Patthey & Dancoff

Reading Fiction

Reading Fiction
Story-telling is as old as humankind. People have been telling stories,
singing songs, and acting out dramas for each other long before anybody
invented writing systems and started recorded history. Our oldest texts
come from long oral traditions that reach back thousands of years.
Literature entertains us, it moves us, it teaches us what it means to be
human. We seem to need, over and over, to watch people work out their
problems in stories. We also seem to need to keep telling stories, to hear
our lives reflected in the words of our fellow human beings. As Hirschberg &
Hirschberg put it, Works of literature communicate intense, complex, deeply
felt responses to human experiences that speak to the heart, mind, body,
and imagination (2003, p. 19).
Even though story-telling is part of our human heritage and common in our
lives, students who take a college literature class sometimes feel intimidated
by the term literature. Students dont always see literature as story-telling,
something they watch on television every day. They often think of literature
as different, complicated, high-minded, obscure But literature is storytelling, and what makes any particular story enjoyable depends on the
writers ability to make us feel the impact of an interesting plot and
believable characters intellectually, physically, and emotionally (Hirschberg
& Hirschberg, 2003, p. 19).
Of course, there is a difference between listening to or viewing, or even
telling a story, and engaging in the kind of reflective analysis required in a
literature class. In a literature class, you will be asked to develop and put
into writing interpretations of literary stories, to discuss the deeper ideas
embedded in the stories, and support your interpretations with examples
from the text. The basic problem for many readers is: How do you know
what a writer means when he or she writes a particular story? Isnt it all
subjective? As a matter of fact, while experienced readers may disagree
with each other in their interpretations, its still possible to agree on an
approach to interpretation that takes into account the basic elements of
literature. In this lecture, I will summarize the most important ideas
presented in Hirschberg & Hirschbergs discussion Reading Fiction and add
a few important historical influences on the development of short stories
from the 1900s to the present, and then present a nine-step approach to
literary analysis developed by LACCs very own Professor Judith Dancoff.

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Hirschberg & Hirschbergs Reading Fiction

What matters and makes any particular story enjoyable:
An interesting plot, believable characters, convincing dialogue;
The writers ability to to make us feel the impact of this experience
intellectually, physically, and emotionally;
Skillful and precise use of language that deepens our emotional capacity to
understand lives in different circumstances.
Works of fiction:
Tell a story;
Aim to have reader experience emotional flavor of fictionalized experiences;
Create conflict and build suspense, and as such, become entertaining as well
as involving.
The modern short story:
Emphasizes life as most people know it;
Originated in the 19th century;
Was designed to be read in a single sitting;
Aims to create a single effect;
Usually describes the experiences of one or two main characters.
Modern fiction:
Was influenced by historical events, such as WWI, the Russian Revolution of
1917, and WWII;
Was influenced by Freuds elaboration of psychology and psychoanalysis as
new ways to understand human development and human problems;
Varies from more fact-based, realistic accounts of events to more
psychologically based non-realistic explorations of feelings and perceptions;
Non-realistic short stories may include fantastic, bizarre, or supernatural
elements.
Post-modern fiction:
Was influenced by the explosion of visual media (such as cinema) in the early
1900s and the further expansion of visual media through the growth of mass
media since the 1950s;
Has adopted a stance suspicious of a set reality;
Suggests reality cannot be reduced to a single meaning;
Encourages the reader to become more active in interpreting the text;
Pursues innovations and experimentations with story structure and narration;
Often aims to sharpen rather than resolve social dilemmas.

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Judith Dancoffs
The Least You Should Know About Any Work of Fiction
A Guide to Interpretation
Writing convincing interpretive analyses of literature with strong examples
can be challenging. In particular, such analyses depend on a new way of
thinking and engaging with texts, and a willingness to examine these texts
much more deeply than when you are just reading something for your own
enjoyment. The foundation for this new way of thinking are nine basic
questions that you ask and answer as you examine a work of literature.
With only small changes, these questions can be used for everything we
read: fiction, literary nonfiction, poetry, and drama.
To explain and demonstrate the use of all seven questions, I will apply each
question to John Cheevers story Reunion (pp. 106-108). Its only two
pages long, so if you havent read that story yet, do it now. Then, as we go
through the guide, try to answer the questions for the story before you read
my answers. Just look away quickly from the screen, write your answers,
then look at mine. I want to emphasize that reading is as creative an act as
writing. Everyone in this class is uniquely qualified to offer important insights
into any work of literature, which is whyafter careful studyyou may
disagree, and that's fine. There is no single answer, only a well-supported
answer. Read the text carefully, answer the questions, and in the final
analysis, trust your "gut".

