Project 1 PDF

Coupled Field Finite Element Analysis of Car Disc Brake Rotors
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapters
Page No.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
06
1.1 Fundamentals of Braking System

1.1.1 Principle of braking.
1.1.2 Coefficient of friction
07
08
1.2 Braking systems.

1.2.1 Brake types in cars.
1.2.1.1 Drum Brake.
08
1.2.1.2 Disc Brake.
08
1.2.1.3 Antilock Braking System (ABS)
08
1.2.2 Air brakes.
09
1.2.3 Exhaust brakes.
09
1.2.4 Electric brakes.
09
1.2.5 Parking brakes.
10
1.3 Braking system components.

1.3.1 Brake pedal.
10
1.3.2 Brake lines.
10
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering SDMCET, Dharwad
1.3.3 Brakes fluid.
10
1.3.4 Master cylinder.
11
1.3.5 Divided systems.
11
1.3.6 Tandem master cylinder.
12
1.3.7 Power booster or brake unit.
12
1.3.8 Hydraulic brake booster.
12
1.3.9 Electrohydraulic braking (EHB).
12
1.4 Disc brake systems.

1.4.1 Disc brake operation.
13
1.4.2 The rotor.
15
1.4.2.1 Brake fade
16
1.4.2.2 Rotor Metallurgy
16
1.4.2.3 Rotor Surface finish
17
1.4.3 Disc brake pads.
17
1.4.4 Disc brake calipers.
18
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
19
CHAPTER 3: MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF DISC BRAKE

ROTORS
25
3.1 Materials used
25
2
3.2 Cast Iron
25
3.3 Specifications of car and Material Properties of Gray cast iron

3.3.1 Solid disc brake rotor
3.3.1.1 The specifications of car
26
3.3.1.2 The materials properties
26
3.3.2 Ventilated disc brake rotor

3.3.2.1 The specifications of car
27
3.3.2.2 The materials properties
27
CHAPTER 4: THEORY AND CALCULATIONS

4.1 Assumptions.
29
4.2 Stopping distance.
29
4.3 Weight transfer.
30
4.4 Braking efficiency.
31
4.5 Kinetic energy and Heat flux.

4.5.1 Approaches
32
4.5.2 Macroscopic model approach
32
4.6 Calculations
4.6.1 Calculations for heat flux application time
33
4.6.2 Calculations for kinetic energy heat flux time

4.6.2.1 Solid disc brake rotor
33
4.6.2.2 Ventilated disc brake rotor
35
CHAPTER 5: GEOMETRIC MODELING

5.1 Pro e Wildfire 4.
37
5.2 Module 2 - Part Modeling.
37
5.3 Module 5 - Drawing.
38
5.4 Modeled and drafted components.
38
CHAPTER 6: FINITE ELEMENT MODELING
41
6.1 Meshed components
42
6.2 SOLID90
43
6.2.1 SOLID90 Element Description
43
6.2.2 SOLID90 Input Data
44
6.2.3 SOLID90 Input Summary
44
6.2.4 SOLID90 Output Data
45
6.2.5 SOLID90 Assumptions and Restrictions
45
CHAPTER 7: FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

7.1 Introduction.
47
7.2 Steps in FEA.

7.2.1 General Steps.
47
7.2.2 Steps in ANSYS.
47
7.3 Coupled field analysis.
48
7.3.1 Thermal Structural Analysis
49
7.3.2 Thermal and Structural Boundary Conditions
49
7.4 Modal analysis.
50
7.5 Procedure adopted for thermal analysis

of disc brake rotors.
50
7.6 Procedure adopted for structural analysis

51
7.7 Procedure adopted for modal analysis

51
CHAPTER 8: RESULTS
8.1 Inputs and results of ANSYS 11
52
8.2 Plots of Results

53
61
CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION
69
CHAPTER 10: FUTURE SCOPE
70
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
At the end of the 19th century the development of a brake system for the newly
invented automobile vehicles was needed. From that moment on, brake system which
makes use of several components (the brake disc among them), was developed. It was
after the beginning of the Second World War, in 1938, that the brake system
technological advance got great impulse due to the aeronautics industry necessity. Around
1886, in Germany, Gotlieb Daimler and Carl Benz would change the history of the world
forever, because they created, independently, the first prototypes of internal combustion
automobiles. This invention gave rise to the development of several automobile
components, and among them was the brake system. In the United States, in 1890,
according to Hughes, the American Elmer Ambrose Sperry invented a brake similar to the
present disc brake. An automotive brake disc brake rotor is a device for slowing or
stopping the motion of a wheel while it runs at a certain speed. In this project work the
complete study of brake systems used in cars is studied and the actual dimensions of the
solid and ventilated disc brake rotors of TATA indica cars are taken which are used to 3D
modeling of rotors in Pro e Wildfire 4. The model is then converted to iges format and
imported to Altair Hypermesh 7 for meshing. After meshing it is imported to ANSYS 11
with element for meshing defining as SOLID 90. Here coupled field finite element
analysis and modal analysis is carried using general purpose finite element analysis. Then
the results are compared for both solid and ventilated disc brake rotors and alternate
materials are also suggested.
The goals of our project are as follows:

i.
Complete study of braking system in car.
ii.
Conceptualization of working of the disc rotor.
iii.
To carry out coupled-field analysis i.e., thermal to static structural analysis which
gives thermal stresses and their corresponding displacements in the disc brake
rotor due to the application of temperature.
iv.
To predict natural frequencies and associated mode shapes by considering density

of the disc material.
v.
Comparison of solid and ventilated rotor based on the above results.
vi.
Suggesting the suitable material for disc brake rotor and checking whether the
design is safe or not based on the above results.
1.1 Fundamentals of Braking system

1.1.1 Principle of braking:
A basic braking system of a car has:
Brake pedal.
Master cylinder to provide hydraulic pressure.
Brake lines and hoses to connect the master cylinder to the brake assemblies.
Fluid to transmit force from the master cylinder to the wheel cylinders of the
brake assemblies, and
Brake assemblies drum or disc that stop the wheels.
The driver pushes the brake pedal; it applies mechanical force to the piston in the
master cylinder. The piston applies hydraulic pressure to the fluid in the cylinder, the
lines transfer the pressure which is undiminished in all directions within the brake lines
to the wheel cylinders, and the wheel cylinders at the wheel assemblies apply the brakes.
Force is transmitted through the fluid. For cylinders of the same size, the force
transmitted from one is the same value as the force applied to the other. By using
cylinders of different sizes, forces can be increased or reduced. In an actual braking
system, the master cylinder is smaller than the wheel cylinders, so the force at all of the
wheel cylinders is increased. When brakes are applied to a moving vehicle, they absorb
the vehicles kinetic energy. Friction between the braking surfaces converts this energy
into heat. In drum brakes, the wheel cylinders force brake linings against the inside of the
brake drum. In disc brakes, pads are forced against a brake disc. In both systems, heat
spreads into other parts and the atmosphere, so brake linings and drums, pads and discs
must withstand high temperatures and high pressures.
1.1.2 Coefficient of friction

Friction is a force that resists the movement of one surface over another. It can be
desirable but often is not. It's caused by surface rough spots that lock together. These
spots can be microscopically small, which is why even surfaces that seem to be smooth
can experience friction. Friction can be reduced but never eliminated. Friction is always
measured for pairs of surfaces, using what is called a coefficient of friction. A low
coefficient of friction for a pair of surfaces means they can move easily over each other.
A high coefficient of friction for a pair of surfaces means they cannot move easily over
each other.
1.2 Braking Systems

1.2.1 Brake types in cars
1.2.1.1 Drum Brake
Drum brakes have a drum attached to the wheel hub, and braking occurs by means
of brake shoes, expanding against the inside of the drum. A drum brake is a brake in
which the friction is caused by a set of shoes or pads that press against the inner surface
of a rotating drum. The drum is connected to a rotating wheel.
1.2.1.2 Disc Brake

With disc brakes, a disc attached to the wheel hub maybe clamped between 2
brake pads. On light vehicles, both of these systems are hydraulically operated. The brake
pedal operates a master cylinder. Disc brakes require greater forces to operate them. A
brake booster assists the driver by increasing the force applied to the master cylinder,
when the brake is operated.
1.2.1.3 Antilock Braking System (ABS)

