Key Artists PDF

Key artists
Contents
1
Leonardo da Vinci
1.1
Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1
Childhood, 14521466 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
Verrocchio's workshop, 146676 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3
Professional life, 14761513 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4
Old age, 15131519 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relationships and inuences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1
Florence: Leonardo's artistic and social background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2
Personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3
Assistants and pupils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1
Early works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2
Paintings of the 1480s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3
10
1.3.4
10
1.3.5
Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
Observation and invention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.4.1
Journals and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.4.2
Scientic studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.4.3
Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.4.4
Engineering and inventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.5
Fame and reputation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.7
Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
1.9
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
1.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
Michelangelo
22
2.1
22
1.2
1.3
1.4
Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i
ii
CONTENTS
2.1.1
Early life, 147588 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
2.1.2
Apprenticeships, 148892 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
2.1.3
Bologna, Florence and Rome, 149299 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
2.1.4
Florence, 14991505 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
2.1.5
Sistine Chapel ceiling, 150512 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
2.1.6
Florence under Medici popes, 1513 early 1534 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.1.7
Rome, 153446 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.1.8
St Peter's Basilica, 154664 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.2
Personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
2.3
Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.3.1
Madonna and Child . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.3.2
Male gure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.3.3
Sistine Chapel ceiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.3.4
Figure compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
2.3.5
Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
2.3.6
Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
2.4
Michelangelo's legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
2.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.6
Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
2.8
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
2.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
El Greco
36
3.1
Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
3.1.1
Early years and family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
3.1.2
Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
3.1.3
Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
3.2.1
Technique and style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
3.2.2
Suggested Byzantine anities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
3.2.3
Architecture and sculpture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
3.3.1
Posthumous critical reputation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
3.3.2
Inuence on other artists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
3.4
Debates on attribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.5
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
3.7
Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
3.2
3.3
CONTENTS
iii
3.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
3.9
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
3.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
Rembrandt
53
4.1
Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
4.2
Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
4.2.1
Periods, themes and styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
4.2.2
Etchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
4.2.3
The Night Watch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
4.3
Expert assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
4.4
Name and signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
4.5
Workshop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
4.6
Museum collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
4.7
Selected works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
4.8
Exhibitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
4.9
Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
4.9.1
Self-portraits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
4.9.2
Other works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
4.10 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
4.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
4.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
4.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
Hokusai
69
5.1
Early life and artistic training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
5.2
Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
5.3
Height of career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
5.4
Later life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
5.5
Shunga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
5.6
Works and inuences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
5.6.1
Inuences on art and culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
5.6.2
In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
5.6.3
Listing of selected works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
5.7
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
5.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
5.9
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
5.9.1
General biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
5.9.2
Specic works of art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
iv
CONTENTS
5.9.3
Art Monographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
5.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
5.10.1 Prints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
5.10.2 Biographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
Claude Monet
77
6.1
Monet and Impressionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
First Impressionistexhibition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
6.2.1
Birth and childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
6.2.2
Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
6.2.3
Franco-Prussian War and Argenteuil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
6.2.4
Impressionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
6.2.5
Death of Camille . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
6.2.6
Vtheuile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
Giverny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
6.3.1
Monet's house and garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
Last years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
6.4.1
Failing sight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
6.4.2
Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
6.5
Monet's methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
6.6
Fame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
6.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
6.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
6.9
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
6.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
Vincent van Gogh
88
7.1
Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
7.2
Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
7.2.1
Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
7.2.2
Etten, Drenthe and The Hague . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
7.2.3
Emerging artist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
7.2.4
Artistic breakthrough and nal years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
7.2.5
Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.1.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
7.3
Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.3.1
Self portraits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.3.2
Portraits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.3.3
Cypresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
CONTENTS
7.4
7.3.4
Flowering Orchards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.3.5
Flowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.3.6
Wheat elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.4.1
Posthumous fame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.4.2
Inuence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.5
Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.7
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Pablo Picasso
115
8.1
Early life
8.2
Career beginnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
8.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8.2.1
Before 1900
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
8.2.2
Blue Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.2.3
Rose Period
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Modern art transformed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

8.3.1
African-inuenced Period
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
8.3.2
Cubism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
8.3.3
Fame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
8.3.4
Classicism and surrealism
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.3.5
World War II and beyond
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.3.6
Later works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.3.7
Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
8.4
Political views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
8.5
Style and technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.6
Artistic legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

8.6.1
Recent major exhibitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8.8
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8.9
References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
8.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

9
Salvador Dal
9.1
130
Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
9.1.1
Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
9.1.2
Madrid and Paris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.1.3
1929 to World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
vi
CONTENTS
9.2
9.1.4
World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
9.1.5
Later years in Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
9.1.6
Final years and death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Symbolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
9.2.1
9.3
Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Endeavors outside painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

9.3.1
Sculptures and other objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
9.3.2
Theatre and lm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
9.3.3
Fashion and photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9.3.4
Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.3.5
Literary works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.3.6
Graphic arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.3.7
Publicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.4
Politics and personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.5
Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9.6
Listing of selected works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.7
Dal museums and permanent exhibitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.8
Major temporary exhibitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.9
Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

9.11 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
9.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
10 Frida Kahlo
148
10.1 Childhood and family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

10.1.1 Bus accident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
10.2 Career as painter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
10.3 Marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
10.4 Later years and death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
10.5 Posthumous recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
10.5.1 Centennial celebration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
10.5.2 La Casa Azul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
10.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
10.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
10.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Chapter 1
Leonardo da Vinci
Da Vinciredirects here. For other uses, see Da Vinci procrastination.* [nb 1] Nevertheless, these few works, to(disambiguation).
gether with his notebooks, which contain drawings, scientic diagrams, and his thoughts on the nature of painting,
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (Italian: [leonardo da compose a contribution to later generations of artists rivalled only by that of his contemporary, Michelangelo.
vvinti] ( ); 15 April 1452 2 May 1519) was an
Italian polymath, painter, sculptor, architect, musician, Leonardo is revered for his technological ingenuity. He
mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist, conceptualised ying machines, an armoured vehicle,
cartographer, botanist, and writer. He is widely considered concentrated solar power, an adding machine,* [6] and the
to be one of the greatest painters of all time and perhaps the double hull, also outlining a rudimentary theory of plate tecmost diversely talented person ever to have lived.* [1] His tonics. Relatively few of his designs were constructed or
genius, perhaps more than that of any other gure, epito- were even feasible during his lifetime,* [nb 2] but some of
mized the Renaissance humanist ideal. Leonardo has often his smaller inventions, such as an automated bobbin winder
been described as the archetype of the Renaissance Man, a and a machine for testing the tensile strength of wire, enman ofunquenchable curiosityandfeverishly inventive tered the world of manufacturing unheralded.* [nb 3] He
imagination.* [2] According to art historian Helen Gard- made important discoveries in anatomy, civil engineering,
ner, the scope and depth of his interests were without prece- optics, and hydrodynamics, but he did not publish his nddent andhis mind and personality seem to us superhuman, ings and they had no direct inuence on later science.* [7]
the man himself mysterious and remote.* [2] Marco Rosci
states that while there is much speculation about Leonardo,
his vision of the world is essentially logical rather than mys- 1.1 Life
terious, and that the empirical methods he employed were
unusual for his time.* [3]
See also: Leonardo da Vinci's personal life
Born out of wedlock to a notary, Piero da Vinci, and a peasant woman, Caterina, in Vinci in the region of Florence,
Leonardo was educated in the studio of the renowned Florentine painter Verrocchio. Much of his earlier working life 1.1.1 Childhood, 14521466
was spent in the service of Ludovico il Moro in Milan. He
later worked in Rome, Bologna and Venice, and he spent his Leonardo was born on 15 April 1452 (Old Style), at the
last years in France at the home awarded him by Francis I. third hour of the night* [nb 4] in the Tuscan hill town of
Leonardo was, and is, renowned primarily as a painter. Vinci, in the lower valley of the Arno River in the terri*
Among his works, the Mona Lisa is the most famous tory of the Medici-ruled Republic of Florence. [9] He was
and most parodied portrait* [4] and The Last Supper the the out-of-wedlock son of the wealthy Messer Piero Frumost reproduced religious painting of all time, with their osino di Antonio da Vinci, a Florentine legal notary, and
*
*
*
fame approached only by Michelangelo's The Creation of Caterina, a peasant. [8] [10] [nb 5] Leonardo had no surAdam.* [2] Leonardo's drawing of the Vitruvian Man is name in the modern sense,da Vincisimply meaningof
also regarded as a cultural icon,* [5] being reproduced on Vinci": his full birth name was Lionardo di ser Piero da
items as varied as the euro coin, textbooks, and T-shirts. Vinci, meaningLeonardo, (son) of (Mes)ser Piero from
*
Perhaps fteen of his paintings have survived, the small Vinci. [9] The inclusion of the titleserindicated that
number because of his constant, and frequently disas- Leonardo's father was a gentleman.
trous, experimentation with new techniques, and his chronic Little is known about Leonardo's early life. He spent his
1
CHAPTER 1. LEONARDO DA VINCI

monster spitting re which was so terrifying that Ser Piero
sold it to a Florentine art dealer, who sold it to the Duke of
Milan. Meanwhile, having made a prot, Ser Piero bought
a shield decorated with a heart pierced by an arrow, which
he gave to the peasant.* [15]
Leonardo's childhood home in Anchiano
Leonardo's earliest known drawing, the Arno Valley (1473), Uzi
rst ve years in the hamlet of Anchiano in the home of his

mother, then from 1457 he lived in the household of his father, grandparents and uncle, Francesco, in the small town
of Vinci. His father had married a sixteen-year-old girl
named Albiera, who loved Leonardo but died young.* [11]
When Leonardo was sixteen his father married again, to
twenty-year-old Francesca Lanfredini. It was not until his
third and fourth marriages that Ser Piero produced legitimate heirs.* [12]
The Baptism of Christ (14721475) Uzi, by Verrocchio and

Leonardo
1.1.2
Verrocchio's workshop, 146676
In 1466, at the age of fourteen, Leonardo was apprenticed

to the artist Andrea di Cione, known as Verrocchio, whose
workshop wasone of the nest in Florence.* [16] Other
famous painters apprenticed or associated with the workshop include Domenico Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli,
and Lorenzo di Credi.* [11]* [17] Leonardo would have
been exposed to both theoretical training and a vast range of
technical skills* [18] including drafting, chemistry, metallurgy, metal working, plaster casting, leather working, mechanics and carpentry as well as the artistic skills of drawing, painting, sculpting and modelling.* [19]* [nb 6]
Leonardo received an informal education in Latin, geometry and mathematics. In later life, Leonardo recorded only
two childhood incidents. One, which he regarded as an
omen, was when a kite dropped from the sky and hovered
over his cradle, its tail feathers brushing his face.* [13] The
second occurred while he was exploring in the mountains:
he discovered a cave and was both terried that some great Much of the painted production of Verrocchio's workshop
monster might lurk there and driven by curiosity to nd out was done by his employees. According to Vasari, Leonardo
what was inside.* [11]
collaborated with Verrocchio on his The Baptism of Christ,
Leonardo's early life has been the subject of historical con- painting the young angel holding Jesus' robe in a manner
jecture.* [14] Vasari, the 16th-century biographer of Re- that was so far superior to his master's that Verrocchio put
naissance painters, tells of how a local peasant made him- down his brush and never painted again.* [20] On close exself a round shield and requested that Ser Piero have it amination, the painting reveals much that has been painted
painted for him. Leonardo responded with a painting of a or touched-up over the tempera using the new technique
1.1. LIFE
of oil paint, with the landscape, the rocks that can be seen
through the brown mountain stream and much of the gure of Jesus bearing witness to the hand of Leonardo.* [21]
Leonardo may have been the model for two works by Verrocchio: the bronze statue of David in the Bargello and the
Archangel Raphael in Tobias and the Angel.* [10]
3
commission was completed, the second being interrupted
when Leonardo went to Milan.
In 1482 Leonardo, who according to Vasari was a most
talented musician,* [24] created a silver lyre in the shape
of a horse's head. Lorenzo de' Medici sent Leonardo
to Milan, bearing the lyre as a gift, to secure peace
with Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan.* [25] At this time
Leonardo wrote an often-quoted letter describing the many
marvellous and diverse things that he could achieve in the
eld of engineering and informing Ludovico that he could
also paint.* [17]* [26]
By 1472, at the age of twenty, Leonardo qualied as a

master in the Guild of St Luke, the guild of artists and
doctors of medicine,* [nb 7] but even after his father set
him up in his own workshop, his attachment to Verrocchio
was such that he continued to collaborate with him.* [11]
Leonardo's earliest known dated work is a drawing in pen Leonardo worked in Milan from 1482 until 1499. He was
and ink of the Arno valley, drawn on August 5, 1473.* [nb commissioned to paint the Virgin of the Rocks for the Con8]* [17]
fraternity of the Immaculate Conception and The Last Supper for the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie.* [27] In
the spring of 1485, Leonardo travelled to Hungary on behalf of Ludovico to meet Matthias Corvinus, for whom he is
1.1.3 Professional life, 14761513
believed to have painted a Holy Family.* [28] Between 1493
and 1495 Leonardo listed a woman called Caterina among
his dependents in his taxation documents. When she died
in 1495, the list of funeral expenditures suggests that she
was his mother.* [29]
The Adoration of the Magi, (1481)Uzi
Florentine court records of 1476 show that Leonardo and

three other young men were charged with sodomy but acquitted.* [10]* [nb 9] From that date until 1478 there is no
record of his work or even of his whereabouts.* [22] In 1478
he left Verrocchio's studio and was no longer resident at
his father's house. One writer, the AnonimoGaddiano
claims that in 1480 Leonardo was living with the Medici
and working in the Garden of the Piazza San Marco in Florence, a Neo-Platonic academy of artists, poets and philosophers which the Medici had established.* [10] In January
1478, he received his rst of two independent commissions:
to paint an altarpiece for the Chapel of St. Bernard in the
Palazzo Vecchio and, in March 1481, The Adoration of the
Magi for the monks of San Donato a Scopeto.* [23] Neither
Study of horse from Leonardo's journals Royal Library, Windsor

Castle
Leonardo was employed on many dierent projects for Ludovico, including the preparation of oats and pageants for
4
special occasions, designs for a dome for Milan Cathedral
and a model for a huge equestrian monument to Francesco
Sforza, Ludovico's predecessor. Seventy tons of bronze
were set aside for casting it. The monument remained unnished for several years, which was not unusual for Leonardo.
In 1492 the clay model of the horse was completed. It surpassed in size the only two large equestrian statues of the
Renaissance, Donatello's Gattamelata in Padua and Verrocchio's Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice, and became known as
the "Gran Cavallo".* [17]* [nb 10] Leonardo began making
detailed plans for its casting;* [17] however, Michelangelo
insulted Leonardo by implying that he was unable to cast
it.* [11] In November 1494 Ludovico gave the bronze to be
used for cannon to defend the city from invasion by Charles
VIII.* [17]

have seemed like a new concept. Upon seeing it, Cesare
hired Leonardo as his chief military engineer and architect.
Later in the year, Leonardo produced another map for his
patron, one of Chiana Valley, Tuscany, so as to give his
patron a better overlay of the land and greater strategic position. He created this map in conjunction with his other
project of constructing a dam from the sea to Florence, in
order to allow a supply of water to sustain the canal during
all seasons.
Leonardo returned to Florence where he rejoined the Guild

of St Luke on October 18, 1503, and spent two years designing and painting a mural of The Battle of Anghiari for the
Signoria,* [30] with Michelangelo designing its companion
piece, The Battle of Cascina.* [nb 12] In Florence in 1504,
he was part of a committee formed to relocate, against the
At the start of the Second Italian War in 1499, the invading artist's will, Michelangelo's statue of David.* [35]
French troops used the life-size clay model for the Gran In 1506 Leonardo returned to Milan. Many of his
Cavallofor target practice. With Ludovico Sforza over- most prominent pupils or followers in painting either
thrown, Leonardo, with his assistant Salai and friend, the knew or worked with him in Milan,* [11] including
mathematician Luca Pacioli, ed Milan for Venice* [30] Bernardino Luini, Giovanni Antonio Boltrao and Marco
where he was employed as a military architect and engineer, d'Oggione.* [nb 13] However, he did not stay in Milan for
devising methods to defend the city from naval attack.* [11] long because his father had died in 1504, and in 1507 he
On his return to Florence in 1500, he and his house- was back in Florence trying to sort out problems with his
hold were guests of the Servite monks at the monastery of brothers over his father's estate. By 1508 Leonardo was
Santissima Annunziata and were provided with a workshop back in Milan, living in his own house in Porta Orientale in
where, according to Vasari, Leonardo created the cartoon the parish of Santa Babila.* [36]
of The Virgin and Child with St. Anne and St. John the
Baptist, a work that won such admiration that men and
women, young and oldocked to see it as if they were
1.1.4 Old age, 15131519
attending a great festival.* [31]* [nb 11]
From September 1513 to 1516, under Pope Leo X,
Leonardo spent much of his time living in the Belvedere
in the Vatican in Rome, where Raphael and Michelangelo were both active at the time.* [36] In October 1515,
Francis I of France recaptured Milan.* [23] On December
19, Leonardo was present at the meeting of Francis I and
Pope Leo X, which took place in Bologna.* [11]* [37]* [38]
Leonardo was commissioned to make for Francis a mechanical lion which could walk forward, then open its chest to
reveal a cluster of lilies.* [39]* [nb 14] In 1516, he entered
Franois' service, being given the use of the manor house
Clos Luc* [nb 15] near the king's residence at the royal
Chteau d'Amboise. It was here that he spent the last three
years of his life, accompanied by his friend and apprentice, Count Francesco Melzi, and supported by a pension
Leonardo da Vinci's very accurate map of Imola, created for totalling 10,000 scudi.* [36]
Cesare Borgia
In Cesena, in 1502 Leonardo entered the service of Cesare

Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI, acting as a military
architect and engineer and travelling throughout Italy with
his patron.* [30] Leonardo created a map of Cesare Borgia's
stronghold, a town plan of Imola in order to win his patronage. Maps were extremely rare at the time and it would
Leonardo died at Clos Luc, on 2 May 1519. Francis I had

become a close friend. Vasari records that the king held
Leonardo's head in his arms as he died, although this story,
beloved by the French and portrayed in romantic paintings
by Ingres, Mnageot and other French artists, as well as by
Angelica Kauman, may be legend rather than fact.* [nb
16] Vasari states that in his last days, Leonardo sent for
1.2. RELATIONSHIPS AND INFLUENCES
Clos Luc in France, where Leonardo died in 1519
a priest to make his confession and to receive the Holy

Sacrament.* [41] In accordance with his will, sixty beggars
followed his casket.* [nb 17] Melzi was the principal heir
and executor, receiving as well as money, Leonardo's paintings, tools, library and personal eects. Leonardo also remembered his other long-time pupil and companion, Salai
and his servant Battista di Vilussis, who each received half
of Leonardo's vineyards, his brothers who received land,
and his serving woman who received a black cloak of
good stuwith a fur edge.* [nb 18]* [42] Leonardo da
Vinci was buried in the Chapel of Saint-Hubert in Chteau
d'Amboise, in France.
Some 20 years after Leonardo's death, Francis was reported
by the goldsmith and sculptor Benevenuto Cellini as saying: There had never been another man born in the world
who knew as much as Leonardo, not so much about painting, sculpture and architecture, as that he was a very great
philosopher.* [43]
1.2 Relationships and inuences

1.2.1
Florence: Leonardo's artistic and social background
Florence, at the time of Leonardo's youth, was the centre

of Christian Humanist thought and culture.* [16] Leonardo
commenced his apprenticeship with Verrocchio in 1466,
the year that Verrocchio's master, the great sculptor
Donatello, died. The painter Uccello, whose early experiments with perspective were to inuence the development of landscape painting, was a very old man. The
painters Piero della Francesca and Fra Filippo Lippi, sculptor Luca della Robbia, and architect and writer Leon Battista Alberti were in their sixties. The successful artists
of the next generation were Leonardo's teacher Verrocchio, Antonio Pollaiuolo and the portrait sculptor, Mino
da Fiesole whose lifelike busts give the most reliable like-
Ghiberti's Gates of Paradise, (14251452) were a source of communal pride. Many artists assisted in their creation
nesses of Lorenzo Medici's father Piero and uncle Giovanni.* [44]* [45]* [46]* [47]
Leonardo's youth was spent in a Florence that was ornamented by the works of these artists and by Donatello's contemporaries, Masaccio, whose gurative frescoes were imbued with realism and emotion and Ghiberti whose Gates of
Paradise, gleaming with gold leaf, displayed the art of combining complex gure compositions with detailed architectural backgrounds. Piero della Francesca had made a detailed study of perspective,* [48] and was the rst painter to
make a scientic study of light. These studies and Alberti's
Treatise* [49] were to have a profound eect on younger
artists and in particular on Leonardo's own observations and
artworks.* [44]* [46]* [47]
Massaccio's "The Expulsion from the Garden of Eden" depicting the naked and distraught Adam and Eve created a
powerfully expressive image of the human form, cast into
three dimensions by the use of light and shade, which was
to be developed in the works of Leonardo in a way that was
to be inuential in the course of painting. The humanist inuence of Donatello's Davidcan be seen in Leonardo's
late paintings, particularly John the Baptist.* [44]* [45]
The Portinari Altarpiece, by Hugo van der Goes for a Florentine

family
Small devotional picture by Verrocchio, c. 1470
These three were among those commissioned to paint the

walls of the Sistine Chapel, the work commencing with Perugino's employment in 1479. Leonardo was not part of
this prestigious commission. His rst signicant commission, The Adoration of the Magi for the Monks of Scopeto,
was never completed.* [11]
In 1476, during the time of Leonardo's association with
Verrocchio's workshop, the Portinari Altarpiece by Hugo
van der Goes arrived in Florence, bringing new painterly
techniques from Northern Europe which were to profoundly
aect Leonardo, Ghirlandaio, Perugino and others.* [45]
In 1479, the Sicilian painter Antonello da Messina, who
worked exclusively in oils, traveled north on his way to
Venice, where the leading painter Giovanni Bellini adopted
the technique of oil painting, quickly making it the preferred method in Venice. Leonardo was also later to visit
Venice.* [45]* [47]
A prevalent tradition in Florence was the small altarpiece

of the Virgin and Child. Many of these were created in
tempera or glazed terracotta by the workshops of Filippo
Lippi, Verrocchio and the prolic della Robbia family.* [44]
Leonardo's early Madonnas such as The Madonna with a
carnation and The Benois Madonna followed this tradition
while showing idiosyncratic departures, particularly in the
case of the Benois Madonna in which the Virgin is set at
an oblique angle to the picture space with the Christ Child
at the opposite angle. This compositional theme was to
emerge in Leonardo's later paintings such as The Virgin and Like the two contemporary architects Bramante and
Antonio da Sangallo the Elder Leonardo experimented with
Child with St. Anne.* [11]
designs for centrally planned churches, a number of which
Leonardo was a contemporary of Botticelli, Domenico appear in his journals, as both plans and views, although
Ghirlandaio and Perugino, who were all slightly older than none was ever realised.* [45]* [50]
he was.* [45] He would have met them at the workshop of
Verrocchio, with whom they had associations, and at the Leonardo's political contemporaries were Lorenzo Medici
Academy of the Medici.* [11] Botticelli was a particular (il Magnico), who was three years older, and his younger
favourite of the Medici family, and thus his success as a brother Giuliano who was slain in the Pazzi Conspiracy in
painter was assured. Ghirlandaio and Perugino were both 1478. Ludovico il Moro who ruled Milan between 1479
prolic and ran large workshops. They competently deliv- and 1499 and to whom Leonardo was sent as ambassador
*
ered commissions to well-satised patrons who appreciated from the Medici court, was also of Leonardo's age. [45]
Ghirlandaio's ability to portray the wealthy citizens of Flo- With Alberti, Leonardo visited the home of the Medici and
rence within large religious frescoes, and Perugino's abil- through them came to know the older Humanist philosoity to deliver a multitude of saints and angels of unfailing phers of whom Marsiglio Ficino, proponent of Neo Platonism; Cristoforo Landino, writer of commentaries on Classisweetness and innocence.* [44]
1.2. RELATIONSHIPS AND INFLUENCES
Lorenzo de' Medici between Antonio Pucci and Francesco Sassetti,

with Giulio de' Medici, fresco by Ghirlandaio
cal writings, and John Argyropoulos, teacher of Greek and

translator of Aristotle were the foremost. Also associated
with the Academy of the Medici was Leonardo's contemporary, the brilliant young poet and philosopher Pico della Mirandola.* [45]* [47]* [51] Leonardo later wrote in the margin
of a journal The Medici made me and the Medici destroyed me.While it was through the action of Lorenzo
that Leonardo received his employment at the court of Milan, it is not known exactly what Leonardo meant by this
cryptic comment.* [11]
Although usually named together as the three giants of the
High Renaissance, Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael
were not of the same generation. Leonardo was twentythree when Michelangelo was born and thirty-one when
Raphael was born.* [45] Raphael only lived until the age of
37 and died in 1520, the year after Leonardo, but Michelangelo went on creating for another 45 years.* [46]* [47]
1.2.2
Personal life
Main article: Leonardo da Vinci's personal life

Within Leonardo's lifetime, his extraordinary powers of invention, hisoutstanding physical beauty,innite grace
,great strength and generosity,regal spirit and tremendous breadth of mindas described by Vasari,* [52] as well
as all other aspects of his life, attracted the curiosity of others. One such aspect is his respect for life evidenced by his
Study for a portrait of Isabella d'Este (1500) Louvre
vegetarianism and his habit, according to Vasari, of purchasing caged birds and releasing them.* [53]* [54]
Leonardo had many friends who are now renowned either
in their elds or for their historical signicance. They included the mathematician Luca Pacioli,* [55] with whom
he collaborated on the book De Divina Proportione in the
1490s. Leonardo appears to have had no close relationships
with women except for his friendship with Cecilia Gallerani
and the two Este sisters, Beatrice and Isabella.* [56] He
drew a portrait of Isabella while on a journey which took
him through Mantua, and which appears to have been used
to create a painted portrait, now lost.* [11]
Beyond friendship, Leonardo kept his private life secret.
His sexuality has been the subject of satire, analysis, and
speculation. This trend began in the mid-16th century and
was revived in the 19th and 20th centuries, most notably
by Sigmund Freud.* [57] Leonardo's most intimate relationships were perhaps with his pupils Salai and Melzi. Melzi,
writing to inform Leonardo's brothers of his death, described Leonardo's feelings for his pupils as both loving and
passionate. It has been claimed since the 16th century that
these relationships were of a sexual or erotic nature. Court
records of 1476, when he was aged twenty-four, show that
Leonardo and three other young men were charged with
sodomy in an incident involving a well-known male pros-
8
titute. The charges were dismissed for lack of evidence,
and there is speculation that since one of the accused, Lionardo de Tornabuoni, was related to Lorenzo de' Medici,
the family exerted its inuence to secure the dismissal.* [58]
Since that date much has been written about his presumed
homosexuality and its role in his art, particularly in the androgyny and eroticism manifested in John the Baptist and
Bacchus and more explicitly in a number of erotic drawings.* [59]

pupils, such as Marco d'Oggione and Boltrao. In 1515, he
painted a nude version of the Mona Lisa, known as Monna
Vanna.* [63] Salai owned the Mona Lisa at the time of his
death in 1525, and in his will it was assessed at 505 lire, an
exceptionally high valuation for a small panel portrait.* [64]
In 1506, Leonardo took on another pupil, Count Francesco
Melzi, the son of a Lombard aristocrat, who is considered
to have been his favourite student. He travelled to France
with Leonardo and remained with him until Leonardo's
death.* [11] Melzi inherited the artistic and scientic works,
manuscripts, and collections of Leonardo and administered
the estate.
1.3
Painting
See also: List of works by Leonardo da Vinci

Despite the recent awareness and admiration of Leonardo
John the Baptist. Salai is thought to have been the model.* [60] (c.
1514)Louvre
Annunciation (14751480) Uzi, is thought to be Leonardo's

earliest complete work
as a scientist and inventor, for the better part of four hundred years his fame rested on his achievements as a painter
and on a handful of works, either authenticated or at1.2.3 Assistants and pupils
tributed to him that have been regarded as among the mas*
Gian Giacomo Caprotti da Oreno, nicknamed Salai or Il terpieces. [65]
Salaino (The Little Unclean Onei.e., the devil), entered These paintings are famous for a variety of qualities which
Leonardo's household in 1490. After only a year, Leonardo have been much imitated by students and discussed at great
made a list of his misdemeanours, calling him a thief, a length by connoisseurs and critics. Among the qualities that
liar, stubborn, and a glutton, after he had made o with make Leonardo's work unique are the innovative techniques
money and valuables on at least ve occasions and spent which he used in laying on the paint, his detailed knowla fortune on clothes.* [61] Nevertheless, Leonardo treated edge of anatomy, light, botany and geology, his interest in
him with great indulgence, and he remained in Leonardo's physiognomy and the way in which humans register emotion
household for the next thirty years.* [62] Salai executed a in expression and gesture, his innovative use of the human
number of paintings under the name of Andrea Salai, but form in gurative composition, and his use of the subtle graalthough Vasari claims that Leonardo taught him a great dation of tone. All these qualities come together in his most
deal about painting,* [39] his work is generally considered famous painted works, the Mona Lisa, the Last Supper and
to be of less artistic merit than others among Leonardo's the Virgin of the Rocks.* [66]
1.3. PAINTING
9
Mother of God, not with resignation but with condence.
In this painting the young Leonardo presents the humanist face of the Virgin Mary, recognising humanity's role in
God's incarnation.* [nb 19]
1.3.2
Paintings of the 1480s
Unnished painting of St. Jerome in the Wilderness, (c. 1480),

Vatican
1.3.1
Early works
Leonardo's early works begin with the Baptism of Christ

painted in conjunction with Verrocchio. Two other paintings appear to date from his time at the workshop, both of
which are Annunciations. One is small, 59 centimetres (23
in) long and 14 centimetres (5.5 in) high. It is apredellato
go at the base of a larger composition, in this case a painting
by Lorenzo di Credi from which it has become separated.
The other is a much larger work, 217 centimetres (85 in)
long.* [67] In both these Annunciations, Leonardo used a
formal arrangement, such as in Fra Angelico's two wellknown pictures of the same subject, of the Virgin Mary
sitting or kneeling to the right of the picture, approached
from the left by an angel in prole, with a rich owing garment, raised wings and bearing a lily. Although previously
attributed to Ghirlandaio, the larger work is now generally
attributed to Leonardo.* [68]
Virgin of the Rocks, National Gallery, London, demonstrates

Leonardo's interest in nature
In the 1480s Leonardo received two very important commissions and commenced another work which was also of
ground-breaking importance in terms of composition. Two
of the three were never nished, and the third took so long
that it was subject to lengthy negotiations over completion
and payment. One of these paintings is that of St. Jerome in
the Wilderness. Bortolon associates this picture with a difcult
period of Leonardo's life, as evidenced in his diary:
In the smaller picture Mary averts her eyes and folds her
I
thought
I was learning to live; I was only learning to die.
hands in a gesture that symbolised submission to God's will. *
[11]
In the larger picture, however, Mary is not submissive. The
girl, interrupted in her reading by this unexpected messen- Although the painting is barely begun, the composition can
ger, puts a nger in her bible to mark the place and raises be seen and it is very unusual.* [nb 20] Jerome, as a penitent,
her hand in a formal gesture of greeting or surprise.* [44] occupies the middle of the picture, set on a slight diagonal
This calm young woman appears to accept her role as the and viewed somewhat from above. His kneeling form takes
10
on a trapezoid shape, with one arm stretched to the outer

edge of the painting and his gaze looking in the opposite
direction. J. Wasserman points out the link between this
painting and Leonardo's anatomical studies.* [70] Across
the foreground sprawls his symbol, a great lion whose body
and tail make a double spiral across the base of the picture
space. The other remarkable feature is the sketchy landscape of craggy rocks against which the gure is silhouetted.
The daring display of gure composition, the landscape elements and personal drama also appear in the great unnished masterpiece, the Adoration of the Magi, a commission
from the Monks of San Donato a Scopeto. It is a complex
composition, of about 250 x 250 centimetres. Leonardo
did numerous drawings and preparatory studies, including
a detailed one in linear perspective of the ruined classical architecture which makes part of the backdrop to the scene.
But in 1482 Leonardo went o to Milan at the behest of
Lorenzo de' Medici in order to win favour with Ludovico il
Moro, and the painting was abandoned.* [10]* [68]
The third important work of this period is the Virgin of
the Rocks which was commissioned in Milan for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception. The painting, to
be done with the assistance of the de Predis brothers, was
to ll a large complex altarpiece, already constructed.* [71]
Leonardo chose to paint an apocryphal moment of the infancy of Christ when the infant John the Baptist, in protection of an angel, met the Holy Family on the road to Egypt.
In this scene, as painted by Leonardo, John recognizes and
worships Jesus as the Christ. The painting demonstrates
an eerie beauty as the graceful gures kneel in adoration
around the infant Christ in a wild landscape of tumbling
rock and whirling water.* [72] While the painting is quite
large, about 200 120 centimetres, it is not nearly as complex as the painting ordered by the monks of St Donato,
having only four gures rather than about fty and a rocky
landscape rather than architectural details. The painting
was eventually nished; in fact, two versions of the painting were nished, one which remained at the chapel of the
Confraternity and the other which Leonardo carried away
to France. But the Brothers did not get their painting, or the
de Predis their payment, until the next century.* [17]* [30]
1.3.3
The Last Supper (1498)Convent of Sta. Maria delle Grazie, Milan, Italy
the twelve followers of Jesus.* [17]

