroph
activity. Overall, the lters physical and chemical parameters were
favourable for high microbial activity and, in general, appeared to
remain in the ideal range over 16 months in the eld-scale biolter
without any need for intervention.
In contrast to the other physicochemical parameters which were
optimal for CH4 oxidation, the pH decreased throughout the entire
lter over the course of the trial (Table 1), which could be inhibitory
for methanotroph activity (Nikiema et al., 2007). This pH decrease
was likely due to oxidation of H2 S within the biogas. Measurements taken in March 2010 revealed a mean H2 S concentration
of 443 ppmv in the biogas, which is high compared with values
reported by Rasi et al. (2007) (maximum H2 S values of 427 ppmv in
landll biogas and 20170 ppmv for sewage and farm biogas). The
H2 S concentration in the biolter exit gas was 0 ppmv, indicating
effective H2 S oxidation by the lter. In order to establish whether
CH4 oxidation was affected by H2 S oxidation, CH4 oxidation rates
at various depth horizons in the lter were measured (Fig. 4).
Results in Fig. 4 indicate increasing H2 S oxidation rates down the
lter prole, evidenced by decreasing pH and increasing sulphateS values. Methane oxidation rates diminished with depth down
the lter apparently suggesting that H2 S oxidation had an adverse
impact on methanotrophy. However, our research revealed that
substrate moisture also strongly inuences CH4 oxidation; the
studied soil oxidised CH4 twice as efciently at 40% moisture
(wt/dry wt) than at 85% moisture (wt/dry wt). Hence, the difference in CH4 oxidation rates between the top and base of the lter
could also be accounted for by moisture content alone (Table 1).
In the eld lter, the low pH values certainly did not affect overall CH4 oxidation rates. In fact, the greatest CH4 consumption was
observed during the nal days of monitoring (Fig. 2), suggesting the
effects of sulphur oxidation and subsequent acid generation take a
long time (>16 months) to impact signicantly on methanotroph
activity in engineered biolters. It is possible that over longer periods, sulphide oxidation could inhibit methanotrophy within the
eld lter. This could be overcome by liming the lter to maintain
near-neutral pH, scrubbing H2 S from the biogas using iron chips

C. Pratt et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 152 (2012) 3339

37

Table 1
Physicochemical parameters of eld lter media.

Finish (16 months)

Start
Top 20 cm
Middle 20 cm
Bottom 20 cm

Porosity (%)

Bulk density
(kg1 m3 )

Moisture (%)

pH

Total C (%)

Total N (%)

NH4 + -N
(mg1 kg1 )

NO3 -N
(mg1 kg1 )

Olsen P
(mg1 kg1 )

84
84
84
84

310
310
310
310

5.5
4.6
4.5
3.9

2.8
5.1
4.9
5.2

0.24
0.39
0.35
0.39

9.2
6.8
1.2
2.5

5.6
0.1
0.1
0.1

17
9
8
13

(29.6) 38.1
43.9
65.3
85.3

Figure in brackets is initial moisture content of soil, adjacent gure is moisture content of soil after wetting to 60% WHC.