An anti-lock braking system (commonly known as ABS, from the German name
"Antiblockiersystem" given to it by its inventors at Bosch) is a system on motor vehicles
which prevents the wheels from locking while braking. The purpose of this is to allow the
driver to maintain steering control and to shorten braking distances. It is composed of a

central electronic unit, four speed sensors (one for each wheel) and two or more hydraulic
valves on the brake circuit.
1.2.2 Air Brakes

Air-operated braking systems are used on heavy vehicles. Compressed air,
operating on large-diameter diaphragms, provides the large forces at the brake assembly
that are needed. An air compressor pumps air to storage tanks. Driver-controlled valves
then direct the compressed air to different wheel units, to operate the friction brakes.
1.2.3 Exhaust Brakes

Heavy goods vehicles can often require increased braking, in situations where
friction brakes could overheat and fail. This is achieved by using an exhaust brake. An
exhaust brake works by restricting the flow of exhaust gases through the engine. It
achieves this by closing a butterfly valve located in the exhaust manifold. This maintains
high pressure in the exhaust manifold and the engine cylinders, which in turn acts as a
brake against the engine rotating. This then slows the road wheels through the
transmission, or power train. Other heavy goods vehicles use an engine brake that
operates by altering valve timing, and stopping fuel being injected into the engine.
1.2.4 Electric Brakes

An electric braking system is commonly used to activate the drum-type friction
brakes on the trailer. Braking effect can be increased or reduced by the driver, adjusting a
control unit to suit the load on the trailer. When the brakes in the towing vehicle are
applied, the brake-light circuit sends the signal to the control unit. The control unit then
sends an appropriate current to the trailer brake actuators, to operate the trailer brakes, at
the level selected.
1.2.5 Parking Brakes

All vehicles must be fitted with a foot brake and a park brake. Most light vehicles
use a foot brake that operates through a hydraulic system on all wheels, and a handoperated brake that acts mechanically on the rear wheels only. The hand brake system
holds the vehicle when it is parked. Some vehicles incorporate a drum brake for the hand
brake, in the center of the rear disc brake. Others use a mechanical linkage to operate the
disc brake from the hand brake system, or separate hand brake calipers with their own
pads. Some vehicles have the hand brake operating on the front wheels. Some vehicles
use a single drum brake on the rear of the gearbox as a hand brake. That's sometimes
called a transmission brake.
1.3. Braking system components

1.3.1 Brake Pedal
The brake pedal uses leverage to transfer the effort from the drivers foot to the
master cylinder. Different lever designs can alter the effort the driver needs to make, by
using different levels of mechanical advantage.
1.3.2 Brake lines

Brake lines carry brake fluid from the master cylinder to the brakes.
They are basically the same on all brake systems. For most of their length they are steel,
coated to reduce the possibility of corrosion, and attached to the body with clips or
brackets to prevent damage from vibration. In some vehicles, the brake lines are inside
the vehicle to protect them better from corrosion.
1.3.3 Brake fluid

Brake fluid is hydraulic fluid that has specific properties. The fluid is used to
transfer force while under pressure through hydraulic lines to the wheel braking system.
The properties of different types of brake fluids are tested for many different
10
characteristics such as ph value, viscosity, resistance to oxidation and graded against

compliance standards set by United States Department of Transportation (DOT).
Brake fluid DOT specifications:
DOT 2 is castor oil based
DOT 3 is composed of various glycol esters and ethers.

o
DOT 4 is also composed of glycol esters and ethers.

o
Boiling point: 284 F (140 C)
DOT 5 is silicone-based. It is NOT recommended for any vehicle equipped with

antilock brakes (ABS). It gives better protection against corrosion, and is more
suitable for use in wet driving conditions.
o
DOT 5.1 is a high-boiling point fluid that is suitable for ABS-equipped vehicles. It
contains polyalkylene glycol ether, but is more expensive than other brake fluids.
o
Boiling point: 375 F (190.6 C)
Even if they have similar base composition, fluids with different DOT ratings must not be
mixed.
1.3.4 Master cylinder

The master cylinder is connected to the brake pedal via a pushrod. This is a single
master cylinder for a drum brake system. Its one piston has a primary and a secondary
cup. These are also known as seals, because, when force is applied to the brake pedal, the
primary cup seals the pressure in the cylinder. The secondary cup prevents loss of fluid
past the end of the piston. An outlet port links the cylinder to the brake lines.
1.3.5 Divided systems
Modern cars use tandem master cylinders to suit divided or dual line braking
systems. A divided system is safer in the event of partial failure. Fluid loss in one half of
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the system still leaves the other half able to stop the vehicle, although with an increase in
stopping distance.
1.3.6 Tandem master cylinder

With a basic master cylinder in the braking system, any loss of fluid, say because
a component fails, could mean the whole braking system fails. To reduce this risk,
modern vehicles must have at least two separate hydraulic systems. Thats why the
tandem master cylinder was introduced.
1.3.7 Power booster or Brake unit

A power booster or power brake unit uses a vacuum to multiply the drivers pedal
effort and apply that to the master cylinder. This increases the pressures available from
the master cylinder. Units on petrol/gasoline engines use the vacuum produced in the
intake manifold. Vehicles with diesel engines cannot use manifold vacuum so they are
fitted with an engine-driven vacuum pump. The most common booster operates between
the brake and master cylinder.
1.3.8 Hydraulic brake booster

Although not as common as a conventional brake system fitted with a vacuum
booster, many vehicles are now equipped with hydraulically assisted boosters for the
brakes. The system uses hydraulic pressure generated by the power steering pump rather
than engine vacuum to provide the power assistance required in a conventional system.
This application is particularly suitable to vehicles with diesel engines as a separate
vacuum source does not have to be provided for the system to operate.
1.3.9 Electrohydraulic braking (EHB)

Electrohydraulic Braking (EHB) gets rid of the vacuum booster and replaces the
current modulator with one that includes a high pressure accumulator. Like the Hydro
boost system it uses an accumulator to provide the required pressure to activate the master
cylinder, however, it uses electrical power to effectively charge the accumulator and
12
build sufficient pressure for efficient brake operation. This system means that less power
is taken away from the engine during operation as battery power is used.
1.4 Disc brake system

The primary components of disc brakes are: the rotor, caliper and brake pads.
Fig 1.1 Disk brake system
1.4.1 Disc brake operation

Disc brakes can be used on all four wheels of a vehicle, or combined with disc
brakes on the front wheels and drum brakes on the rear. When the brake pedal is
depressed, a push rod transfers the force through a brake booster to a hydraulic master
cylinder. The master cylinder converts the force into hydraulic pressure, which is then
13
transmitted via connecting pipes and hoses to one or more pistons at each brake caliper.
The pistons operate on friction pads to provide a clamping force on a rotating flat disc
that is attached to the wheel hub. This clamping tries to stop the rotation of the disc, and
the wheel. On non-driving wheels, the center of the brake disc or hub contains the wheel
bearings. The hub can be part of the brake disc or a separate assembly between the wheel
and hub with nuts or bolts. On driving wheels, the disc is mounted onto the driving axle
and may be held in place by the wheel. On front wheel drive vehicles, it can be mounted
on the front hub and wheel bearing assembly. The brake caliper assembly is bolted to the
vehicle axle housing or suspension. In most cases the brake is positioned as close as
possible to the wheel, but there are exceptions. Some high-performance cars use inboard
disc brakes on its rear wheels. The makers claim improved vehicle handling for this
design because it reduces unsprung weight. Applying brakes can absorb a lot of vehicle
energy so friction between braking surfaces generates great heat. Brake parts withstand
very high temperatures. Most of the friction area of a disc is exposed to air so cooling is
far more rapid than for a drum brake. Unlike with drum brakes, brake fade is rare.
Because of their shape, discs tend to throw off water. So after being driven through water,
they operate almost immediately. Disc brakes need much higher pressures to operate than
drum brakes, so almost all disc brake systems need a power brake booster to help reduce
the pedal forces that are needed from the driver.
Fig 1.2 Schematic diagram of disc brake operation