Questions 1 & 2: WHO IS THE PROTAGONIST? WHO IS THE

ANTAGONIST?
The most obvious element of literature is that it has characters: some
human, some not human, with an endless variety of problems and
personalities. So the place to begin is with character.
1. WHO IS THE PROTAGONIST?
The protagonist, from the Greek meaning "chief actor" or "one who struggles
first, means the central character in a story, poem, or play. While there can
be many important characters, there is almost always just one protagonist,
so the first thing you must do is identify the protagonist.
Who is the protagonist in Reunion? (Write your answer, then continue)

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You probably wrote that it is the son, the narrator Charlie. Thats often true
when a story is told from the I point of view. The protagonist is also the
person with the biggest problem and motivation in the story.
What is Charlies problem? (Write your answer, then continue)
He hasnt seen his father in three years and wants to reconnect with him,
wants to have a reunion. We know this because he is the one who calls to
arrange the meeting with his fathers secretary; his father doesnt call him.
We also know because his parents are divorced. Charlies attempt to achieve
or not achieve his goal will become the central plot of the story. How old do
you think Charlie is? Probably in his mid- to late teens. He can meet his
father alone at Grand Central Station in New York City and be served drinks
in some bars, but not all the bars. Knowing a few details about the
protagonistage, personality, etcis important. The protagonist is also the
character who experiences the greatest change by the end of the story. How
does Charlie change? At the beginning of the story, he says, I was terribly
happy to seen him again, and that he wished someone would see them
together and take their photograph. By the end of the story, he knows he
will never see his father again and that this is his choice. Find the
character who has changed the most by the end of the work, and
youve found the protagonist.
2. WHO IS THE ANTAGONIST?
The antagonist, from the Greek meaning "one who struggles against",
embodies the obstacles the protagonist must fight to achieve his/her goal.
In thrillers and adventure movies, the antagonist is the villain or Bad Guy,
but dont be misled. In many works of literature, the antagonist is often the
grain of sand in the oyster that creates the pearl. For example, in John
Updikes A&P, the antagonist is Queenie, the rich, beautiful teenage girl
who represents everything Sammy the grocery boy is going to miss in life if
he continues his job as a checker at the A&Pat least thats what he thinks.
As the story progresses, Queenies physical closeness to him increases as his
conflict increases, which is typical of the antagonist. They provide the
impetus for the protagonists struggle, and this impetus becomes greater
and greater as the story moves toward its climax. Finally, antagonists are
not always other characters. They can be a strong natural force, like the ice
berg in the 1997 movie Titanic, or a social institution like slavery in Toni
Morrisons Beloved, or even an emotional conflict within the protagonist
himself, as happens in William Shakespeares Hamlet.
Who is the antagonist in Reunion?
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The father, of course. Charlies motivation is to connect with his father, his
fathers motivation is to get drunk. And taking it to a slightly more abstract
level, you could argue that his fathers alcoholism is what ultimately does in
their reunion and their relationship. If youre having trouble identifying the
antagonist, ask yourself what other characterbesides the protagonistis
essential for the story to exist? Note again, however, that antagonists do
not have to be individual people. They can be groups of people or the whole
city of Pittsburgh as in Willa Cathers Pauls Case, or objects, as in Edgar
Allen Poes The Tell-Tale Heart, or the ice berg in Titanic, as already
stated.
Question 3: What is the BASIC PLOT?
The basic plot is the protagonists struggle to achieve his/her goal.
Dont be confused by the numerous events that happen in a story. The
chronological sequence of events can take several pages to summarize, but
you can summarize a plot in just a few sentences, even if youre writing
about a long novel. The sequence of events is the surface level of what
happens in a story, and the plot is the deeper level of what happens.
In one to three sentences, summarize the plot of Reunion, then continue.
Here are some summaries written by students in other classes:
In Reunion by John Cheever, a teenage boy who misses his father because
of his parents divorce, reconnects with him only to discover his father is an
alcoholic. By the end of the story the boy changes his opinion of his father
and knows he will never see him again.
John Cheevers story Reunion is a coming of age story. Reflecting on the
last time he saw his father, the protagonist Charlie is full of excitement and
hope at meeting him after a three-year separation, but over the course of
the story becomes disillusioned when his fathers alcoholism and barhopping get in the way. By the end of the story, Charlie has no more
illusions about his father and decides to never see him again.
Question 4: WHAT IS THE CONFLICT?
The conflict is the struggle between the protagonist and the antagonist.
Literature has conflict, like human existence. But unlike human existence,