(Scott et al., 2006), or inoculating the lter with acidophilic methanotroph strains which have been detected in peat soils (Dedysh et al.,
2001).
While the lter generally performed well overall, it is clear that
CH4 oxidation rates varied seasonally over the trial (Fig. 2). Oxidation, both as a proportion of the inlet CH4 removed and total
CH4 oxidised, was highest in summer and lowest over winter (e.g.,
<5 g m3 h1 ). Occasionally, over winter, no oxidation was observed
in the lter. Seasonal variation in CH4 oxidation rates has previously been reported (Melse and Van Der Werf, 2005; Tate et al.,
2007; Scheutz et al., 2009). The main factors causing this seasonal
variation appear to be CH4 inux rates and temperature. Methane
inux rates and CH4 oxidation rates were strongly positively
correlated (r2 = 0.42, p[two-tailed] 0.001). Biolter temperature
and CH4 oxidation rates also showed strong positive correlation
(r2 = 0.46, p[two-tailed] 0.001). These correlations are pertinent
at a practical-scale because seasonal variations in biogas production and wide temperature uctuations are common features of
many dairy efuent ponds. In the Manawatu region, where the trial
was performed, summer temperatures often reach 25 C, and occasionally up to 30 C. By contrast, winter temperatures approaching
0 C are not uncommon: a low of 1 C was recorded during the
trial. Diminished methanotroph activity and growth at these cold
temperatures can be a signicant limitation for biolter performance. For example, Scheutz et al. (2009) noted that oxidation
rates can drop to zero over winter. Insulating the lter may retain
internal heat produced by biological activity which may overcome
reduced CH4 removal rates over winter, but this will likely be
expensive, compromising the low-cost/low-maintenance aspect of
this technology. However, the reduction in biolter performance
over winter appears to be offset by the lower CH4 emissions from
the less active methanogen community in the waste pond (Fig. 5).
Winter CH4 production rates were only about 25% of summer,
spring and autumn generation rates (Fig. 5), similar to the CH4 produced from a dairy efuent pond in northern New Zealand (Craggs
et al., 2008). Sommer et al. (2009) also reported that CH4 emissions increased almost 10-fold in summer compared with winter
for cow manure stored in dairy housing in Italy. Therefore, even if

Fig. 5. Average seasonal biogas production by efuent pond. *Note that for
the study location in the Southern Hemisphere, Summer = DecemberFebruary
inclusive, Autumn = MarchMay inclusive, Winter = JuneAugust inclusive and
Spring = SeptemberNovember inclusive.

no CH4 oxidation occurs in a biolter over winter, only about 810%

of yearly emissions escape over this time.

3.2. Considerations for implementation of full-scale biolters on

dairy efuent ponds
There is very little published data on CH4 production rates from
dairy efuent ponds. Moreover, herd sizes and waste production
volumes vary between farms. This is further complicated by a trend
towards the use of standoff feedpads across New Zealand and a subsequent increase in manure volumes being discharged into efuent
treatment ponds.
Our study indicates CH4 emission rates of approximately
180 m3 d1 for a 1000 m2 pond treating efuent from 450 cattle,
but this gure is signicantly higher than the two other published
CH4 emission rates for New Zealand dairy ponds: 45 m3 d1 for
a 1700 m2 pond treating efuent from 700 cattle (Craggs et al.,
2008); and 12 m3 d1 for a pond receiving waste from a herd of
450 (McGrath and Mason, 2004). The high emission rates recorded
during our study are unlikely to be representative of typical dairy
farms, because the efuent pond periodically receives inputs of
high-strength organic solids (such as milk waste) in addition
to manure washdown from the milking shed as it is part of a
research farm. As the study by McGrath and Mason (2004) was
based on an observational technique of counting bubbles on the
ponds surface to measure emission rates, this may have compromised the accuracy of their ndings. Consequently, from here
on we use Craggs et al. (2008) CH4 emission rate as the current benchmark for a typical efuent pond. The emission rate
reported by Craggs et al. (2008) was normalised to a 1000-m2
pond to give a rate of 26 m3 CH4 d1 , as this is considered more
representative of current emission rates from waste ponds for an
average New Zealand herd size of 350. This production rate equates
to about 10 g CH4 m3 manure d1 , which interestingly correlates
well with emission rates (11 g CH4 m3 manure d1 ) reported for
stored slurries in European waste management systems (Hensen
et al., 2006). However, it must be noted that comparing CH4 emissions across different management systems can be misleading
because of variations in manure loading rates and chemical and
biological conditions within the manure.
In our study, the lters removal efciency (% of inlet removed
and total CH4 oxidised) increased at the end of the trial indicating successful acclimation of methanotrophic bacteria within the
engineered structure. Based on CH4 oxidation rates achieved by the
lter towards the nal stages of the experiment, a full-scale lter
volume of approximately 50 m3 could effectively offset CH4 emissions from a typical New Zealand dairy farm waste pond (about
26 m3 CH4 d1 ). Despite negligible oxidation rates over winter, the
full-scale lter would operate at >90% removal efciency. This corresponds to an annual offset of approximately 135 tonnes CO2 -e
per year, assuming a GWP for CH4 of 23 relative to CO2 over 100
years (Melse and Van Der Werf, 2005). It should be noted that
CO2 emissions are not included in this GHG budget because CO2 in
pasture-based systems is part of a short-term cycle, where net CO2
emissions cannot exceed CO2 sequestered from the atmosphere by