14
1.4.2 The rotor

The rotor is the main rotating part of this brake system. It is hard wearing and
resists the high temperatures that occur during braking. Rotors can be of a solid
construction or slotted. The slotted rotor is referred to as a "ventilated disc". Brake rotors
provide a friction surface for the disc brake pads to rub against when the brakes are
applied. The friction created by the pads rubbing against the rotor generates heat and
brings the vehicle to a stop. The underlying scientific principle here is that friction
converts motion into lot of heat and this heat is to be dissipated. The amount of heat that
is generated depends on the speed and weight of the vehicle, and how hard the brakes are
applied.
Fig 1.3 Schematic diagram of Solid and Ventilated disc brake rotor
The rotor's job is to provide a friction surface, and to absorb and dissipate heat.
Big rotors can obviously handle more heat than small rotors. But many cars today have
downsized rotors to reduce weight. Consequently, the brakes run hotter and require better
rotor cooling to keep brake temperatures within safe limits. Uneven rotor wear often
produces variations in thickness that can be felt as pedal pulsations when the brakes are
applied. The condition usually worsens as the rotors continue to wear, eventually
15
requiring the rotors to be resurfaced or replaced. Rotors can also develop hard spots that
contribute to pedal pulsations and variations in thickness. Hard spots may be the result of
poor quality castings or from excessive heat that causes changes in the metallurgy of the
rotors. A sticky caliper or dragging brake may make the rotor run hot and increase the
risk of hard spots forming. Hard spots can often be seen as discolored patches on the face
of the rotor. Resurfacing the rotor is only a temporary fix because the hard spot usually
extends well below the surface and usually returns as a pedal pulsation within a few
thousand miles. Cracks can form as a result of poor metallurgy in the rotor and from
excessive heat. Some minor surface cracking is tolerable and can often be removed by
resurfacing, but large cracks or deep cracks weaken the rotor and increase the risk of
catastrophic failure
1.4.2.1 Brake fade: When brake temperatures get too high, the pads and rotors are no
longer able to absorb any more heat and lose their ability to create any additional friction.
As the driver presses harder and harder on the brake fade, he feels less and less response
from his overheated brakes. Eventually, he loses his brakes altogether. All brakes will
fade beyond a certain temperature. Semi-metallic linings can usually take more heat than
nonasbestos organic or low-met linings. Vented rotors can dissipate heat more rapidly
than nonvented solid rotors. Thus, high performance cars and heavier vehicles often have
vented rotors and semi-metallic front brake pads to handle high brake temperatures. But if
the brakes get hot enough, even the best ones will fade.
1.4.2.2 Rotor metallurgy: The metallurgical properties of a rotor determine its

strength, noise, wear and braking characteristics. The casting process must be carefully
controlled to produce a high quality rotor. The rate at which the iron cools in the mold
must be closely monitored to achieve the correct tensile strength, hardness and
microstructure. When iron cools, the carbon atoms that are mixed in with it form small
flakes of graphite which help dampen and quiet noise. If the iron cools too quickly, the
particles of graphite do not have as much time to form and are much smaller in size,
which makes for a noisy rotor. The rate of cooling also affects the hardness of a rotor. If a
rotor is too hard, it will increase pad wear and noise. Hard rotors are also more likely to
crack from thermal stress. If a rotor is too soft, it will wear too quickly and may wear
16
unevenly increasing the risk of pedal pulsation and runout problems. The composition of
the iron must also be closely controlled during the casting process to keep out impurities
that may form "inclusions" and hard spots.
1.4.2.3 Rotor surface finish: Smoother is always better because it affects the
coefficient of friction, noise, pad seating, pad break-in and wear. As a rule, most new
OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) and quality aftermarket rotors have a finish
somewhere between 30 and 60 inches RA (roughness average) with many falling in the
40 to 50 RA range. As a general rule, there should be no more than .003 inches of rotor
runout on most cars and trucks, but some cars cannot tolerate any more than .0015 inches
of runout.
1.4.3 Disc brake pads

A disc brake pad has a rigid, molded, friction material bonded to a steel backing
plate for support during brake application. It transforms the hydraulic force of the caliper
into a frictional force against the disc. Disc brake pads consist of friction material bonded
onto a steel backing plate. The backing plate has lugs that locate the pad in the correct
position in relation to the disc. Calipers are usually designed so that the condition of the
pads can be checked easily once the wheel has been removed, and to allow the pads to be
replaced with a minimum of disassembly. Some pads have a groove cut into the friction
surface. The depth of this groove is set so that when it can no longer be seen, the pad
should be replaced. Some pads have a wire in the friction material at the minimum wear
thickness. When the pad wears to this minimum thickness, the wire touches the disc as
the brakes are applied. A warning light then tells the driver the disc pads are due for
replacement. The composition of the friction material affects brake operation. Materials
which provide good braking with low pedal pressures tend to lose efficiency when they
get hot. This means the stopping distance will be increased. Materials which maintain a
stable friction co-efficient over a wide temperature range generally require higher pedal
pressures to provide efficient braking. Disc rotors with holes or slots in them dissipate
their heat faster, and also help to remove water from the surface of the pad in wet driving
conditions. They also help to prevent the surface of the pad from becoming hard and
17
glassy smooth from the friction and heat of use. However, this scraping action reduces the
overall life of the brake pad, so these types of discs are generally only used in high
performance or racing cars.
1.4.4 Disc brake calipers

The disc brake caliper assembly is bolted to the vehicle axle housing or suspension.
There are 2 main types:
fixed
sliding.
Fixed calipers can have 2, 3, or 4 pistons. 2-piston calipers have one piston on each
side of the disc. Each piston has its own disc pad. When the brakes are applied, hydraulic
pressure forces both pistons inwards, causing the pads to come in contact with the
rotating disc. The sliding or floating caliper has 2 pads but only 1 piston. The caliper is
mounted on pins or bushes that let it move from side to side. When the brakes are
applied, hydraulic pressure forces the piston inwards. This pushes the pad against the
disc. The caliper is free to move on slides, so there is a clamping effect between the inner
and outer pads. Equal force is then applied to both pads which clamp against the disc. In
disc brake calipers, the piston moves against a stationary square section sealing ring.
When the brakes are applied, the piston slightly deforms the seal. When the brakes are
released, the seal returns to its original shape. The action of this sealing ring retracts the
piston to provide a small running clearance between the disc and pads. It also makes the
brake self-adjusting.
18
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEEW
In order to carry out the project the following literature available are studied and
understood to the extent possible to make correct decisions, assumptions and calculations
to obtain the optimum results.
Catalin Spulber and Stefan Voloaca [1]: This paper proposes a new simulation method
of a disc brake thermal stress resistance, for different temperatures, by interactive
processing of images obtained by thermography. Temperature evaluation for different
working regimes can be made by recording and processing thermograms of a disc brake
heated inside the laboratory by an external heating source. Taken pictures along the
temperature variation, from the ambient value to a value close to real one obtained on the
usual experiments, are processed using image analyse softwares. This way can be
simulated different working regimes (temperature, humidity etc.) without the need of
experimental determination on the road or on a test bench.
V.M.M.Thilak, R.Krishnaraj, Dr.M.Sakthivel, K.Kanthavel, Deepan Marudachalam