The novelist Matteo Bandello observed Leonardo at work
and wrote that some days he would paint from dawn till
dusk without stopping to eat and then not paint for three
or four days at a time.* [73] This was beyond the comprehension of the prior of the convent, who hounded him until
Leonardo asked Ludovico to intervene. Vasari describes
how Leonardo, troubled over his ability to adequately depict the faces of Christ and the traitor Judas, told the Duke
that he might be obliged to use the prior as his model.* [74]
When nished, the painting was acclaimed as a masterpiece of design and characterisation,* [75] but it deteriorated rapidly, so that within a hundred years it was described
by one viewer as completely ruined.* [76] Leonardo,
instead of using the reliable technique of fresco, had used
tempera over a ground that was mainly gesso, resulting in a
surface which was subject to mold and to aking.* [77] Despite this, the painting has remained one of the most reproduced works of art, countless copies being made in every
medium from carpets to cameos.
1.3.4
Among the works created by Leonardo in the 16th century

is the small portrait known as the Mona Lisa or la Gioconda, the laughing one. In the present era it is arguably
the most famous painting in the world. Its fame rests, in particular, on the elusive smile on the woman's face, its mysterious quality brought about perhaps by the fact that the artist
has subtly shadowed the corners of the mouth and eyes so
that the exact nature of the smile cannot be determined. The
shadowy quality for which the work is renowned came to be
called "sfumato" or Leonardo's smoke. Vasari, who is generally thought to have known the painting only by repute,
said that the smile was so pleasing that it seemed divine
rather than human; and those who saw it were amazed to
nd that it was as alive as the original.* [78]* [nb 21]
Leonardo's most famous painting of the 1490s is The Last

Supper, painted for the refectory of the Convent of Santa
Maria della Grazie in Milan. The painting represents the
last meal shared by Jesus with his disciples before his capture and death. It shows specically the moment when Jesus
has just said one of you will betray me. Leonardo tells
the story of the consternation that this statement caused to Other characteristics found in this work are the unadorned
1.3. PAINTING
11
through them Pontormo and Correggio. The trends in composition were adopted in particular by the Venetian painters
Tintoretto and Veronese.
The Virgin and Child with St. Anne, (c. 1510)-Louvre

Museum
Mona Lisa or La Gioconda (15031505/1507) Louvre, Paris,

France
dress, in which the eyes and hands have no competition from

other details, the dramatic landscape background in which
the world seems to be in a state of ux, the subdued colouring and the extremely smooth nature of the painterly technique, employing oils, but laid on much like tempera and
blended on the surface so that the brushstrokes are indistinguishable.* [nb 22] Vasari expressed the opinion that the
manner of painting would make even the most condent
master ... despair and lose heart.* [81] The perfect state
of preservation and the fact that there is no sign of repair or
overpainting is rare in a panel painting of this date.* [82]
In the painting Virgin and Child with St. Anne the composition again picks up the theme of gures in a landscape which
Wasserman describes as breathtakingly beautiful* [83]
and harkens back to the St Jerome picture with the gure
set at an oblique angle. What makes this painting unusual
is that there are two obliquely set gures superimposed.
Mary is seated on the knee of her mother, St Anne. She
leans forward to restrain the Christ Child as he plays roughly
with a lamb, the sign of his own impending sacrice.* [17]
This painting, which was copied many times, inuenced
Michelangelo, Raphael, and Andrea del Sarto,* [84] and
The Virgin and Child with St. Anne and St. John the Baptist
(c. 14991500)National Gallery, London
1.3.5
Drawings
Leonardo was not a prolic painter, but he was a most

prolic draftsman, keeping journals full of small sketches
and detailed drawings recording all manner of things that
took his attention. As well as the journals there exist many
12
studies for paintings, some of which can be identied as

preparatory to particular works such as The Adoration of
the Magi, The Virgin of the Rocks and The Last Supper.* [85]
His earliest dated drawing is a Landscape of the Arno Valley, 1473, which shows the river, the mountains, Montelupo
Castle and the farmlands beyond it in great detail.* [11]* [85]
Among his famous drawings are the Vitruvian Man, a study
of the proportions of the human body, the Head of an Angel, for The Virgin of the Rocks in the Louvre, a botanical
study of Star of Bethlehem and a large drawing (160100
cm) in black chalk on coloured paper of The Virgin and
Child with St. Anne and St. John the Baptist in the National Gallery, London.* [85] This drawing employs the subtle sfumato technique of shading, in the manner of the Mona
Lisa. It is thought that Leonardo never made a painting from
it, the closest similarity being to The Virgin and Child with
St. Anne in the Louvre.* [86]
Other drawings of interest include numerous studies
generally referred to as caricaturesbecause, although
exaggerated, they appear to be based upon observation
of live models. Vasari relates that if Leonardo saw a
person with an interesting face he would follow them
around all day observing them.* [87] There are numerous
studies of beautiful young men, often associated with
Salai, with the rare and much admired facial feature, the
so-called Grecian prole.* [nb 23] These faces are
often contrasted with that of a warrior.* [85] Salai is often
depicted in fancy-dress costume. Leonardo is known to
have designed sets for pageants with which these may be
associated. Other, often meticulous, drawings show studies
of drapery. A marked development in Leonardo's ability
to draw drapery occurred in his early works. Another
often-reproduced drawing is a macabre sketch that was
done by Leonardo in Florence in 1479 showing the body
of Bernardo Baroncelli, hanged in connection with the
murder of Giuliano, brother of Lorenzo de' Medici, in
the Pazzi Conspiracy.* [85] With dispassionate integrity
Leonardo has registered in neat mirror writing the colours
of the robes that Baroncelli was wearing when he died.
1.4 Observation and invention

Main article: Science and inventions of Leonardo da Vinci
1.4.1
Journals and notes
The Vitruvian Man (c. 1485) Accademia, Venice
Renaissance humanism recognized no mutually exclusive

polarities between the sciences and the arts, and Leonardo's
studies in science and engineering are as impressive and
innovative as his artistic work.* [17] These studies were
recorded in 13,000 pages of notes and drawings, which fuse
art and natural philosophy (the forerunner of modern science), made and maintained daily throughout Leonardo's
life and travels, as he made continual observations of the
world around him.* [17]
Leonardo's writings are mostly in mirror-image cursive.
The reason may have been more a practical expediency than
for reasons of secrecy as is often suggested. Since Leonardo
wrote with his left hand, it is probable that it was easier for
him to write from right to left.* [nb 24]
His notes and drawings display an enormous range of interests and preoccupations, some as mundane as lists of groceries and people who owed him money and some as intriguing as designs for wings and shoes for walking on water. There are compositions for paintings, studies of details
and drapery, studies of faces and emotions, of animals, babies, dissections, plant studies, rock formations, whirlpools,
war machines, ying machines and architecture.* [17]
See also: List of works by Leonardo da Vinci Manuscripts These notebooksoriginally loose papers of dierent types
and sizes, distributed by friends after his deathhave found
1.4. OBSERVATION AND INVENTION
13
Rhombicuboctahedron as published in Pacioli's

De Divina Proportione
picting it in utmost detail and did not emphasize experiments or theoretical explanation. Since he lacked formal
education in Latin and mathematics, contemporary scholars
A page showing Leonardo's study of a foetus in the womb (c. 1510) mostly ignored Leonardo the scientist, although he did teach
himself Latin. In the 1490s he studied mathematics under
Royal Library, Windsor Castle
Luca Pacioli and prepared a series of drawings of regular
solids in a skeletal form to be engraved as plates for Pacioli's
their way into major collections such as the Royal Library book De Divina Proportione, published in 1509.* [17]
at Windsor Castle, the Louvre, the Biblioteca Nacional de
Espaa, the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Biblioteca It appears that from the content of his journals he was planAmbrosiana in Milan which holds the twelve-volume Codex ning a series of treatises to be published on a variety of
Atlanticus, and British Library in London which has put a subjects. A coherent treatise on anatomy was said to have
selection from the Codex Arundel (BL Arundel MS 263) been observed during a visit by Cardinal Louis 'D' Aragon's
*
online.* [88] The Codex Leicester is the only major scientic secretary in 1517. [90] Aspects of his work on the studies
of
anatomy,
light
and the landscape were assembled
work of Leonardo's in private hands. It is owned by Bill
for
publication
by
his
pupil
Francesco Melzi and eventually
Gates and is displayed once a year in dierent cities around
published
as
Treatise
on
Painting
by Leonardo da Vinci in
the world.
France and Italy in 1651 and Germany in 1724,* [91] with
Leonardo's notes appear to have been intended for publi- engravings based upon drawings by the Classical painter
cation because many of the sheets have a form and order Nicolas Poussin.* [92] According to Arasse, the treatise,
that would facilitate this. In many cases a single topic, for which in France went into 62 editions in fty years, caused
example, the heart or the human fetus, is covered in detail Leonardo to be seen asthe precursor of French academic
in both words and pictures on a single sheet.* [89]* [nb 25] thought on art.* [17]
Why they were not published within Leonardo's lifetime is
While Leonardo's experimentation followed clear scientic
unknown.* [17]
methods, a recent and exhaustive analysis of Leonardo as a
scientist by Frtijof Capra argues that Leonardo was a fundamentally dierent kind of scientist from Galileo, Newton
1.4.2 Scientic studies
and other scientists who followed him in that, as a RenaisLeonardo's approach to science was an observational one: sance Man, his theorising and hypothesising integrated the
he tried to understand a phenomenon by describing and de- arts and particularly painting.* [93]
14

ber of anatomists and artists, including Vasari, Cellini and
Albrecht Drer who made a number of drawings from
them.* [95]
Leonardo's anatomical drawings include many studies of
the human skeleton and its parts, and studies muscles and
sinews. He studied the mechanical functions of the skeleton
and the muscular forces that are applied to it in a manner
that pregured the modern science of biomechanics.* [96]
He drew the heart and vascular system, the sex organs
and other internal organs, making one of the rst scientic
drawings of a fetus in utero.* [85] The drawings and notation are far ahead of their time, and if published, would undoubtedly have made a major contribution to medical science.* [94]* [97]
As an artist, Leonardo also closely observed and recorded
the eects of age and of human emotion on the physiology, studying in particular the eects of rage. He also
drew many gures who had signicant facial deformities or
signs of illness.* [17]* [85] Leonardo also studied and drew
the anatomy of many animals, dissecting cows, birds, monkeys, bears, and frogs, and comparing in his drawings their
anatomical structure with that of humans. He also made a
number of studies of horses.* [85]
1.4.4
Engineering and inventions
Anatomical study of the arm, (c. 1510)
1.4.3
Anatomy
Leonardo's formal training in the anatomy of the human

body began with his apprenticeship to Andrea del Verrocchio, who insisted that all his pupils learn anatomy. As an
artist, he quickly became master of topographic anatomy,
drawing many studies of muscles, tendons and other visible
anatomical features.
As a successful artist, he was given permission to dissect
human corpses at the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova in
Florence and later at hospitals in Milan and Rome. From
1510 to 1511 he collaborated in his studies with the doctor Marcantonio della Torre. Leonardo made over 240 detailed drawings and wrote about 13,000 words towards a
treatise on anatomy.* [94] These papers were left to his heir,
Francesco Melzi, for publication, a task of overwhelming
diculty because of its scope and Leonardo's idiosyncratic
writing.* [95] It was left incomplete at the time of Melzi's
death more than fty years later, with only a small amount
of the material on anatomy included in Leonardo's Treatise on painting, published in France in 1632.* [17]* [95]
During the time that Melzi was ordering the material into
chapters for publication, they were examined by a num-
A design for a ying machine, (c. 1488) Institut de France, Paris
During his lifetime Leonardo was valued as an engineer.

In a letter to Ludovico il Moro he claimed to be able
to create all sorts of machines both for the protection of
a city and for siege. When he ed to Venice in 1499
he found employment as an engineer and devised a system of moveable barricades to protect the city from attack. He also had a scheme for diverting the ow of the
1.5. FAME AND REPUTATION
15
Arno River, a project on which Niccol Machiavelli also

worked.* [98]* [99] Leonardo's journals include a vast number of inventions, both practical and impractical. They include musical instruments, a mechanical knight, hydraulic
pumps, reversible crank mechanisms, nned mortar shells,
and a steam cannon.* [11]* [17]
the King of France carried him away like a trophy and was
claimed to have supported him in his old age and held him
in his arms as he died. Interest in Leonardo has never diminished. The crowds still queue to see his most famous
artworks, T-shirts bear his most famous drawing, and writers continue to marvel at his genius and speculate about his
about what one so intelligent
In 1502, Leonardo produced a drawing of a single span 720- private life and, particularly,
*
[17]
actually
believed
in.
foot (220 m) bridge as part of a civil engineering project for
Ottoman Sultan Beyazid II of Constantinople. The bridge Giorgio Vasari, in the enlarged edition of Lives of the Artists,
was intended to span an inlet at the mouth of the Bosporus 1568,* [104] introduced his chapter on Leonardo da Vinci
known as the Golden Horn. Beyazid did not pursue the with the following words:
project because he believed that such a construction was impossible. Leonardo's vision was resurrected in 2001 when a
In the normal course of events many men
smaller bridge based on his design was constructed in Norand women are born with remarkable talents; but
*
*
way. [100] [101]
occasionally, in a way that transcends nature, a
For much of his life, Leonardo was fascinated by the phesingle person is marvellously endowed by Heaven
nomenon of ight, producing many studies of the ight of
with beauty, grace and talent in such abundance
birds, including his c. 1505 Codex on the Flight of Birds,
that he leaves other men far behind, all his
as well as plan for several ying machines, including a apactions seem inspired and indeed everything
ping ornithopter and a machine with a helical rotor.* [17]
he does clearly comes from God rather than
The British television station Channel Four commissioned
from human skill. Everyone acknowledged that
a documentary Leonardo's Dream Machines, for broadthis was true of Leonardo da Vinci, an artist
cast in 2003. Leonardo's designs for machines such as
of outstanding physical beauty, who displayed
a parachute, and giant crossbow were interpreted, coninnite grace in everything that he did and
structed and tested.* [102]* [103] Some of those designs
who cultivated his genius so brilliantly that all
proved a success, whilst others fared less well when pracproblems he studied he solved with ease.
tically tested.
Giorgio Vasari
1.5 Fame and reputation

Main article: Cultural references to Leonardo da Vinci
Within Leonardo's own lifetime his fame was such that
Statue of Leonardo in Amboise
The continued admiration that Leonardo commanded from

painters, critics and historians is reected in many other
written tributes. Baldassare Castiglione, author of Il Cortegiano (The Courtier), wrote in 1528: "... Another of
Francis I of France receiving the last breath of Leonardo da Vinci, the greatest painters in this world looks down on this art
by Ingres, 1818
in which he is unequalled ...* [105] while the biographer
16
known asAnonimo Gaddianowrote, c. 1540:His genius was so rare and universal that it can be said that nature
worked a miracle on his behalf ....* [106]
The 19th century brought a particular admiration for
Leonardo's genius, causing Henry Fuseli to write in 1801:
Such was the dawn of modern art, when Leonardo da
Vinci broke forth with a splendour that distanced former
excellence: made up of all the elements that constitute the
essence of genius ...* [107] This is echoed by A. E. Rio
who wrote in 1861: He towered above all other artists
through the strength and the nobility of his talents.* [108]
By the 19th century, the scope of Leonardo's notebooks was
known, as well as his paintings. Hippolyte Taine wrote in
1866: There may not be in the world an example of another genius so universal, so incapable of fullment, so full
of yearning for the innite, so naturally rened, so far ahead
of his own century and the following centuries.* [109] Art
historian Bernard Berenson wrote in 1896: Leonardo is
the one artist of whom it may be said with perfect literalness: Nothing that he touched but turned into a thing of
eternal beauty. Whether it be the cross section of a skull,
the structure of a weed, or a study of muscles, he, with his
feeling for line and for light and shade, forever transmuted
it into life-communicating values.* [110]
The interest in Leonardo's genius has continued unabated;
experts study and translate his writings, analyse his paintings using scientic techniques, argue over attributions
and search for works which have been recorded but never
found.* [111] Liana Bortolon, writing in 1967, said: Because of the multiplicity of interests that spurred him to
pursue every eld of knowledge ... Leonardo can be considered, quite rightly, to have been the universal genius par
excellence, and with all the disquieting overtones inherent
in that term. Man is as uncomfortable today, faced with a
genius, as he was in the 16th century. Five centuries have
passed, yet we still view Leonardo with awe.* [11]
1.6 See also

Aerial perspective
Italian Renaissance painting
Leonardo da Vinci, A Memory of His Childhood
Leonardo da Vinci-Fiumicino Airport
List of Italian painters
List of vegetarians
Medical Renaissance

Museo della Scienza e della TecnologiaLeonardo da
Vinci
Renaissance technology
1.7
Footnotes
[1] There are 15 signicant artworks which are ascribed, either

in whole or in large part, to Leonardo by most art historians. This number is made up principally of paintings on
panel but includes a mural, a large drawing on paper and two
works which are in the early stages of preparation. There
are a number of other works that have also been variously
attributed to Leonardo.
[2] Modern scientic approaches to metallurgy and engineering
were only in their infancy during the Renaissance.
[3] A number of Leonardo's most practical inventions are displayed as working models at the Museum of Vinci.
[4] His birth is recorded in the diary of his paternal grandfather Ser Antonio, as cited by Angela Ottino della Chiesa in
Leonardo da Vinci, and Reynal & Co., Leonardo da Vinci
(William Morrow and Company, 1956): A grandson of
mine was born April 15, Saturday, three hours into the night
. The date was recorded in the Julian calendar; as it was Florentine time and sunset was 6:40 pm, three hours after sunset
would be sometime around 9:40 pm which was still April 14
by modern reckoning. The conversion to the New Style calendar adds nine days; hence Leonardo was born April 23
according to the modern calendar.* [8]
[5] It has been suggested that Caterina may have been a slave
from the Middle Eastor at least, from the Mediterranean
. According to Alessandro Vezzosi, head of the Leonardo
Museum in Vinci, there is evidence that Piero owned a Middle Eastern slave called Caterina. That Leonardo had Middle
Eastern blood is claimed to be supported by the reconstruction of a ngerprint as reported by Falconi, Marta (December 12, 2006) [December 01, 2006]. Experts Reconstruct
Leonardo Fingerprint (News ed.). Washington Post. Associated Press. Retrieved May 6, 2013.. The evidence, as
stated in the article, is that 60% of people of Middle Eastern
origin share the pattern of whirls found on the reconstructed
ngerprint. The article also states that the claim is refuted
by Simon Cole, associate professor of criminology, law and
society at the University of California at Irvine: You can't
predict one person's race from these kinds of incidences, especially if looking at only one nger.
[6] The diverse artsand technical skills of Medieval and
Renaissance workshops are described in detail in the 12thcentury text On Divers Arts by Theophilus Presbyter and in
the early 15th-century text Il Libro Dell'arte O Trattato Della
Pittui by Cennino Cennini.
[7] That Leonardo joined the guild before this time is deduced
from the record of payment made to the Compagnia di San
1.8. REFERENCES
Luca in the company's register, Libro Rosso A, 14721520,

Accademia di Belle Arti.* [10]
[8] This work is now in the collection of the Uzi, Drawing No.
8P.
[9] Homosexual acts were illegal in Renaissance Florence.
[10] Verrocchio's statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni was not cast until 1488, after his death, and after Leonardo had already begun work on the statue for Ludovico.
[11] In 2005, the studio was rediscovered during the restoration
of part of a building occupied for 100 years by the Department of Military Geography.* [32]
[12] Both works are lost. While the entire composition of
Michelangelo's painting is known from a copy by Aristotole
da Sangallo, 1542.* [33] Leonardo's painting is only known
from preparatory sketches and several copies of the centre
section, of which the best known, and probably least accurate, is by Peter Paul Rubens.* [34]
[13] D'Oggione is known in part for his contemporary copies of
the Last Supper.
[14] It is unknown for what occasion the mechanical lion was
made but it is believed to have greeted the king at his entry
into Lyon and perhaps was used for the peace talks between
the French king and Pope Leo X in Bologna. A conjectural
recreation of the lion has been made and is on display in the
Museum of Bologna.* [40]
[15] Clos Luc, also called Cloux, is now a public museum.
[16] On the day of Leonardo's death, a royal edict was issued
by the king at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, a two-day journey
from Clos Luc. This has been taken as evidence that King
Franois cannot have been present at Leonardo's deathbed.
However, White in Leonardo: The First Scientist points out
that the edict was not signed by the king.
[17] This was a charitable legacy as each of the sixty paupers
would have been awarded an established mourner's fee in
the terms of Leonardo's will.
[18] The black cloak, of good quality material, was a readymade item from a clothier, with the fur trim being an
additional luxury. The possession of this garment meant
that Leonardo's house keeper could attend his funeral respectablyattired at no expense to herself.
17
[21] Whether or not Vasari had seen the Mona Lisa is the subject of debate. The opinion that he had not seen the painting
is based mainly on the fact that he describes the Mona Lisa
as having eyebrows. Daniel Arasse in Leonardo da Vinci
discusses the possibility that Leonardo may have painted
the gure with eyebrows which were subsequently removed.
(They were not fashionable in the mid-16th century.)* [17]
The analysis of high resolution scans made by Pascal Cotte
has revealed that the Mona Lisa had eyebrows and eyelashes
which have been subsequently removed.* [79]
[22] Jack Wasserman writes of the inimitable treatment of the
surfacesof this painting.* [80]
[23] The Grecian prolehas a continuous straight line from
forehead to nose-tip, the bridge of the nose being exceptionally high. It is a feature of many Classical Greek statues.
[24] Left-handed writers using a split nib or quill pen experience
diculty pushing the pen from left to right across the page.
[25] This method of organisation minimises of loss of data in the
case of pages being mixed up or destroyed.
1.8
References
[1] See the quotations from the following authors, in section Fame and reputation: Vasari, Boltrao, Castiglione,
AnonimoGaddiano, Berensen, Taine, Fuseli, Rio, Bortolon.
[2] Gardner, Helen (1970). Art through the Ages. pp. 450456.
[3] Rosci, Marco (1977). Leonardo. p. 8.
[4] John Licheld, The Moving of the Mona Lisa, The Independent, 2005-04-02 (accessed 2012-03-09)
[5] Vitruvian Man is referred to as iconicat the following
websites and many others:Vitruvian Man, Fine Art Classics,
Key Images in the History of Science; Curiosity and dierence; The Guardian: The Real da Vinci Code
[6] Kaplan, Erez (1996). Roberto Guatelli's Controversial
Replica of Leonardo da Vinci's Adding Machine. Archived
from the original on May 29, 2011. Retrieved 19 August
2013.
[7] Capra, pp.56
[19] Michael Baxandall lists 5 laudable conditionsor reactions of Mary to the presence and announcement of the angel. These are: Disquiet, Reection, Inquiry, Submission
and Merit. In this painting Mary's attitude does not comply
with any of the accepted traditions.* [69]
[8] Vezzosi, Alessandro (1997). Leonardo da Vinci: Renaissance Man.
[20] The painting, which in the 18th century belonged to

Angelica Kauman, was later cut up. The two main sections were found in a junk shop and cobbler's shop and were
reunited.* [70] It is probable that outer parts of the composition are missing.
[10] della Chiesa, Angela Ottino (1967). The Complete Paintings

of Leonardo da Vinci. p. 83.
[9] His birth is recorded in the diary of his paternal grandfather Ser Antonio, as cited by Angela Ottino della Chiesa in
Leonardo da Vinci, p. 83
[11] Bortolon, Liana (1967). The Life and Times of Leonardo.

London: Paul Hamlyn.
18
[12] Rosci, p. 20.

[13] Rosci, p. 21.
[14] Brigstoke, Hugh (2001). The Oxford Companion the Western
Art. Oxford, ENG, UK.
[15] Vasari, Giorgio (1568). Lives of the Artists. Penguin Classics. pp. 2589.
[37] Georges Goyau, Franois I, Transcribed by Gerald Rossi.

The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume VI. Published 1909.
New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved on 200710-04
[38] Miranda, Salvador (19982007). The Cardinals of the
Holy Roman Church: Antoine du Prat. Retrieved October
4, 2007.
[39] Vasari, p.265
[16] Rosci, p.13

[17] Arasse, Daniel (1998). Leonardo da Vinci.
[40] Reconstruction of Leonardo's walking lion (in Italian).

Retrieved January 5, 2010.
[18] Rosci, p.27
[41] Vasari, p.270
[19] Martindale, Andrew (1972). The Rise of the Artist.
[42] Leonardo's will. Leonardo-history. Retrieved September

28, 2007.
[20] Vasari, p.258

[21] della Chiesa, p.88
[22] Priwer, Shana; Phillips, Cynthia (2006). The Everything Da
Vinci Book. p. 245.
[23] Wasserman, Jack (1975). Leonardo da Vinci. pp. 7778.
[24] Winternitz, Emanuel (1982). Leonardo Da Vinci As a Musician.
[25] Rossi, Paolo (2001). The Birth of Modern Science. p. 33.
[26] Leonardo's Letter to Ludovico Sforza. Leonardo-History.
[27] Kemp, Martin (2004). Leonardo.
[28] Franz-Joachim Verspohl, Michelangelo Buonarroti und
Leonardo Da Vinci: Republikanischer Alltag und Knstlerkonkurrenz in Florenz zwischen 1501 und 1505 (Wallstein Verlag, 2007), p. 151.
[29] Codex II, 95 r, Victoria and Albert Museum, as cited by della
Chiesa p. 85
[43] Mario Lucertini, Ana Millan Gasca, Fernando Nicolo

(2004). Technological Concepts and Mathematical Models
in the Evolution of Modern Engineering Systems. Birkhuser.
ISBN 978-3-7643-6940-8. Retrieved 2007-10-03.
[44] Hartt, Frederich (1970). A History of Italian Renaissance
Art. pp. 127333.
[45] Rosci, Leonardo, chapter 1, the historical setting, pp.920
[46] Brucker, Gene A. (1969). Renaissance Florence.
[47] Rachum, Ilan (1979). The Renaissance, an Illustrated Encyclopedia.
[48] Piero della Francesca, On Perspective for Painting (De
Prospectiva Pingendi)
[49] Leon Battista Alberti, De Pictura, 1435. On Painting, in English, De Pictura, in Latin
[50] Hartt, pp.3912
[51] Williamson, Hugh Ross (1974). Lorenzo the Magnicent.
[52] Vasari, p.253
[53] Vasari, p.257
[31] Vasari, p.256
[54] Mntz, Eugne (1898). Leonardo da Vinci. Artist, Thinker,

and Man of Science. Volume 1. London: William Heinemann. p. 17.
[32] Owen, Richard (January 12, 2005). Found: the studio

where Leonardo met Mona Lisa. London: The Times.
[33] Goldscheider, Ludwig (1967). Michelangelo: paintings,
sculptures, architecture. Phaidon Press. ISBN 978-0-71481314-1.
[34] della Chiesa, pp.106107
[35] Gaetano Milanesi, Epistolario Buonarroti, Florence (1875),
as cited by della Chiesa.
[55] Bambach, Carmen (2003). Leonardo, Left-Handed

Draftsman and Writer. New York: Metropolitan Museum
of Art. Archived from the original on November 10, 2009.
Retrieved October 18, 2009.
[56] Cartwright Ady, Julia. Beatrice d'Este, Duchess of Milan,
14751497. Publisher: J.M. Dent, 1899; Cartwright Ady,
Julia. Isabella D'Este, Marchioness of Mantua, 14741539.
Publisher; J.M. Dent, 1903.
[57] Sigmund Freud, Eine Kindheitserinnerung des Leonardo da
Vinci, (1910)
1.8. REFERENCES
[58] How do we know Leonardo was gay?". Bnl.gov. May 3,

2001. Retrieved October 29, 2011.
[59] Michael Rocke, Forbidden Friendships epigraph, p. 148 &
N120 p.298
[60] Rizzo, Alessandra (February 2, 2011). Art Historian
Silvano Vinceti Claims Male Model Behind Leonardo da
Vinci's Mona Lisa. Associated Press. Retrieved November 16, 2011.
[61] Leonardo, Codex C. 15v, Institut of France. Trans. Richter
19
[83] Wasserman, p.150

[85] Popham, A.E. (1946). The Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci.
[87] Vasari, p.261
[88] Sketches by Leonardo. Turning the Pages. British Library. Retrieved September 27, 2007.
[89] Windsor Castle, Royal Library, sheets RL 19073v-19074v

and RL 19102 respectively.
[63] Gross, Tom. Mona Lisa Goes Topless. Paintingsdirect.com. Archived from the original on April 3, 2007. Retrieved September 27, 2007.
[90] O'Malley; Saunders (1982). Leonardo on the Human Body.

New York: Dover Publications.
[64] Rossiter, Nick (July 4, 2003). Could this be the secret of

her smile?". London: Telegraph.co.UK. Retrieved October
3, 2007.
[65] By the 1490s Leonardo had already been described as aDivinepainter. His fame is discussed by Daniel Arasse in
Leonardo da Vinci, pp.1115
[66] These qualities of Leonardo's works are discussed by Frederick Hartt in A History of Italian Renaissance Art, pp.387
411.
[67] della Chiesa, pp. 88, 90
[68] Berti, Luciano (1971). The Uzi. pp. 5962.
[69] Baxandall, Michael (1974). Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy. pp. 4956.
[70] Wasserman, pp.1046
[72] The Mysterious Virgin. National Gallery, London. Retrieved September 27, 2007.
[74] Vasari, p.263
[75] Vasari, p.262

[92] Leonardo da Vinci (Italian artist, engineer, and scientist)
: Sculpture Encyclopedia Britannica. Britannica.com.
Retrieved May 6, 2013.
[93] Capra, Fritjof. The Science of Leonardo; Inside the Mind
of the Genius of the Renaissance. (New York, Doubleday,
2007)
[94] Alistair Sooke, The Daily Telegraph, 28 July 2013, Online,
accessed 29 July 2013.
[95] Kenneth D. Keele, Leonardo da Vinci's Inuence on Renaissance Anatomy. (1964)
[96] Mason, Stephen F. (1962). A History of the Sciences. New
York, NY: Collier Books. p. 550.
[97] Hannah Furness, The Daily Telegraph, 12 March 2013,
Online, accessed 28 July 2013.
[98] Roger Masters (1996). Machiavelli, Leonardo and the Science of Power.
[99] Roger Masters (1998). Fortune is a River: Leonardo
Da Vinci and Niccol Machiavelli's Magnicent Dream to
Change the Course of Florentine History.
[100] The Leonardo Bridge Project. Vebjorn-sand.com. Retrieved October 29, 2011.
[101] Levy, Daniel S. (October 4, 1999). Dream of the Master

. Time magazine. Archived from the original on September
12, 2007. Retrieved September 27, 2007.
[78] Vasari, p.267
[102] Leonardo's Dream Machines
[79] The Mona Lisa had brows and lashes. BBC News. Oc- [103] British Library online gallery (retrieved 10 October 2013)
tober 22, 2007. Retrieved February 22, 2008.
[104] Vasari, p.255
[105] Castiglione, Baldassare (1528). Il Cortegiano.
[81] Vasari, p.266
[106]Anonimo Gaddiani, elaborating on Libro di Antonio Billi,
15371542
20
[107] Fuseli, Henry (1801). LecturesII.