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C. Pratt et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 152 (2012) 3339

the pasture. Moreover, we acknowledge that the estimated volume

for a full-scale lter is based on the efciency of the single eld
experiment and that testing of replicate biolters would be needed
to accurately determine lter sizing. Nonetheless, the aim of this
research was to demonstrate the feasibility of biolter technology
for dairy farms and, in this respect, the results clearly show that
biolters have the potential to efciently mitigate dairy efuent
pond CH4 emissions.
An economic incentive would be needed to stimulate the uptake
of biolters for dairy farms. However, with the possible inclusion of
agriculture in New Zealands Emissions Trading Scheme there could
soon be an economic driver to encourage the uptake of GHG mitigation technologies. Based on a carbon pricing of US$25 (NZ$32)
per tonne, this study has shown that a total of US$3.4K (NZ$4.3K)
per year could be offset by a biolter treating dairy efuent pond
emissions. If biolters were installed on the efuent ponds of just
half of New Zealands 11,000 dairy farms, 0.74 million tonnes of
CO2 -e could be offset annually with an economic value of US$18
(NZ$23) million.
The capital cost of biolters is as yet undetermined as there are
no current examples of full-scale systems in operation. However,
as demand for this technology grows biolter costs will decrease.
Melse and Van Der Werf (2005) reported a cost of US$30K (NZ$38K)
for a biolter treating a CH4 ux of 170 CO2 -e tonnes/year (which
is similar to the emission rate of a typical dairy efuent pond).
A gas collection system needs to be included in the calculations,
which costs approximately US $19K (NZ$24K) (NIWA, 2010). The
total capital expenditure for the lter/cover system thus comes to
about US$49K (NZ$62K). It could therefore take approximately 15
years to pay-off the upfront cost of the lter, making the current
system economically unattractive. However, the economics may
improve with better biolter design. We are currently investigating the feasibility of incorporating the lter in the pond cover to
oxidise CH4 emissions from a dairy efuent pond. In this set-up,
the soil medium is suspended over the top of an articial anaerobic
pond and CH4 transfer and O2 supply through the lter are achieved
by passive diffusion. If successful, this new design should substantially reduce installation costs associated with separate pond
cover and lter structures. A preliminary laboratory cover/lter
experiment has shown promising early results (currently oxidising
approximately 14 g CH4 m3 h1 ). The design is now being tested
under eld conditions. Particular emphasis will be placed on monitoring CH4 oxidation as well as N2 O production rates as both of
these processes will be key to determining the long-term efcacy
of bioltration for reducing dairy waste GHG emissions.
In addition to CH4 removal, biolters can offer other advantages
such as odour removal from biogas which can be problematic on
livestock farms (Craggs et al., 2008). Ammonia removal from biogas may also be achieved by bioltration. In this study, the NH3
content of the biogas (ca. 130 ppmv) was reduced to ca. 40 ppmv
by the biolter, although the mechanisms of this removal process
were not explored. Nonetheless, the results demonstrate the potential environmental benets of bioltration beyond those associated
solely with GHG reduction.

4. Conclusions
We have demonstrated effective and sustained CH4 oxidation
(up to 16 g m3 h1 ) by a eld-scale biolter treating emissions
from a dairy efuent pond. Our results conrm that CH4 emissions
can be reduced substantially using bioltration, and monitoring
over 16 months showed no evidence of reduced performance:
although testing of more biolters in the eld is recommended.
To make bioltration of dairy efuent pond CH4 emissions attractive economically, the lter design could be modied to incorporate

the pond cover and lter as a single structure overlying the ponds
surface.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Taupo District Council for access to soils, New Zealand
Ministry for Agriculture and Forestry for funding, University of
Victoria (British Columbia, Canada) for gas chromatography equipment, Massey University for access to their dairy farm, and Ted
Pinkney for technical contributions.
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