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conflict is what makes literature interesting. Without conflict, stories would

be boring, and weve all experienced that.
What is the conflict in Reunion?
It is Charlies desire to bond with his father, against his fathers need to get
drunk. If you have trouble identifying the conflict, go back to the
motivation of the protagonist. What does he/she want? Why can't he/she
get it? This is the conflict.
Question 5: What is the CLIMAX?
The climax is when the protagonist's conflict reaches its highest point
of tension. After the climax, the story usually ends quickly. Hint: before the
climax, the reader is unsure of how the story will end, whether the
protagonist will get what he/she wants, etc. After the climactic moment, we
know, which is why the tension also falls after the climax.
Point to the climax in Reunion.
Many students say it is right before or when Charlie says, I have to get my
train (p. 108). At this point we realize Charlie has given up his dream of
connecting with his father and we now understand the first sentence of the
story when he said, The last time I saw my father (p. 106).
Question 6: What is the SETTING?
The setting is the place and usually also the time period in which a work
of literature takes place. This is always evident, and sometimes quite
important. In Updikes A&P, the grocery store where Sammy works
represents everything he is and might hope for in life. He hates the store yet
sees no other future until the girls walk in. The end of the story after he
quits his job is the first time he walks out of this setting and into the parking
lot. We often take the setting of a work for granted, but actually it can
reflect a lot about what is happening in the story, poem or play.
What is the setting(s) in Reunion and how does it reflect the story as a
whole?
There are three settings in "Reunion": first the train station where Charlie
and his father meet, then the bars, and finally the newsstand at the end.
Train stations are meeting places for people headed in different directions,
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so its appropriate to begin here in this coming of age story where Charlie
and his father will part ways. The bars reflect his fathers alcoholism and the
reason he and Charlie cant connect. What do you think the newsstand
reflects? The news Charlie has to give his father about how his opinion of
him has changed?
Question 7: What are the CENTRAL IMAGES, METAPHORS & SYMBOLS?
Sometimes a central image, metaphor or symbol in a work will carry
important meaning and add a lot to your analysis. While its important not to
arbitrarily invent meaning for each and every detail, its true that authors
are very careful about what they write, and choose their details with
thought. Certainly, Louise Erdrichs Red Convertible and Hanan AlShaykhs Persian Carpet are important enough to give their respective
stories their names, and almost become silent characters in these stories.
Central images and symbolism are especially important in poetry, where
sometimes every word will carry many different meanings.
Understanding this level of literature has to do with the important
difference between denotation and connotation. The denotation of a
word or what it denotes is its dictionary or surface meaning; the connotation
or what it connotes is its more symbolic meaning. As discussed above, the
train station in Reunion has both a denotation (the place where trains
arrive and depart) and a connotation (a cross roads; a brief meeting place
for people headed in different directions).
Consider the first stanza of Dylan Thomas poem Do Not Go Gentle into
That Good Night (p. 893).
Do not go gentle into that good night,
Old age should burn and rave at close of day;
Rage, rage against the dying of the light.
What are the connotations for that good night, close of day, and
dying of the light? What is Thomas actually referring to? Look at the rest
of the poem if you want to, but from his reference to old age in line 2, we
know he is probably talking about death. By the end of the poem, we see
that Thomas is pleading with his dying father to fight death.

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Question 8: What are the HISTORICAL and CULTURAL CONTEXTS?