[108] Rio, A.E. (1861). L'art chrtien.
[109] Taine, Hippolyte (1866). Voyage en Italie.
[110] Berenson, Bernard (1896). The Italian Painters of the Renaissance.
[111] Henneberger, Melinda. ArtNews article about current
studies into Leonardo's life and works. Art News Online.
Archived from the original on May 5, 2006. Retrieved January 10, 2010.
1.9 Bibliography
Daniel Arasse (1997). Leonardo da Vinci. Konecky
& Konecky. ISBN 1-56852-198-7.
Michael Baxandall (1974). Painting and Experience
in Fifteenth Century Italy. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-881329-5.
Andrea Bayer (2004). Painters of reality: the legacy of
Leonardo and Caravaggio in Lombardy. New York:
The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-158839-116-2.
Fred Brence (1965). Lonard de Vinci, L'homme et
son oeuvre. Somogy. Dpot lgal 4 trimestre 1965.
Luciano Berti (1971). The Uzi. Scala.
Liana Bortolon (1967). The Life and Times of
Leonardo. Paul Hamlyn, London.
Hugh Brigstoke (2001). The Oxford Companion the
Western Art. U.S.: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019-866203-3.
Gene A. Brucker (1969). Renaissance Florence. Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-11370-0.
Fritjof Capra (2007). The Science of Leonardo. U.S.:
Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-51390-6.
Cennino Cennini (2009). Il Libro Dell'arte O Trattato
Della Pittui. U.S.: BiblioBazaar. ISBN 978-1-10339032-8.
Angela Ottino della Chiesa (1967). The Complete
Paintings of Leonardo da Vinci. Penguin Classics of
World Art series. ISBN 0-14-008649-8.
Simona Cremante (2005). Leonardo da Vinci: Artist,
Scientist, Inventor. Giunti. ISBN 88-09-03891-6.
Frederich Hartt (1970). A History of Italian Renaissance Art. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-231362.

Martin Kemp (2004). Leonardo. Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-280644-0.
Leonardo da Vinci: anatomical drawings from the
Royal Library, Windsor Castle. New York: The
Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1983. ISBN 978-087099-362-6.
Mario Lucertini, Ana Millan Gasca, Fernando Nicolo (2004). Technological Concepts and Mathematical Models in the Evolution of Modern Engineering Systems. Birkhauser. ISBN 3-7643-6940-X.
John N. Lupia. The Secret Revealed: How to Look at
Italian Renaissance Painting. Medieval and Renaissance Times, Vol. 1, no. 2 (Summer, 1994): 617.
ISSN 1075-2110.
Andrew Martindale (1972). The Rise of the Artist.
Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-56006-4.
Roger Masters (1996). Machiavelli, Leonardo and the
Science of Power. University of Notre Dame Press.
ISBN 0-268-01433-7.
Roger Masters (1998). Fortune is a River: Leonardo
Da Vinci and Niccol Machiavelli's Magnicent Dream
to Change the Course of Florentine History. Simon &
Schuster. ISBN 0-452-28090-7.
Mntz, Eugne (1898). Leonardo da Vinci. Artist,
Thinker, and Man of Science. Volume 1. London:
William Heinemann.
Mntz, Eugne (1898). Leonardo da Vinci. Artist,
Thinker, and Man of Science. Volume 2. London:
William Heinemann.
Charles D. O'Malley and J. B. de C. M. Sounders
(1952). Leonardo on the Human Body: The Anatomical, Physiological, and Embryological Drawings of
Leonardo da Vinci. With Translations, Emendations
and a Biographical Introduction. Henry Schuman,
New York.
Charles Nicholl (2005). Leonardo da Vinci: The
Flights of the Mind. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-029681-6.
Sherwin B. Nuland (2001). Leonardo Da Vinci.
Phoenix Press. ISBN 0-7538-1269-X.
A.E. Popham (1946). The Drawings of Leonardo da
Vinci. Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-60462-7.
Shana Priwer & Cynthia Phillips (2006). The Everything Da Vinci Book: Explore the Life and Times of
the Ultimate Renaissance Man. Adams Media. ISBN
1-59869-101-5.
1.10. EXTERNAL LINKS
21
Ilan Rachum (1979). The Renaissance, an Illustrated

Encyclopedia. Octopus. ISBN 0-7064-0857-8.
Complete text & images of Richter's translation of the

Notebooks
Jean Paul Richter (1970). The Notebooks of Leonardo

da Vinci. Dover. ISBN 0-486-22572-0. volume 2:
ISBN 0-486-22573-9. A reprint of the original 1883
edition.
Web Gallery of Leonardo Paintings
Marco Rosci (1977). Leonardo. Bay Books Pty Ltd.

ISBN 0-85835-176-5.
The true face of Leonardo Da Vinci?
Paolo Rossi (2001). The Birth of Modern Science.

Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-22711-3.
Bruno Santi (1990). Leonardo da Vinci. Scala / Riverside.
Theophilus (1963). On Divers Arts. U.S.: University
of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-79482-2.
Jack Wasserman (1975). Leonardo da Vinci. Abrams.
ISBN 0-8109-0262-1.
Giorgio Vasari (1568). Lives of the Artists. Penguin
Classics, trans. George Bull 1965. ISBN 0-14-0441646.
Williamson, Hugh Ross (1974). Lorenzo the Magnicent. Michael Joseph. ISBN 0-7181-1204-0.
Emanuel Winternitz (1982). Leonardo Da Vinci As a
Musician. U.S.: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300-02631-3.
Alessandro Vezzosi (1997 (English translation)).
Leonardo da Vinci: Renaissance Man. Thames &
Hudson Ltd, London. ISBN 0-500-30081-X. Check
date values in: |date= (help)
Frank Zollner (2003). Leonardo da Vinci: The Complete Paintings and Drawings. Taschen. ISBN 3-82281734-1. [The chapter The Graphic Worksis by
Frank Zollner & Johannes Nathan].
1.10 External links

"Leonardo da Vinci" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
Leonardo da Vinci and the Virgin of the Rocks, A different point of view
Works by Leonardo da Vinci at Project Gutenberg
Leonardo da Vinci by Maurice Walter Brockwell' at

Project Gutenberg
Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci

Da Vinci Decoded Article from The Guardian
Leonardo da Vinci's Ethical Vegetarianism

The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vinci at BBC Science
Yahoo news, 500-year-old Leonardo da Vinci sculpture 'Horse and Rider' unveiled
Leonardo da Vinci: Anatomist The Queen's Gallery,
Buckingham Palace, Friday, 4 May 2012 to Sunday, 7
October 2012. High-resolution anatomical drawings.
Chapter 2
Michelangelo
For other uses, see Michelangelo (disambiguation).
Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni (6 March
1475 18 February 1564), commonly known as Michelangelo (Italian pronunciation: [mikelandelo]), was an Italian
sculptor, painter, architect, poet, and engineer of the High
Renaissance who exerted an unparalleled inuence on the
development of Western art.* [1] Considered the greatest
living artist in his lifetime, he has since been held as one
of the greatest artists of all time.* [1] Despite making few
forays beyond the arts, his versatility in the disciplines he
took up was of such a high order that he is often considered
a contender for the title of the archetypal Renaissance man,
along with his fellow Italian Leonardo da Vinci.
In his lifetime he was also often called Il Divino (the divine one).* [3] One of the qualities most admired by his
contemporaries was his terribilit, a sense of awe-inspiring
grandeur, and it was the attempts of subsequent artists to
imitate* [4] Michelangelo's impassioned and highly personal
style that resulted in Mannerism, the next major movement
in Western art after the High Renaissance.
2.1
Life
A number of his works in painting, sculpture, and architecture rank among the most famous in existence.* [1] His output in every eld during his long life was prodigious; when
the sheer volume of correspondence, sketches, and reminiscences that survive is also taken into account, he is the
best-documented artist of the 16th century.
Two of his best-known works, the Piet and David, were
sculpted before he turned thirty. Despite his low opinion
of painting, Michelangelo also created two of the most inuential works in fresco in the history of Western art: the
scenes from Genesis on the ceiling and The Last Judgment
on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel in Rome. As an architect, Michelangelo pioneered the Mannerist style at the
Laurentian Library. At the age of 74 he succeeded Antonio
da Sangallo the Younger as the architect of St. Peter's Basilica. Michelangelo transformed the plan, the western end being nished to Michelangelo's design, the dome being completed after his death with some modication.
In a demonstration of Michelangelo's unique standing, he
was the rst Western artist whose biography was published
while he was alive.* [2] Two biographies were published of
him during his lifetime; one of them, by Giorgio Vasari,
proposed that he was the pinnacle of all artistic achievement since the beginning of the Renaissance, a viewpoint
The Madonna of the Stairs (149092), Michelangelo's earliest
that continued to have currency in art history for centuries. known work
22
2.1. LIFE
See also: List of works by Michelangelo
2.1.1
Early life, 147588
Michelangelo was born on 6 March 1475* [a] in Caprese

near Arezzo, Tuscany.* [5] (Today, Caprese is known as
Caprese Michelangelo). For several generations, his family had been small-scale bankers in Florence, the bank
had failed and his father, Ludovico di Leonardo Buonarroti Simoni, briey took a government post in Caprese,
where Michelangelo was born.* [2] At the time of Michelangelo's birth, his father was the Judicial administrator of the
small town of Caprese and local administrator of Chiusi.
Michelangelo's mother was Francesca di Neri del Miniato di Siena.* [6] The Buonarrotis claimed to descend from
the Countess Mathilde of Canossa; this claim remains unproven, but Michelangelo himself believed it.* [7] Several
months after Michelangelo's birth, the family returned to
Florence, where Michelangelo was raised. At later times,
during his mother's prolonged illness and after her death in
1481, when he was just six years old, Michelangelo lived
with a stonecutter and his wife and family in the town of
Settignano, where his father owned a marble quarry and a
small farm.* [6] Giorgio Vasari quotes Michelangelo:
If there is some good in me, it is because I
was born in the subtle atmosphere of your country of Arezzo. Along with the milk of my nurse
I received the knack of handling chisel and hammer, with which I make my gures.* [5]
2.1.2
Apprenticeships, 148892
23
Church of Or' San Michele contained a gallery of works
by the greatest sculptors of Florence, Donatello, Ghiberti,
Verrocchio, and Nanni di Banco.* [10] The interiors of the
older churches were covered with frescos, mostly in the Late
Medieval style, but also in the Early Renaissance style, begun by Giotto and continued by Masaccio in the Brancacci
Chapel, both of whose works Michelangelo studied and
copied in drawings.* [13] During Michelangelo's childhood,
a team of painters had been called from Florence to the Vatican, in order to decorate the walls of the Sistine Chapel.
Among them was Domenico Ghirlandaio, a master of the
technique of fresco painting, of perspective, gure drawing
and portraiture. He had the largest workshop in Florence,
at that period.* [10]
In 1488, at thirteen, Michelangelo was apprenticed to
Ghirlandaio.* [14] When he was only fourteen, his father persuaded Ghirlandaio to pay his apprentice as an
artist, which was highly unusual at the time.* [15] When
in 1489, Lorenzo de' Medici, de facto ruler of Florence,
asked Ghirlandaio for his two best pupils, Ghirlandaio sent
Michelangelo and Francesco Granacci.* [16] From 1490 to
1492, Michelangelo attended the Humanist academy which
the Medici had founded along Neo Platonic lines. At the
academy, both Michelangelo's outlook and his art were subject to the inuence of many of the most prominent philosophers and writers of the day including Marsilio Ficino, Pico
della Mirandola and Poliziano.* [17] At this time, Michelangelo sculpted the reliefs Madonna of the Steps (14901492)
and Battle of the Centaurs (14911492).* [13] The latter was
based on a theme suggested by Poliziano and was commissioned by Lorenzo de Medici.* [18] Michelangelo worked
for a time with the sculptor Bertoldo di Giovanni. When he
was seventeen, another pupil, Pietro Torrigiano, struck him
on the nose, causing the disgurement which is conspicuous
in all the portraits of Michelangelo.* [19]
As a young boy Michelangelo was sent to Florence

to study grammar under the Humanist Francesco da
Urbino.* [5]* [8]* [b] The young artist, however, showed no 2.1.3 Bologna, Florence and Rome, 149299
interest in his schooling, preferring to copy paintings from
churches and seek the company of painters.* [8]
Lorenzo de' Medici's death on 8 April 1492 brought a reThe city of Florence was at that time the greatest centre of versal of Michelangelo's circumstances.* [20] Michelangelo
the arts and learning in Italy.* [9] Art was sponsored by the left the security of the Medici court and returned to his
Signoria (the town council), by the merchant guilds and by father's house. In the following months he carved a polywealthy patrons such as the Medici and their banking asso- chrome wooden Crucix (1493), as a gift to the prior of
ciates.* [10] The Renaissance, a renewal of Classical schol- the Florentine church of Santo Spirito, which had allowed
arship and the arts, had its rst owering in Florence.* [9] him to do some anatomical studies of the corpses of the
In the early 1400s, the architect Brunelleschi has studied church's hospital.* [21] Between 1493 and 1494 he bought
the remains of Classical buildings in Rome and created two a block of marble, and carved a larger than life statue of
churches, San Lorenzo's and Santo Spiritu, which embod- Hercules, which was sent to France and subsequently disied the Classical precepts.* [11] The sculptor Lorenzo Ghib- appeared sometime circa 18th century.* [18]* [c] On 20 Janerti had laboured for fty years to create the bronze doors uary 1494, after heavy snowfalls, Lorenzo's heir, Piero de
of the Baptistry, which Michelangelo was to describe as Medici, commissioned a snow statue, and Michelangelo
The Gates of Paradise.* [12] The exterior niches of the again entered the court of the Medici.
24
CHAPTER 2. MICHELANGELO
Michelangelo arrived in Rome 25 June 1496* [25] at the age
of 21. On 4 July of the same year, he began work on a
commission for Cardinal Raaele Riario, an over-life-size
statue of the Roman wine god Bacchus. Upon completion,
the work was rejected by the cardinal, and subsequently entered the collection of the banker Jacopo Galli, for his garden.
Michelangelo's Piet, St Peter's Basilica (149899)
In the same year, the Medici were expelled from Florence

as the result of the rise of Savonarola. Michelangelo left
the city before the end of the political upheaval, moving to
Venice and then to Bologna.* [20] In Bologna, he was commissioned to carve several of the last small gures for the
completion of the Shrine of St. Dominic, in the church dedicated to that saint. At this time Michelangelo studied the
robust reliefs carved by Jacopo della Quercia around main
portal of the Basilica of St Petronius, including the panel of
The Creation of Eve the composition of which was to reappear on the Sistine Chapel ceiling.* [22] Towards the end
of 1494, the political situation in Florence was calmer. The
city, previously under threat from the French, was no longer
in danger as Charles VIII had suered defeats. Michelangelo returned to Florence but received no commissions from
the new city government under Savonarola. He returned to
the employment of the Medici.* [23] During the half year
he spent in Florence, he worked on two small statues, a
child St. John the Baptist and a sleeping Cupid. According to Condivi, Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, for
whom Michelangelo had sculpted St. John the Baptist, asked
that Michelangelo x it so that it looked as if it had been
buriedso he could send it to Rome...pass [it o as] an
ancient work and sell it much better.Both Lorenzo and
Michelangelo were unwittingly cheated out of the real value
of the piece by a middleman. Cardinal Raaele Riario, to
whom Lorenzo had sold it, discovered that it was a fraud,
but was so impressed by the quality of the sculpture that he
invited the artist to Rome.* [24] * [d] This apparent success
in selling his sculpture abroad as well as the conservative
Florentine situation may have encouraged Michelangelo to
accept the prelate's invitation.* [23]
The Statue of David, completed by Michelangelo in 1504, is one of

the most renowned works of the Renaissance.
In November 1497, the French ambassador to the Holy See,

Cardinal Jean de Bilhres-Lagraulas, commissioned him to
carve a Piet, a sculpture showing the Virgin Mary grieving over the body of Jesus. The subject, which is not part
of the Biblical narrative of the Crucixion, was common in
religious sculpture of Medieval Northern Europe and would
have been very familiar to the Cardinal.* [26] The contract
was agreed upon in August of the following year. Michelan-
2.1. LIFE
25
gelo was 24 at the time of its completion.* [26] It was soon 2.1.5 Sistine Chapel ceiling, 150512
to be regarded as one of the world's great masterpieces of
sculpture, a revelation of all the potentialities and force Main article: Sistine Chapel ceiling
of the art of sculpture. Contemporary opinion was sum- In 1505, Michelangelo was invited back to Rome by the
marized by Vasari:It is certainly a miracle that a formless
block of stone could ever have been reduced to a perfection
that nature is scarcely able to create in the esh.* [27] It
is now located in St Peter's Basilica.
2.1.4
Florence, 14991505
Main article: David (Michelangelo)

Michelangelo returned to Florence in 1499. The republic
was changing after the fall of anti-Renaissance Priest and
leader of Florence, Girolamo Savonarola, (executed in
1498) and the rise of the gonfaloniere Piero Soderini. He
was asked by the consuls of the Guild of Wool to complete
an unnished project begun 40 years earlier by Agostino
di Duccio: a colossal statue of Carrara marble portraying David as a symbol of Florentine freedom, to be placed
on the gable of Florence Cathedral.* [28] Michelangelo responded by completing his most famous work, the Statue
of David, in 1504. The masterwork denitively established
his prominence as a sculptor of extraordinary technical skill
and strength of symbolic imagination. A team of consultants, including Botticelli and Leonardo da Vinci, was
called together to decide upon its placement, ultimately the
Piazza della Signoria, in front of the Palazzo Vecchio. It
now stands in the Academia while a replica occupies its
place in the square.* [29]
Michelangelo painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel; the work took
approximately four years to complete (150812)
newly elected Pope Julius II. He was commissioned to build

the Pope's tomb, which was to include forty statues and be
nished in ve years.* [34]
Under the patronage of the Pope, Michelangelo experienced constant interruptions to his work on the tomb
in order to accomplish numerous other tasks. Although
Michelangelo worked on the tomb for 40 years, it was never
nished to his satisfaction.* [34] It is located in the Church
of S. Pietro in Vincoli in Rome and is most famous for the
central gure of Moses, completed in 1516.* [35] Of the
With the completion of the David came another commission. In early 1504 Leonardo da Vinci had been com- other statues intended for the tomb, two known as the Heroic
Captive and the Dying Captive, are now in the Louvre.* [34]
missioned in the council chamber of the Palazzo Vecchio
depicting the Battle of Angiari between the forces of Flo- During the same period, Michelangelo painted the ceiling
rence and Milan in 1434. Michelangelo was then com- of the Sistine Chapel, which took approximately four years
missioned to paint the Battle of Cascina. The two paint- to complete (15081512).* [35] According to Condivi's acings are very dierent, Leonardo's depicting soldiers ght- count, Bramante, who was working on the building of St Peing on horseback, and Michelangelo's showing soldiers be- ter's Basilica, resented Michelangelo's commission for the
ing ambushed as they bathe in the river. Neither work was Pope's tomb and convinced the Pope to commission him in
completed and both were lost when the chamber was refur- a medium with which he was unfamiliar, in order that he
bished. Both works were much admired and copies remain might fail at the task.* [36]
of them, Leonardo's work having been copied by Rubens Michelangelo was originally commissioned to paint the
and Michelangelo's by Bastiano da Sangallo.* [30]
Twelve Apostles on the triangular pendentives that supAlso during this period, Michelangelo was commissioned
by Angelo Doni to paint a Holy Familyas a present for
his wife, Maddalena Strozzi. It is known as the Doni Tondo
and hangs in the Uzi Gallery in its original magnicent
frame which Michelangelo may have designed.* [31]* [32]
He also may have painted the Madonna and Child with John
the Baptist, known as the Manchester Madonna and now in
the National Gallery, London, United Kingdom.* [33]
ported the ceiling, and cover the central part of the ceiling
with ornament.* [37] Michelangelo persuaded Pope Julius
to give him a free hand and proposed a dierent and more
complex scheme, representing the Creation, the Fall of
Man, the Promise of Salvation through the prophets, and
the genealogy of Christ. The work is part of a larger scheme
of decoration within the chapel which represents much of
the doctrine of the Catholic Church.* [37]
26
The composition stretches over 500 square metres of ceiling,* [38] and contains over 300 gures.* [37] At its centre are nine episodes from the Book of Genesis, divided
into three groups: God's Creation of the Earth; God's Creation of Humankind and their fall from God's grace; and
lastly, the state of Humanity as represented by Noah and
his family. On the pendentives supporting the ceiling are
painted twelve men and women who prophesied the coming of the Jesus; seven prophets of Israel and ve Sibyls,
prophetic women of the Classical world.* [37] Among the
most famous paintings on the ceiling are The Creation of
Adam, Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, the Deluge,
the Prophet Jeremiah and the Cumaean Sibyl.
as attempting to open a new marble quarry at Pietrasanta
specically for the project. In 1520 the work was abruptly
cancelled by his nancially strapped patrons before any real
progress had been made. The basilica lacks a faade to this
day.* [39]
In 1520 the Medici came back to Michelangelo with another grand proposal, this time for a family funerary chapel
in the Basilica of San Lorenzo.* [35] Fortunately for posterity, this project, occupying the artist for much of the
1520s and 1530s, was more fully realized. Michelangelo
used his own discretion to create its composition of the
Medici Chapel. It houses the large tombs of two of the
younger members of the Medici family, Giuliano, Duke
of Nemours, and Lorenzo, his nephew, but it also serves
to commemorate their more famous predecessors, Lorenzo
the Magnicent and his brother Giuliano who are buried
nearby. The tombs display statues of the two Medici and
allegorical gures representing Night and Day, and Dusk
and Dawn. The chapel also contains Michelangelo's Medici
Madonna.* [40] In 1976 a concealed corridor was discovered with drawings on the walls that related to the chapel
itself.* [41]* [42]
Pope Leo X died in 1521, to be succeeded briey by
the austere Adrian VI, then his cousin Giulio Medici as
Pope Clement VII.* [43] In 1524 Michelangelo received
an architectural commission from the Medici pope for the
Laurentian Library at San Lorenzo's Church.* [35] He designed both the interior of the library itself and its vestibule,
a building which utilises architectural forms with such dynamic eect that it is seen as the forerunner of Baroque architecture. It was left to assistants to interpret his plans and
carry out instruction. The library was not opened until 1571
and the vestibule remained incomplete until 1904.* [44]
In 1527, the Florentine citizens, encouraged by the sack

of Rome, threw out the Medici and restored the republic.
A siege of the city ensued, and Michelangelo went to the
aid of his beloved Florence by working on the city's fortications from 1528 to 1529. The city fell in 1530 and
the Medici were restored to power.* [35] Michelangelo fell
out of favour with the young Alessandro Medici who had
been installed as the rst Duke of Florence, and fearing
Moses for the tomb of Pope Julius II
for his life, he ed to Rome, leaving assistants to complete the Medici chapel and the Laurentian Library. Despite
Michelangelo's support of the republic and resistance to the
2.1.6 Florence under Medici popes, 1513 Medici rule, he was welcomed by Pope Clement who reinstated an allowance that he had previously made the artist
early 1534
and made a new contract with him over the tomb of Pope
*
In 1513, Pope Julius II died and was succeeded by Pope Julius. [45]
Leo X, the second son of Lorenzo dei Medici.* [35] Pope
Leo commissioned Michelangelo to reconstruct the faade
of the Basilica of San Lorenzo in Florence and to adorn
it with sculptures. He agreed reluctantly and spent three
years creating drawings and models for the faade, as well
2.1. LIFE
27
Marcello Venusti, is in the Capodimonte Museum of
Naples.* [49]
Michelangelo worked on a number of architectural projects
at this time. They included a design for the Capitoline
Hill with its trapezoid piazza displaying the ancient bronze
statue of Marcus Aurelius. He designed the upper oor of
the Palazzo Farnese, and the interior of the Church of Santa
Maria degli Angeli, in which he transformed the vaulted
interior of an Ancient Roman bathhouse. Other architectural works include San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, the Sforza
Chapel (Capella Sforza) in the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore and the Porta Pia.* [50]
The Last Judgement (153441)
2.1.7
Rome, 153446
In Rome, Michelangelo lived near the church of Santa

Maria di Loreto. It was at this time that he met the poet,
Vittoria Colonna, marchioness of Pescara, who was to become one of his closest friends until her death in 1547.* [46]
Shortly before his death in 1534 Pope Clement VII commissioned Michelangelo to paint a fresco of The Last Judgement
on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel. His successor, Paul
III was instrumental in seeing that Michelangelo began and
completed the project. Michelangelo labored on the project
from 1534 to October 1541.* [35] The fresco depicts the
Second Coming of Christ and his Judgement of the souls.
Michelangelo ignored the usual artistic conventions in portraying Jesus, and showed him a massive, muscular gure, The dome of St Peter's Basilica
youthful, beardless and naked.* [47] He is surrounded by
saints, among which Saint Bartholomew holds a drooping
ayed skin, bearing the likeness of Michelangelo. The dead 2.1.8 St Peter's Basilica, 154664
rise from their graves, to be consigned either to Heaven or
Main article: St Peter's Basilica Architecture
to Hell.* [47]
Once completed, the depiction of Christ and the Virgin Mary naked was considered sacrilegious, and Cardinal
Carafa and Monsignor Sernini (Mantua's ambassador) campaigned to have the fresco removed or censored, but
the Pope resisted. At the Council of Trent, shortly before Michelangelo's death in 1564, it was decided to obscure the genitals and Daniele da Volterra, an apprentice of Michelangelo, was commissioned to make the alterations.* [48] An uncensored copy of the original, by
While still working on the Last Judgement, Michelangelo

received yet another commission for the Vatican. This was
for the painting of two large frescos in the Cappella Paolina
depicting signicant events in the lives of the two most important saints of Rome, the Conversion of Saint Paul and the
Crucixion of Saint Peter. Like the Last Judgement, these
two works are complex compositions containing a great
number of gures.* [51] They were completed in 1550. In
28
the same year, Giorgio Vasari published his Vita, including

a biography of Michelangelo.* [52]
In 1546, Michelangelo was appointed architect of St. Peter's Basilica, Rome.* [35] The process of replacing the
Constantinian basilica of the 4th century had been underway for fty years and in 1506 foundations had been laid to
the plans of Bramante. Successive architects had worked
on it, but little progress had been made. Michelangelo was
persuaded to take over the project. He returned to the concepts of Bramante, and developed his ideas for a centrally
planned church, strengthening the structure both physically
and visually.* [53] The dome, not completed until after his
death, has been called by Banister Fletcher, the greatest
creation of the Renaissance.* [54]
As construction was progressing on St Peter's, there was
concern that Michelangelo would pass away before the
dome was nished. However, once building commenced on
the lower part of the dome, the supporting ring, the completion of the design was inevitable.
On 7 December 2007, a red chalk sketch for the dome of
St Peter's Basilica, possibly the last made by Michelangelo
before his death, was discovered in the Vatican archives. It
is extremely rare, since he destroyed his designs later in life.
The sketch is a partial plan for one of the radial columns of
the cupola drum of Saint Peter's.* [55]
2.2 Personal life

In his personal life, Michelangelo was abstemious. He told
his apprentice, Ascanio Condivi:However rich I may have
been, I have always lived like a poor man.* [56] Condivi
said he was indierent to food and drink, eatingmore out
of necessity than of pleasure* [56] and that heoften slept
in his clothes and ... boots.* [56] His biographer Paolo
Giovio says, His nature was so rough and uncouth that
his domestic habits were incredibly squalid, and deprived
posterity of any pupils who might have followed him.* [57]
He may not have minded, since he was by nature a solitary
and melancholy person, bizzarro e fantastico, a man who
withdrew himself from the company of men.* [58]
It is impossible to know for certain whether Michelangelo had physical relationships (Condivi ascribed to him a
monk-like chastity),* [59] but the nature of his sexuality
is made apparent in his poetry.* [60] He wrote over three
hundred sonnets and madrigals. The longest sequence was
written to Tommaso dei Cavalieri (c. 15091587), who was
23 years old when Michelangelo met him in 1532, at the age
of 57. These make up the rst large sequence of poems in
any modern tongue addressed by one man to another, predating Shakespeare's sonnets to the fair youth by fty years:
Ignudo from the Sistine Chapel ceiling
Cavalieri replied:I swear to return your love. Never have I

loved a man more than I love you, never have I wished for a
friendship more than I wish for yours.Cavalieri remained
devoted to Michelangelo until his death.* [61]
In 1542 Michelangelo met Cecchino dei Bracci who died
only a year later, inspiring Michelangelo to write forty-eight
funeral epigrams. Some of the objects of Michelangelo's
aections, and subjects of his poetry, took advantage of
him: the model Febo di Poggio asked for money in response
to a love-poem, and a second model, Gherardo Perini, stole
from him shamelessly.* [61]
The openly homoerotic nature of the poetry was a source
of discomfort to later generations. Michelangelo's grandnephew, Michelangelo the Younger, published the poems in
1623 with the gender of pronouns changed,* [62] and it was
not until John Addington Symonds translated them into English in 1893 that the original genders were restored. Even
in modern times some scholars continue to insist that, despite the restoration of the pronouns, they represent an
emotionless and elegant re-imagining of Platonic dialogue,
whereby erotic poetry was seen as an expression of rened
2.3. WORKS
sensibilities.* [61]
Late in life, Michelangelo nurtured a great love for the poet
and noble widow Vittoria Colonna, whom he met in Rome
in 1536 or 1538 and who was in her late forties at the time.
They wrote sonnets for each other and were in regular contact until she died. Condivi recalls Michelangelo's saying
that his sole regret in life was that he did not kiss the widow's
face in the same manner that he had her hand.* [46]
2.3 Works
2.3.1
Madonna and Child
The Madonna of the Steps is Michelangelo's earliest known

work. It is carved in shallow relief, a technique often employed by the master-sculptor of the early 15th century,
Donatello and others such as Desiderio da Settignano.* [63]
While the Madonna is in prole, the easiest aspect for a
shallow relief, the child displays a twisting motion that was
to become characteristic of Michelangelo's work. The Taddeo Tondo of 1502, shows the Christ Child frightened by a
Bullnch, a symbol of the Crucixion.* [31] The lively form
of the child was later adapted by Raphael in the Bridgewater Madonna. The Bruges Madonna was, at the time of
its creation, unlike other such statues which show the Virgin proudly presenting her son. Here, the Christ Child, restrained by his mother's clasping hand, is about to step o
into the world.* [64] The Doni Tondo, depicting the Holy
Family, has elements of all three previous works: the frieze
of gures in the background has the appearance of a lowrelief, while the circular shape and dynamic forms echo the
Taddeo Tondo. The twisting motion present in the Bruges
Madonna is accentuated in the painting. The painting heralds the forms, movement and colour that Michelangelo was
to employ on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.* [31]
29
Niccol dell'Arca. An angel holding a candlestick, by Niccol, was already in place.* [65] Although the two angels
form a pair, there is a great contrast between the two works,
the one depicting a delicate child with owing hair clothed
in Gothic robes with deep folds, and Michelangelo's depicting a robust and muscular youth with eagle's wings, clad in
a garment of Classical style. Everything about Michelangelo's angel is dynamic.* [66] Michelangelo's Bacchus was
a commission with a specied subject, the youthful God of
Wine. The sculpture has all the traditional attributes, a vine
wreath, a cup of wine and a fawn, but Michelangelo ingested
an air of reality into the subject, depicting him with bleary
eyes, a swollen bladder and a stance that suggests he is unsteady on his feet.* [65] While the work is plainly inspired
by Classical sculpture, it is innovative for its rotating movement and strongly three-dimensional quality, which encourages the viewer to look at it from every angle.* [67] In the socalled Dying Slave, Michelangelo has again has utilised the
gure with marked contraposto to suggest a particular human state, in this case waking from sleep. With the Rebellious Slave It is one of two such earlier gures for the Tomb
of Pope Julius, now in the Louvre, that the sculptor brought
to an almost nished state.* [68] These two works were to
have a profound inuence on later sculpture, through Rodin
who studied them at the Louvre.* [69] The Bound Slave is
one of the later gures for Pope Julius' tomb. The works,
known collectively as The Captives, each show the gure
struggling to free itself, as if from the bonds of the rock
in which it is lodged. The works give a unique insight into
the sculptural methods that Michelangelo employed and his
way of revealing what he perceived within the rock.* [70]
Angel by Michelangelo, early work (149495)
Bacchus by Michelangelo, early work (149697)
Dying slave, Louvre (1513)
Bound slave, known as Atlas (153034)
The Madonna of the Steps (149092)

The Taddei Tondo (1502)
2.3.3
Madonna and Child. Brugge, Belgium (1504)
Main article: Sistine Chapel ceiling
The Doni Tondo (150406)
2.3.2
Male gure
The kneeling angel is an early work, one of several that

Michelangelo created as part of a large decorative scheme
for the Arca of St Dominic in the church dedicated to that
saint in Bologna. Several other artists had worked on the
scheme, beginning with Nicola Pisano in the 13th century. In the late 15th century, the project was managed by
Sistine Chapel ceiling
The Sistine Chapel ceiling was painted between 1508 and