and M.G, R.Palani [2]: Transient Thermal and Structural Analysis of the Rotor Disc of
Disc Brake is aimed at evaluating the performance of disc brake rotor of a car under
severe braking conditions and there by assist in disc rotor design and analysis. An
investigation into usage of new materials is required which improve braking efficiency
and provide greater stability to vehicle. This investigation can be done using ANSYS
software. ANSYS 11.0 is a dedicated finite element package used for determining the
temperature distribution, variation of the stresses and deformation across the disc brake
profile. In the present work, an attempt has been made to investigate the suitable hybrid
composite material which is lighter than cast iron and has good Youngs modulus, Yield
strength and density properties. Aluminum base metal matrix composite and High
Strength Glass Fiber composites have a promising friction and wear behavior as a Disc
brake rotor. The transient thermo elastic analysis of Disc brakes in repeated brake
applications has been performed and the results were compared. The suitable material for
19
the braking operation is S2 glass fiber and all the values obtained from the analysis are
less than their allowable values. Hence the brake Disc design is safe based on the strength
and rigidity criteria. By identifying the true design features, the extended service life and
long term stability is assured.
Rajendra Pohane and R.G.Choudhari [3]: Repetitive braking of the vehicle leads to
heat generation during each braking event. The resulting rise in temperatures has very
significant role in the performance of the braking system. Passenger car disc brakes are
safety critical component whose performance depends strongly on contact conditions at
the pad to disc interface. During braking both brake pad & disc surface is worn. The
objective of the paper is to study disc brake system, to simulate disc brake assembly and
to prepare the FEM model for contact analysis. A three dimensional finite element model
of the brake pad and the disc is developed to calculate static structural analysis, and
transient state analysis. The comparison is made between the solid and ventilated disc
keeping the same material properties and constraints and using general purpose finite
element analysis. This paper discusses how general purpose finite element analysis
software can be used to analyze the equivalent (von-mises) stresses& the thermal stresses
at disc to pad interface.
H.Mazidi, S.Jalaifar and J. Chakhoo [4]: In this study the heat conduction problems of
the disc brake components (pad and rotor) are modeled mathematically and is solved
numerically using Finite Difference Method. In the discretization of time dependent
equations the implicit method is taken into account. In the derivation of the heat
equations, parameters such as the duration of braking, vehicle velocity geometries and the
dimensions of the brake components, material of the disc brake rotor and the pad and
contact pressure distribution have been taken into account. Results show that there is a
heat partition at the contact surface of two sliding components, because of thermal
resistance due to the accumulation of wear particles between contact surfaces. This
phenomenon prevents absorption of more heat by the discs and causes brake lining to be
hot. As a result, heat soaking to the brake fluid increases and may cause brake fluid to
evaporate.
20
M.A. Maleque, S.Dyuti and M.M. Rahman [5]: An automotive brake disc or rotor is a
device for slowing or stopping the motion of a wheel while it runs at a certain speed. The
widely used brake rotor material is cast iron which consumes much fuel due to its high
specific gravity. The aim of this paper is to develop the material selection method and
select the optimum material for the application of brake disc system emphasizing on the
substitution of this cast iron by any other lightweight material. Two methods are
introduced for the selection of materials, such as cost per unit property and digital logic
methods. Material performance requirements were analyzed and alternative solutions
were evaluated among cast iron, aluminium alloy, titanium alloy, ceramics and
composites. Mechanical properties including compressive strength, friction coefficient,
wear resistance, thermal conductivity and specific gravity as well as cost, were used as
the key parameters in the material selection stages. The analysis led to aluminium metal
matrix composite as the most appropriate material for brake disc system.
Muhammad Zahir Hassan [6]: Automotive disc brake squeal has been a major concern
in warranty issues and a challenging problem for many years. A variety of tools have
been developed which include both experimental studies and numerical modeling
technique to tackle the problem. The aim of this project is to develop a validated thermomechanical finite element model considering both the mechanical structural compliance
and thermal effects in the dynamic instability of a disc brake system leading to squeal. A
key issue in the process is to investigate the structural deformation of the brake
components due to the combined effect of thermal expansion and contact loading between
pad and disc when subjected to temperature change during a typical braking cycle. A new
methodology is introduced whereby a fully coupled transient thermo-mechanical analysis
is carried out to provide the temperature and contact distributions within the brake before
executing an instability analysis using the complex eigenvalue method. A case study is
carried out based on a typical passenger car brake as it undergoes a partial simulation of
the SAE J2521 drag braking noise test. The actuation pressure, coefficient of friction and
vehicle travelling speed are all considered to derive the temperature dependent contact
pressure distributions making allowance for the "rotating heat source" effect. An
experimental investigation using a brake dynamometer is also carried out to measuring
the squealing noise and thermal deformation which leads to a validation of the results
21
predicted by the numerical modeling. It is demonstrated that the fully coupled thermomechanical FE model enhances understanding of the time dependent non-linear contact
behavior at the friction interface. This, in turn, demonstrates the fugitive nature of brake
squeal through the system eigenvalues that appear and disappear as a function of
temperature throughout the braking period. Parametric studies on the geometrical effect
and materials of brake components determine the contribution of each of these factors to
brake squeal. The approach therefore can be use as a predictive tool to evaluate disc brake
squeal using finite element method.
Prashant Chavan [7]: Typically thermo-mechanical analysis including complexities

such as contacts and bolt preloads are carried out using three dimensional models. These
analyses require significant time and effort in FE model building, analysis setup, solution,
and results processing. It also requires special effort to ensure it is error free. In order to
get stable and accurate results element size and time step selection is very important in
transient analysis. These aspects are discussed in this paper. This paper also talks about
simplified yet almost equally accurate modeling and analysis method for thermomechanical analysis using brake fade test simulation as an example. This methodology is
based on use of ABAQUS Axisymmetric analysis technique modified to represent effect
of discrete bolting, bolt preloads, and contacts within various components of the
assembly. Analysis results as well as analysis turnaround times are compared between
this new method and the conventional method. Up to 80% time can be saved with
significant improvement in the accuracy of the results.
Junichiro yamabe, Masami takagi and Toshiharu matsui [8]: A new method has been
developed to evaluate thermal fatigue by a simulating high-speed braking test using an
actual disc brake rotor. Thermal fatigue strength is confirmed to be improved with
increasing graphite number in the microstructure. It is also confirmed that the graphite
number increases in proportion to the amount of nickel added, and that the inoculation of
cerium, a rare earth element, produces an effect similar to that of adding nickel. Based on
this approach, a new, low cost material for disc brake rotors for heavy- and medium-duty
trucks is developed using both nickel and cerium.
22
G. Cueva, A. Sinatora, W.L. Guesser and A.P. Tschiptschin [9]: The wear resistance
of three different types of gray cast iron (gray iron grade 250, high-carbon gray iron and
titanium alloyed gray iron), used in brake disc rotors, was studied and compared with the
results obtained with a compact graphite iron (CGI). The wear tests were carried out in a
pin-on-disc wear-testing machine, the pin being manufactured from friction material
usually used in light truck brake pads. The rotating discs (500 rpm) were subjected to
cyclical pressures of 0.7, 2 and 4MPa and forced cooled. The wear was measured by
weighing discs and pads before and after the test. The operating temperatures and friction
forces were also monitored during each test. The results showed that compact graphite
iron reached higher maximum temperatures and friction forces as well as greater mass
losses than the three gray irons at any pressure applied. However, when compact graphite
iron was tested with lower applied pressures and same friction forces sustained by the
gray iron rotors, CGI presented the same performance, as did the gray cast iron.
Tretsiak, Dzmitry, Kliauzovich and Siarhei [10]: The current tendencies in automotive
industry need intensive investigation in problems of interaction of active safety systems
with brake system equipment. At the same time, the opportunity to decrease the power
take-off of single components, for example such as brake system, is investigated. Authors
propose a modification of disc brake structure with self-boosting characteristic for
commercial vehicles. This brake gear due to original construction will allow decrease
force required for its drive under the condition that brake gear will generate such brake
torque as conventional disc brake. The compilation and investigation on proposed brake
gear model in AMESim software is supposed. The obtained results can find application
during designing of new types of brake systems especially for heavy vehicles and buses.
Omar Maluf, Maurcio Angeloni, Marcelo Tadeu Milan, Dirceu Spinelli and Waldek
Wladimir Bose Filho [11]: At the end of the 19th century the development of a brake
system for the newly invented automobile vehicles was needed. From that moment on,
this equipment, which makes use of several components (the brake disc among them),
was developed. It was after the beginning of the Second World War, in 1938, that the
23
brake system technological advance got great impulse due to the aeronautics industry
necessity. Historically, the first material used to make brake discs was the gray cast iron,
which is a material that fits the requirements it is intended for, such as: good thermal
conductivity, good corrosion strength, low noise, low weight, long durability, steady
friction, low wear rate, and a good price/benefit ratio. Therefore, for more than one
hundred years, a great number of materials were developed with this intention, but the
most used until today is the cheap and easily produced gray cast iron. Nowadays, a lot of
emphasis has been given to the study of fatigue strength of gray cast iron alloys through
modeling to improve the service life of the component. Although this kind of analysis
presents meaningful results, experimental works are necessary to validate them, i.e., the
component must be studied under real rather than only virtual conditions.
Centric White Paper [12]: This paper gives various equations related to the physics of
braking system such as conversion of kinetic energy, brake pedal force, pressure on
master cylinder piston and caliper pistons, force on brake pad, rotor and tire and equation
for weight distribution.
Ali.Belhocine and Mostefa.Bouchetara [13]: The main purpose of this study is to
analysis the thermomechanical behavior of the dry contact between the brake disc and
pads during the braking phase. The simulation strategy is based on the calculation code
ANSYS11. The modeling of transient temperature in the disk is actually used to identify
the factor of geometric design of the disk to install the ventilation system in vehicles. The
thermal-structural analysis is then used coupling to determine the deformation established
and the Von Mises stresses in the disk, the contact pressure distribution in pads. The
results are satisfactory compared to those found in the literature.
M. Siroux, S. Harmand and B. Desmet [14]: This paper presents an experimental

technique which allows reaching the local convective heat transfer coefficient on a
rotating TGV brake disc model in the actual environment and submitted to an air flow
parallel to the disc surface. The heat transfer measurement technique is based on the
combination of infrared thermography and of a numerical computation code.
Experimental set-up, infrared temperature determination and results are detailed.
24
CHAPTER 3
MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF DISC BRAKE