Sometimes a modern reader can miss important information in an older
work, or a work from a different background. A good example of the
importance of historical and cultural contexts appears in Kate Chopins
Desirees Baby, one of the first stories we read for English 102. The story
takes place in the American South during the time of slavery. To understand
the story completely, a reader needs to know on what basis U.S. slavery was
developed, and how that system influenced attitudes towards skin color and
appearance.
Since our English 102 is a U.S.-based class, I am assuming that you do have
some background about U.S. history, and that you will be able to make the
connections between U.S. history and the development of the story. For
many of the other stories and even for one of our plays, namely
Shakespeares Hamlet, on the other hand, you may not have the
background information to understand important dimensions of the work. In
those cases, you will need to do a little background research. The pay-off
will be an enriched understanding.
To discover if there is additional information you need to more fully
appreciate a work, begin by checking the date the work was written, as well
as the country or culture of the author. While its true that great literature
should transcend place and time, understanding context and culture will
always add to your analysis.
Do you need more contextual information for your reading of Reunion?
Since fathers and sons as well as alcoholics have existed throughout time, I
dont think you need too much more information. On the other hand, readers
who know New York City will probably get a more vivid picture of many of
the scenes.
TO DO: Write 3-4 sentences on other historical or contextual
information that might enrich your understanding of the work.

Question 9: What THEMES do you find in the text? What PHILOSOPHY or

MESSAGES does the author communicate about each THEME?
While it is not always possible to state an authors theme in just a few
sentences, his/her outlook, philosophy, or overall perspective will often be
clear. A common idea in realistic stories is the theme of determinism,
which disputes the notion of free will and instead understands the individual

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as a product of his/her environment or genes. In some of the most

interesting lines in Reunion, Charlie says but as soon as I saw him I felt
that he was my father, my flesh and blood, my future and my doom. I knew
that when I was grown I would be something like him; I would have to plan
my campaigns within his limitations (213). Does this line express a belief in
determinism or free will?
While Charlie does have the free will not to see his father again, there is also
the idea here that he knows that because of his fathers behavior and genes
he will be like him. Determinism is only one philosophy or theme that a
writer might express. What other themes do you see in this story?
Remember that themes can vary greatly. Through writing, authors express
their worldview. They often try to influence the views and values of their
readers by presenting characters and situations that are familiar. Trust your
gut instinct, and do not worry if you do not know the correct academic term
for it.
TO DO: What can you say about the themes in the work you are
analyzing? What world or life view is the author expressing? How do you
know this? What is his/her message? Try to express this in no more than
3-4 sentences.

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To Do: APPLY The Least You Should Know About Any Work of
Fiction
1. Identify the protagonist in 3-5 sentences, describe his/her life
situation and basic personality, and then state his/her problem and/or
primary motivation. What is the central idea, need, or problem that drives
the protagonist? How does the protagonist change by the end of the
story? What have they learned?
2. Identify the antagonist in 3-5 sentences, describe his/her/its basic
situation and qualities, and then state his/her/its main motivation. What
is the central idea, need, or problem that drives the antagonist? Finally,
explain how this drive interacts with the protagonists motivation, thus
establishing the central conflict of the work.
3. In no more than 3-5 sentences, summarize the plot. Include enough of
the deeper level to show all thats at stake for the protagonist and to
suggest how he/she does or doesnt change by the end of the work.
4. Describe the conflict in less than 50 words. What is at stake? What are
people fighting over? What is the problem? Remember that there is
always a problem in literature. The human condition - the subject of all
literature - is about problems.
5. Identify the one scene or line or chapter or stanza that is the
climax of the story, poem, etc. What are the moments of crisis, or
scenes, that lead up to the climax? Describe each scene/chapter in a
couple of words, then briefly chart the "rising" structure of the work.
6. Write 3-5 sentences which describe the importance of setting in the
work you are analyzing.
7. Write 3-5 sentences on the connotation of an important image,
metaphor or symbol in the work. How does this connotation enrich your
understanding of the work as a whole?
8. Write 3-5 sentences on important historical or cultural information
that might enrich your understanding of the work. Connect the historical
or cultural information to the development of the story.
9. Write 3-5 sentences about the themes. What world or life view is the
author expressing? How do you know? What is his/her message?

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