1512.* [35] The ceiling is a attened barrel vault supported
on twelve triangular pendentives that rise from between the
windows of the chapel. The commission, as envisaged by
Pope Julius II, was to adorn the pendentives with gures of
the twelve apostles.* [71] Michelangelo, who was reluctant
to take the job, persuaded the Pope to give him a free hand
in the composition.* [72] The resultant scheme of decoration awed his contemporaries and has inspired other artists
ever since.* [73] The scheme is of nine panels illustrating
30
episodes from the Book of Genesis, set in an architectonic 2.3.4 Figure compositions
frame. On the pendentives, Michelangelo replaced the proposed Apostles with Prophets and Sibyls who heralded the Michelangelo's relief of the Battle of the Centaurs, crecoming of the Messiah.* [72]
ated while he was still a youth associated with the Medici
Academy, is an unusually complex relief in that it shows
a great number of gures involved in a vigorous struggle.
Such a complex disarray of gures was rare in Florentine
art, where it would usually only be found in images showing either the Massacre of the Innocents or the Torments
of Hell. The relief treatment, in which some of the gures
are boldly projecting, may indicate Michelangelo's familiarity with Roman sarcophagus reliefs from the collection
of Lorenzo Medici, and similar marble panels created by
The Sistine Chapel Ceiling (150812)
Nicola and Giovanni Pisano, and with the gurative compositions on Ghiberti's Baptistry Doors.
Michelangelo began painting with the later episodes in
the narrative, the pictures including locational details and The composition of the Battle of Cascina, is known in its engroups of gures, the Drunkenness of Noah being the rst tirety only from copies, as the original cartoon, according to
of this group.* [72] In the later compositions, painted af- Vasari, was so admired that it deteriorated and was eventuter the initial scaolding had been removed, Michelangelo ally in pieces. It reects the earlier relief in the energy and
made the gures larger.* [72] One of the central images, The diversity of the gures, with many dierent postures, and
Creation of Adam is one of the best known and most repro- many being viewed from the back, as they turn toward the
duced works in the history of art. The nal panel, showing approaching enemy and prepare for battle.
God dividing Light from Darkness is the broadest in style In The Last Judgement it is said that Michelangelo drew inand was painted in a single day. As the model for the Cre- spiration from a fresco by Melozzo da Forli in the Church
ator, Michelangelo has depicted himself in the action of of the Holy Apostles, Rome. While the work is very dierpainting the ceiling.* [72]
ent in character to Michelangelo's, Melozzo had depicting
gures from dierent angles, as if they were oating in the
Heaven and seen from below. Melozzo's majestic gure
of Christ, with windblown cloak, demonstrates a degree of
The Deluge (detail)
foreshortening of the gure that had also been employed by
Andrea Mantegna, but was not usual in the frescos of Flo The Creation of Adam (1510)
rentine painters. In The Last Judgement Michelangelo had
The First day of Creation
the opportunity to depict, on an unprecedented scale, gures in the action of either rising heavenward or falling and
As supporters to the smaller scenes, Michelangelo painted being dragged down.
twenty youths who have variously been interpreted as an- In the two frescos of the Pauline Chapel, the Crucixion of
gels, as muses, or simply as decoration. Michelangelo re- Peter and the Conversion of Paul, Michelangelo has used
ferred to them as ignudi.* [74] The gure reproduced the various groups of gures to convey a complex narrative.
may be seen in context in the above image of God divid- In the Crucixion of Peter soldiers busy themselves about
ing Light from Darkness. In the process of painting the their assigned duty of digging a post hole and raising the
ceiling, Michelangelo made studies for dierent gures, of cross while various people look on and discuss the events.
which some, such as that for The Libyan Sibyl have sur- A group of horried women cluster in the foreground, while
vived, demonstrating the care taken by Michelangelo in de- another group of Christians is led by a tall man to witness
tails such as the hands and feet.* [75] The Prophet Jeremiah, the events. In the right foreground, Michelangelo walks out
contemplating the downfall of Jerusalem, is an image of the of the painting with an expression of disillusionment.
artist himself.
The Drunkenness of Noah
Ignudo (1511)
Studies for The Libyan Sibyl
The Libyan Sibyl (1511)
The Prophet Jeremiah (1511)
The Battle of the Centaurs (1492)

Copy of the lost Battle of Cascina by Bastiano da Sangallo
The Last Judgement, detail of the Redeemed. (see
whole image above)
2.4. MICHELANGELO'S LEGACY

Crucixion of St Peter
2.3.5
Architecture
Michelangelo's architectural commissions included a number that were not realised, notably the facade for
Brunelleschi's Church of San Lorenzo in Florence, for
which Michelangelo had a wooden model constructed, but
which remains to this day unnished rough brick. At the
same church, Giulio de' Medici (later Pope Clement VII)
commissioned him to design the Medici Chapel and the
tombs of Giuliano and Lorenzo Medici.* [76] Pope Clement
also commissioned the Laurentian Library, for which
Michelangelo also designed the extraordinary vestibule with
columns recessed into niches, and a staircase that appears to
spill out of the library like a ow of lava, according to Pevsner, ....revealing Mannerism in its most sublime architectural
form.* [77]
In 1546 Michelangelo produced the highly complex ovoid
design for the pavement of the Campidoglio and began designing an upper storey for the Farnese Palace. In 1547 he
took on the job of completing St Peter's Basilica, begun to a
design by Bramante, and with several intermediate designs
by several architects. Michelangelo returned to Bramante's
design, retaining the basic form and concepts by simplifying and strengthening the design to create a more dynamic
and unied whole.* [78] Although the late 16th-century engraving depicts the dome as having a hemispherical prole,
the dome of Michelangelo's model is somewhat ovoid and
the nal product, as completed by Giacomo della Porta is
more so.* [78]
The vestibule of the Laurentian Library has Mannerist
features which challenge the Classical order of
Brunelleschi's adjacent church.
Michelangelo's redesign of the ancient Capitoline Hill
included a complex spiralling pavement with a star at
its centre.
Michelangelo's design for St Peter's is both massive
and contained, with the corners between the apsidal
arms of the Greek Cross lled by square projections.
31
Julius II but left unnished. In this group, the youthful victor overcomes an older hooded gure, with the features of
Michelangelo.
The Pieta of Vittoria Colonna is a chalk drawing of a type
described as presentation drawings, as they might be
given as a gift by an artist, and were not necessarily studies
towards a painted work. In this image, Mary's upraise arms
and upraised hands are indicative of her prophetic role. The
frontal aspect is reminiscent of Masaccio's fresco of the
Holy Trinity in Santa Maria Novella, Florence.
In the Florentine Pieta, Michelangelo again depicts himself,
this time as the aged Nicodemus lowering the body of Jesus
from the cross into the arms of Mary his mother and Mary
Magdalene. Michelangelo smashed the left arm and leg of
the gure of Jesus. His pupil Tiberio Calcagni repaired the
arm and drilled a hole in which to x a replacement leg. He
also worked on the gure of Mary Magdalene.
Probably Michelangelo's last sculpture, the Rondanini Pieta
could never be completed because Michelangelo carved it
away until there was insucient stone. The legs and a detached arm remain from a previous stage of the work. As it
remains, the sculpture has an abstracted quality, in keeping
with 20th-century concepts of sculpture.
Michelangelo died in Rome in 1564, at the age of 88 (three
weeks before his 89th birthday). His body was taken from
Rome for interment at the Basilica of Santa Croce, fullling the maestro's last request to be buried in his beloved
Florence.* [79]
Statue of Victory (1534), Palazzo Vecchio, Florence
The Pieta of Vittoria Colonna (c. 1540)
Michelangelo and Tiberio Calcagni, Pieta Firenze (c.
155061)
The Rondanini Pieta (155264)
2.4
Michelangelo's legacy
Main article: List of works by Michelangelo

The exterior is surrounded by a giant order of pilasters
supporting a continuous cornice. Four small cupolas
Michelangelo, with Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael, is one
cluster around the dome.
of the three giants of the Florentine High Renaissance. Although their names are often cited together, Michelangelo
was younger than Leonardo by 23 years, and older than
2.3.6 Death
Raphael by eight. Because of his reclusive nature, he had litIn his old age, Michelangelo created a number of Pietas in tle to do with either artist and outlived both of them by more
which he apparently reects upon mortality. They are her- than forty years. Michelangelo took few sculpture students.
alded by the Victory, perhaps created for the tomb of Pope He employed Francesco Granacci, who was his fellow pupil
32
Peter's was to inuence the building of churches for many
centuries, including Sant'Andrea della Valle in Rome and
St Paul's Cathedral, London, as well as the civic domes of
many public buildings and the state capitals across America.
Artists who were directly inuenced by Michelangelo include Raphael, who imitated Michelangelo's prophets in
two of his works, including his depiction of the great master
in the School of Athens. Other artists, such as Pontormo,
drew on the writhing forms of the Last Judgement and the
frescoes of the Capella Paolina.
The Sistine Chapel ceiling was a work of unprecedented
grandeur, both for its architectonic forms, to be imitated by
many Baroque ceiling painters, and also for the wealth of
its inventiveness in the study of gures. Vasari wrote:
The work has proved a veritable beacon to
our art, of inestimable benet to all painters,
restoring light to a world that for centuries had
been plunged into darkness. Indeed, painters no
longer need to seek for new inventions, novel attitudes, clothed gures, fresh ways of expression,
dierent arrangements, or sublime subjects, for
this work contains every perfection possible under those headings.* [80]
2.5
Michelangelo's tomb in the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence
See also
Michelangelo and the Medici

Michelangelo phenomenon
at the Medici Academy, and became one of several assistants on the Sistine Chapel ceiling.* [37] Michelangelo appears to have used assistants mainly for the more manual
tasks of preparing surfaces and grinding colours. Despite
this, his works were to have a great inuence on painters,
sculptors and architects for many generations to come.
While Michelangelo's David is the most famous male nude
of all time and destined to be reproduced in order to grace
cities around the world, some of his other works have had
perhaps even greater impact on the course of art. The twisting forms and tensions of the Victory, the Bruges Madonna
and the Medici Madonna make them the heralds of the
Mannerist art. The unnished giants for the tomb of Pope
Julius II had profound eect on late-19th- and 20th-century
sculptors such as Rodin and Henry Moore.
Michelangelo's foyer of the Laurentian Library was one of
the earliest buildings to utilise Classical forms in a plastic and expressive manner. This dynamic quality was later
to nd its major expression in Michelangelo's centrally
planned St Peter's, with its giant order, its rippling cornice
and its upward-launching pointed dome. The dome of St
Renaissance art
Restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes
3001 Michelangelo asteroid
The Agony and the Ecstasy
2.6
Footnotes
a. * ^ Michelangelo's father marks the date as 6
March 1474 in the Florentine manner ab Incarnatione. However, in the Roman manner, ab Nativitate, it is 1475.
b. * ^ Sources disagree as to how old Michelangelo was when he departed for school. De Tolnay
writes that it was at ten years old while Sedgwick
notes in her translation of Condivi that Michelangelo was seven.
c. * ^ The Strozzi family acquired the sculpture
Hercules. Filippo Strozzi sold it to Francis I in
2.7. REFERENCES
33
1529. In 1594, Henry IV installed it in the Jardin

d'Estang at Fontainebleau where it disappeared in
1713 when the Jardin d'Estange was destroyed.
[25] J. de Tolnay, The Youth of Michelangelo, pp. 2628
d. * ^ Vasari makes no mention of this episode

and Paolo Giovio's Life of Michelangelo indicates
that Michelangelo tried to pass the statue o as an
antique himself.
[27] Vasari, Lives of the painters: Michelangelo
[26] Hirst and Dunkerton pp. 4755
[28] Paoletti and Radke, pp. 38789

[29] Goldscheider, p. 10
2.7 References
[1] Michelangelo biography. Encyclopdia Britannica.
[2] Michelangelo. (2008). Encyclopdia Britannica. Ultimate
Reference Suite.
[32] Hirst and Dunkerton, p. 127
[33] Hirst and Dunkerton, pp. 33646; 83105
[34] Goldscheider, pp. 1416
[3] Emison, Patricia. A (2004). Creating the Divine Artist":

from Dante to Michelangelo. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-137097.
[35] Bartz and Knig, p. 134
[4] Art and Illusion, E. H. Gombrich, ISBN 9780691070001
[5] J. de Tolnay, The Youth of Michelangelo, p. 11
[6] C. Clment, Michelangelo, p. 5
[39] Coughlan, pp. 13536
[7] A. Condivi, The Life of Michelangelo, p. 5

[9] Coughlan, Robert; (1978), The World of Michelangelo,
Time-Life; pp. 1415
[36] Coughlan, p. 112

[41] Peter Barenboim, Sergey Shiyan, Michelangelo: Mysteries of
Medici Chapel, SLOVO, Moscow, 2006. ISBN 5-85050825-2
[42] Peter Barenboim, Michelangelo Drawings Key to the

Medici Chapel Interpretation, Moscow, Letny Sad, 2006,
ISBN 5-98856-016-4
[11] Giovanni Fanelli, (1980) Brunelleschi, Becocci Firenze, pp.

310
[12] H. Gardner, p. 408
[45] Coughlan, pp.15961
[14] R. Liebert, Michelangelo: A Psychoanalytic Study of his Life

and Images, p. 59
[46] A. Condivi (ed. Hellmut Wohl), The Life of Michelangelo,

p. 103, Phaidon, 1976.
[47] Bartz and Knig, pp. 100102
[48] Bartz and Knig, pp. 102, 109
[50] Goldscheider, pp. 8, 21, 22
[52] Ilan Rachum, The Renaissance, an Illustrated Encyclopedia,

Octopus (1979) ISBN0 7064 0857 8

[24] A. Condivi, The Life of Michelangelo, pp. 1920
[53] Gardner, pp. 48081

[54] Banister Fletcher, 17th ed. p. 719
[55] Michelangelo 'last sketch' found. BBC News. 7 December 2007. Retrieved 9 February 2009.
34
[56] Condivi, The Life of Michelangelo, p. 106.

[57] Paola Barocchi (ed.) Scritti d'arte del cinquecento, Milan,
1971; vol. I p. 10.
[58] , Condivi, p. 102.
2.8
Further reading
Ackerman, James (1986).

The Architecture of
Michelangelo. University of Chicago Press. ISBN
978-0-226-00240-8.
[59] Hughes, Anthony, Michelangelo, page 326. Phaidon,

1997.
Clment, Charles (1892). Michelangelo. Harvard

University, Digitized 25 June 2007: S. Low, Marston,
Searle, & Rivington, ltd.: London.
[60] Scigliano, Eric: Michelangelo's Mountain; The Quest for

Perfection in the Marble Quarries of Carrara, Simon and
Schuster, 2005. Retrieved 27 January 2007
Condivi, Ascanio; Alice Sedgewick (1553). The Life

of Michelangelo. Pennsylvania State University Press.
ISBN 0-271-01853-4.
[61] Hughes, Anthony:Michelangelo, p. 326. Phaidon, 1997.
Baldini, Umberto; Liberto Perugi (1982). The Sculpture of Michelangelo. Rizzoli. ISBN 0-8478-0447-X.
[62] Rictor Norton, The Myth of the Modern Homosexual,

p.143. Cassell, 1997.
[66] Hirst and Dunkerton, pp. 2021
[69] Yvon Taillandier, Rodin, New York: Crown Trade Paperbacks, (1977) ISBN 0-517-88378-3
[71] Goldscieder p. 12
[73] Vasari, et al.
[74] Bartz and Knig
[75] Coughlan
[76] Goldscheider
[77] Nikolaus Pevsner, An Outline of European Architecture, Pelican, 1964
[78] Gardner
[80] Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Artists: Michelangelo
Barenboim, Peter and Shiyan, Sergey (2011).

Michelangelo in the Medici Chapel: Genius in details (English, Russian). Moscow: Looom. ISBN
978-5-9903067-1-4
Bartz, Gabriele; Eberhard Knig (1998). Michelangelo. Knemann. ISBN 3-8290-0253-X.
Einem, Herbert von (1973). Michelangelo. Trans.
Ronald Taylor. London: Methuen.
Gardner, Helen; Fred S. Kleiner, Christin J. Mamiya,
Gardner's Art through the Ages. Thomson Wadsworth,
(2004) ISBN 0-15-505090-7.
Gilbert, Creighton (1994). Michelangelo On and O
the Sistine Ceiling. New York: George Braziller.
Goldscheider, Ludwig (1953). Michelangelo: Paintings, Sculptures, Architecture. Phaidon.
Goldscheider, Ludwig (1953). Michelangelo: Drawings. Phaidon.
Hartt, Frederick (1987).
David by the Hand
of Michelangelo the Original Model Discovered,
Abbeville, ISBN 0-89659-761-X
Hibbard, Howard (1974). Michelangelo. New York:
Harper & Row.
Hirst, Michael and Jill Dunkerton. (1994) The Young
Michelangelo: The Artist in Rome 14961501. London: National Gallery Publications, ISBN 1-85709066-7
Liebert, Robert (1983). Michelangelo: A Psychoanalytic Study of his Life and Images. New Haven and
London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-027931.
Nret, Gilles (2000). Michelangelo. Taschen. ISBN
978-3-8228-5976-6.
2.9. EXTERNAL LINKS

Paoletti, John T. and Radke, Gary M., (2005) Art
in Renaissance Italy, Laurence King, ISBN 1-85669439-9
Pietrangeli, Carlo, et al. (1994). The Sistine Chapel:
A Glorious Restoration. New York: Harry N. Abrams
Sala, Charles (1996). Michelangelo: Sculptor, Painter,
Architect. Editions Pierre Terrail. ISBN 978-287939-069-7.
Saslow, James M. (1991). The Poetry of Michelangelo:
An Annotated Translation. New Haven and London:
Yale University Press.
Rolland, Romain (2009). Michelangelo. BiblioLife.
ISBN 1-110-00353-6.
Seymour, Charles, Jr. (1972). Michelangelo: The Sistine Chapel Ceiling. New York: W. W. Norton.
Stone, Irving (1987). The Agony and the Ecstasy.
Signet. ISBN 0-451-17135-7.
Summers, David (1981). Michelangelo and the Language of Art. Princeton University Press.
Tolnay, Charles (1947). The Youth of Michelangelo.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Tolnay, Charles de. (1964). The Art and Thought of
Michelangelo. 5 vols. New York: Pantheon Books.
Wallace, William E. (2011). Michelangelo: The
Artist, the Man and his Times. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 1-107-67369-0.
Wilde, Johannes (1978). Michelangelo: Six Lectures.
Oxford: Clarendon Press.
2.9 External links

Works by Michelangelo Buonarroti at Project Gutenberg
The Digital Michelangelo Project
The BP Special Exhibition Michelangelo Drawings
closer to the master
Michelangelo's Drawings: Real or Fake? How to decide if a drawing is by Michelangelo.
Michelangelo: The Man and the Myth
35
Chapter 3
El Greco
This article is about the artist of the Spanish Renaissance. 3.1.1
For other uses, see El Greco (disambiguation).
Early years and family
El Greco, born Domnikos Theotokpoulos (1541

7 April 1614), was a painter, sculptor and architect of
the Spanish Renaissance. El Greco(The Greek)
was a nickname,* [a]* [b] a reference to his Greek origin,
and the artist normally signed his paintings with his full
birth name in Greek letters,
(Domnikos Theotokpoulos), often adding the word
(Krs, "Cretan").
El Greco was born in Crete, which was at that time part of
the Republic of Venice, and the center of Post-Byzantine
art. He trained and became a master within that tradition
before traveling at age 26 to Venice, as other Greek artists
had done.* [2] In 1570 he moved to Rome, where he opened
a workshop and executed a series of works. During his
stay in Italy, El Greco enriched his style with elements of
Mannerism and of the Venetian Renaissance. In 1577, he
moved to Toledo, Spain, where he lived and worked until
his death. In Toledo, El Greco received several major commissions and produced his best-known paintings.
El Greco's dramatic and expressionistic style was met with
puzzlement by his contemporaries but found appreciation
in the 20th century. El Greco is regarded as a precursor of both Expressionism and Cubism, while his personality and works were a source of inspiration for poets and
writers such as Rainer Maria Rilke and Nikos Kazantzakis. El Greco has been characterized by modern scholars
as an artist so individual that he belongs to no conventional
school.* [3] He is best known for tortuously elongated gures and often fantastic or phantasmagorical pigmentation,
marrying Byzantine traditions with those of Western painting.* [4]
3.1 Life
The Dormition of the Virgin (before 1567, tempera and gold on

panel, 61,4 45 cm, Holy Cathedral of the Dormition of the Virgin, Hermoupolis, Syros) was probably created near the end of the
artist's Cretan period. The painting combines post-Byzantine and
Italian mannerist stylistic and iconographic elements.
Born in 1541, in either the village of Fodele or Candia

(the Venetian name of Chandax, present day Heraklion)
on Crete,* [c] El Greco was descended from a prosperous urban family, which had probably been driven out of
Chania to Candia after an uprising against the Venetians
between 1526 and 1528.* [5] El Greco's father, Gergios
Theotokpoulos (d. 1556), was a merchant and tax collector. Nothing is known about his mother or his rst
wife, also Greek.* [6] El Greco's older brother, Manossos Theotokpoulos (1531 13 December 1604), was a
wealthy merchant and spent the last years of his life (1603
36
3.1. LIFE
1604) in El Greco's Toledo home.* [7]
37
3.1.2
Italy
El Greco received his initial training as an icon painter of

the Cretan school, a leading center of post-Byzantine art.
In addition to painting, he probably studied the classics of
ancient Greece, and perhaps the Latin classics also; he left a
working libraryof 130 books at his death, including the
Bible in Greek and an annotated Vasari.* [2] Candia was a
center for artistic activity where Eastern and Western cultures co-existed harmoniously, where around two hundred
painters were active during the 16th century, and had organized a painters' guild, based on the Italian model.* [5] In
1563, at the age of twenty-two, El Greco was described in a
document as a master(maestro Domenigo), meaning he was already a master of the guild and presumably
operating his own workshop.* [2] Three years later, in June
1566, as a witness to a contract, he signed his name as (Master Portrait of Giorgio Giulio Clovio, the earliest surviving portrait
Mnegos Theotokpoulos, painter).* [d]
from El Greco (c. 1570, oil on canvas, 58 86 cm, Museo di
Most scholars believe that the Theotokpoulos family Capodimonte, Naples). In the portrait of Clovio, friend and supwas almost certainly Greek Orthodox,* [8] although some porter in Rome of the young Cretan artist, the rst evidence of El
Greco's gifts as a portraitist are apparent.
Catholic sources still claim him from birth.* [e] Like many
Orthodox emigrants to Catholic areas of Europe, some assert that he may have transferred to Catholicism after his arrival, and possibly practiced as a Catholic in Spain, where
he described himself as a devout Catholicin his will.
The extensive archival research conducted since the early
1960s by scholars, such as Nikolaos Panayotakis, Pandelis
Prevelakis and Maria Constantoudaki, indicates strongly
that El Greco's family and ancestors were Greek Orthodox. One of his uncles was an Orthodox priest, and his
name is not mentioned in the Catholic archival baptismal
records on Crete.* [9] Prevelakis goes even further, expressing his doubt that El Greco was ever a practicing Roman
Catholic.* [10]
Important for his early biography, El Greco, still in Crete,
painted his Dormition of the Virgin near the end of his Cretan period, probably before 1567. Three other signed works
ofDomnicosare attributed to El Greco (Modena Triptych, St. Luke Painting the Virgin and Child, and The Adoration of the Magi).* [11] In 1563, at the age of twenty-two,
El Greco was already an enrolled master of the local guild,
presumably in charge of his own workshop.* [12] He left
for Venice a few years later, and never returned to Crete.
His Dormition of the Virgin, of before 1567 in tempera and
gold on panel (61,4 x 45 cm, Holy Cathedral of the Dormition of the Virgin, Hermoupolis, Syros) was probably created near the end of El Greco's Cretan period. The painting
combines post-Byzantine and Italian Mannerist stylistic and
iconographic elements, and incorporates stylistic elements
of the Cretan School.
Adoration of the Magi, 1568, Museo Soumaya, Mexico City
It was natural for the young El Greco to pursue his career in

Venice, Crete having been a possession of the Republic of
Venice since 1211.* [3] Though the exact year is not clear,
most scholars agree that El Greco went to Venice around
1567.* [f] Knowledge of El Greco's years in Italy is limited.
He lived in Venice until 1570 and, according to a letter written by his much older friend, the greatest miniaturist of the
age, Giulio Clovio, was a discipleof Titian, who was
by then in his eighties but still vigorous. This may mean he
worked in Titian's large studio, or not. Clovio characterized
El Greco as a rare talent in painting.* [13]
In 1570, El Greco moved to Rome, where he executed a series of works strongly marked by his Venetian apprentice-
38
ship.* [13] It is unknown how long he remained in Rome,
though he may have returned to Venice (c. 15751576)
before he left for Spain.* [14] In Rome, on the recommendation of Giulio Clovio,* [15] El Greco was received as a
guest at the Palazzo Farnese, which Cardinal Alessandro
Farnese had made a center of the artistic and intellectual
life of the city. There he came into contact with the intellectual elite of the city, including the Roman scholar Fulvio
Orsini, whose collection would later include seven paintings
by the artist (View of Mt. Sinai and a portrait of Clovio are
among them).* [16]
Unlike other Cretan artists who had moved to Venice, El
Greco substantially altered his style and sought to distinguish himself by inventing new and unusual interpretations of traditional religious subject matter.* [17] His works
painted in Italy were inuenced by the Venetian Renaissance style of the period, with agile, elongated gures reminiscent of Tintoretto and a chromatic framework that connects him to Titian.* [3] The Venetian painters also taught
him to organize his multi-gured compositions in landscapes vibrant with atmospheric light. Clovio reports visiting El Greco on a summer's day while the artist was still
in Rome. El Greco was sitting in a darkened room, because
he found the darkness more conducive to thought than the
light of the day, which disturbed his inner light.* [18]
As a result of his stay in Rome, his works were enriched
with elements such as violent perspective vanishing points
or strange attitudes struck by the gures with their repeated
twisting and turning and tempestuous gestures; all elements
of Mannerism.* [13]
By the time El Greco arrived in Rome, Michelangelo
and Raphael were dead, but their example continued to
be paramount, and somewhat overwhelming for young
painters. El Greco was determined to make his own mark
in Rome defending his personal artistic views, ideas and
style.* [19] He singled out Correggio and Parmigianino for
particular praise,* [20] but he did not hesitate to dismiss
Michelangelo's Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel;* [g] he
extended an oer to Pope Pius V to paint over the whole
work in accord with the new and stricter Catholic thinking.* [21] When he was later asked what he thought about
Michelangelo, El Greco replied that he was a good man,
but he did not know how to paint.* [22] And thus we
are confronted by a paradox: El Greco is said to have reacted most strongly or even condemned Michelangelo, but
he had found it impossible to withstand his inuence.* [23]
Michelangelo's inuence can be seen in later El Greco
works such as the Allegory of the Holy League.* [24] By
painting portraits of Michelangelo, Titian, Clovio and, presumably, Raphael in one of his works (The Purication
of the Temple), El Greco not only expressed his gratitude
but also advanced the claim to rival these masters. As
his own commentaries indicate, El Greco viewed Titian,
CHAPTER 3. EL GRECO
Michelangelo and Raphael as models to emulate.* [21] In his
17th century Chronicles, Giulio Mancini included El Greco
among the painters who had initiated, in various ways, a
re-evaluation of Michelangelo's teachings.* [25]
Because of his unconventional artistic beliefs (such as his
dismissal of Michelangelo's technique) and personality, El
Greco soon acquired enemies in Rome. Architect and
writer Pirro Ligorio called him a foolish foreigner,
and newly discovered archival material reveals a skirmish
with Farnese, who obliged the young artist to leave his
palace.* [25] On 6 July 1572, El Greco ocially complained about this event. A few months later, on 18 September 1572, El Greco paid his dues to the Guild of Saint Luke
in Rome as a miniature painter.* [26] At the end of that year,
El Greco opened his own workshop and hired as assistants
the painters Lattanzio Bonastri de Lucignano and Francisco
Preboste.* [25]
3.1.3
Spain
Move to Toledo
In 1577, El Greco migrated to Madrid, then to Toledo,
where he produced his mature works.* [27] At the time,
Toledo was the religious capital of Spain and a populous
city* [h] with an illustrious past, a prosperous present and
an uncertain future.* [28] In Rome, El Greco had earned
the respect of some intellectuals, but was also facing the
hostility of certain art critics.* [29] During the 1570s the
huge monastery-palace of El Escorial was still under construction and Philip II of Spain was experiencing diculties
in nding good artists for the many large paintings required
to decorate it. Titian was dead, and Tintoretto, Veronese
and Anthonis Mor all refused to come to Spain. Philip had
to rely on the lesser talent of Juan Fernndez de Navarrete,
of whose gravedad y decoro (seriousness and decorum
) the king approved. However, Fernndez died in 1579; the
moment should have been ideal for El Greco.* [30]
Through Clovio and Orsini, El Greco met Benito Arias
Montano, a Spanish humanist and agent of Philip; Pedro
Chacn, a clergyman; and Luis de Castilla, son of Diego
de Castilla, the dean of the Cathedral of Toledo.* [31] El
Greco's friendship with Castilla would secure his rst large
commissions in Toledo. He arrived in Toledo by July
1577, and signed contracts for a group of paintings that
was to adorn the church of Santo Domingo el Antiguo in
Toledo and for the renowned El Espolio.* [32] By September
1579 he had completed nine paintings for Santo Domingo,
including The Trinity and The Assumption of the Virgin.
These works would establish the painter's reputation in
Toledo.* [26]
El Greco did not plan to settle permanently in Toledo, since
3.1. LIFE
39
Detail of St. Ildefonso (1603)
content was paramount rather than the style.* [35] Philip

took a close interest in his artistic commissions, and had
very decided tastes; a long sought-after sculpted Crucixion
by Benvenuto Cellini also failed to please when it arrived,
and was likewise exiled to a less prominent place. Philip's
next experiment, with Federico Zuccari was even less successful.* [36] In any case, Philip's dissatisfaction ended any
hopes of royal patronage El Greco may have had.* [26]
Mature works and later years
The Assumption of the Virgin (15771579, oil on canvas, 401