ROTORS
Due to the application of brakes on the car disc brake rotor, heat generation takes
place due to friction and this temperature so generated has to be conducted and dispersed
across the disc rotor cross section. SAE specifications dictate the correct range of
hardness, chemical composition, tensile strength, and other properties necessary for the
intended use. It is investigated the temperature distribution, the thermal deformation, and
the thermal stress of automotive brake disks have quite close relations with car safety [2].
3.1 Materials used

Materials which can be used for manufacturing of the car disk brake rotors and which can
perform intended functions are [2] and [5]:
Gray cast iron (GCI).
Aluminium Metal Matrix Composite (AMC) 20% SiC reinforced Al-composite

(AMC 1), 20% SiC reinforced Al-Cu alloy (AMC 2).
E Glass Fiber.
S2 Glass Fiber.
Titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V).
75 WT% WC and 7.5 wt% TiC reinforced Ti-composite (TMC).
3.2 Cast Iron

Disc brake discs are commonly manufactured out of a material called cast iron.
Cast iron usually refers to gray cast iron, but identifies a large group of ferrous alloys,
which solidify with a eutectic. Iron accounts for more than 95%, while the main alloying
25
elements are carbon and silicon. The amount of carbon in cast iron is the range 2.1-4%, as
ferrous alloys with less are denoted carbon steel by definition. Cast irons contain
appreciable amounts of silicon, normally 1-3%, and consequently these alloys should be
considered ternary Fe-C-Si alloys. Here graphite is present in the form of flakes. [2]. The
SAE maintains a specification for the manufacture of gray iron for various applications.
For normal car and light truck applications, the SAE specification is J431 G3000
(superseded to G10) [2] and [5].
3.3 Specifications of car and Material Properties of Gray cast

iron
The disc brake rotors selected are of TATA indica cars. And the material selected is gray
cast iron Gray cast iron [2] and [5].

3.3.1.1The specifications of car
Make: Tata
Model: Indica
Year: 1999
0 to 100km/h (0 to 62mph):
Drive train: Front
Country of origin: India
Weight: 936 kg (2053,18 pounds)
Total length: 3670 mm (143,78 inches)
Total width: 1630 mm (63,88 inches)
Total height: 1490 mm (58,41 inches)
Wheelbase: 2410 mm (94,43 inches)
Brakes type (front): Discs
Brakes type (rear): Drums
26
3.3.1.2 The material properties
Material Gray Cast iron
Thermal conductivity, K = 57.0 W/mK
Density,
Specific heat, c = 450 J/kgK
Thermal diffusivity, = 17.03 X 10-6
Thermal expansion coefficient in meters of expansion per meter of material per
= 7272 kg/m3
Kelvin, 10.8 X 10-6 m/mK
Poissons ratio, = .2 to .3
Youngs modulus, E = 83 to 170 GPa
Shear modulus, G = 32 to 69 GPa
Coefficient of friction, = .4 (dry) and, = .2 (wet).

3.3.2.1The specifications of car
Make: Tata
Model: Indica LX
Year: 2006
0 to 100km/h (0 to 62mph):
Drive train: Front
Country of origin: India
Weight: 1600 kg (3509,76 pounds)
Total length: 4410 mm (172,73 inches)
Total width: 1630 mm (63,88 inches)
Total height: 1780 mm (69,75 inches)
Brakes type (front): Discs
Brakes type (rear): Drums
3.3.2.2 The material properties:
Material Material Gray Cast iron
27
Thermal conductivity, K = 57.0 W/mK
Density,
Specific heat, c = 450 J/kgK
Thermal diffusivity, = 17.03 X 10-6
Thermal expansion coefficient in meters of expansion per meter of material per
= 7272 kg/m3
Kelvin, 10.8 X 10-6 m/mK
Poissons ratio, = .2 to .3
Youngs modulus, E = 83 to 170 GPa
Shear modulus, G = 32 to 69 GPa
Coefficient of friction, = .4 (dry) and, = .2 (wet).
Disc material
Gray cast
iron
-9
Density * 10
kg
mm 3
TABLE 3.1 Material Properties

Conductivity
Specific Heat C P
-3
k *10
J
kg K
W
mmK
7272
450
57
Coefficient Of
Thermal
Expansion
*-6 K-1
10.8
TABLE 3.2 Youngs Modulus and Melting Temperature of gray cast iron
Grade
Youngs Modulus
MPa
Melting Temperature
K
Poisons ratio
G10
126 x 103
1448
0.25
28
CHAPTER 4
THEORY AND CALCULATIONS

4.1 Assumptions
The following assumptions are made in the finite element analysis of the four wheelers
disc brake rotors [1] to [14].
The kinetic energy produced by the vehicle is converted into heat by

neglecting the losses.
Heat flux is constant throughout the disc rotor.
Material of the disc is isotropic.
60% of the weight is being distributed on the front axle.
The time difference between the stopping time and heat flux application time
as one second.
4.2 Stopping Distance:

The distance in which a car is brought to rest from any speed depends upon [12]:
Nature of the road
Braking efficiency
The condition and inflation pressure of the tires
Let a vehicle be brought to rest by the braking action from a steady speed of V m/s.
As we know, the acceleration of a vehicle can be found out from the force acting on it,
viz.,
F m a
W
a
g
(4.1)
29
Here, F = force acting on the vehicle (N)

W = weight of the vehicle
g = acceleration due to gravity
a = acceleration of the vehicle (m/s2)
The application of brakes causes deceleration or negative acceleration and the
decelerating force is
... (4.2)
F = W
Here = coefficient of friction between tire tread and dry concrete road
But F =
W
*a
g
a = g
Time taken to bring a vehicle traveling at a steady speed of V m/s to rest, rate of
deceleration being g is
t=
V
g
. (4.3)
With constant deceleration mean velocity is half initial velocity i.e. V/2. Hence
stopping distance = mean velocity time
Stopping distance =
V V
V2
=
2 g 2 g
. (4.4)
Thus we can say that stopping distance increase with vehicle speed because
coefficient of friction and g are constants.
4.3 Weight Transfer:

When at rest, the weight of the vehicle is divided on its axles. This division of
weight does not remain the same during braking action. A retarding force acts on the
point of road contact towards the rear, and the inertia force at the center of gravity
30
towards the front. Both these forces being opposite and equal form a couple pressing the
front portion of the vehicle, the result being transfer of weight from rear to the front.
Let
F= retarding force
= Coefficient friction
W = weight of the vehicle
h= height of CG of vehicle from road
F = W (Inertia force) and couple = W h

Let w be the weight transferred from the rear to the front and = wheelbase.
The balancing couple = ( w )
w Wh ....... (4.5)
w W
h
... (4.6)
4.4 Braking Efficiency:

The rate at which the braking system will bring the vehicle to a stationary position
from a given speed is known as braking efficiency. It is a ratio of its rate of deceleration
to the acceleration due to gravity.
Braking efficiency =
F
100% . (4.7)
g
The efficiency being 100% when F = g

Highly efficient brakes give a large value of deceleration subjecting the passengers to
heavy jolts. The minimum braking efficiency is 30% and the highest should be 80%.
31
4.5 Kinetic Energy and Heat Flux

4.5.1 Approaches
In contact area of brake components; the pads and the disc; heat is generated due to
friction. For calculation of heat generation at the interface of these two sliding bodies two
approaches are suggested [4].
Macroscopic model approach: On the basis of law of generation of energy the

kinetic energy of the vehicle during motion is equal to the dissipated heat after
vehicle stop.
Microscopic model approach: By knowing the friction coefficient, pressure

distribution at the contact area, geometric characteristics of the pad and the disc,
relative sliding velocity and duration of braking action one can calculate the heat
generated due to friction.
In this project we are considering macroscopic model approach.
4.5.2 Macroscopic model approach