228 cm, Art Institute of Chicago) was one of the nine paintings El
Greco completed for the church of Santo Domingo el Antiguo in
Toledo, his rst commission in Spain.
Lacking the favor of the king, El Greco was obliged to remain in Toledo, where he had been received in 1577 as
a great painter.* [37] According to Hortensio Flix Paravicino, a 17th-century Spanish preacher and poet, Crete
gave him life and the painter's craft, Toledo a better homeland, where through Death he began to achieve eternal life.
*
[38] In 1585, he appears to have hired an assistant, Italian
painter Francisco Preboste, and to have established a workshop capable of producing altar frames and statues as well
as paintings.* [39] On 12 March 1586 he obtained the commission for The Burial of the Count of Orgaz, now his bestknown work.* [40]
his nal aim was to win the favor of Philip and make his
mark in his court.* [33] Indeed, he did manage to secure
two important commissions from the monarch: Allegory of
the Holy League and Martyrdom of St. Maurice. However,
the king did not like these works and placed the St Maurice altarpiece in the chapter-house rather than the intended
chapel. He gave no further commissions to El Greco.* [34]
The exact reasons for the king's dissatisfaction remain unclear. Some scholars have suggested that Philip did not like
the inclusion of living persons in a religious scene;* [34]
some others that El Greco's works violated a basic rule
of the Counter-Reformation, namely that in the image the
The decade 1597 to 1607 was a period of intense activity

for El Greco. During these years he received several major commissions, and his workshop created pictorial and
sculptural ensembles for a variety of religious institutions.
Among his major commissions of this period were three
altars for the Chapel of San Jos in Toledo (15971599);
three paintings (15961600) for the Colegio de Doa Mara
de Aragon, an Augustinian monastery in Madrid, and the
high altar, four lateral altars, and the painting St. Ildefonso
for the Capilla Mayor of the Hospital de la Caridad (Hospital of Charity) at Illescas (16031605).* [3] The minutes of
the commission of The Virgin of the Immaculate Conception (16071613), which were composed by the personnel
of the municipality, describe El Greco asone of the great-
40
CHAPTER 3. EL GRECO
tized by Gregorio Angulo, governor of Toledo and a personal friend of the artist.* [42]
During the course of the execution of a commission for the
Hospital Tavera, El Greco fell seriously ill, and a month
later, on 7 April 1614, he died. A few days earlier, on 31
March, he had directed that his son should have the power
to make his will. Two Greeks, friends of the painter, witnessed this last will and testament (El Greco never lost touch
with his Greek origins).* [44] He was buried in the Church
of Santo Domingo el Antiguo, aged 73.* [45]
3.2
Art
For more details on this topic, see Art of El Greco.
3.2.1
Technique and style
The primacy of imagination and intuition over the subjective character of creation was a fundamental principle of
The Burial of the Count of Orgaz (15861588, oil on canvas, 480 El Greco's style.* [22] El Greco discarded classicist crite 360 cm, Santo Tom, Toledo), now El Greco's best known work, ria such as measure and proportion. He believed that grace
illustrates a popular local legend. An exceptionally large painting, is the supreme quest of art, but the painter achieves grace
it is clearly divided into two zones: the heavenly above and the ter- only if he manages to solve the most complex problems with
restrial below, brought together compositionally.
obvious ease.* [22]
est men in both this kingdom and outside it.* [41]
Between 1607 and 1608 El Greco was involved in a protracted legal dispute with the authorities of the Hospital of
Charity at Illescas concerning payment for his work, which
included painting, sculpture and architecture;* [i] this and
other legal disputes contributed to the economic diculties
he experienced towards the end of his life.* [42] In 1608,
he received his last major commission: for the Hospital of
Saint John the Baptist in Toledo.* [26]
I hold the imitation of color to be the greatest diculty of

art.
El Greco, from notes of the painter in one of his
commentaries.* [46]
El Greco regarded color as the most important and the most

ungovernable element of painting, and declared that color
had primacy over form.* [22] Francisco Pacheco, a painter
and theoretician who visited El Greco in 1611, wrote that
the painter liked the colors crude and unmixed in great
El Greco made Toledo his home. Surviving contracts men- blots as a boastful display of his dexterityand that he
tion him as the tenant from 1585 onwards of a complex con- believed in constant repainting and retouching in order to
sisting of three apartments and twenty-four rooms which make the broad masses tell at as in nature.* [47]
belonged to the Marquis de Villena.* [43] It was in these
apartments, which also served as his workshop, that he Art historian Max Dvok was the rst scholar to connect
*
passed the rest of his life, painting and studying. He lived in El Greco's art with Mannerism and Antinaturalism. [48]
considerable style, sometimes employing musicians to play Modern scholars characterize El Greco's theory as
its sources in the
whilst he dined. It is not conrmed whether he lived with typically Manneristand pinpoint
*
Neoplatonism
of
the
Renaissance.
[49]
Jonathan Brown
his Spanish female companion, Jernima de Las Cuevas,
believes
that
El
Greco
endeavored
to
create
a sophisticated
whom he probably never married. She was the mother of
*
[50]
according
to
Nicholas
Penny
once in
form
of
art;
his only son, Jorge Manuel, born in 1578, who also beSpain,
El
Greco
was
able
to
create
a
style
of
his
ownone
came a painter, assisted his father, and continued to repeat
most of the descriptive ambitions of painthis compositions for many years after he inherited the stu- that disavowed
*
[51]
ing.
dio.* [j] In 1604, Jorge Manuel and Alfonsa de los Morales
gave birth to El Greco's grandson, Gabriel, who was bap- In his mature works El Greco demonstrated a characteris-
3.2. ART
41
is the interweaving between form and space; a reciprocal relationship is developed between the two which completely
unies the painting surface. This interweaving would reemerge three centuries later in the works of Czanne and
Picasso.* [52]
Another characteristic of El Greco's mature style is the use
of light. As Jonathan Brown notes, each gure seems
to carry its own light within or reects the light that emanates from an unseen source.* [53] Fernando Marias and
Agustn Bustamante Garca, the scholars who transcribed
El Greco's handwritten notes, connect the power that the
painter gives to light with the ideas underlying Christian
Neo-Platonism.* [54]
Modern scholarly research emphasizes the importance of
Toledo for the complete development of El Greco's mature
style and stresses the painter's ability to adjust his style in
accordance with his surroundings.* [55] Harold Wethey asserts thatalthough Greek by descent and Italian by artistic
preparation, the artist became so immersed in the religious
environment of Spain that he became the most vital visual
representative of Spanish mysticism". He believes that in El
Greco's mature works the devotional intensity of mood
reects the religious spirit of Roman Catholic Spain in the
period of the Counter-Reformation.* [3]
The Disrobing of Christ (El Espolio) (15771579, oil on canvas,

285 173 cm, Sacristy of the Cathedral, Toledo) is one of the
most famous altarpieces of El Greco. El Greco's altarpieces are
renowned for their dynamic compositions and startling innovations.
tic tendency to dramatize rather than to describe.* [3] The

strong spiritual emotion transfers from painting directly to
the audience. According to Pacheco, El Greco's perturbed,
violent and at times seemingly careless-in-execution art was
due to a studied eort to acquire a freedom of style.* [47] El
Greco's preference for exceptionally tall and slender gures
and elongated compositions, which served both his expressive purposes and aesthetic principles, led him to disregard
the laws of nature and elongate his compositions to ever
greater extents, particularly when they were destined for altarpieces.* [52] The anatomy of the human body becomes
even more otherworldly in El Greco's mature works; for
The Virgin of the Immaculate Conception El Greco asked
to lengthen the altarpiece itself by another 1.5 feet (0.46
m) because in this way the form will be perfect and not
reduced, which is the worst thing that can happen to a gure'". A signicant innovation of El Greco's mature works
El Greco also excelled as a portraitist, able not only to

record a sitter's features but also to convey their character.* [56] His portraits are fewer in number than his religious paintings, but are of equally high quality. Wethey says
thatby such simple means, the artist created a memorable
characterization that places him in the highest rank as a portraitist, along with Titian and Rembrandt".* [3]
3.2.2
Suggested Byzantine anities
Since the beginning of the 20th century, scholars have debated whether El Greco's style had Byzantine origins. Certain art historians had asserted that El Greco's roots were
rmly in the Byzantine tradition, and that his most individual characteristics derive directly from the art of his ancestors,* [57] while others had argued that Byzantine art could
not be related to El Greco's later work.* [58]
The discovery of the Dormition of the Virgin on Syros,
an authentic and signed work from the painter's Cretan
period, and the extensive archival research in the early
1960s, contributed to the rekindling and reassessment of
these theories. Although following many conventions of the
Byzantine icon, aspects of the style certainly show Venetian inuence, and the composition, showing the death of
Mary, combines the dierent doctrines of the Orthodox
Dormition of the Virgin and the Catholic Assumption of
the Virgin.* [59] Signicant scholarly works of the second
42
CHAPTER 3. EL GRECO
The Adoration of the Magi (15651567, 56 62 cm, Benaki Museum, Athens). The icon, signed by El Greco (" ",
Created by the hand of Domnicos), was painted in Candia on part
of an old chest.
View of Toledo (c. 15961600, oil on canvas, 47.75 42.75 cm,
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) is one of the two surviving
landscapes of Toledo painted by El Greco.
half of the 20th century devoted to El Greco reappraise

many of the interpretations of his work, including his supposed Byzantinism.* [60] Based on the notes written in El
Greco's own hand, on his unique style, and on the fact that
El Greco signed his name in Greek characters, they see
an organic continuity between Byzantine painting and his
art.* [61] According to Marina Lambraki-Plaka far from
the inuence of Italy, in a neutral place which was intellectually similar to his birthplace, Candia, the Byzantine elements of his education emerged and played a catalytic role
in the new conception of the image which is presented to
us in his mature work.* [62] In making this judgement,
Lambraki-Plaka disagrees with Oxford University professors Cyril Mango and Elizabeth Jereys, who assert that
despite claims to the contrary, the only Byzantine element
of his famous paintings was his signature in Greek lettering.* [63] Nikos Hadjinikolaou states that from 1570 El
Greco's painting is neither Byzantine nor post-Byzantine
but Western European. The works he produced in Italy belong to the history of the Italian art, and those he produced
in Spain to the history of Spanish art.* [64]
The English art historian David Davies seeks the roots of
El Greco's style in the intellectual sources of his GreekChristian education and in the world of his recollections
from the liturgical and ceremonial aspect of the Orthodox Church. Davies believes that the religious climate of
the Counter-Reformation and the aesthetics of mannerism
acted as catalysts to activate his individual technique. He
asserts that the philosophies of Platonism and ancient NeoPlatonism, the works of Plotinus and Pseudo-Dionysius
the Areopagite, the texts of the Church fathers and the
liturgy oer the keys to the understanding of El Greco's
style.* [65] Summarizing the ensuing scholarly debate on
this issue, Jos lvarez Lopera, curator at the Museo del
Prado, Madrid, concludes that the presence of Byzantine
memoriesis obvious in El Greco's mature works, though
there are still some obscure issues concerning his Byzantine
origins needing further illumination.* [66]
3.2.3
Architecture and sculpture
El Greco was highly esteemed as an architect and sculptor

during his lifetime.* [67] He usually designed complete altar
compositions, working as architect and sculptor as well as
painterat, for instance, the Hospital de la Caridad. There
he decorated the chapel of the hospital, but the wooden altar and the sculptures he created have in all probability perished.* [68] For El Espolio the master designed the original
altar of gilded wood which has been destroyed, but his small
sculptured group of the Miracle of St. Ildefonso still survives
on the lower center of the frame.* [3]
I would not be happy to see a beautiful, well-proportioned
woman, no matter from which point of view, however extravagant, not only lose her beauty in order to, I would say,
increase in size according to the law of vision, but no longer
appear beautiful, and, in fact, become monstrous.
El Greco, from marginalia the painter inscribed in his
copy of Daniele Barbaro's translation of Vitruvius' De
3.3. LEGACY
43
architectura.* [69]
His most important architectural achievement was the
church and Monastery of Santo Domingo el Antiguo, for
which he also executed sculptures and paintings.* [70] El
Greco is regarded as a painter who incorporated architecture in his painting.* [71] He is also credited with the architectural frames to his own paintings in Toledo. Pacheco
characterized him as a writer of painting, sculpture and
architecture.* [22]
In the marginalia that El Greco inscribed in his copy of
Daniele Barbaro's translation of Vitruvius' De architectura, he refuted Vitruvius' attachment to archaeological remains, canonical proportions, perspective and mathematics.
He also saw Vitruvius' manner of distorting proportions in
order to compensate for distance from the eye as responsible for creating monstrous forms. El Greco was averse
to the very idea of rules in architecture; he believed above
all in the freedom of invention and defended novelty, variety, and complexity. These ideas were, however, far too
extreme for the architectural circles of his era and had no
immediate resonance.* [71]
3.3 Legacy
For more details on this topic, see Posthumous fame of El
Greco.
3.3.1
Posthumous critical reputation
El Greco was disdained by the immediate generations after his death because his work was opposed in many respects to the principles of the early baroque style which
came to the fore near the beginning of the 17th century and
soon supplanted the last surviving traits of the 16th-century
Mannerism.* [3] El Greco was deemed incomprehensible
and had no important followers.* [72] Only his son and a
few unknown painters produced weak copies of his works.
Late 17th- and early 18th-century Spanish commentators
praised his skill but criticized his antinaturalistic style and
his complex iconography. Some of these commentators,
such as Acislo Antonio Palomino de Castro y Velasco and
Juan Agustn Cen Bermdez, described his mature work as
contemptible,ridiculousandworthy of scorn.* [73]
The views of Palomino and Bermdez were frequently repeated in Spanish historiography, adorned with terms such
as strange, queer, original, eccentricand
odd.* [74] The phrasesunk in eccentricity, often encountered in such texts, in time developed into madness
.* [j]
The Holy Trinity (15771579, 300 178 cm, oil on canvas, Museo
del Prado, Madrid, Spain) was part of a group of works created for
the church Santo Domingo el Antiguo.
With the arrival of Romantic sentiments in the late 18th

century, El Greco's works were examined anew.* [72] To
French writer Thophile Gautier, El Greco was the precursor of the European Romantic movement in all its craving
for the strange and the extreme.* [75] Gautier regarded El
Greco as the ideal romantic hero (thegifted, themisunderstood, the mad),* [k] and was the rst who explicitly expressed his admiration for El Greco's later technique.* [74] French art critics Zacharie Astruc and Paul
Lefort helped to promote a widespread revival of interest in
his painting. In the 1890s, Spanish painters living in Paris
adopted him as their guide and mentor.* [75] However, in
the popular English-speaking imagination he remained the
man whopainted horrors in the Escorialin the words of
Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopaedia in 1899.* [76]
In 1908, Spanish art historian Manuel Bartolom Cosso
published the rst comprehensive catalogue of El Greco's
44
CHAPTER 3. EL GRECO
works; in this book El Greco was presented as the founder

of the Spanish School.* [77] The same year Julius MeierGraefe, a scholar of French Impressionism, traveled in
Spain, expecting to study Velsquez, but instead becoming fascinated by El Greco; he recorded his experiences
in Spanische Reise (Spanish Journey, published in English
in 1926), the book which widely established El Greco as a
great painter of the pastoutside a somewhat narrow circle
.* [78] In El Greco's work, Meier-Graefe found foreshadowing of modernity.* [79] These are the words Meier-Graefe
used to describe El Greco's impact on the artistic movements of his time:
As I was climbing the narrow, rain-slicked lanenearly
three hundred years have gone byI felt myself seized by
the hand of a Powerful Friend and indeed I came to see
myself lifted on the two enormous wings of Domnicos up
to his skies which this time were full of orange trees and
water speaking of the homeland.
Odysseas Elytis, Diary from an April As Yet Unseen
To the English artist and critic Roger Fry in 1920, El Greco
was the archetypal genius who did as he thought bestwith
complete indierence to what eect the right expression
might have on the public. Fry described El Greco asan
old master who is not merely modern, but actually appears
a good many steps ahead of us, turning back to show us the
way.* [20]
During the same period, other researchers developed alternative, more radical theories. The ophthalmologists August
Goldschmidt and Germn Beritens argued that El Greco
painted such elongated human gures because he had vision
problems (possibly progressive astigmatism or strabismus)
that made him see bodies longer than they were, and at
an angle to the perpendicular;* [81]* [l] the physician Arturo Perera, however, attributed this style to the use of
marijuana.* [82] Michael Kimmelman, a reviewer for The
New York Times, stated that to Greeks [El Greco] became the quintessential Greek painter; to the Spanish, the
quintessential Spaniard.* [20]
As was proved by the campaign of the National Art Gallery
in Athens to raise the funds for the purchase of Saint Peter in
1995, El Greco is loved not just by experts and art lovers but
also by ordinary people; thanks to the donations mainly of
individuals and public benet foundations the National Art
Gallery raised 1.2 million dollars and purchased the painting.* [83] Epitomizing the consensus of El Greco's impact,
Jimmy Carter, the 39th President of the United States, said
in April 1980 that El Greco was the most extraordinary
painter that ever came along back thenand that he was
maybe three or four centuries ahead of his time.* [75]
3.3.2
Inuence on other artists
El Greco's re-evaluation was not limited to scholars. According to E Foundoulaki, painters and theoreticians
from the beginning of the 20th century 'discovered' a new
El Greco but in process they also discovered and revealed
their own selves.* [84] His expressiveness and colors inuenced Eugne Delacroix and douard Manet.* [85] To the
Blaue Reiter group in Munich in 1912, El Greco typied
that mystical inner construction that it was the task of their
generation to rediscover.* [86] The rst painter who appears
to have noticed the structural code in the morphology of
the mature El Greco was Paul Czanne, one of the forerunners of cubism.* [72] Comparative morphological analyses
of the two painters revealed their common elements, such
as the distortion of the human body, the reddish and (in
appearance only) unworked backgrounds and the similarities in the rendering of space.* [87] According to Brown,
Czanne and El Greco are spiritual brothers despite the
centuries which separate them.* [88] Fry observed that
Czanne drew fromhis great discovery of the permeation
of every part of the design with a uniform and continuous
plastic theme.* [89]
The Symbolists, and Pablo Picasso during his Blue Period,
drew on the cold tonality of El Greco, utilizing the anatomy
of his ascetic gures. While Picasso was working on Les
Demoiselles d'Avignon, he visited his friend Ignacio Zuloaga
in his studio in Paris and studied El Greco's Opening of the
Fifth Seal (owned by Zuloaga since 1897).* [90] The relation between Les Demoiselles d'Avignon and the Opening of
the Fifth Seal was pinpointed in the early 1980s, when the
stylistic similarities and the relationship between the motifs
of both works were analysed.* [91]
In any case, only the execution counts. From this point of
view, it is correct to say that Cubism has a Spanish origin
and that I invented Cubism. We must look for the Spanish
inuence in Czanne. Things themselves necessitate it, the
inuence of El Greco, a Venetian painter, on him. But his
structure is Cubist.
Picasso, speaking of Les Demoiselles d'Avignon to Dor
de la Souchre in Antibes.* [92]
The early cubist explorations of Picasso were to uncover
other aspects in the work of El Greco: structural analysis
of his compositions, multi-faced refraction of form, interweaving of form and space, and special eects of highlights.
Several traits of cubism, such as distortions and the materialistic rendering of time, have their analogies in El Greco's
work. According to Picasso, El Greco's structure is cubist.* [93] On 22 February 1950, Picasso began his series
of paraphrasesof other painters' works with The Portrait of a Painter after El Greco.* [94] Foundoulaki asserts
3.5. NOTES
45
that Picasso completed ... the process for the activation lucchini's publication became the yardstick for attributions
of the painterly values of El Greco which had been started to the artist.* [104] Nevertheless, Wethey denied that the
by Manet and carried on by Czanne.* [95]
Modena triptych had any connection at all with the artist
The expressionists focused on the expressive distortions of and, in 1962, produced a reactive catalogue raisonn with
El Greco. According to Franz Marc, one of the principal a greatly reduced corpus of materials. Whereas art histopainters of the German expressionist movement, we re- rian Jos Camn Aznar had attributed between 787 and 829
fer with pleasure and with steadfastness to the case of El paintings to the Cretan master, Wethey reduced the number
Greco, because the glory of this painter is closely tied to to 285 authentic works and Halldor Shner,* a German researcher of Spanish art, recognized only 137. [105] Wethey
the evolution of our new perceptions on art.* [96] Jackson
Pollock, a major force in the abstract expressionist move- and other scholars rejected the notion that Crete took any
part in his formation and supported the elimination of a sement, was also inuenced by El Greco. By 1943, Pollock
*
had completed sixty drawing compositions after El Greco ries of works from El Greco's oeuvre. [106]
and owned three books on the Cretan master.* [97]
Contemporary painters are also inspired by El Greco's art.
Kysa Johnson used El Greco's paintings of the Immaculate
Conception as the compositional framework for some of
her works, and the master's anatomical distortions are
somewhat reected in Fritz Chesnut's portraits.* [98]
El Greco's personality and work were a source of inspiration for poet Rainer Maria Rilke. One set of Rilke's poems
(Himmelfahrt Mariae I.II., 1913) was based directly on El
Greco's Immaculate Conception.* [99] Greek writer Nikos
Kazantzakis, who felt a great spiritual anity for El Greco,
called his autobiography Report to Greco and wrote a tribute
to the Cretan-born artist.* [100]
Since 1962, the discovery of the Dormition and the extensive archival research has gradually convinced scholars that
Wethey's assessments were not entirely correct, and that his
catalogue decisions may have distorted the perception of
the whole nature of El Greco's origins, development and
oeuvre. The discovery of the Dormition led to the attribution of three other signed works of Domnicosto El
Greco (Modena Triptych, St. Luke Painting the Virgin and
Child, and The Adoration of the Magi) and then to the acceptance of more works as authenticsome signed, some not
(such as The Passion of Christ (Piet with Angels) painted
in 1566),* [11]which were brought into the group of early
works of El Greco. El Greco is now seen as an artist with a
formative training on Crete; a series of works illuminate his
early style, some painted while he was still on Crete, some
from his period in Venice, and some from his subsequent
stay in Rome.* [60] Even Wethey accepted that he [El
Greco] probably had painted the little and much disputed
triptych in the Galleria Estense at Modena before he left
Crete.* [107] Nevertheless, disputes over the exact number of El Greco's authentic works remain unresolved, and
the status of Wethey's catalogue raisonn is at the center of
these disagreements.* [108]
In 1998, the Greek electronic composer and artist Vangelis

published El Greco, a symphonic album inspired by the
artist. This album is an expansion of an earlier album by
Vangelis, Foros Timis Ston Greco (A Tribute to El Greco,
). The life of the Cretan-born
artist is the subject of the lm El Greco of Greek, Spanish
and British production. Directed by Ioannis Smaragdis, the
lm began shooting in October 2006 on the island of Crete
and debuted on the screen one year later;* [101] British actor Nick Ashdon has been cast to play El Greco.* [102]
A few sculptures, including Epimetheus and Pandora, have
been attributed to El Greco. This doubtful attribution is
based on the testimony of Pacheco (he saw in El Greco's
studio a series of gurines, but these may have been merely
3.4 Debates on attribution
models). There are also four drawings among the surviving
works of El Greco; three of them are preparatory works for
the altarpiece of Santo Domingo el Antiguo and the fourth
For more details on this topic, see Works of El Greco.
is a study for one of his paintings, The Crucixion.* [109]
The exact number of El Greco's works has been a hotly
contested issue. In 1937, a highly inuential study by art
historian Rodolfo Pallucchini had the eect of greatly increasing the number of works accepted to be by El Greco. 3.5 Notes
Pallucchini attributed to El Greco a small triptych in the
Galleria Estense at Modena on the basis of a signature on Timeline of El Greco's life (1541 7 April 1614)
the painting on the back of the central panel on the Modena triptych (" ", Created by the hand of
Domnikos).* [103] There was consensus that the triptych
was indeed an early work of El Greco and, therefore, Pal
46
CHAPTER 3. EL GRECO
a. * ^ Theotokpoulos acquired the name El Grecoin

Italy, where the custom of identifying a man by designating
a country or city of origin was a common practice. The
curious form of the article (El) may be from the Venetian
dialect or more likely from the Spanish, though in Spanish
his name would be "El Griego".* [3] The Cretan master was
generally known in Italy and Spain as Dominico Greco, and
was called only after his death El Greco.* [60]
in Candia for the agreed price of seventy gold ducats (The

panel was valued by two artists; one of them was iconpainter Georgios Klontzas. One valuation was eighty ducats
and the other seventy), equal in value to a work by Titian
or Tintoretto of that period.* [116] Therefore, it seems that
El Greco traveled to Venice sometime after 27 December
1566.* [117] In one of his last articles, Wethey reassessed
his previous estimations and accepted that El Greco left
Crete in 1567.* [107] According to other archival material
*
b. ^ According to a contemporary, El Greco acquired his
sent to a Cretan cartographerhe was
name, not only for his place of origin, but also for the sub- drawings El Greco
in Venice by 1568.* [116]
limity of his art:Out of the great esteem he was held in he
was called the Greek (il Greco)" (comment of Giulio Ce- g. * ^ Mancini reports that El Greco said to the Pope that if
sare Mancini about El Greco in his Chronicles, which were the whole work was demolished he himself would do it in a
written a few years after El Greco's death).* [110]
decent manner and with seemliness.* [118]
c. * ^ There is an ongoing dispute about El Greco's birthplace. Most researchers and scholars give Candia as his
birthplace.* [111] Nonetheless, according to Achileus A.
Kyrou, a prominent Greek journalist of the 20th century,
El Greco was born in Fodele and the ruins of his family's
house are still extant in the place where old Fodele was (the
village later changed location because of the raids of the
pirates).* [43] Candia's claim to him is based on two documents from a trial in 1606, when the painter was 65. Fodele
natives argue that El Greco probably told everyone in Spain
he was from Heraklion because it was the closest known
city next to tiny Fodele* [112]
h. * ^ Toledo must have been one of the largest cities in

Europe during this period. In 1571 the population of the
city was 62,000.* [31]
e. * ^ The arguments of these Catholic sources are based on

the lack of Orthodox archival baptismal records on Crete
and on a relaxed interchange between Greek Orthodox and
Roman Catholic rites during El Greco's youth.* [114] Based
on the assessment that his art reects the religious spirit of
Roman Catholic Spain, and on a reference in his last will
and testament, where he described himself as a devout
Catholic, some scholars assume that El Greco was part of
the vibrant Catholic Cretan minority or that he converted
from Greek Orthodoxy to Roman Catholicism before leaving the island.* [115]
both her and his son, he never married her. That fact has
puzzled researchers, because he mentioned her in various
documents, including his last testament. Most analysts assume that El Greco had married unhappily in his youth and
therefore could not legalize another attachment.* [3]
i. * ^ El Greco signed the contract for the decoration of

the high altar of the church of the Hospital of Charity on
18 June 1603. He agreed to nish the work by August of
the following year. Although such deadlines were seldom
met, it was a point of potential conict. He also agreed to
allow the brotherhood to select the appraisers.* [119] The
brotherhood took advantage of this act of good faith and
did not wish to arrive at a fair settlement.* [120] Finally, El
Greco assigned his legal representation to Preboste and a
d. * ^ This document comes from the notarial archives of friend of him, Francisco Ximnez Montero, and accepted a
Candia and was published in 1962.* [113] Menegos is the payment of 2,093 ducats.* [121]
Venetian dialect form of Domnicos, and Sgourafos (- j. * ^ Doa Jernima de Las Cuevas appears to have out=) is a Greek term for painter.* [60]
lived El Greco, and, although the master acknowledged
k. * ^ The myth of El Greco's madness came in two versions. On the one hand Gautier believed that El Greco went
mad from excessive artistic sensitivity.* [122] On the other
hand, the public and the critics would not possess the ideological criteria of Gautier and would retain the image of El
Greco as a mad painterand, therefore, his maddest
f. * ^ According to archival research in the late 1990s, El paintings were not admired but considered to be historical
Greco was still in Candia at the age of twenty-six. It was documents proving his madness.* [74]
there where his works, created in the spirit of the post- l. * ^ This theory enjoyed surprising popularity during
Byzantine painters of the Cretan School, were greatly es- the early years of the twentieth century and was opposed
teemed. On 26 December 1566 El Greco sought permis- by the German psychologist David Kuntz.* [123] Whether
sion from the Venetian authorities to sell a panel of the or not El Greco had progressive astigmatism is still open
Passion of Christ executed on a gold background(un to debate.* [124] Stuart Anstis, Professor at the University
quadro della Passione del Nostro Signor Giesu Christo, do- of California (Department of Psychology), concludes that
rato) in a lottery.* [60] The Byzantine icon by young even if El Greco were astigmatic, he would have adapted
Domnicos depicting the Passion of Christ, painted on a to it, and his gures, whether drawn from memory or life,
gold ground, was appraised and sold on 27 December 1566
3.7. CITATIONS
47
would have had normal proportions. His elongations were [22] M. Lambraki-Plaka, El GrecoThe Greek, 4749
an artistic expression, not a visual symptom.* [125] According to Professor of Spanish John Armstrong Crow, [23] A. Braham, Two Notes on El Greco and Michelangelo, 307
310
astigmatism could never give quality to a canvas, nor talent
* J. Jones, The Reluctant Disciple
*
to a dunce. [126]
[24] L. Boubli, Michelangelo and Spain, 217
3.6 See also
[25] M. Tazartes, El Greco, 32

[26] Brown-Mann, Spanish Paintings, 42
Museum of El Greco, Fodele, Crete
3.7 Citations
[1] Metropolitan Museum of Art
[2] J. Brown, El Greco of Toledo, 7577
[3]Greco, El. Encyclopdia Britannica. 2002.
[4] M. Lambraki-Plaka, El GrecoThe Greek, 60
[6] M. Scholz-Hansel, El Greco, 7
* M. Tazartes, El Greco, 23
*"Theotocpoulos, Domnicos. Encyclopaedia The Helios.
1952.
[8] X. Bray, El Greco, 8
* M. Lambraki-Plaka, El GrecoThe Greek, 4041
[9] P. Katimertzi, El Greco and Cubism
[10] H.E. Wethey, Letters to the Editor, 125127
[11] D. Alberge, Collector Is Vindicated as Icon is Hailed as El
Greco
[27]Greco, El. Encyclopdia Britannica. 2002.

[28] Brown-Kagan, View of Toledo, 19
[30] Trevor-Roper, Hugh; Princes and Artists, Patronage and Ideology at Four Habsburg Courts 15171633, Thames & Hudson, London, 1976, pp. 6268
[32] M. Irving (9 February 2004). How to Beat the Spanish
Inquisition. The Independent, archived at highbeam.com.
Retrieved 20 August 2011.
* J. Brown, El Greco and Toledo, 98
[36] Trevor-Roper, op cit pp. 63, 6669
[37] J. Pijoan, El GrecoA Spaniard, 12
[38] L. Berg,El Greco in Toledo. kaiku.com. Archived from
the original on 28 May 2011. Retrieved 20 August 2011.
[12] N.M. Panayotakis, The Cretan Period of Domnicos, 29

* J. Gudiol, Iconography and Chronology, 195
[14] A.L. Mayer, Notes on the Early El Greco, 28
[41] J. Gudiol, El Greco, 252
[15] "Domenico Theotocopuli (El Greco)". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.
[43]Theotocpoulos, Domnicos. Encyclopaedia The Helios.

1952.
[17] R.G. Mann, Tradition and Originality in El Greco's Work, 89
[18] M. Acton, Learning to Look at Paintings, 82
[45] Hispanic Society of America, El Greco, 3536

[19] M. Scholz-Hnsel, El Greco, 20

[46] Marias-Bustamante, Las Ideas Artsticas de El Greco, 80
[20] M. Kimmelman, El Greco, Bearer Of Many Gifts
[47] A. E. Landon, Reincarnation Magazine 1925, 330
[48] J.A. Lopera, El Greco: From Crete to Toledo, 2021
48
[49] J. Brown, El Greco and Toledo, 110

* F. Marias, El Greco's Artistic Thought, 183184
CHAPTER 3. EL GRECO
[76] Talbot Rice, Enjoying Paintings, 164

* E. Foundoulaki, From El Greco to Czanne, 103
[51] N. Penny, At the National Gallery
[78] Talbot Rice, Enjoying Paintings, 165
[52] M. Lambraki-Plaka, El Greco, 5759
[79] J.J. Sheehan, Museums in the German Art World, 150
[80] Julius Meier-Graefe, The Spanish Journey, 458
[54] Marias-Bustamante, Las Ideas Artsticas de El Greco, 52
[81] Chaz Firestone, On the Origin and Status of the El Greco

Fallacy
[55] N. Hadjinikolaou, Inequalities in the work of Theotocpoulos, 89133

[56] The Metropolitan Museum of Art, El Greco
[57] R. Byron, Greco: The Epilogue to Byzantine Culture, 160
174
* A. Procopiou, El Greco and Cretan Painting, 74

* Athens News Agency, Greece buys unique El Greco for
1.2 million dollars
[84] E. Foundoulaki, From El Greco to Czanne, 113
[58] M.B Cosso, El Greco, 501512
[85] H.E. Wethey, El Greco and his School, II, 55
[59] Robin Cormack (1997),199
[60] Cormack-Vfassilaki. The Baptism of Christ. Apollo.

Archived from the original on 15 March 2009. Retrieved 20
August 2011.
[61] R.M. Helm, The Neoplatonic Tradition in the Art of El Greco,

9394
* A.L. Mayer, El GrecoAn Oriental Artist, 146
[89] M. Lambraki-Plaka, From El Greco to Czanne, 15
[62] M. Lambraki-Plaka, El Greco, the Puzzle, 19
[91] R. Johnson, Picasso's Demoiselles d'Avignon, 102113

* J. Richardson, Picasso's Apocalyptic Whorehouse, 4047
[63] Mango-Jereys, Towards a FrancoGreek Culture, 305

[64] N. Hadjinikolaou, El Greco, 450 Years from his Birth, 92
[88] J. Brown, El Greco of Toledo, 28
[90] C.B. Horsley, The Shock of the Old
[92] D. de la Souchre, Picasso Antibes, 15
[93]
[65] D. Davies, The Inuence of Neo-Platonism on El Greco
, 20 etc.
* D. Davies, the Byzantine Legacy in the Art of El Greco, [94]
425445
[95]
[66] J.A. Lopera, El Greco: From Crete to Toledo, 1819
[96]
[67] W. Grith, Historic Shrines of Spain, 184
[97]
[68] E. Harris, A Decorative Scheme by El Greco, 154
[98]
[69] Lefaivre-Tzonis, The Emergence of Modern Architecture,
[99]
165
[70] I. Allardyce, Historic Shrines of Spain, 174
E. Foundoulaki, From El Greco to Czanne, 111

* D. de la Souchre, Picasso Antibes, 15
E. Foundoulaki, From El Greco to Czanne, 111
E. Foundoulaki, Reading El Greco through Manet, 4047
Kandinsky-Marc, Blaue Reiter, 7576
J.T. Valliere, The El Greco Inuence on Jackson Pollock, 69
H.A. Harrison, Getting in Touch With That Inner El Greco
F. Naqvi-Peters, The Experience of El Greco, 345
[100] Rassias-Alaxiou-Bien, Demotic Greek II, 200

* Sanders-Kearney, The Wake of Imagination, 10
[71] Lefaivre-Tzonis, The Emergence of Modern Architecture,

[101] El Greco, 2007, The Internet Movie Database
164
* E. Foundoulaki, From El Greco to Czanne, 100101
[102] Film on Life of Painter El Greco Planned. Athens News

Agency.
[104] R. Pallucchini, Some Early Works by El Greco, 130135
[75] J. Russel, Seeing The Art Of El Greco As Never Before
3.8. REFERENCES
[106] E. Arslan, Cronisteria del Greco Madonnero, 213231

[107] H.E. Wethey, El Greco in Rome, 171178
[108] R.G. Mann, Tradition and Originality in El Greco's Work,
102
[109] El Greco Drawings Could Fetch 400,000, The Guardian
[110] P. Prevelakis, TheotocpoulosBiography, 47
* M. Scholz-Hansel, El Greco, 7
[112] J. Kakissis, A Cretan Village that was the Painter's Birthplace
[113] K.D. Mertzios, Selections, 29
[114] N. Hamerman (12 April 2003). El Greco Paintings Lead
Toward City of God"". catholicherald.com. Retrieved 20
August 2011.
[115] S. McGarr, St Francis Receiving The Stigmata,
* J. Romaine, El Greco's Mystical Vision
* J. Sethre, The Souls of Venice, 91
[116] M. Constantoudaki, Theotocpoulos from Candia to Venice,
71
[117] J. Sethre, The Souls of Venice, 90
[119] Enggass-Brown, Italian and Spanish Art, 16001750, 205
[120] F. de S.R. Ferndez, De la Vida del Greco, 172184
[121] M. Tazartes, El Greco, 56, 61
[122] T. Gautier, Voyage en Espagne, 217
[123] R.M. Helm, The Neoplatonic Tradition in the Art of El Greco,
9394
[124] I. Grierson, The Eye Book, 115
[125] S. Anstis, Was El Greco Astigmatic, 208
[126] J.A. Crow, Spain: The Root and the Flower, 216
3.8 References
Books and articles
49
lvarez Lopera, Jos (2005).El Greco: From Crete
to Toledo (translated in Greek by Soa Giannetsou)".
in M. Tazartes' El Greco. Explorer. ISBN 9607945-83-2.
Anstis, Stuart (2002).
Was El Greco
208.
Astigmatic (PDF). Leonardo 35 (2):
doi:10.1162/00240940252940612.
Arslan, Edoardo (1964). Cronisteria del Greco
Madonnero. Commentari xv (5): 213231.
Boubli, Lizzie (2003). Michelangelo and Spain: on
the Dissemination of his Draughtsmanship. Reactions to the Master edited by Francis Ames-Lewis and
Paul Joannides. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 07546-0807-7.
Braham, Allan (June 1966). Two Notes on El
Greco and Michelangelo. Burlington Magazine (The
Burlington Magazine Publications, Ltd.) 108 (759):
307310. JSTOR 874984.
Bray, Xavier (2004). El Greco. National Gallery
Company, London. ISBN 1-85709-315-1.
Brown, Jonathan (ed.) (1982).El Greco and Toledo
. El Greco of Toledo (catalogue). Little Brown. ASIN
B-000H4-58C-Y.
Brown Jonathan, Kagan Richard L. (1982).View of
Toledo. Studies in the History of Art 11: 1930.
Brown Jonathan, Mann Richard G. (1997). Tone.
Spanish Paintings of the Fifteenth Through Nineteenth
Centuries. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-14889-8.
Byron, Robert (October 1929). Greco: The Epilogue to Byzantine Culture. Burlington Magazine for
Connoisseurs (The Burlington Magazine Publications,
Ltd.) 55 (319): 160174. JSTOR 864104.
Constantoudaki, Maria (19751976).
D.
Theotocpoulos, from Candia to Venice (in Greek)".
Bulletin of the Christian Archeological Society. 8
(period IV): 5571.
Cormack, Robin (1997). Painting the Soul, Icons,
Death Masks and Shrouds. Reaktion Books, London.
Cosso, Manuel Bartolom (1908). El Greco (in Spanish). Victoriano Surez, Madrid.
Acton, Mary (1991). Learning to Look at Paintings.

Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-521-40107-0.
Crow, John Armstrong (1985).The Fine ArtsEnd

of the Golden Age. Spain: The Root and the Flower.
University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05133-5.
Allardyce, Isabel (2003). Our Lady of Charity, at

Illescas. Historic Shrines of Spain 1912. Kessinger
Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-3621-3.
Davies, David (1990). The Byzantine Legacy in the

Art of El Greco. El Greco of Crete (proceedings)
edited by Nicos Hadjinicolaou. Herakleion.
50
Davies, David (1990). The Inuence of Christian
Neo-Platonism on the Art of El Greco. El Greco
of Crete (proceedings) edited by Nicos Hadjinicolaou.
Herakleion.
Engass Robert, Brown Jonathan (1992). Artistic
Practice El Greco versus the Hospital of Charity,
Illescas. Italian and Spanish Art, 16001750. Northwestern University Press. ISBN 0-8101-1065-2.
Ferndez, Francisco de San Romn (1927). De la
Vida del GrecoNueva Serie de Documentos Inditos. Archivo Espaol del Arte y Arqueologia (in Spanish) 8: 172184.
Firestone, Chaz (2013).On the Origin and Status of
the 'El Greco Fallacy'". Perception 42 (6): 672674.
doi:10.1068/p7488.
Foundoulaki, E (1992). From El Greco to
Czanne. From El Greco to Czanne (catalogue).
National Gallery-Alexandros Soutsos Museum.
Foundoulaki, E (24 August 1990). Reading El
Greco through Manet (in Greek)". Anti (445): 4047.
Gautier, Thophile (1981). Chapitre X. Voyage
en Espagne (in French). Gallimard-Jeunesse. ISBN
2-07-037295-2.
Greco, El. Encyclopdia Britannica. 2002.
Grierson, Ian (2000).Who am Eye. The Eye Book.
Liverpool University Press. ISBN 0-85323-755-7.
Grith, William (2005).El Greco. Great Painters
and Their Famous Bible Pictures. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1-4179-0608-1.
Gudiol, Jos (1973). Domnicos Theotocpoulos, El
Greco, 15411614. Viking Press. ASIN B-0006C8T6-E.
Gudiol, Jos (September 1962). Iconography and
Chronology in El Greco's Paintings of St. Francis.
Art Bulletin (College Art Association) 44 (3): 195
203. doi:10.2307/3048016. JSTOR 3048016.
Hadjinicolaou, Nicos (1990).
Domnicos
Theotocpoulos, 450 Years from his Birth.
El Greco of Crete (proceedings) edited by Nicos
Hadjinicolaou. Herakleion.
Hadjinicolaou, Nicos (1994). Inequalities in the
work of Theotocpoulos and the Problems of their Interpretation. Meanings of the Image edited by Nicos
Hadjinicolaou (in Greek). University of Crete. ISBN
960-7309-65-0.
CHAPTER 3. EL GRECO
Harris, Enriquetta (April 1938).
A Decorative Scheme by El Greco. Burlington Magazine
for Connoisseurs (The Burlington Magazine Publications, Ltd.) 72 (421): 154155+157159+162164.
JSTOR 867279.
Helm, Robert Meredith (2001). The Neoplatonic
Tradition in the Art of El Greco. Neoplatonism and
Western Aesthetics edited by Aphrodite Alexandrakis
and Nicholas J. Moutafakis. SUNY Press. ISBN 07914-5279-4.
Hispanic Society of America (1927). El Greco in the
Collection of the Hispanic Society of America. Printed
by order of the trustees.
Johnson, Ron (October 1980). Picasso's Demoiselles d'Avignonand the Theatre of the Absurd.
Arts Magazine V (2): 102113.
Kandinsky Wassily, Marc Franz (1987). L'Almanach
duBlaue Reiter. Klincksieck. ISBN 2-252-025670.
Lambraki-Plaka, Marina (1999). El Greco-The Greek.
Kastaniotis. ISBN 960-03-2544-8.
Lambraki-Plaka, Marina (19 April 1987).El Greco,
the Puzzle. Domnicos Theotocpoulos today. To
Vima.
Lambraki-Plaka, Marina (1992). From El Greco to
Czanne (AnImaginary Museumwith Masterpieces
of Three Centuries)". From El Greco to Czanne (catalogue). National Gallery-Alexandros Soutsos Museum.
Landon, A.E. (2003). Reincarnation Magazine 1925.
Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-3775-9.
Lefaivre Liane, Tzonis Alexander (2003). El Greco
(Domenico Theotocopoulos)". El GrecoThe Greek.
Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-26025-6.
Mango Cyril, Jereys Elizabeth (2002). Towards
a Franco-Greek Culture. The Oxford History of
Byzantium. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19814098-3.
Mann, Richard G. (2002). Tradition and Originality in El Greco's Work (PDF). Journal of the Rocky
Mountain (The Medieval and Renaissance Association) 23: 83110.
Marias, Fernando (1999). El Greco's Artistic
Thought. El Greco, Identity and Transformation
edited by Alvarez Lopera. Skira. ISBN 88-8118-4745.
3.8. REFERENCES
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Marias Fernando, Bustamante Garca Agustn (1981).

Las Ideas Artsticas de El Greco (in Spanish). Ctedra.
ISBN 84-376-0263-7.
Sanders Alan, Kearney Richard (1998). Changing

Faces. The Wake of Imagination: Toward a Postmodern Culture. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-11950-2.
Mayer, Aygust L. (June 1929). El GrecoAn Oriental Artist. Art Bulletin (College Art Association)
11 (2): 146152. doi:10.2307/3045440. JSTOR
3045440.
Scholz-Hansel, Michael (1986). El Greco. Taschen.

ISBN 3-8228-3171-9.
Mayer, Aygust L. (January 1939). Notes on the

Early El Greco. Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs (The Burlington Magazine Publications, Ltd.)
74 (430): 2829+3233. JSTOR 867546.
Meier-Graefe, Julius (1926). The Spanish Journey (translated form German by J. Holroyd-Reece).
Jonathan Cape, London.
Mertzios, K.D. (19611962).Selections of the Registers of the Cretan Notary Michael Maras (1538
1578) (in Greek)". Cretan Chronicles 2 (1516): 55
71.
Nagvi-Peters, Fatima (22 September 1997).A Turning Point in Rilke's Evolution: The Experience of El
Greco. Germanic Review 72.
Pallucchini, Rodolfo (May 1948). Some Early
Works by El Greco. Burlington Magazine (The
Burlington Magazine Publications, Ltd.) 90 (542):
130135, 137. JSTOR 869910.
Panayotakis, Nikolaos M. (1986). ""The Cretan Period of the Life of Domnicos Theotocpoulos.
Festschrift In Honor Of Nikos Svoronos, Volume B.
Crete University Press.
Pijoan, Joseph (March 1930). El Greco A
Spaniard. Art Bulletin (College Art Association) 12
(1): 1219. doi:10.2307/3050759. JSTOR 3050759.
Procopiou, Angelo (March 1952).El Greco and Cretan Painting. Burlington Magazine (The Burlington
Magazine Publications, Ltd.) 94 (588): 74+7680.
Rassias John, Alexiou Christos, Bien Peter (1982).
Greco. Demotic Greek II: The Flying Telephone
Booth. UPNE. ISBN 0-87451-208-5.
Richardson, John (23 April 1987).Picasso's Apocalyptic Whorehouse. The New York Review of Books
(The Burlington Magazine Publications, Ltd.) 34 (7):
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Salas, X. de (February 1961). The Velazquez Exhibition in Madrid. Burlington Magazine 103 (695):
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Sethre, Janet (2003). El Greco. The Souls of

Venice. McFarland & Company. ISBN 0-7864-15738.
Sheehanl, J.J. (2000). Critiques of a Museum Culture. Museums in the German Art World. Oxford
University Press US. ISBN 0-19-513572-5.
Souchre de la, Dor (1960). Picasso Antibes (in
French). Fernan Hazan (Paris).
Talbot Rice, David (1964). David Piper, ed. Enjoying
Paintings. London: Penguin. ASIN B-000-BGRP4-C.
Tazartes, Mauricia (2005). El Greco (translated in
Greek by Soa Giannetsou). Explorer. ISBN 9607945-83-2.
Theotocpoulos, Domnicos. Encyclopaedia The
Helios. 1952.
Valliere, James T. (Autumn 1964). The El Greco
Inuence on Jackson Pollock's Early Works. Art
Journal (College Art Association.) 24 (1): 69.
doi:10.2307/774739. JSTOR 774739.
Wethey, Harold E. (1962). El Greco and his School
(Volume II). Princeton University Press. ASIN B0007D-NZV-6.
Wethey, Harold E. (1984).El Greco in Rome and the
Portrait of Vincenzo Anastagi". Studies in the History
of Art 13: 171178.
Wethey, Harold E.; Forsyth, G. H.; Levitine, G.;
Wethey, H. E.; Kelemen, P. l. (March 1966). Letter
to the Editor. Art Bulletin (College Art Association.)
48 (1): 125127. JSTOR 3048356.
Online sources
Alberge, Dalya (24 August 2006). Collector is Vindicated as Icon is Hailed as El Greco. The Times
(London). Retrieved 17 December 2006.
Berg, Liisa. El Greco in Toledo. Archived from
the original on 21 June 2006. Retrieved 14 October
2006.
Cormack, Robin; Vassilaki Maria (August 2005).
The Baptism of Christ New Light on Early El Greco
. Apollo Magazine. Retrieved 17 December 2006.
52
CHAPTER 3. EL GRECO
Art: Dominick the Greek. Time. January 1941.

Romaine, James. El Greco's Mystical Vision. Retrieved 24 November 2006.
El Greco. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Department of European Paintings. Retrieved 17 October
2006.
Russel, John (18 July 1982). Art View; Seeing the

Art of El Greco as never before. New York Times.
Retrieved 17 December 2006.
El Greco Drawings could fetch 400,000. The

Guardian (London). 23 November 2002. Retrieved
17 December 2006.
Film on life of painter El Greco planned, Athens
. Athens News Agency. 9 May 2006. Retrieved 17
December 2006.
Greece buys unique El Greco for 1.2 million dollars, Athens. Athens News Agency. 9 June 1995.
Hamerman, Nora (4 December 2003). El Greco
Paintings Lead Toward 'City of God'". Catholic Herald. Retrieved 17 December 2006.
Harrison, Helen A (20 March 2005). Art Review;
Getting in Touch With That Inner El Greco. New
York Times. Retrieved 17 December 2006.
3.9
Further reading
Aznar, Jos Camn (1950). Dominico Greco. Madrid:

Espasa-Calpe. OCLC 459049719.
Davies, David; Elliott, John H. (Editors); Bray,
Xavier; Christiansen, Keith; Finaldi, Gabriele (Contributors) (2005). El Greco (catalogue). London:
National Gallery. ISBN 1-85709-938-9. OCLC
57381521.
Marias, Fernando (2001). El Greco in Toledo.
London: Scala. ISBN 1-85759-210-7. OCLC
123287031.
Horsley, Carter B.The Shock of the Old. Retrieved

26 October 2006.
Pallucchini, Rodolfo (7 March 1937). II Polittico

del Greco della R. Gallena Estense e la Formazione
dell'Artista. Gazzetta dell' Emilia (in Italian) 13:
171178.
Irving, Mark (8 February 2004). How to Beat the

Spanish Inquisition. The Independent on Sunday.
Prevelakis, Pandelis (1942). Theotokopoulos. Ta

viographika. [With plates.] [Theotocpoulos Biography] (in Greek). Athna. OCLC 316522253.
Jones, Jonathan (24 January 2004). The Reluctant

Disciple. The Guardian (London). Retrieved 18
December 2006.
Rice, David Talbot (January 1937). El Greco and

Byzantium. The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs (The Burlington Magazine Publications, Ltd.)
70 (406): 34, 3839. ISSN 0951-0788. JSTOR
866725. OCLC 481224103.
Kakissis, Joanna (6 March 2005). A Cretan Village

that Was the Painter's Birthplace Bridles at a nearby
Town's Claim. The Boston Globe. Retrieved 17 December 2006.
Katimertzi, Paraskevi. Cubism and El Greco (Ta
Nea)". Archived from the original on 27 November
2005. Retrieved 4 December 2006.
Kimmelman, Michael (3 October 2003). Art Review; El Greco, Bearer Of Many Gifts. The New
York Times. Retrieved 17 December 2006.
McGarr, Simon.St Francis Receiving The Stigmata
. Retrieved 24 November 2006.
Penny, Nicholas. At the National Gallery. Retrieved 25 October 2006.
Searle, Adrian (10 February 2004). Revelations
The rst Major British Retrospective of El Greco Has
the Power of a Hand Grenade. The Guardian (London). Retrieved 17 December 2006.
3.10
External links
El Greco Biography, Style and Artworks

El Greco The Complete Works at the El Greco Foundation
El Greco's Gallery
Tour: El Greco (Spanish, 15411614) at the National
Gallery of Art
Chapter 4
Rembrandt
This article is about the Dutch artist. For other uses, see
Rembrandt (disambiguation).
Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (/rmbrnt, brnt/;* [2] Dutch: [rmbrnt rm(n)son vn rin] (
); 15 July 1606* [1] 4 October 1669) was a Dutch painter
and etcher. He is generally considered one of the greatest
painters and printmakers in European art and the most important in Dutch history.* [3] His contributions to art came
in a period of great wealth and cultural achievement that historians call the Dutch Golden Age when Dutch Golden Age
painting, although in many ways antithetical to the Baroque
style that dominated Europe, was extremely prolic and innovative, and gave rise to important new genres in painting.
Having achieved youthful success as a portrait painter,
Rembrandt's later years were marked by personal tragedy
and nancial hardships. Yet his etchings and paintings were
popular throughout his lifetime, his reputation as an artist
remained high,* [4] and for twenty years he taught many important Dutch painters.* [5] Rembrandt's greatest creative
triumphs are exemplied especially in his portraits of his
contemporaries, self-portraits and illustrations of scenes
from the Bible. His self-portraits form a unique and intimate biography, in which the artist surveyed himself with- The Prodigal Son in the Tavern, a self-portrait with Saskia, c. 1635
out vanity and with the utmost sincerity.* [3]
In his paintings and prints he exhibited knowledge of classical iconography, which he molded to t the requirements of
his own experience; thus, the depiction of a biblical scene
was informed by Rembrandt's knowledge of the specic
text, his assimilation of classical composition, and his observations of Amsterdam's Jewish population.* [6] Because
of his empathy for the human condition, he has been called
one of the great prophets of civilization.* [7]
Netherlands. He was the ninth child born to Harmen Gerritszoon van Rijn and Neeltgen Willemsdochter van Zuytbrouck.* [9] His family was quite well-to-do; his father was
a miller and his mother was a baker's daughter. Religion is
a central theme in Rembrandt's paintings and the religiously
fraught period in which he lived makes his faith a matter of
interest. His mother was Roman Catholic, and his father
belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church. While his work
reveals deep Christian faith, there is no evidence that Rembrandt formally belonged to any church, although he had
ve of his children christened in Dutch Reformed churches
4.1 Life
in Amsterdam: four in the Oude Kerk (Old Church) and
*
Rembrandt* [8] Harmenszoon van Rijn was born on 15 one, Titus, in the Zuiderkerk (Southern Church). [10]
July 1606 in Leiden,* [1] in the Dutch Republic, now the As a boy he attended Latin school and was enrolled at the
53
54
CHAPTER 4. REMBRANDT
University of Leiden, although according to a contemporary

he had a greater inclination towards painting; he was soon
apprenticed to a Leiden history painter, Jacob van Swanenburgh, with whom he spent three years.* [11] After a
brief but important apprenticeship of six months with the
painter Pieter Lastman in Amsterdam, Rembrandt stayed
a few months with Jacob Pynas and then started his own
workshop, though Simon van Leeuwen claimed that Joris
van Schooten taught Rembrandt in Leiden.* [11]* [12] Rembrandt opened a studio in Leiden in 1624 or 1625, which
he shared with friend and colleague Jan Lievens. In 1627,
Rembrandt began to accept students, among them Gerrit
Dou.* [13]
In 1629 Rembrandt was discovered by the statesman
Constantijn Huygens (father of the Dutch mathematician
and physicist Christiaan Huygens), who procured for Rembrandt important commissions from the court of The
Hague. As a result of this connection, Prince Frederik Hendrik continued to purchase paintings from Rembrandt until
1646.* [14]
At the end of 1631 Rembrandt moved to Amsterdam,
then rapidly expanding as the new business capital of the
Netherlands, and began to practice as a professional portraitist for the rst time, with great success. He initially
stayed with an art dealer, Hendrick van Uylenburgh, and
in 1634, married Hendrick's cousin, Saskia van Uylenburgh.* [15]* [16] Saskia came from a good family: her
father had been a lawyer and the burgemeester (mayor)
of Leeuwarden. When Saskia, as the youngest daughter,
became an orphan, she lived with an older sister in Het
Bildt. Rembrandt and Saskia were married in the local
church of St. Annaparochie without the presence of Rembrandt's relatives.* [17] In the same year, Rembrandt became a burgess of Amsterdam and a member of the local
guild of painters. He also acquired a number of students,
among them Ferdinand Bol and Govert Flinck.* [18]
In 1635 Rembrandt and Saskia moved into their own
house, renting in fashionable Nieuwe Doelenstraat. In
1639 they moved to a prominent newly built house (now
the Rembrandt House Museum) in the upscale 'Breestraat'
(eng.: 'Broadway'), today known as Jodenbreestraat (Jodenbreestraat 4,1011 NK Amsterdam-now) in what was becoming the Jewish quarter; then a young upcoming neighborhood. The mortgage to nance the 13,000 guilder purchase would be a primary cause for later nancial diculties.* [18] Rembrandt should easily have been able to pay the
house o with his large income, but it appears his spending always kept pace with his income, and he may have
made some unsuccessful investments.* [19] It was there that
Rembrandt frequently sought his Jewish neighbors to model
for his Old Testament scenes.* [20] Although they were by
now auent, the couple suered several personal setbacks;
their son Rumbartus died two months after his birth in
Portrait of Saskia van Uylenburgh, ca. 1635
1635 and their daughter Cornelia died at just three weeks

of age in 1638. In 1640, they had a second daughter, also
named Cornelia, who died after living barely over a month.
Only their fourth child, Titus, who was born in 1641, survived into adulthood. Saskia died in 1642 soon after Titus's
birth, probably from tuberculosis. Rembrandt's drawings of
her on her sick and death bed are among his most moving
works.* [21]
During Saskia's illness, Geertje Dircx was hired as Titus'
caretaker and nurse and also became Rembrandt's lover.
She would later charge Rembrandt with breach of promise
and was awarded alimony of 200 guilders a year.* [18] Rembrandt worked to have her committed for twelve years to an
asylum or poorhouse (called abridewell) at Gouda, after
learning she had pawned jewelry that had once belonged to
Saskia and that he had given to her.* [22]
In the late 1640s Rembrandt began a relationship with the
much younger Hendrickje Stoels, who had initially been
his maid. In 1654 they had a daughter, Cornelia, bringing Hendrickje a summons from the Reformed Church to
answer the charge that she had committed the acts of a
whore with Rembrandt the painter. She admitted this and
was banned from receiving communion. Rembrandt was
not summoned to appear for the Church council because he
was not a member of the Reformed Church.* [23] The two
were considered legally wed under common law, but Rem-
4.2. WORKS
55
brandt had not married Hendrickje. Had he remarried he tion of the whole work.* [27] It was around this time that
would have lost access to a trust set up for Titus in Saskia's Rembrandt took on his last apprentice, Aert de Gelder. In
will.* [21]
1662 he was still fullling major commissions for portraits
and other works.* [28] When Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand
Duke of Tuscany came to Amsterdam in 1667, he visited
Rembrandt at his house.* [29]
Rembrandt outlived both Hendrickje, who died in 1663,
and Titus, who died in 1668, leaving a baby daughter.
He died within a year of his son, on 4 October 1669 in
Amsterdam, and was buried in an unmarked grave in the
Westerkerk.* [30]* [31]
4.2
Works
See also: List of paintings by Rembrandt, List of etchings

by Rembrandt and List of drawings by Rembrandt
In a letter to Huygens, Rembrandt oered the only surviv-
Rembrandt's son Titus, as a monk, 1660
Rembrandt lived beyond his means, buying art (including

bidding up his own work), prints (often used in his paintings) and rarities, which probably caused a court arrangement to avoid his bankruptcy in 1656, by selling most of
his paintings and large collection of antiquities. The sale list
survives and gives us a good insight into Rembrandt's collections, which, apart from Old Master paintings and drawings,
included busts of the Roman Emperors, suits of Japanese
armor among many objects from Asia, and collections of
natural history and minerals. But the prices realized in
the sales in 1657 and 1658 were disappointing.* [24] Rembrandt was forced to sell his house and his printing-press
and move to more modest accommodation on the Rozengracht in 1660.* [25] The authorities and his creditors were
generally accommodating to him, except for the Amsterdam painters' guild, which introduced a new rule that no
one in Rembrandt's circumstances could trade as a painter.
To get around this, Hendrickje and Titus set up a business as
art dealers in 1660, with Rembrandt as an employee.* [26]
In 1661 Rembrandt (or rather the new business) was contracted to complete work for the newly built city hall, but
only after Govert Flinck, the artist previously commissioned, died without beginning to paint. The resulting work,
The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis, was rejected and returned to the painter; the surviving fragment is only a frac-
The Storm on the Sea of Galilee, 1633. The painting is still missing
after the robbery from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in
1990.
ing explanation of what he sought to achieve through his art:

the greatest and most natural movement, translated from de
meeste en de natuurlijkste beweegelijkheid. The word beweechgelickhijtis also argued to meanemotionormotive.Whether this refers to objectives, material or otherwise, is open to interpretation; either way, critics have
drawn particular attention to the way Rembrandt seamlessly
56
melded the earthly and spiritual.* [32]
Earlier 20th century connoisseurs claimed Rembrandt had
produced over 600 paintings, nearly 400 etchings and
2,000 drawings.* [33] More recent scholarship, from the
1960s to the present day (led by the Rembrandt Research
Project), often controversially, has winnowed his oeuvre to
nearer 300 paintings.* [34] His prints, traditionally all called
etchings, although many are produced in whole or part by
engraving and sometimes drypoint, have a much more stable total of slightly under 300.* [35] It is likely Rembrandt
made many more drawings in his lifetime than 2,000, but
those extant are more rare than presumed.* [36] Two experts claim that the number of drawings whose autograph
status can be regarded as eectivelycertainis no higher
than about 75, although this is disputed. The list was to be
unveiled at a scholarly meeting in February 2010.* [37]
historical fancy dress, or pulling faces at himself. His oil
paintings trace the progress from an uncertain young man,
through the dapper and very successful portrait-painter of
the 1630s, to the troubled but massively powerful portraits
of his old age. Together they give a remarkably clear picture
of the man, his appearance and his psychological make-up,
as revealed by his richly weathered face.* [39]
In his portraits and self-portraits, he angles the sitter's face
in such a way that the ridge of the nose nearly always
forms the line of demarcation between brightly illuminated
and shadowy areas. A Rembrandt face is a face partially
eclipsed; and the nose, bright and obvious, thrusting into
the riddle of halftones, serves to focus the viewer's attention upon, and to dramatize, the division between a ood
of lightan overwhelming clarityand a brooding duskiness.* [40]
In a number of biblical works, including The Raising of the
Cross, Joseph Telling His Dreams and The Stoning of Saint
Stephen, Rembrandt painted himself as a character in the
crowd. Durham suggests that this was because the Bible was
for Rembrandta kind of diary, an account of moments in
his own life.* [41]
Among the more prominent characteristics of Rembrandt's
work are his use of chiaroscuro, the theatrical employment
of light and shadow derived from Caravaggio, or, more
likely, from the Dutch Caravaggisti, but adapted for very
personal means.* [42] Also notable are his dramatic and
lively presentation of subjects, devoid of the rigid formality that his contemporaries often displayed, and a deeply
felt compassion for mankind, irrespective of wealth and
age. His immediate familyhis wife Saskia, his son Titus and his common-law wife Hendrickje often gured
prominently in his paintings, many of which had mythical,
biblical or historical themes.
4.2.1
A Polish Nobleman, 1637
Periods, themes and styles
Throughout his career Rembrandt took as his primary subjects the themes of portraiture, landscape and narrative
painting. For the last, he was especially praised by his contemporaries, who extolled him as a masterly interpreter of
biblical stories for his skill in representing emotions and attention to detail.* [44] Stylistically, his paintings progressed
from the early smoothmanner, characterized by ne
technique in the portrayal of illusionistic form, to the late
roughtreatment of richly variegated paint surfaces, which
allowed for an illusionism of form suggested by the tactile
quality of the paint itself.* [45]
At one time about ninety paintings were counted as Rembrandt self-portraits, but it is now known that he had his
students copy his own self-portraits as part of their training. Modern scholarship has reduced the autograph count
to over forty paintings, as well as a few drawings and thirty- A parallel development may be seen in Rembrandt's skill
one etchings, which include many of the most remarkable as a printmaker. In the etchings of his maturity, particuimages of the group.* [38] Some show him posing in quasi- larly from the late 1640s onward, the freedom and breadth
4.2. WORKS
57
The Abduction of Europa, 1632. Oil on panel. The work has been
described as "...a shining example of the 'golden age' of Baroque
painting.* [43]
of his drawings and paintings found expression in the print

medium as well. The works encompass a wide range of subject matter and technique, sometimes leaving large areas of
white paper to suggest space, at other times employing complex webs of line to produce rich dark tones.* [46]
It was during Rembrandt's Leiden period (16251631) that
Lastman's inuence was most prominent. It is also likely
that at this time Lievens had a strong impact on his work
as well.* [47] Paintings were rather small, but rich in details (for example, in costumes and jewelry). Religious and
allegorical themes were favored, as were tronies.* [47] In
1626 Rembrandt produced his rst etchings, the wide dissemination of which would largely account for his international fame.* [47] In 1629 he completed Judas Repentant,
Returning the Pieces of Silver and The Artist in His Studio,
works that evidence his interest in the handling of light and
variety of paint application, and constitute the rst major
progress in his development as a painter.* [48]
During his early years in Amsterdam (16321636), Rembrandt began to paint dramatic biblical and mythological
scenes in high contrast and of large format (The Blinding of
Samson, 1636, Belshazzar's Feast, c. 1635 Dana, 1636),
seeking to emulate the baroque style of Rubens.* [49] With
the occasional help of assistants in Uylenburgh's workshop, he painted numerous portrait commissions both small
(Jacob de Gheyn III) and large (Portrait of the Shipbuilder
Jan Rijcksen and his Wife, 1633, Anatomy Lesson of Dr.
Nicolaes Tulp, 1632).* [50]
A typical portrait from 1634, when Rembrandt was enjoying great

commercial success
exuberant and more sober in tone, possibly reecting personal tragedy. Biblical scenes were now derived more often from the New Testament than the Old Testament, as
had been the case before. In 1642 he painted The Night
Watch, the most substantial of the important group portrait commissions which he received in this period, and
through which he sought to nd solutions to compositional
and narrative problems that had been attempted in previous
works.* [51]
In the decade following the Night Watch, Rembrandt's

paintings varied greatly in size, subject, and style. The
previous tendency to create dramatic eects primarily by
strong contrasts of light and shadow gave way to the use
of frontal lighting and larger and more saturated areas of
color. Simultaneously, gures came to be placed parallel
to the picture plane. These changes can be seen as a move
toward a classical mode of composition and, considering
the more expressive use of brushwork as well, may indicate a familiarity with Venetian art (Susanna and the Elders,
*
By the late 1630s Rembrandt had produced a few paint- 163747). [52] At the same time, there was a marked deworks in favor of etchings and drawings
ings and many etchings of landscapes. Often these land- crease in painted
*
[53]
In these graphic works natural drama
of
landscapes.
scapes highlighted natural drama, featuring uprooted trees
eventually
made
way
for quiet Dutch rural scenes.
and ominous skies (Cottages before a Stormy Sky, c. 1641;
The Three Trees, 1643). From 1640 his work became less In the 1650s, Rembrandt's style changed again. Colors
58
4.2.2
Etchings
The Windmill, etching
Self Portrait, 1658, Frick Collection, a masterpiece of the nal

style, the calmest and grandest of all his portraits* [54]
became richer and brush strokes more pronounced. With

these changes, Rembrandt distanced himself from earlier
work and current fashion, which increasingly inclined toward ne, detailed works. His use of light becomes more
jagged and harsh, and shine becomes almost nonexistent.
His singular approach to paint application may have been
suggested in part by familiarity with the work of Titian, and
could be seen in the context of the then current discussion
of 'nish' and surface quality of paintings. Contemporary
accounts sometimes remark disapprovingly of the coarseness of Rembrandt's brushwork, and the artist himself was
said to have dissuaded visitors from looking too closely at
his paintings.* [55] The tactile manipulation of paint may
hearken to medieval procedures, when mimetic eects of
rendering informed a painting's surface. The end result is a
richly varied handling of paint, deeply layered and often apparently haphazard, which suggests form and space in both
an illusory and highly individual manner.* [56]
Rembrandt produced etchings for most of his career, from