Brakes are essentially a mechanism to change the energy types. When a car is
moving with speed, it has kinetic energy. Applying the brakes, the pads or shoes that
press against the brake drum or rotor converts this energy into thermal energy. The
cooling of the brakes dissipates the heat and the vehicle slows down. This is all to do with
the first law of thermodynamics, sometimes known as the law of conservation of energy
that states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed; it can only be converted from one
to another form. In the case of brakes, it is converted from kinetic energy to thermal
energy.
Kinetic Energy = 1 * M V2 . (4.8)
2
Where, M is the total mass of the vehicle and V is the initial speed of the vehicle. To
obtain amount of heat dissipated by each of the front brake discs, we should know the
32
weight distribution of the vehicle. So, the amount of heat dissipated by each of the discs
will be:
Heat generated, Q = .5 * 1 * M V2 = .25 mV2... (4.9)
2
Heat flux = Q
... (4.10)
where, m is the weight distribution on the front axle and A is the area of the disc and pad
contact surfaces.
4.6 Calculations
4.6.1 Calculations for heat flux application time
From equation 4.3, we have
t=
V
g
Taking initial speed of the vehicle V = 50kmph = 13.88 m/s and coefficient of friction as
0.4, we have
t=
13.88
= 3.5 s
.4 x 9.81
Therefore, time for which the heat flux is applied on the disc can be taken as 3.5 s.
4.6.2 Calculations for kinetic energy heat flux time

4.6.2.1 Solid disc brake rotor
Let,
Initial Velocity,
v1 = 50 kmph.
= 13.88 m/sec.
Final Velocity,
v 2 = 0 kmph.
33
Mass of the vehicle,
m1 = 936 kg.
Mass of the driver,
m 2 = 70 kg
Total mass,
M = m1 + m 2
= 936 + 70
= 1006 kg.
Mass on the front axle, m = 60 % of M

= .6 x 1006
= 603.6 kg
We know from equation 4.9 that,
Kinetic Energy Q = .25 mV2
= .25 x 603.6 x 13.882
Q = 29, 071.54 J
Heat, Q = 29, 071.54 J.
Heat Flux, =
Q
A
Let,
Outside diameter of the disc d1 = 241 mm.
Inside diameter of the disc, d 2 = 147 mm.
Effective area on which heat flux is applied, A = 4 (d12 - d 2 2 ) 2
=
241
- 147 2 2
34
A = 57,290.08 mm 2 .
Heat flux, =
Q
A
29071.54
57290.08
Heat flux = .507 J/mm2
4.6.2.2 Ventilated disc brake rotor

Let,
Initial Velocity,
v1 = 50 kmph.
= 13.88 m/sec.
Final Velocity,
v 2 = 0 kmph.
Mass of the vehicle,
m1 = 1600 kg.
Mass of the driver,
m 2 = 70 kg
Total mass,
M = m1 + m 2
= 1600 + 70
= 1670 kg.
Mass on the front axle, m = 60 % of M

= .6 x 1670
= 1002 kg
Kinetic Energy Q = .25 mV2
= .25 x 1002 x 13.882
35
Q = 48259.92 J
Heat, Q = 48259.92 J.
Heat Flux, =
Q
A
Let,
Outside diameter of the disc d1 = 228.4 mm.
Inside diameter of the disc, d 2 = 150.32 mm.
Effective area on which heat flux is applied, A = 4 (d12 - d 2 2 ) 2
=
228.4
- 150.32 2 2
A = 46, 449.16 mm 2 .
Heat flux, =
Q
A
48259.92
46449.16
Heat flux = 1.04 J/mm2
36
CHAPTER 5
GEOMETRIC MODELLING
For geometric 3D modeling and 2D drafting of the selected solid disc brake rotors
we used higher end CAD package Pro-e Wildfire 4 as a software tool.
5.1 Pro e Wildfire 4: It is one of the higher end CAD software which has the
following modules:
Module 1: Sketcher
Module 2: Part modeling
Module 3: Assembly
Module 4: Manufacturing
Module 5: Drawing
Module 6: Format
Module 7: Report
Module 8: Diagram
Module 9: Layout
Module 10: Markup
Out of these 10 modules, we are making use of Module 2 i.e. Part modeling and Module 5
i.e. drawing for our project.
5.2 Module 2: Part Modeling

In Part modeling we can create a part from a conceptual sketch through solid
feature-based modeling, as well as build and modify parts through direct and intuitive
graphical manipulation. The Part Modeling requires knowing the terminology, basic
design concepts, and procedures that we must know before we start building a part. Part
Modeling shows how to draft a 2D conceptual layout, create precise geometry using basic
geometric entities, and dimension and constrain the geometry. We can build a 3D
37
parametric part from a 2D sketch by combining basic and advanced features, such as
extrusions, sweeps, cuts, holes, slots, and rounds. Finally, Part Modeling provides
procedures for modifying part features and resolving failures.
5.3 Module 5: Drawing

A detailed drawing lets us create and manipulate detailed engineering drawings
that use our 3D model as a geometry source. With Detailed Drawings, we can pass
dimensions, notes, and other elements of design between the model and its views on the
plotted sheet. It helps in creating drawings directly from the solid model, customizing the
drawings with sketched geometry, and making cosmetic changes to the drawings. This
also helps us to manipulate items in a drawing, annotate our drawings, and add different
kinds of textual and symbolic information. It helps to create views and custom formats
and to use logic statements to control the look of the drawing.
5.4 Modeled and Drafted Components

The dimensions are of the actual disc are taken by screw gauge and calipers and
modeled using Pro-e Wildfire 4: In FEA it is not necessary to discritize the entire body or
structure. For this we are considering the symmetry of structure based on the geometry.
The symmetry which we have considered is axial symmetry.
Fig 5.1 3D model and axial symmetry model of solid disc brake rotor which is
modeled in Pro-e Wildfire 4.
38
Fig 5.2 3D model and axial symmetry model of ventilated disc brake rotor
which is modeled in Pro-e Wildfire 4.
Fig 5.3 2D Drafting of solid disc brake rotor using Pro-e Wildfire 4.
39
Fig 5.4 2D Drafting of ventilated disc brake rotor using Pro-e Wildfire 4.
The 3D symmetric models of both solid and ventilated disc rotors are then
imported to Altair HyperMesh 7 in iges format for meshing purpose.
40
CHAPTER 6
FINITE ELEMENT MODELING

The imported symmetric models of solid and ventilated rotors are then meshed in
Altair HyperMesh 7. HyperMesh is a Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) tool as
described in the figure 6.1. HyperMesh is a high performance finite element pre and post
processor that allows building finite element and finite difference models, viewing their
results and performing data analysis. In addition, we can use Altairs OptiStruct linear
solver to quickly validate component level and improve product design.
Fig 6.1 Schematic arrangement of HyperMesh usage
41
6.1 Meshed components

The meshed models are shown below:
Fig 6.2 Meshed symmetric model of solid disc brake rotor
Fig 6.3 Meshed symmetric model of ventilated disc brake rotor
Type of
rotors
Solid
Ventilated
TABLE 6.1
D.O.F at each
node
Three
Three
FEA Model Details of Rotors

Element
No. of
type
Elements.
SOLID90
2077
SOLID90
5974
No. Of Nodes.
3526
11097
42
6.2 SOLID90
While importing the meshed model to the ANSYS the element used for meshing
is specified as SOLID90. There are lots of elements available for meshing, but based on
the type of analysis, model and properties of elements available the suitable element is
selected. For our project the SOLID 90 element is selected which has the following
nature.
6.2.1 SOLID90 Element Description

SOLID90 is a higher order version of the 3-D eight node thermal element. The
element has 20 nodes with a single degree of freedom, temperature, at each node. The 20node elements have compatible temperature shapes and are well suited to model curved
boundaries. The 20-node thermal element is applicable to a 3-D, steady-state or transient
thermal analysis. If the model containing this element is also to be analyzed structurally,
the element should be replaced by the equivalent structural element such as SOLID95 or
SOLID185.
Fig 6.4 SOLID90 Element Geometry
43
6.2.2 SOLID90 Input Data