1626 to 1660, when he was forced to sell his printing-press
and virtually abandoned etching. Only the troubled year of
1649 produced no dated work.* [59] He took easily to etching and, though he also learned to use a burin and partly
engraved many plates, the freedom of etching technique
was fundamental to his work. He was very closely involved
in the whole process of printmaking, and must have printed
at least early examples of his etchings himself. At rst he
used a style based on drawing, but soon moved to one based
on painting, using a mass of lines and numerous bitings with
the acid to achieve dierent strengths of line. Towards the
end of the 1630s, he reacted against this manner and moved
to a simpler style, with fewer bitings.* [60] He worked on
the so-called Hundred Guilder Print in stages throughout
the 1640s, and it was the critical work in the middle of
his career, from which his nal etching style began to
emerge.* [61] Although the print only survives in two states,
the rst very rare, evidence of much reworking can be seen
underneath the nal print and many drawings survive for
elements of it.* [62]
In the mature works of the 1650s, Rembrandt was more
ready to improvise on the plate and large prints typically survive in several states, up to eleven, often radically
changed. He now uses hatching to create his dark areas,
which often take up much of the plate. He also experimented with the eects of printing on dierent kinds of
paper, including Japanese paper, which he used frequently,
and on vellum. He began to use surface tone,leaving
a thin lm of ink on parts of the plate instead of wiping it
completely clean to print each impression. He made more
use of drypoint, exploiting, especially in landscapes, the
rich fuzzy burr that this technique gives to the rst few impressions.* [63]
In later years biblical themes were still depicted often, but

emphasis shifted from dramatic group scenes to intimate
portrait-like gures (James the Apostle, 1661). In his last
years, Rembrandt painted his most deeply reective selfportraits (from 1652 to 1669 he painted fteen), and several
moving images of both men and women (The Jewish Bride,
c. 1666)in love, in life, and before God.* [57]* [58]
His prints have similar subjects to his paintings, although
4.3. EXPERT ASSESSMENTS
59
The three trees, 1643, etching
the twenty-seven self-portraits are relatively more common,

and portraits of other people less so. There are forty-six
landscapes, mostly small, which largely set the course for
the graphic treatment of landscape until the end of the 19th
century. One third of his etchings are of religious subjects,
many treated with a homely simplicity, whilst others are
his most monumental prints. A few erotic, or just obscene,
compositions have no equivalent in his paintings.* [64] He
owned, until forced to sell it, a magnicent collection of
prints by other artists, and many borrowings and inuences
in his work can be traced to artists as diverse as Mantegna,
Raphael, Hercules Seghers, and Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione.
The Night Watch or The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq, 1642. Oil on canvas; on display at the Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam
cess from the beginning. Parts of the canvas were cut o

(approximately 20% from the left hand side was removed)
to make the painting t its new position when it was moved
to Amsterdam town hall in 1715; the Rijksmuseum has a
smaller copy of what is thought to be the full original composition; the four gures in the front are at the centre of the
canvas. The painting is now in the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.* [65]
4.3
4.2.3
Expert assessments
The Night Watch
Main article: The Night Watch

Rembrandt painted the large painting The Militia Company
of Captain Frans Banning Cocq between 1640 and 1642.
This picture was called De Nachtwacht by the Dutch and
The Night Watch by Sir Joshua Reynolds because by the
18th century the picture was so dimmed and defaced that it
was almost indistinguishable, and it looked quite like a night
scene. After it was cleaned, it was discovered to represent
broad daya party of musketeers stepping from a gloomy
courtyard into the blinding sunlight.
The piece was commissioned for the new hall of the Kloveniersdoelen, the musketeer branch of the civic militia. Rembrandt departed from convention, which ordered that such
genre pieces should be stately and formal, rather a line-up
than an action scene. Instead he showed the militia readying
themselves to embark on a mission (what kind of mission,
The Polish Rider Possibly a Lisowczyk on horseback. The suban ordinary patrol or some special event, is a matter of deject is of much discussion. It is possible that the person depicted
bate).
was Grand Chancellor of Lithuania, Marcjan Aleksander Ogiski
Contrary to what is often said, the work was hailed as a suc- (16321690).
60
In 1968 the Rembrandt Research Project began under the

sponsorship of the Netherlands Organization for the Advancement of Scientic Research; it was initially expected
to last a highly optimistic ten years. Art historians teamed
up with experts from other elds to reassess the authenticity
of works attributed to Rembrandt, using all methods available, including state-of-the-art technical diagnostics, and to
compile a complete new catalogue raisonn of his paintings.
As a result of their ndings, many paintings that were previously attributed to Rembrandt have been removed from
their list, although others have been added back.* [66] Many
of those removed are now thought to be the work of his students.
One example of activity is The Polish Rider, in New York's
Frick Collection. Rembrandt's authorship had been questioned by at least one scholar, Alfred von Wurzbach, at the
beginning of the twentieth century, but for many decades
later most scholars, including the foremost authority writing in English, Julius S. Held, agreed that it was indeed by
the master. In the 1980s, however, Dr. Josua Bruyn of
the Foundation Rembrandt Research Project cautiously and
tentatively attributed the painting to one of Rembrandt's
closest and most talented pupils, Willem Drost, about whom
little is known. But Bruyn's remained a minority opinion,
the suggestion of Drost's authorship is now generally rejected, and the Frick itself never changed its own attribution, the label still readingRembrandtand notattributed
toorschool of. More recent opinion has shifted even
more decisively in favor of the Frick, with Simon Schama
(in his 1999 book Rembrandt's Eyes) and the Rembrandt
Project scholar Ernst van de Wetering (Melbourne Symposium, 1997) both arguing for attribution to the master.
Those few scholars who still question Rembrandt's authorship feel that the execution is uneven, and favour dierent
attributions for dierent parts of the work.* [67]
A similar issue was raised by Simon Schama in his book
Rembrandt's Eyes concerning the verication of titles associated with the subject matter depicted in Rembrandt's
works. For example, the exact subject being portrayed in
Aristotle with a Bust of Homer (recently retitled by curators
at the Metropolitan Museum) has been directly challenged
by Schama applying the scholarship of Paul Crenshaw.* [68]
Schama presents a substantial argument that it was the famous ancient Greek painter Apelles who is depicted in contemplation by Rembrandt and not Aristotle.* [69]
Another painting, Pilate Washing His Hands, is also of questionable attribution. Critical opinion of this picture has varied since 1905, when Wilhelm von Bode described it asa
somewhat abnormal workby Rembrandt. Scholars have
since dated the painting to the 1660s and assigned it to an
anonymous pupil, possibly Aert de Gelder. The composition bears supercial resemblance to mature works by Rembrandt but lacks the master's command of illumination and
Man in a Golden helmet, Gemldegalerie, Berlin, once one of the

most famous Rembrandtportraits, no longer attributed to the
master
modeling.* [70]
The attribution and re-attribution work is ongoing. In 2005
four oil paintings previously attributed to Rembrandt's students were reclassied as the work of Rembrandt himself:
Study of an Old Man in Prole and Study of an Old Man with
a Beard from a US private collection, Study of a Weeping
Woman, owned by the Detroit Institute of Arts, and Portrait of an Elderly Woman in a White Bonnet, painted in
1640.* [71]
Rembrandt's own studio practice is a major factor in the difculty of attribution, since, like many masters before him,
he encouraged his students to copy his paintings, sometimes nishing or retouching them to be sold as originals,
and sometimes selling them as authorized copies. Additionally, his style proved easy enough for his most talented
students to emulate. Further complicating matters is the
uneven quality of some of Rembrandt's own work, and his
frequent stylistic evolutions and experiments.* [72] As well,
there were later imitations of his work, and restorations
which so seriously damaged the original works that they are
no longer recognizable.* [73] It is highly likely that there will
never be universal agreement as to what does and what does
not constitute a genuine Rembrandt.
4.5. WORKSHOP
4.4 Name and signature
61
Vinci and Michelangelo who, then as now, were referred to
by their rst names alone.* [75]
4.5
Workshop
Slaughtered Ox, (1655), Muse du Louvre, Paris
"Rembrandt" is a modication of the spelling of the artist's

rst name that he introduced in 1633. Roughly speaking,
his earliest signatures (ca. 1625) consisted of an initial "R",
or the monogram "RH" (for Rembrant Harmenszoon; i.e.
Rembrant, the son of Harmen), and starting in 1629,
"RHL" (theLstood, presumably, for Leiden). In 1632,
he used this monogram early in the year, then added his
patronymic to it, "RHL-van Rijn", but replaced this form
in that same year and began using his rst name alone with
its original spelling, "Rembrant". In 1633 he added ad
, and maintained this form consistently from then on, proving that this minor change had a meaning for him (whatever it might have been). This change is purely visual; it
does not change the way his name is pronounced. Curiously
enough, despite the large number of paintings and etchings
signed with this modied rst name, most of their documents that mentioned him during his lifetime retained the
originalRembrantspelling. (Note: the rough chronology
of signature forms above applies to the paintings, and to a
lesser degree to the etchings; from 1632, presumably, there
is only one etching signedRHL-v. Rijn,the large-format
Raising of Lazarus,B 73).* [74] His practice of signing his work with his rst name, later followed by Vincent
van Gogh, was probably inspired by Raphael, Leonardo da
Saskia as Flora, 1635
It is known that Rembrandt ran a large workshop and

had many pupils. His fame was such that important dignitaries visiting Amsterdam wished to buy pieces, and
he was more than willing to comply if he could. The
list of Rembrandt pupils from his period in Leiden as
well as his time in Amsterdam is quite long, mostly because his inuence on painters around him was so great
that it is dicult to tell whether someone worked for
him in his studio or just copied his style for patrons eager to acquire a Rembrandt. A partial list should include* [76] Ferdinand Bol, Adriaen Brouwer, Gerrit Dou,
Willem Drost, Heiman Dullaart, Gerbrand van den Eeckhout, Carel Fabritius, Govert Flinck, Hendrick Fromantiou,
Aert de Gelder, Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten, Abraham
Janssens, Godfrey Kneller, Philip de Koninck, Jacob Levecq, Nicolaes Maes, Jrgen Ovens, Christopher Paudi,
Willem de Poorter, Jan Victors, and Willem van der Vliet.
62
D.C.* [78]
4.7
Selected works
Rembrandt House Museum
4.6 Museum collections

The most notable collections of Rembrandt's work are at
Amsterdam's Rijksmuseum, including The Night Watch and
The Jewish Bride. His home, preserved as the Rembrandt The Girl in a Picture Frame, 1641, Royal Castle, Warsaw
House Museum in Amsterdam, displays many examples of
his etchings; all major print rooms have the majority of
The Stoning of Saint Stephen (1625) Muse des Beauxthese, although a number exist in only a handful of impresArts, Lyon
sions (copies).
Other notable museums in Europe are The Hague's
Mauritshuis, the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg,
the National Gallery in London, Gemldegalerie in Berlin,
Gemldegalerie Alte Meister in Dresden, The Louvre,
Nationalmuseum, Stockholm, and Schloss Wilhelmshhe
in Kassel. The Royal Castle in Warsaw displays two
paintings by Rembrandt from Lanckoroski collection in a
separate, dedicated room of Renaissance Courtier Lodgings.* [77] The exposition of iconic Girl in a Picture Frame
and its pendant Scholar at the Lectern was supplemented
with X-ray examinations of the paintings and other works
by contemporary Dutch artist's including Repentant St. Peter from Rembrant's workshop.
Andromeda Chained to the Rocks (1630) Mauritshuis,
Notable collections of Rembrandt's works in USA are

the Metropolitan Museum of Art and Frick Collection in
New York City, National Gallery of Art in Washington,
cm, looted from the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (or HesseCassel), Germany in 1806, currently Hermitage Museum,
St. Petersburg
The Hague
Jacob de Gheyn III (1632) Dulwich Picture Gallery,

London
Philosopher in Meditation (1632) The Louvre, Paris

The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp (1632)
Mauritshuis, The Hague
Artemisia (1634) Oil on canvas, 142 152 cm, Museo

del Prado, Madrid
Descent from the Cross (1634) Oil on canvas, 158 117
4.8. EXHIBITIONS
63
Belshazzar's Feast (1635) National Gallery, London
Bathsheba at Her Bath (1654) The Louvre, Paris
The Prodigal Son in the Tavern (c. 1635) Oil on can-
Christ Presented to the People (Ecce Homo) (1655)
vas, 161 131 cm Gemldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden
Dana (16361643) Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg
The Night Watch, formally The Militia Company of

Captain Frans Banning Cocq (1642) Rijksmuseum,
Drypoint, Birmingham Museum of Art
Selfportrait (1658) Frick Collection, New York

The Three Crosses (1660) Etching, fourth state
Ahasuerus and Haman at the Feast of Esther (1660)
Pushkin Museum, Moscow
Amsterdam
Christ Healing the Sick (etching c. 1643, also known

as the Hundred Guilder Print), nicknamed for the huge
The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis (1661)

Nationalmuseum, Stockholm (Claudius Civilis led a
Dutch revolt against the Romans) (most of the cut up
painting is lost, only the central part still exists)
sum paid for it
Boaz and Ruth (1643) aka The Old Rabbi Old Man
Woburn Abbey/Gemaldegalerie, Berlin
Portrait of Dirck van Os (1662) - Joslyn Art Museum,

Omaha, Nebraska
Syndics of the Drapers' Guild (Dutch De Staalmeesters,

1662) Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam
The Jewish Bride (1665) Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam
The Entombment Sketch(c. 1639 and reworked
c. 1654) oil on oak panel Hunterian Museum and Art
Gallery, Glasgow
4.8
Exhibitions
Oct 15, 2014 - Jan 18, 2015: Rembrandt: The Late

Works, The National Gallery, London.* [79]
Oct 19, 2014 - Jan 4, 2015: Rembrandt, Rubens,
Gainsborough and the Golden Age of Painting in Europe, Jule Collins Smith Museum of Art.* [80]
May 19, 2014 - Jun 27, 2014: From Rembrandt to
Rosenquist: Works on Paper from the NAC's Permanent Collection, National Arts Club.* [81]
The evangelist Matthew and the angel, 1661
The Mill (1645/48) National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
Old Man with a Gold Chain ("Old Man with a Black

Hat and Gorget") (c. 1631) Art Institute of Chicago
Susanna and the Elders (1647) Oil on panel, 76 91
cm, Gemldegalerie, Berlin
Aristotle Contemplating a Bust of Homer (1653)

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Sep 16, 2013 - Nov 14, 2013: Rembrandt: The

Consummate Etcher, Syracuse University Art Galleries.* [82]
Apr 21, 2011 - Jul 18, 2011: Rembrandt and the Face
of Jesus, Muse du Louvre.* [83]
4.9
4.9.1
Gallery
Self-portraits
Main article: Self-portraits by Rembrandt
64
A young Rembrandt, c. 1628, when he was 22. Partly

an exercise in chiaroscuro. Rijksmuseum
Self-portrait, c. 1629; Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg
Belshassar's Feast, 1636-8

The Archangel leaving Tobias, 1637
The Landscape with Good Samaritan, 1638
Self-portrait, 1630, Nationalmuseum, Stockholm
Susanna and the Elders, 1647
Self-Portrait with Velvet Beret and Furred Mantel 1634
The Mill, 1648
Self-portrait, at 34, 1640

Self-Portrait, oil on canvas, 1652. Kunsthistorisches
Museum, Vienna
Self-portrait, Vienna c. 1655, oil on walnut, cut down
in size. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna
Self-Portrait, 1660
Self-Portrait with Two Circles, 1660. Kenwood House,
London
Self-Portrait as Zeuxis, c. 1662. One of 2 painted selfportraits in which Rembrandt is turned to the left.* [1]
Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne
Self-portrait, 1669.
Self-portrait, dated 1669, the year he died, though he
looks much older in other portraits. National Gallery,
London
1. ^ White, 200
4.9.2
Other works
The Stoning of Saint Stephen, 1625, The rst painting

by Rembrandt, painted at the age of 19.* [1] It is currently kept in the Muse des Beaux-Arts de Lyon.
Bust of an old man with a fur hat, the artist's father,
1630
Jeremiah Lamenting the Destruction of Jerusalem, c.
1630
The Philosopher in Meditation, 1632
Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, 1632
Abraham and Isaac, 1634
The Blinding of Samson, 1636, which Rembrandt gave
to Huyghens
An Old Man in Red, 1652-1654

Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, 1653, Metropolitan
Museum of Art in New York
Young Girl at the Window, 1654
Portrait of the later mayor Jan Six, a wealthy friend of
Rembrandt, 1654
Bathsheba at Her Bath, modeled after Hendrickje,
1654
Woman Bathing in a Stream, 1655
Woman in a Doorway, 1657-1658
The Jewish Bride, 1658.
Ahasuerus and Haman at the Feast of Esther, 1660
Saint Bartholomew, 1661, J. Paul Getty Museum
The Syndics of the Drapers' Guild, 1662
The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis (cut-down), 1661
62
Jacob Blessing the Sons of Joseph, 1656
The Return of the Prodigal Son, detail, c. 1669
1. ^ Starcky, Emmanuel (1990). Rembrandt. Hazan. p.
45. ISBN 2-85025-212-3.
Drawings and etchings
Self-portrait in a cap, with eyes wide open, etching and
burin, 1630
Self-portrait, pen and brush and ink on paper, c. 16281629
Role-playing in Self-portrait as an oriental Potentate
with a Kris, etching, 1634
The Hundred Guilder Print, c. 16471649,
Saskia in red hat, 1635
Suzannah and the Elders, drawing, 1634
Susanna, 1636
Self-portrait with Saskia, etching, 1636
4.10. NOTES
Self-portrait leaning on a Sill, etching, 1639
The Three Crosses, etching by Rembrandt, 1653, State
III of V
Christ and the woman taken in adultery, drawing
65
[12] Joris van Schooten as teacher of Rembrandt and Lievens in

Simon van Leeuwen's Korte besgryving van het Lugdunum
Batavorum nu Leyden, Leiden, 1672
[13] Slive has a comprehensive biography, p.55 .
[14] Slive, pp. 60, 65
Virgin and Child with a Cat, 1654. Original copper [15] Slive, pp. 6061
etching plate above, example of the print below
An elephant 1637
Christ presented to the People, drypoint, 1655, State I
of VIII
4.10 Notes
[16] Netherlands,
Noord-Holland Province,
Church
Records, 1553-1909 Image Netherlands, NoordHolland Province,
Church Records,
1553-1909;
pal:/MM9.3.1/TH-1971-31164-16374-68 ".
Familysearch.org. Retrieved 2014-04-07.
[17] Registration of the banns of Rembrandt and Saskia, kept at
the Amsterdam City Archives
[18] Bull, et al., p. 28
[1] Or possibly 1607 as on 10 June 1634 he himself claimed to

be 26 years old. See Is the Rembrandt Year being celebrated
one year too soon? One year too late? and (Dutch) J. de
Jong, Rembrandts geboortejaar een jaar te vroeg gevierd for
sources concerning Rembrandts birth year, especially supporting 1607. However most sources continue to use 1606.
[2] Rembrandt. Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
[3] Gombrich, p. 420.
[19] Clark, 1978, pp. 267, 76, 102

[20] Adams, p. 660
[21] Slive, p. 71
[22] Driessen, p. 151-157
[23] Slive, p.82
[24] Slive, p. 84
[4] Gombrich, p. 427.
[25] Schwarz, p. 12. The house sale was in 1658, but was agreed
with two years for Rembrandt to vacate.
[5] Clark 1969, pp. 203
[26] Clark, 1974 p. 105
[6] Clark 1969, pp. 203204
[27] Clark 1974, pp. 6061
[7] Clark 1969, pp. 205
[28] Bull, et al., page 29.
[8] This version of his rst name, Rembrandtwith a d,

rst appeared in his signatures in 1633. Until then, he had
signed with a combination of initials or monograms. In late
1632, he began signing solely with his rst name, Rembrant.He added the din the following year and stuck
to this spelling for the rest of his life. Although we can only
speculate, this change must have had a meaning for Rembrandt, which is generally interpreted as his wanting to be
known by his rst name like the great gures of the Italian
Renaissance: Leonardo, Raphael etc., (who did not sign with
their rst names, if at all). Rembrandt-signature-le.com
[29] Clark 1978, p. 34
[9] Bull, et al., p. 28.

[10] Doopregisters,
Zoek (in Dutch).
Stadsarchief.amsterdam.nl. 2014-04-03. Retrieved 201404-07.
[11] (Dutch) Rembrandt biography in De groote schouburgh
der Nederlantsche konstschilders en schilderessen (1718) by
Arnold Houbraken, courtesy of the Digital library for Dutch
literature
[30] Slive, p. 83
[31] Burial register of the Westerkerk with record of Rembrandt's
burial, kept at the Amsterdam City Archives
[32] Hughes, p. 6
[33] Art of Northern Europe, Institute for the Study of Western
Civilization.
[34] Useful totals of the gures from various dierent oeuvre catalogues, often divided into classes along the lines of: very
likely authentic, possibly authenticand unlikely to
be authenticare given at the Online Rembrandt catalogue
[35] Two hundred years ago Bartsch listed 375. More recent catalogues have added three (two in unique impressions) and
excluded enough to reach totals as follows: Schwartz, pp. 6,
289; Mnz 1952, p. 279, Boon 1963, pp. 287 Print Council
of America but Schwarz total quoted does not tally with
the book.
66
[36] It is not possible to give a total, as a new wave of scholarship

on Rembrandt drawings is still in progress analysis of the
Berlin collection for an exhibition in 2006/7 has produced a
probable drop from 130 sheets there to about 60. Codart.nl
The British Museum is due to publish a new catalogue after
a similar exercise.
[59] Schwartz, 1994, pp. 812
[37] Schwarzlist 301 Blog entry by the Rembrandt scholar

Gary Schwarz. Garyschwartzarthistorian.nl. Retrieved
2012-02-17.
[63] White, 1969 pp. 67
[38] White and Buvelot 1999, p. 10.

[39] While the popular interpretation is that these paintings represent a personal and introspective journey, it is possible that
they were painted to satisfy a market for self-portraits by
prominent artists. Van de Wetering, p. 290.
[40] Taylor, Michael (2007).Rembrandt's Nose: Of Flesh &
Spirit in the Master's Portraits p. 21, D.A.P./Distributed Art
Publishers, Inc., New York ISBN 9781933045443'
[60] White 1969, pp. 56

[61] White 1969, p. 6
[62] White 1969, pp. 6, 910
[64] See Strauss, where the works are divided by subject, following Bartsch.
[65] From October 2007, the main galleries were closed for renovations, planned to be nished in 2010, but the Rembrandts
are being shown in a nearby adjacent part of the building
according to the Rijksmuseum website.
[66] The Rembrandt Research Project: Past, Present, Future
. Retrieved 11 August 2014.
[43] Clough, p. 23
[67] See Further Battles for the 'Lisowczyk' (Polish Rider) by

RembrandtZdzislaw Zygulski, Jr., Artibus et Historiae, Vol.
21, No. 41 (2000), pp. 197205. Also New York Times
story. There is a book on the subject:Responses to Rembrandt; Who painted the Polish Rider? by Anthony Bailey
(New York, 1993)
[44] van der Wetering, p. 268.
[68] Schama, Simon (1999). Rembrandt's Eyes. Knopf, p. 720.
[45] van de Wetering, pp. 160, 190.
[69] Schama, pp 582-591.
[46] Ackley, p. 14.
[70] Rembrandt Pilate Washing His Hands Oil Painting Reproduction. Outpost Art. Retrieved 1 January 2015.
[41] Durham, p. 60.

[42] Bull, et al., pp. 1113.
[47] van de Wetering, p. 284.

[48] van de Wetering, page 285.
[52] van de Wetering, pp. 1635.
[71] Entertainment | Lost Rembrandt works discovered. BBC

News. 23 September 2005. Retrieved 7 October 2009.
[72] "...Rembrandt was not always the perfectly consistent, logical Dutchman he was originally anticipated to be.Ackley,
p. 13.
[73] van de Wetering, p. x.
[74] Chronology of his signatures (pdf) with examples. Source:

www.rembrandt-signature-file.com
[54] Clark 1978, p. 28
[75] Slive, p. 60
[55] van de Wetering, pp. 155165.
[76] Rembrandt pupils (under Leraar van) in the RKD
[56] van de Wetering, pp. 1578, 190.
[77] The Lanckoroski Collection - Rembrandt's Paintings

. www.zamek-krolewski.pl. Retrieved 20 May 2014. The
works of art which Karolina Lanckoroska gave to the Royal
Castle in 1994 was one of the most invaluable gifts made
in the museums history.
[57]In Rembrandt's (late) great portraits we feel face to face

with real people, we sense their warmth, their need for sympathy and also their loneliness and suering. Those keen
and steady eyes that we know so well from Rembrandt's selfportraits must have been able to look straight into the human
heart.Gombrich, p. 423.
[78] Clark 1974, pp. 14750. See the catalogue in Further reading for the location of all accepted Rembrandts
[58]It (The Jewish Bride) is a picture of grown-up love, a mar- [79] Rembrandt: The Late Works.. MutualArt.com.
velous amalgam of richness, tenderness, and trust... the
heads which, in their truth, have a spiritual glow that painters [80] Rembrandt, Rubens, Gainsborough and the Golden Age
inuenced by the classical tradition could never achieve.
of Painting in Europe.. Retrieved Jan. 11th, 2015. MutualArt.com.
Clark, p. 206.
4.12. FURTHER READING
[81] From Rembrandt to Rosenquist: Works on Paper from the

NAC's Permanent Collection.. Retrieved Jan. 11th, 2015.
MutualArt.com.
[82] Rembrandt: The Consummate Etcher.. Retrieved Jan.
13th, 2015. MutualArt.com.
[83] Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus.. Retrieved Jan. 13th,
2015. MutualArt.com.
4.11 References
67
Roberto Manescalchi, Rembrandt: la madre ritrovata,
M.C.M.(La storia delle cose), dicembre, 2004.
Christopher White, The Late Etchings of Rembrandt,
1969, British Museum/Lund Humphries, London
4.12
Catalogue raisonn: Stichting Foundation Rembrandt

Research Project:
A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings Volume I,
which deals with works from Rembrandts early
years in Leiden (16291631), 1982
Ackley, Cliord, et al., Rembrandt's Journey, Museum

of Fine Arts, Boston, 2004. ISBN 0-87846-677-0
Adams, Laurie Schneider (1999). Art Across Time.
Volume II. McGraw-Hill College, New York, NY.
A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings Volume II:

16311634. Bruyn, J., Haak, B. (et al.), Band 2,
1986, ISBN 978-90-247-3339-2
Bull, Duncan, et al., Rembrandt-Caravaggio, Rijksmuseum, 2006.
A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings Volume

III, 16351642. Bruyn, J., Haak, B., Levie,
S.H., van Thiel, P.J.J., van de Wetering, E. (Ed.
Hrsg.), Band 3, 1990, ISBN 978-90-247-3781-9
Clark, Kenneth (1969). Civilisation: a personal view.