The geometry, node locations, and the coordinate system for this element are
shown in Fig 6.3. The element is defined by 20 node points and the material properties. A
prism-shaped element may be formed by defining duplicate K, L, and S; A and B; and O,
P, and W node numbers. A tetrahedral-shaped element and a pyramid-shaped element
may also be formed as shown in Fig 6.4. Orthotropic material directions correspond to the
element coordinate directions. The element coordinate system orientation is as described
in Coordinate Systems. Specific heat and density are ignored for steady-state solutions.
Properties not input default as described in Linear Material Properties. Element loads are
described in Node and Element Loads. Convection or heat flux (but not both) and
radiation may be input as surface loads at the element faces as shown by the circled
numbers on Fig 6.3. Heat generation rates may be input as element body loads at the
nodes. If the node I heat generation rate HG (I) is input, and all others are unspecified,
they default to HG (I). If all corner node heat generation rates are specified, each midside
node heat generation rate defaults to the average heat generation rate of its adjacent
corner nodes.
6.2.3 SOLID90 Input Summary
Nodes: I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z, A, B
Degrees of Freedom: TEMP
Real Constants: None
Material Properties: KXX, KYY, KZZ, DENS, C, ENTH
Surface Loads: Convection or Heat Flux (but not both) and Radiation
face 1 (J-I-L-K), face 2 (I-J-N-M), face 3 (J-K-O-N),
face 4 (K-L-P-O), face 5 (L-I-M-P), face 6 (M-N-O-P)
Body Load: Heat Generations

HG(I), HG(J), HG(K), HG(L), HG(M), HG(N), HG(O), HG(P), HG(Q), HG(R),
HG(S), HG(T), HG(U), HG(V), HG(W), HG(X), HG(Y), HG(Z), HG(A), HG(B)
44
6.2.4 SOLID90 Output Data

The solution output associated with the element is in two forms:
Nodal temperatures included in the overall nodal solution.
Additional element output.
Convection heat flux is positive out of the element; applied heat flux is positive into
the element. The element output directions are parallel to the element coordinate system.
6.2.5 SOLID90 Assumptions and Restrictions
The element must not have a zero volume. This occurs most frequently when the
element is not numbered properly.
Elements may be numbered either as shown in Fig 6.3 or may have the planes
IJKL and MNOP interchanged.
The condensed face of a prism-shaped element should not be defined as a

convection face.
The specific heat and enthalpy are evaluated at each integration point to allow for
abrupt changes (such as melting) within a coarse grid of elements.
If the thermal element is to be replaced by a SOLID95 or SOLID 185 structural

element with surface stresses requested, the thermal element should be oriented
such that face IJNM and/or face KLPO is a free surface.
A free surface of the element (i.e., not adjacent to another element and not
subjected to a boundary constraint) is assumed to be adiabatic.
Thermal transients having a fine integration time step and a severe thermal
gradient at the surface will also require a fine mesh at the surface.
45
An edge with a removed midside node implies that the temperature varies linearly,
rather than parabolically, along that edge.
The element sizes, when degenerated, should be small in order to minimize the
field gradients.
46
CHAPTER 7
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

7.1 Introduction
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is computer oriented numerical analysis technique
used to find solution to the complex problems whose behavior could be explained by
means of equation of calculus.
7.2 Steps in FEA

7.2.1 General Steps
1. Discretization of problem region (physical problem).
2. Selection of displacement model or function.
3. Derivation of element stiffness matrix.
4. Assembly of element stiffness matrices.
5. Applying the boundary conditions.
6. Solution of unknown displacement, stress and strains.
7.2.2 Steps in ANSYS

ANSYS is a general purpose finite element modeling package for numerically
solving a wide variety of mechanical problems. These problems include: static/dynamic
structural analysis (both linear and non-linear), heat transfer and fluid problems, as well
as acoustic and electro-magnetic problems. Here Finite Element Analysis may be broken
into the following three stages. This is a general guideline that can be used for setting up
any finite element analysis.
47
1. Preprocessing: It involves defining the problem. The major steps in preprocessing are
given below:
Define key points/lines/areas/volumes
Define element type and material/geometric properties
Mesh lines/areas/volumes as required
The amount of detail required will depend on the dimensionality of the analysis (i.e. 1D,
2D, axisymmetric, 3D).
2. Processing or Solution: It involves assigning loads, constraints and solving.
3. Postprocessing: It involves further processing and viewing of the results. In this stage
one can have:
Lists of nodal displacements.
Element forces and moments.
Deflection plots.
Stress contour diagrams etc.
7.3 Coupled Field Analysis

Coupled-field analysis is a combination of analyses from different engineering
disciplines (physics fields) that interact to solve a global engineering problem; hence, we
often refer to a coupled-field analysis as a multiphysics analysis. When the input of one
field analysis depends on the results from another analysis, the analyses are coupled.
Some analyses can have one-way coupling. For example, in a thermal stress
problem, the temperature field introduces thermal strains in the structural field, but the
structural strains generally do not affect the temperature distribution. Thus, there is no
need to iterate between the two field solutions. More complicated cases involve two-way
coupling. A piezoelectric analysis, for example, handles the interaction between the
structural and electric fields: it solves for the voltage distribution due to applied
48
displacements, or vice versa. In a fluid-structure interaction problem, the fluid pressure

causes the structure to deform, which in turn causes the fluid solution to change. This
problem requires iterations between the two physics fields for convergence. The coupling
between the fields can be accomplished by either direct or load transfer coupling.
Coupling across fields can be complicated because different fields may be solving for
different types of analyses during a simulation. For example, in an induction heating
problem, a harmonic electromagnetic analysis calculates Joule heating, which is used in a
transient thermal analysis to predict a time-dependent temperature solution. The induction
heating problem is complicated further by the fact that the material properties in both
physics simulations depend highly on temperature.
Some of the applications in which coupled-field analysis may be required are
pressure vessels (thermal-stress analysis), fluid flow constrictions (fluid-structure
analysis), induction heating (magnetic-thermal analysis), ultrasonic transducers
(piezoelectric analysis), magnetic forming (magneto-structural analysis), and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). In our project we are using Thermal Structural
Analysis.
7.3.1 Thermal Structural Analysis

In thermal structural analysis, we have first carried out the thermal analysis by
giving material properties and thermal boundary conditions and load as heat flux, the
results obtained is in the form of temperature distribution. Then the structural analysis is
carried out by giving material properties, structural boundary conditions and load is given
interms of the temperature obtained in thermal analysis.
7.3.2 Thermal and Structural Boundary Conditions

Thermal boundary conditions are given by applying heat flux on the brake to pad
contact surfaces and convection on remaining surfaces. The structural boundary condition
is given by fixing the bolt hole and disc to wheel hub contact surface. The load in
structural load is in the form of temperature obtained in thermal analysis.
49
7.4 Modal Analysis

Any physical system can vibrate. The frequencies at which vibration naturally
occurs, and the modal shapes which the vibrating system assumes are properties of the
system, and can be determined analytically using Modal Analysis.
Analysis of vibration modes is a critical component of a design, but is often
overlooked. Inherent vibration modes in mechanical components can shorten equipment
life, and cause premature or completely unanticipated failure, often resulting in hazardous
situations. Detailed fatigue analysis is often required to assess the potential for failure or
damage resulting from the rapid stress cycles of vibration. Detailed modal analysis
determines the fundamental vibration mode shapes and corresponding frequencies. This
can be relatively simple for basic components of a simple system, and extremely
complicated when qualifying a complex mechanical device or a complicated structure
exposed to periodic wind loading. These systems require accurate determination of
natural frequencies and mode shapes using techniques such as Finite Element Analysis.
7.5 Procedure Adopted For Thermal Analysis Of Disc Brake

Rotor in ANSYS 11:
Initially Thermal analysis is selected as the preference for analyzing.
The suitable element is selected while importing from Altair HyperMesh 7 for
Thermal analysis.
Specify the material properties such as Thermal conductivity (K), Specific

heat (Cp) and density (DENS) must be defined for transient analysis.
Select different sections in the geometry for applying heat flux and
convection.
Solution method of transient analysis is selected.
Give minimum time for selected vehicle come to rest from 50 kmph to 0
kmph.
Plot the temperature distributions from the post processors.
50
7.6 Procedure Adopted For Structural Analysis Of Disc Brake

Rotor in ANSYS 11:
After completion of thermal analysis select structural analysis as the

preference for analysing.
The suitable element is selected automatically for structural analysis by

switching from thermal to structural analysis.
Specify the material properties such as Youngs modulus and Poisons ratio.
Apply temperature on all the elements as obtained in thermal analysis.
Apply boundary conditions to the disc rotor by fixing all degrees of freedom at
the holes provided for bolts and the surface touching the wheel hub.
Solution method of transient is selected.
Then solve for thermal stresses and deformations developed in the disc rotor
due to the applied temperature.
7.7 Procedure Adopted For Modal Analysis Of Disc Brake

Rotor:
Initially Structural analysis is selected as the preference for analyzing.
The suitable element is selected automatically for modal analysis by switching

from thermal to structural analysis.
Specify the material properties such as Young's modulus (EX) and density
(DENS) must be defined for modal analysis.
Apply boundary conditions to the disc rotor by fixing all degrees of freedom at
the holes provided for bolts and the surface touching the wheel hub.
Solution method of modal analysis is selected.
Here subspace method is used for the extraction of mode shapes. And specify
the number of modes to extract. The subspace method uses the subspace
iteration technique.
After specifying the number of modes to extract the software gives the
required frequencies and the mode shapes.
51
CHAPTER 8
RESULTS
8.1 Inputs and results of ANSYS 11
Initial temperature of the disc rotors = 298 K and convection heat transfer coefficient h =
50 W/m2K [13] and [14].
Table 8.1 Inputs & Results for Transient Thermal Analysis
Time required to
come rest from 50
kmph-0 kmph (sec)
Heat flux applied

(J/ mm 2 )
Max. Temperature
of the disc brake
rotor (K)
Solid
3.5
0.57
838.022
Ventilated
3.5
0.72
414.029
Vehicle name
Table 8.2 Results Obtained From Thermal to Transient Structural Analysis

Type of rotors
Maximum Stress (N/ mm 2 )
Maximum deformation (mm)
Solid
1869
0.893
Ventilated
756
0.479
Table 8.3 Results Obtained From Modal Analysis

Type of rotors
f1
f2
Solid
42.939
43.406
Ventilated
67.07
67.09
Frequency in Hz
f3
f4
f5
44.656
53.141
61.759
75.738
76.799
77.429
52
8.2 Plots of Results

8.2.1 Solid Disc Brake Rotor
Fig 8.1 Temperature distribution in auxiliary view
Fig 8.2 Temperature distribution in top view

53
Fig 8.3 Auxiliary view of the fixed model

54
Fig 8.5 Auxiliary view of deformed shape of the model with undeformed edges
Fig 8.6 Side view of deformed shape of the model with undeformed edges
55
Fig 8.7 Auxiliary view of displacement distribution
Fig 8.8 Top view of displacement distribution

56
Fig 8.9 1st Principal Stress Distributions
Fig 8.10 2nd Principal Stress Distributions
57
Fig 8.11 3rd Principal Stress Distributions
Fig 8.12 1st or fundamental frequency Distribution

58
Fig 8.13 2nd Frequency Distribution
Fig 8.14 3rd Frequency Distribution

59
Fig 8.15 4th Frequency Distribution

60
8.2.2 Ventilated Disc Brake Rotor
Fig 8.17 Temperature distribution in auxiliary view
Fig 8.18 Temperature distribution in top view

61
62
Fig 8.21 Deformed shape in the auxiliary view
Fig 8.22 Displacement distribution in auxiliary view

63
Fig 8.23 Displacement distribution in top view
Fig 8.24 1st Principal Stress Distribution

64
Fig 8.25 2nd Principal Stress Distribution
Fig 8.26 3rd Principal Stress Distribution
65
Fig 8.27 1st Frequency Distribution
Fig 8.28 2nd Frequency Distribution

66
Fig 8.29 3rd Frequency Distribution

67
68
CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSION
In this project work, the coupled field finite element analysis of disk brake rotors in
repeated brake applications has been performed. ANSYS software is applied to the
thermomechanical problem with frictional heat generation. The temperature, deformation
and stress are maximum in solid disc brake rotor than in ventilated disc brake rotor. The
1st principal stress in disk brakes has the largest value and must be considered as a
dominant stress component from the viewpoint of stress failure. The effects of the friction
material properties on the friction surfaces are examined and the larger influential
properties are found to be the thermal expansion coefficient, modulus of elasticity and the
thermal conductivity. The ventilated disc brake rotor gives best performance as it can be
observed by the results that the value of temperature and displacement are greatly reduced
in the ventilated disc brake rotor compared to solid disc brake rotor because of vents
provided for more convection and airflow thus giving better performance.
The present study can provide a useful design tool and improve the brake
performance of disk brake system. From Table 8.1, 8.2 and 8.3 we can say that all the
values obtained from the analysis are less than their allowable values. Hence the brake
disk design is safe based on the strength and rigidity criteria. Thus comparing the
different results obtained from analysis it is concluded that the ventilated disc brake rotor
gives better performance than solid disc brake rotor and of material Cast Iron is the best
possible combination for the present application. The performance of the ventilated disk
brake can be further improved by providing proper and different patterned vents for
convection and also taking into account the aerodynamic cooling of the automobile
braking system while designing the disc brake rotor.
69
CHAPTER 10
FUTURE SCOPE
This project has wide range of future scope in many ways, some of which are
shown below:
1. Carrying the coupled field finite element analysis considering the disc brake rotor
as microscopic model and calculating the kinetic energy and heat flux by uniform
wear type of pressure distribution.
2. Carrying out the analysis for selection of the material by standard methods such as
cost per unit property and digital logic methods.
3. Carrying the analysis by considering the bolt preloads.
4. Carrying the analysis and checking the results by thermal stress simulation using
Infrared Thermography.
5. Carrying the coupled field finite element analysis of the ventilated disc brake rotor
for various shapes of vents as the shape of vents play a vital role in increased
convection.
70

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Coupled Field Finite Element Analysis of Car Disc Brake Rotors

1.1 Fundamentals of Braking System

1.2 Braking systems.

1.2.1.2 Disc Brake.

1.2.1.3 Antilock Braking System (ABS)

1.2.2 Air brakes.

1.2.3 Exhaust brakes.

1.2.4 Electric brakes.

1.2.5 Parking brakes.

1.3 Braking system components.

1.3.2 Brake lines.

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering SDMCET, Dharwad

Coupled Field Finite Element Analysis of Car Disc Brake Rotors

1.3.3 Brakes fluid.

1.3.4 Master cylinder.

1.3.5 Divided systems.

1.3.6 Tandem master cylinder.

1.3.7 Power booster or brake unit.

1.3.8 Hydraulic brake booster.

1.3.9 Electrohydraulic braking (EHB).

1.4 Disc brake systems.

1.4.2 The rotor.

1.4.2.1 Brake fade

1.4.2.2 Rotor Metallurgy

1.4.2.3 Rotor Surface finish

1.4.3 Disc brake pads.

1.4.4 Disc brake calipers.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER 3: MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF DISC BRAKE

Coupled Field Finite Element Analysis of Car Disc Brake Rotors

3.2 Cast Iron

3.3 Specifications of car and Material Properties of Gray cast iron

3.3.1.2 The materials properties

3.3.2 Ventilated disc brake rotor

3.3.2.2 The materials properties

CHAPTER 4: THEORY AND CALCULATIONS

4.2 Stopping distance.

4.3 Weight transfer.

4.4 Braking efficiency.

4.5 Kinetic energy and Heat flux.

4.5.2 Macroscopic model approach

4.6.2 Calculations for kinetic energy heat flux time

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering SDMCET, Dharwad

Coupled Field Finite Element Analysis of Car Disc Brake Rotors

4.6.2.2 Ventilated disc brake rotor

CHAPTER 5: GEOMETRIC MODELING

5.2 Module 2 - Part Modeling.

5.3 Module 5 - Drawing.

5.4 Modeled and drafted components.

CHAPTER 6: FINITE ELEMENT MODELING

6.1 Meshed components

6.2.1 SOLID90 Element Description

6.2.2 SOLID90 Input Data

6.2.3 SOLID90 Input Summary

6.2.4 SOLID90 Output Data

6.2.5 SOLID90 Assumptions and Restrictions

CHAPTER 7: FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

7.2 Steps in FEA.

7.2.2 Steps in ANSYS.

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering SDMCET, Dharwad

Coupled Field Finite Element Analysis of Car Disc Brake Rotors

7.3 Coupled field analysis.

7.3.1 Thermal Structural Analysis