New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 9780060108014.
Clark, Kenneth, An Introduction to Rembrandt, 1978,
London, John Murray/Readers Union, 1978
Clough, Shepard B. (1975). European History in a
World Perspective. D.C. Heath and Company, Los
Lexington, MA. ISBN 0-669-85555-3.
Driessen, Christoph, Rembrandts vrouwen, Bert
Bakker, Amsterdam, 2012. ISBN 9789035136908
Durham, John I. (2004). Biblical Rembrandt: Human
Painter In A Landscape Of Faith. Mercer University
Press. ISBN 0-86554-886-2.
Gombrich, E.H., The Story of Art, Phaidon, 1995.
ISBN 0-7148-3355-X
Hughes, Robert (2006),The God of Realism, The
New York Review of Books (Rea S. Hederman) 53 (6)
The Complete Etchings of Rembrandt Reproduced in
Original Size, Gary Schwartz (editor). New York:
Dover, 1988. ISBN 0-486-28181-7
Slive, Seymour, Dutch Painting, 16001800, Yale UP,
1995, ISBN 0-300-07451-4
van de Wetering, Ernst, Rembrandt: The Painter at
Work, Amsterdam University Press, 2000. ISBN 0520-22668-2
Rembrandt by himself (Christopher White Editor,
Quentin Buvelot Editor) National Gallery Co Ltd
[1999]
Further reading
A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings Volume

IV. Ernst van de Wetering, Karin Groen et
al. Springer, Dordrecht, the Netherlands (NL).
ISBN 1-4020-3280-3. p. 692. (Self-Portraits)
Rembrandt. Images and metaphors, Christian Tumpel
(editor), Haus Books London 2006 ISBN 978-1904950-92-9
Van De Wetering, Ernst (2004) (2nd paperback printing). The Painter At Work. University of California
Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. University of California Press, London, England. By arrangement with
Amsterdam University Press. ISBN O-520-22668-2.
4.13
External links
Works and literature on Rembrandt

A biography of the artist Rembrandt Harmensz. van
Rijn from the J. Paul Getty Museum
Rembrandt's Late Religious Portraits at the National
Gallery of Art, Washington
Rembrandt's house in Amsterdam Site has good images of many of his etchings
Web Catalogue of Rembrandt's Paintings Over 600
paintings, including former and disputed attributions,
divided into categories.
68
Rembrandt, a documentary about his life and works,
and an interview with Gary Schwartz.
artistarchive.com over 300 Rembrandt prints with dimensions and reference numbers, many with images.
Rembrandt Research Project
The Rembrandt Signature Files. Information about
Rembrandt's name and signatures.
Rembrandt Priv Documents regarding Rembrandt's
life, kept at the Amsterdam City Archives (in Dutch)
Prints & People: A Social History of Printed Pictures exhibition catalog from the Metropolitan Museum of Art -available as PDF- which contains material on Rembrandt prints
112 Paintings by Rembrandt at the BBC Your Paintings site
The Rembrandt Database
Chapter 5
Hokusai
This article is about the Japanese artist. For the eponymous
crater on Mercury, see Hokusai (crater).
In this Japanese name, the family name is Katsushika.
Katsushika Hokusai (, listen , October 31,
1760 (exact date questionable) May 10, 1849) was a
Japanese artist, ukiyo-e painter and printmaker of the Edo
period.* [1] He was inuenced by such painters as Sesshu,
and other styles of Chinese painting.* [2] Born in Edo (now
Tokyo), Hokusai is best known as author of the woodblock
print series Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji (
Fugaku Sanjroku-kei, c. 1831) which includes the internationally recognized print, The Great Wave o Kanagawa,
The Great Wave o Kanagawa, Hokusai's most famous print, the
created during the 1820s.
Hokusai created theThirty-Six Viewsboth as a response
to a domestic travel boom and as part of a personal obsession with Mount Fuji.* [3] It was this series, specically The
Great Wave print and Fuji in Clear Weather, that secured
Hokusais fame both in Japan and overseas. As historian
Richard Lane concludes,Indeed, if there is one work that
made Hokusai's name, both in Japan and abroad, it must
be this monumental print-series....* [4] While Hokusai's
work prior to this series is certainly important, it was not
until this series that he gained broad recognition.* [5]
5.1 Early life and artistic training
rst in the series 36 Views of Mount Fuji
Hokusai was known by at least thirty names during his lifetime. Although the use of multiple names was a common
practice of Japanese artists of the time, the numbers of
names he used far exceeds that of any other major Japanese
artist. Hokusai's name changes are so frequent, and so often related to changes in his artistic production and style,
that they are used for breaking his life up into periods.* [6]
At the age of 12, he was sent by his father to work in a bookshop and lending library, a popular type of institution in
Japanese cities, where reading books made from wood-cut
blocks was a popular entertainment of the middle and upper classes.* [8] At 14, he became an apprentice to a woodcarver, where he worked until the age of 18, whereupon he
was accepted into the studio of Katsukawa Shunsh. Shunsh was an artist of ukiyo-e, a style of wood block prints
and paintings that Hokusai would master, and head of the
so-called Katsukawa school.* [7] Ukiyo-e, as practiced by
artists like Shunsh, focused on images of the courtesans
and Kabuki actors who were popular in Japan's cities at the
time.* [9]
Hokusai's date of birth is not known for certain, but is often said to be the 23rd day of the 9th month of the 10th
year of the Hreki era (in the old calendar, or october 30,
1760) to an artisan family, in the Katsushika district of Edo,
Japan.* [6] His childhood name was Tokitar.* [7] It is believed his father was the mirror-maker Nakajima Ise, who
produced mirrors for the shogun.* [7] His father never made
Hokusai an heir, so it is possible that his mother was a
concubine.* [6] Hokusai began painting around the age of
six, possibly learning the art from his father, whose work After a year, Hokusai's name changed for the rst time,
on mirrors also included the painting of designs around the when he was dubbed Shunr by his master. It was under this
mirrors.* [6]
name that he published his rst prints, a series of pictures
69
70
CHAPTER 5. HOKUSAI
of Kabuki actors published in 1779. During the decade he

worked in Shunsh's studio, Hokusai was married to his
rst wife, about whom very little is known except that she
died in the early 1790s. He married again in 1797, although
this second wife also died after a short time. He fathered
two sons and three daughters with these two wives, and his
youngest daughter Sakae, also known as i, eventually became an artist.* [9]
5.3
Height of career
The next period saw Hokusai's association with the

Tawaraya School and the adoption of the nameTawaraya
Sri. He produced many brush paintings, called surimono,
and illustrations for kyka ehon (illustrated book of humorous poems) during this time. In 1798, Hokusai passed his
name on to a pupil and set out as an independent artist, free
Upon the death of Shunsh in 1793, Hokusai began explor- from ties to a school for the rst time, adopting the name
ing other styles of art, including European styles he was Hokusai Tomisa.
exposed to through French and Dutch copper engravings
he was able to acquire.* [9] He was soon expelled from the
Katsukawa school by Shunk, the chief disciple of Shunsh, possibly due to studies at the rival Kan school. This
event was, in his own words, inspirational: What really
motivated the development of my artistic style was the embarrassment I suered at Shunk's hands.* [4]
Hokusai also changed the subjects of his works, moving
away from the images of courtesans and actors that were
the traditional subjects of ukiyo-e. Instead, his work became focused on landscapes and images of the daily life of
Japanese people from a variety of social levels. This change
of subject was a breakthrough in ukiyo-e and in Hokusai's
career.* [9] Fireworks at Rygoku Bridge (1790) dates from
this period of Hokusai's life.* [10]
Cranes from Quick Lessons in Simplied Drawing
5.2 Works
Three women
Hokusai landscape with two falconers
Shunga by Hokusai
Waterfall
By 1800, Hokusai was further developing his use of ukiyoe for purposes other than portraiture. He had also adopted
the name he would most widely be known by, Katsushika
Hokusai, the former name referring to the part of Edo
where he was born and the latter meaning, 'north studio'.
That year, he published two collections of landscapes, Famous Sights of the Eastern Capital and Eight Views of Edo.
He also began to attract students of his own, eventually
teaching 50 pupils over the course of his life.* [9]
He became increasingly famous over the next decade, both

due to his artwork and his talent for self-promotion. DurCourtesan asleep
ing a Tokyo festival in 1804, he created a portrait of the
Buddhist priest Daruma said to be 600 feet (180 m) long
Still Life.
using a broom and buckets full of ink. Another story places
him in the court of the Shogun Iyenari, invited there to
Boats in moonlight
compete with another artist who practiced more traditional
Views of Celebrated Bridges in the Provinces-Sesshuu brush stroke painting. Hokusai's painting, created in front
Tenmabashi
of the Shogun, consisted of painting a blue curve on paper,
then chasing across it a chicken whose feet had been dipped
Ocean waves
in red paint. He described the painting to the Shogun as a
landscape showing the Tatsuta River with red maple leaves
View of lake Suwa
oating in it, winning the competition.* [11]
Landscape
1807 saw Hokusai collaborate with the popular novelist

Takizawa Bakin on a series of illustrated books. The two
Yoshitsune Falls, from the series Famous Waterfalls in did not get along due to artistic dierences, and their colVarious Provinces
laboration ended during work on their fourth book. The
5.4. LATER LIFE
71
publisher, given the choice between keeping Hokusai or Chickens.* [14]

Bakin on the project, opted to keep Hokusai, emphasizing
the importance of illustrations in printed works of the period.* [12]
5.4
Later life
The next period, beginning in 1834, saw Hokusai working

under the nameGaky Rjin Manji(The Old Man Mad
About Art).* [10] It was at this time that Hokusai produced
One Hundred Views of Mount Fuji, another signicant landscape series.* [14]
In the postscript to this work, Hokusai writes:
Image of bathers from the Hokusai manga
In 1811, at the age of 51, Hokusai changed his name

to Taito and entered the period in which he created the
Hokusai Manga and various etehon, or art manuals.* [7]
These etehon, beginning in 1812 with Quick Lessons in Simplied Drawing, served as a convenient way to make money
and attract more students. The rst book of Hokusai's
manga, sketches or caricatures that inuenced the modern
form of comics known by the same name, was published
in 1814. Together, his 12 volumes of manga published before 1820 and three more published posthumously include
thousands of drawings of animals, religious gures, and everyday people. They often have humorous overtones, and
were very popular at the time.* [12]
On October 5, 1817 he painted at the Hongan-ji Nagoya
Betsuin in Nagoya the Big Daruma" on paper, measuring 18x10.8 metres, impressing many onlookers. Although
the original was destroyed in 1945, promotional handbills
from that time survived and are preserved at the Nagoya
City Museum.
In 1820, Hokusai changed his name yet again, this time to
Iitsu,a change which marked the start of a period in which
he secured fame as an artist throughout Japan (though, given
Japan's isolation from the outside world during his lifetime,
his fame overseas came after his death). It was during the
1820s that Hokusai reached the peak of his career. His
most famous work, Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji, including the famous Great Wave o Kanagawa, dated from this
period. It proved so popular that Hokusai later added ten
more prints to the series. Among the other popular series of
prints he published during this time are A Tour of the Waterfalls of the Provinces and Unusual Views of Celebrated
Bridges in the Provinces.* [13] He also began producing a
number of detailed individual images of owers and birds,
including the extraordinarily detailed Poppies and Flock of
In 1839, a re destroyed Hokusai's studio and much of his

work. By this time, his career was beginning to wane as
younger artists such as And Hiroshige became increasingly
popular. But Hokusai never stopped painting, and completed Ducks in a Stream at the age of 87.* [15]
Constantly seeking to produce better work, he apparently
exclaimed on his deathbed, If only Heaven will give me
just another ten years... Just another ve more years, then
I could become a real painter.He died on May 10, 1849
(18th day of the 4th month of the 2nd year of the Kaei era by
the old calendar), and was buried at the Seiky-ji in Tokyo
(Taito Ward).* [7]
5.5
Shunga
Hokusai has also executed erotic depictions. Such paintings were called shunga. Shunga is a term for erotic depictions. Most shunga are a type of ukiyo-e, usually executed in woodblock print format.* [16] Translated literally,
the Japanese word shunga means picture of spring;spring
.
Shunga was enjoyed by both men and women of all classes.
Superstitions and customs surrounding shunga suggest as
much; in the same way that it was considered a lucky charm
against death for a samurai to carry shunga, it was considered a protection against re in merchant warehouses and
the home. From this we can deduce that samurai, chonin,
and housewives all owned shunga. All three of these groups
would suer separation from the opposite sex; the samurai
lived in barracks for months at a time, and conjugal separation resulted from the sankin-ktai system and the merchants' need to travel to obtain and sell goods.* [17] Records
of women obtaining shunga themselves from booklenders
show that they were consumers of it.* [16] It was traditional
to present a bride with ukiyo-e depicting erotic scenes from
the Tale of Genji. Shunga may have served as sexual guidance for the sons and daughters of wealthy families.
72
CHAPTER 5. HOKUSAI
5.6 Works and inuences
Hokusai painting the Great Daruma in 1817
Hodogaya on the Tokaido
Hokusai had a long career, but he produced most of his important work after age 60. His most popular work is the
ukiyo-e series Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji, which was
created between 1826 and 1833. It actually consists of 46
prints (10 of them added after initial publication).* [4] In
addition, he is responsible for the 1834 One Hundred Views
of Mount Fuji ( Fugaku Hyakkei), a work which
is generally considered the masterpiece among his landscape picture books.* [4] His ukiyo-e transformed the art
form from a style of portraiture focused on the courtesans
The Dragon of Smoke Escaping from Mt Fuji
and actors popular during the Edo Period in Japan's cities

into a much broader style of art that focused on landscapes,
plants, and animals.* [9] A collection of woodblock Thirty-
5.6. WORKS AND INFLUENCES
73
six Views of Mount Fuji prints, contained in the wellness 5.6.2 In popular culture
spa of the Costa Concordia was lost during the collision of
Hokusai Manga is a 1981 biographical drama based on the
the ship on January 13, 2012.* [18]
life of the artist and directed by Kaneto Shindo. It draws
Both Hokusais choice of nom d'artiste and frequent depicvisual and narrative inspiration from the artist's eponymous
tion of Mt. Fuji stem from his religious beliefs. The name
collection of sketches and focuses on an anachronistic story
Hokusai () means North Studio (room),an abbrerelated to creation of The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife.
viation of Hokushinsai () or North Star Studio.
Hokusai was a member of the Nichiren sect of Buddhism,
who see the North Star as associated with the deity Myken 5.6.3 Listing of selected works
().* [4] Mount Fuji has traditionally been linked
with eternal life. This belief can be traced to The Tale of The following is a selected list of Hokusai's works, listed
the Bamboo Cutter, where a goddess deposits the elixir of chronologically. Each of these works has been mentioned
life on the peak. As Henry Smith expounds,Thus from an or used as an illustration by one of Hokusai's biographers,
early time, Mt. Fuji was seen as the source of the secret of and is either representative of Hokusai's best work or of
immortality, a tradition that was at the heart of Hokusai's specic periods in the development of his art.* [20]
own obsession with the mountain.* [3]
The largest of Hokusai's works is the 15-volume collection Hokusai Manga (), a book crammed with
nearly 4,000 sketches that was published in 1814.* [4] These
sketches are often incorrectly considered the precedent
to modern manga, as Hokusai's Manga is a collection of
sketches (of animals, people, objects, etc.), dierent from
the story-based comic-book style of modern manga.* [4]
Lady and Attendants (c. 1779) Painting on silk

Asakusa Shrine, Edo (c. 1780) Wood-block print
Four Courtesans of the House of Chojiya (1782) Woodblock print
Seyawa Kikujuro Acting Woman's Part (1783) Woodblock print
Actor Danjur (1784) Wood-block print
5.6.1
Inuences on art and culture
Hokusai inspired the Hugo Award winning short story by

science ction author Roger Zelazny, "24 Views of Mt.
Fuji, by Hokusai", in which the protagonist tours the area
surrounding Mt. Fuji, stopping at locations painted by
Hokusai.
His inuences also stretched to his western contemporaries
in nineteenth century Europe whose new style Art Nouveau,
or Jugendstil in Germany, was inuenced by him and by
Japanese art in general. This was also part of the larger
Impressionism movement, with similar themes to Hokusai appearing in Claude Monet and Pierre-Auguste Renoir.
According to the Brooklyn Rail Many artists collected his
woodcuts: Degas, Gauguin, Klimt, Franz Marc, August
Macke, Manet, and van Gogh included.* [19] Hermann
Obrist's whiplash motif, or Peitschenhieb, which came to
exemplify the new movement, is visibly inuenced by
Hokusai's work.
A much more direct inuence was Japonism,which started
with a craze for collecting Japanese art, particularly ukiyoe, of which some of the rst samples were to be seen in
Paris: In about 1856 the French artist Flix Bracquemond
rst came across a copy of the sketch book Hokusai Manga
at the workshop of his printer.. See Japonism entry.
Chinese Boys at Play (1789) Wood-block print

Attack on Moranoa's Castle from Chusingura (1789
1806) Wood-block print* [21]
A Ferryboat with Passengers Bearing New Year's Gifts
(c. 1800) Surinomo
Portrait of the Artist from The Tactics of General Oven
(1800) Wood-block print in novel
Amusements of the Eastern Capital (18001802)
Wood-block print series
Shower at Shin-Yangi Bridge from Both Banks of the
Sumida River (1803) Wood-block print in guidebook
Chinese Tortures from Bakin's Cruelties of Dobki
(1807) Wood-block print in novel
Quick Lessons on Simplied Drawing (1812) Illustrated guidebook
Hokusai Manga (18141834) Sketched illustrations,
15 volumes
Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji (18231829) Woodblock print series
Painting in Three Forms (1816) Illustrated guidebook
74
The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife (1820) Famous
erotic wood block print
CHAPTER 5. HOKUSAI
[13] Weston, p. 118119

[14] Weston, p. 119
Designs with a single stroke of the brush (1823) Illustrated guidebook
[15] Weston, p. 120
A Tour of the Waterfalls of the Provinces (18271830)

Wood-block print series
[16] Forbidden Images Erotic art from Japan's Edo Period (in
Finnish). Helsinki, Finland: Helsinki City Art Museum.
2002. pp. 2328. ISBN 951-8965-53-6.
Unusual Views of Celebrated Bridges in the Provinces

(18271830) Wood-block print series
Small Flowers (1830) Wood-block print series
[17] Kornicki, Peter F. The Book in Japan: A Cultural History

from the Beginnings to the Nineteenth Century. Honolulu:
University of Hawaii Press. pp. 331353. ISBN 0-82482337-0.
Large Flowers (Hokusai) (1830) Wood-block print series
[18] "Costa Concordia: Threat of treasure hunters". To Be A

Travel Agent.
Oceans of Wisdom (1833) Wood-block print series
[19] Rhodes, David (November 2011).Hokusai Retrospective

. The Brooklyn Rail.
One-Hundred Views of Mount Fuji (Hokusai) (1834)

Book of Warriors (1836) Wood-block print series
Self-Portrait (1839) Drawing
[20] These selected works are drawn from biographies by Richard

Lane, Seiji Nagata, Elizabeth Ripley, and Mark Weston.
[21] Attack on Moranoa's Castle is from Act XI of Chusingura,
the story known in the west as the Forty-Seven Ronin.
Willow and Young Crows (1842) Painting on silk

A Wood Gatherer (1849) Painting on silk
5.7 Notes
[1] Nussbaum, Louis Frdric. (2005). Hokusai in Japan
Encyclopedia, p. 345.
[2] Daniel Atkison and Leslie Stewart. "Life and Art of Katsushika Hokusai" in From the Floating World: Part II:
Japanese Relief Prints, catalogue of an exhibition produced
by California State University, Chico. Retrieved July 9,
2007; Archived November 8, 2002 at the Wayback Machine
[3] Smith
[4] Nagata, Seiji. Hokusai: Genius of the Japanese Ukiyo-e. Kodansha, Tokyo, 1999.
[5] Kleiner, Fred S. and Christin J. Mamiya, (2009). Gardner's
Art Through the Ages: Non-Western Perspectives, p. 115.
5.8
References
Lane, Richard. (1978). Images from the Floating World, The Japanese Print. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. 10-ISBN 0192114476/13-ISBN
9780192114471; OCLC 5246796
Nagata, Seiji (1995). Hokusai: Genius of the Japanese
Ukiyo-e. Kodansha International, Tokyo.
Smith, Henry D. II (1988). Hokusai: One Hundred
Views of Mt. Fuji. George Braziller, Inc., Publishers,
New York. ISBN 0-8076-1195-6.
Weston, Mark (1999). Giants of Japan: The Lives of
Japan's Most Inuential Men and Women. New York:
Kodansha International. ISBN 1-56836-286-2.
Ray, Deborah Kogan (2001). Hokusai : the man
who painted a mountainFrances Foster Books, New
York. ISBN 0-374-33263-0
[6] Weston, p. 116

[7] Nagata
5.9
Further reading
5.9.1
General biography
[8] Weston, pp. 116117

[9] Weston, p. 117
[10] Hokusai Heaven retrieved March 27, 2009
[11] Weston, p. 117118
[12] Weston, p. 118
Bowie, Theodore (1964). The Drawings of Hokusai.

Indiana University Press, Bloomington.
Forrer, Matthi (1988). Hokusai Rizzoli, New York.
ISBN 0-8478-0989-7.

Forrer, Matthi; van Gulik, Willem R., and Kaempfer,
Heinz M. (1982). Hokusai and His School: Paintings,
Drawings and Illustrated Books. Frans Halsmuseum,
Haarlem. ISBN 90-70216-02-7
Hillier, Jack (1955). Hokusai: Paintings, Drawings
and Woodcuts. Phaidon, London.
Hillier, Jack (1980). Art of Hokusai in Book Illustration. Sotheby Publications, London. ISBN 0-52004137-2.
Lane, Richard (1989). Hokusai: Life and Work. E.P.
Dutton. ISBN 0-525-24455-7.
75
5.10
External links
Hokusai-Museum in Obuse, Japan

Hokusai Website
5.10.1
Prints
Ukiyo-e Prints by Katsushika Hokusai

Hokusai prints at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Hokusai's works at Tokyo Digital Museum
van Rappard-Boon, Charlotte (1982). Hokusai and his

School: Japanese Prints c. 18001840 (Catalogue of 5.10.2 Biographies
the Collection of Japanese Prints, Rijksmuseum, Part
III). Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
Biography of Katsushika Hokusai, British Museum
5.9.2
Specic works of art
For readers who want more information on specic works

of art by Hokusai, these particular works are recommended.
Hillier, Jack, and Dickens, F.W. (1960). Fugaku
Hiyaku-kei (One Hundred Views of Fuji by Hokusai).
Frederick, New York.
Kondo, Ichitaro (1966). Trans. Terry, Charles S. The
Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji by Hokusai. East-West
Center, Honolulu.
Michener, James A. (1958). The Hokusai SketchBooks: Selections from the 'Manga'. Charles E. Tuttle,
Rutland.
Morse, Peter (1989). Hokusai: One Hundred Poets.
George Braziller, New York. ISBN 0-8076-1213-8.
Narazaki, Muneshige (1968). Trans. Bester, John.
Masterworks of Ukiyo-E: Hokusai The Thirty-Six
Views of Mt. Fuji. Kodansha, Tokyo.
5.9.3
Art Monographs
For monographs dedicated to Hokusai art works, these titles

are recommended.
Goncourt, Edmond de (2014). Essential Hokusai.
Bournemouth, Parkstone International (released in
September). ISBN 978-1-78310-128-3.
Goncourt, Edmond de (2014). Hokusai Mega Square.
Bournemouth, Parkstone International (released in
September). ISBN 978-1-78310-566-3.
76
CHAPTER 5. HOKUSAI
The Strong Oi Pouring Sake
Carp Leaping up a Cascade
Chapter 6
Claude Monet
Not to be confused with douard Manet, another painter
of the same era.
For other uses, see Monet (disambiguation).
Oscar-Claude Monet (/mone/; French: [klod mn]; 14
November 1840 5 December 1926) was a founder of
French Impressionist painting, and the most consistent and
prolic practitioner of the movement's philosophy of expressing one's perceptions before nature, especially as applied to plein-air landscape painting.* [1]* [2] The termImpressionismis derived from the title of his painting Impression, soleil levant (Impression, Sunrise), which was exhibited
in 1874 in the rst of the independent exhibitions mounted
by Monet and his associates as an alternative to the Salon
de Paris.
Monet's ambition of documenting the French countryside
led him to adopt a method of painting the same scene many
times in order to capture the changing of light and the passing of the seasons. From 1883 Monet lived in Giverny,
where he purchased a house and property, and began a vast
landscaping project which included lily ponds that would
become the subjects of his best-known works. In 1899 he
began painting the water lilies, rst in vertical views with a
Japanese bridge as a central feature, and later in the series
of large-scale paintings that was to occupy him continuously
for the next 20 years of his life.
Impression, Sunrise (Impression, soleil levant), 1872; the painting

that gave its name to the style. Muse Marmottan Monet, Paris
rst exhibition, held in April 1874, Monet exhibited the

work that was to give the group its lasting name.
Impression, Sunrise was painted in 1872, depicting a Le
Havre port landscape. From the painting's title the art
critic Louis Leroy, in his review, L'Exposition des Impressionnistes,which appeared in Le Charivari, coined
the term "Impressionism".* [3] It was intended as disparagement but the Impressionists appropriated the term for
themselves.* [4]* [5]
6.1 Monet and Impressionism

6.1.1
6.2
First Impressionistexhibition
From the late 1860s, Monet and other like-minded artists

met with rejection from the conservative Acadmie des
Beaux-Arts which held its annual exhibition at the Salon
de Paris. During the latter part of 1873, Monet, PierreAuguste Renoir, Camille Pissarro, and Alfred Sisley organized the Socit anonyme des artistes peintres, sculpteurs
et graveurs (The Company of Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers) to exhibit their artworks independently. At their
6.2.1
Biography
Birth and childhood
Claude Monet was born on 14 November 1840 on the

fth oor of 45 rue Latte, in the 9th arrondissement of
Paris.* [6] He was the second son of Claude Adolphe Monet
and Louise Justine Aubre Monet, both of them secondgeneration Parisians. On 20 May 1841, he was baptized in
the local parish church, Notre-Dame-de-Lorette, as Oscar-
77
78
CHAPTER 6. CLAUDE MONET
Claude, but his parents called him simply Oscar.* [6]* [7] 6.2.2 Paris
(He signed his juveniliaO. Monet.) Despite being bapWhen Monet traveled to Paris to visit the Louvre, he wittized Catholic, Monet later became an atheist.* [8]* [9]
nessed painters copying from the old masters. Having
In 1845, his family moved to Le Havre in Normandy. His
brought his paints and other tools with him, he would infather wanted him to go into the family grocery business,
stead go and sit by a window and paint what he saw.* [11]
but Monet wanted to become an artist. His mother was a
Monet was in Paris for several years and met other young
singer.
painters, including douard Manet and others who would
On 1 April 1851, Monet entered Le Havre secondary school become friends and fellow Impressionists.
of the arts. Locals knew him well for his charcoal caricaIn June 1861, Monet joined the First Regiment of African
tures, which he would sell for ten to twenty francs. Monet
Light Cavalry in Algeria for a seven-year commitment, but,
also undertook his rst drawing lessons from Jacquestwo years later, after he had contracted typhoid fever, his
Franois Ochard, a former student of Jacques-Louis David.
aunt intervened to get him out of the army if he agreed to
On the beaches of Normandy around 1856 he met fellow
complete an art course at an art school. It is possible that
artist Eugne Boudin, who became his mentor and taught
the Dutch painter Johan Barthold Jongkind, whom Monet
him to use oil paints. Boudin taught Monet "en plein air"
knew, may have prompted his aunt on this matter. Dis*
(outdoor) techniques for painting. [10] Both received the
illusioned with the traditional art taught at art schools, in
inuence of Johan Barthold Jongkind.
1862 Monet became a student of Charles Gleyre in Paris,
On 28 January 1857, his mother died. At the age of sixteen, where he met Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Frdric Bazille and
he left school and went to live with his widowed, childless Alfred Sisley. Together they shared new approaches to art,
aunt, Marie-Jeanne Lecadre.
painting the eects of light en plein air with broken color
and rapid brushstrokes, in what later came to be known as
Impressionism.
Le djeuner sur l'herbe, (right section), 18651866, with Gustave

Courbet, Frdric Bazille and Camille Doncieux, rst wife of the
artist, Muse d'Orsay, Paris* [12]
The Woman in the Green Dress, Camille Doncieux, 1866,

Kunsthalle Bremen
In January 1865 Monet was working on a version of Le djeuner sur l'herbe, aiming to present it for hanging at the
Salon, which had rejected Manet's Le djeuner sur l'herbe
two years earlier.* [13] Monet's painting was very large and
6.2. BIOGRAPHY
79
could not be completed in time. (It was later cut up, with
parts now in dierent galleries.) Monet submitted instead
a painting of Camille or The Woman in the Green Dress
(La femme la robe verte), one of many works using his
future wife, Camille Doncieux, as his model. Both this
painting and a small landscape were hung.* [13] The following year Monet used Camille for his model in Women
in the Garden, and On the Bank of the Seine, Bennecourt in
1868. Camille became pregnant and gave birth to their rst
child, Jean, in 1867.* [14] Monet and Camille married on 28
June 1870, just before the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian
War,* [15] and, after their excursion to London and Zaandam, they moved to Argenteuil, in December 1871. During
this time Monet painted various works of modern life. He
and Camille lived in poverty for most of this period. Following the successful exhibition of some maritime paintings, and the winning of a silver medal at Le Havre, Monet's
paintings were seized by creditors, from whom they were
bought back by a shipping merchant, Gaudibert, who was
also a patron of Boudin.* [13]
6.2.3
Franco-Prussian War and Argenteuil
After the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War (19 July

1870), Monet and his family took refuge in England in
September 1870,* [16] where he studied the works of John
Constable and Joseph Mallord William Turner, both of
whose landscapes would serve to inspire Monet's innovations in the study of color. In the spring of 1871, Monet's
works were refused authorisation for inclusion in the Royal
Madame Monet in a Japanese kimono, 1875, Museum of Fine Arts,
Academy exhibition.* [15]
In May 1871, he left London to live in Zaandam, in
the Netherlands,* [15] where he made twenty-ve paintings (and the police suspected him of revolutionary activities).* [17] He also paid a rst visit to nearby Amsterdam. In
October or November 1871, he returned to France. From
December 1871 to 1878 he lived at Argenteuil, a village on
the right bank of the Seine river near Paris, and a popular
Sunday-outing destination for Parisians, where he painted
some of his best-known works. In 1873, Monet purchased
a small boat equipped to be used as a oating studio.* [18]
From the boat studio Monet painted landscapes and also
portraits of douard Manet and his wife; Manet in turn
depicted Monet painting aboard the boat, accompanied by
Camille, in 1874.* [18] In 1874, he briey returned to Holland.* [19]
Boston
to promote a new style, but to free themselves from the

constraints of the Salon de Paris. The exhibition, open
to anyone prepared to pay 60 francs, gave artists the opportunity to show their work without the interference of a
jury.* [20]* [21]* [22]
Renoir chaired the hanging committee and did most of the
work himself, as others members failed to present themselves.* [20]* [21]
In addition to Impression: Sunrise (pictured above) Monet

presented four oil paintings and seven pastels. Among the
paintings he displayed was The Luncheon (1868), which
features Camille Doncieux and Jean Monet, and which had
been rejected by the Paris Salon of 1870.* [23] Also in this
exhibition was a painting titled Boulevard des Capucines,
6.2.4 Impressionism
a painting of the boulevard done from the photographer
Nadar's apartment at no. 35. Monet painted the subject
The rst Impressionist exhibition was held in 1874 at 35 twice, and it is uncertain which of the two pictures, that
boulevard des Capucines, Paris, from 15 April to 15 May. now in the Pushkin Museum in Moscow, or that in the
The primary purpose of the participants was not so much Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art in Kansas City, was the
80
painting that appeared in the groundbreaking 1874 exhibition, though more recently the Moscow picture has been
favoured.* [24]* [25]* [26] Altogether, 165 works were exhibited in the exhibition, including 4 oils, 2 pastels and
3 watercolors by Morisot; 6 oils and 1 pastel by Renoir;
10 works by Degas; 5 by Pissarro; 3 by Czanne; and
3 by Guillaumin. Several works were on loan, including Czanne's Modern Olympia, Morisot's Hide and Seek
(owned by Manet) and 2 landscapes by Sisley that had been
purchased by Durand-Ruel.* [20]* [21]* [22]
The total attendance is estimated at 3500, and some works
did sell, though some exhibitors had placed their prices too
high. Pissarro was asking 1000 francs for The Orchard and
Monet the same for Impression: Sunrise, neither of which
sold. Renoir failed to obtain the 500 francs he was asking
for La Loge, but later sold it for 450 francs to Pre Martin,
dealer and supporter of the group.* [20]* [21]* [22]
Paintings 18581872

Jean Monet on his hobby horse, 1872, Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York
Springtime 1872, Walters Art Museum
1. ^ Norton Simon Museum
2. ^ Muse d'Orsay
3. ^ Metropolitan Museum of Art
4. ^ Stdel
5. ^ La Grenouillre at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
6. ^ Le port de Trouville, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest
7. ^ La plage de Trouville, 1870, National Gallery, London
6.2.5
Death of Camille
View at Rouelles, Le Havre 1858, Private collection; an

early work showing the inuence of Corot and Courbet
Mouth of the Seine at Honeur, 1865, Norton Simon
Foundation, Pasadena, CA; indicates the inuence of
Dutch maritime painting.* [1]
Women in a Garden, 18661867, Muse d'Orsay,
Paris.* [2]
Woman in a Garden, 1867, Hermitage, St. Petersburg;
a study in the eect of sunlight and shadow on colour
Jardin Sainte-Adresse, 1867, Metropolitan Museum
of Art, New York.* [3]
The Luncheon, 1868, Stdel, which features Camille
Doncieux and Jean Monet, was rejected by the Paris
Salon of 1870 but included in the rst Impressionists
exhibition in 1874.* [4]
La Grenouillre 1869, Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York; a small plein-air painting created with
broad strokes of intense colour.* [5]
The Magpie, 18681869. Muse d'Orsay, Paris; one
of Monet's early attempts at capturing the eect of
snow on the landscape. See also Snow at Argenteuil.
Le port de Trouville (Breakwater at Trouville, Low
Tide), 1870, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest.* [6]
La plage de Trouville, 1870, National Gallery, London. The left gure may be Camille, on the right possibly the wife of Eugne Boudin, whose beach scenes
inuenced Monet.* [7]
Claude Monet, Camille Monet on her deathbed, 1879, Muse

d'Orsay, Paris
In 1876, Camille Monet became ill with tuberculosis. Their

second son, Michel, was born on 17 March 1878. This
second child weakened her already fading health. In the
summer of that year, the family moved to the village of
Vtheuil where they shared a house with the family of
6.3. GIVERNY
81
of the 19th century. During the early 1880s, Monet painted
several groups of landscapes and seascapes in what he considered to be campaigns to document the French countryside. These began to evolve into series of pictures in which
he documented the same scene many times in order to capture the changing of light and the passing of the seasons.
Monet's friend Ernest Hosched became bankrupt, and left
in 1878 for Belgium. After the death of Camille Monet
in September 1879, and while Monet continued to live in
the house in Vtheuil, Alice Hosched helped Monet to
raise his two sons, Jean and Michel. She took them to
Paris to live alongside her own six children,* [31] Blanche
(who married Jean Monet), Germaine, Suzanne, Marthe,
Jean-Pierre, and Jacques. In the spring of 1880, Alice
Hosched and all the children left Paris and rejoined Monet
at Vtheuil.* [32] In 1881, all of them moved to Poissy,
which Monet hated. In April 1883, looking out the window of the little train between Vernon and Gasny, he discovered Giverny in Normandy.* [31]* [33]* [34] Monet, Alice Hosched and the children moved to Vernon, then to
the house in Giverny, where he planted a large garden and
where he painted for much of the rest of his life. Following
the death of her estranged husband, Monet married Alice
Hosched in 1892.* [10]
Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Portrait of Claude Monet, 1875, Muse

d'Orsay
Ernest Hosched, a wealthy department store owner and

patron of the arts. In 1878, Camille Monet was diagnosed
with uterine cancer,* [27] and she died on 5 September 1879
at the age of thirty-two.* [28]* [29]
Monet made a study in oils of his dead wife. Many years
later, Monet confessed to his friend Georges Clemenceau
that his need to analyse colours was both the joy and torment of his life. He explained,
I one day found myself looking at my beloved
wife's dead face and just systematically noting the
colours according to an automatic reex!
John Berger describes the work as a blizzard of white,
grey, purplish paint ... a terrible blizzard of loss which will
forever eace her features. In fact there can be very few
death-bed paintings which have been so intensely felt or
subjectively expressive.* [30]
6.2.6
Vtheuile
After several dicult months following the death of

Camille, Monet began to create some of his best paintings
Paintings 18731879
Camille Monet on a Garden Bench, 1873, Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York
The Artist's house at Argenteuil, 1873, The Art Institute
of Chicago
Coquelicots, La promenade (Poppies), 1873, Muse
d'Orsay, Paris
Argenteuil, 1874, National Gallery of Art, Washington
D.C.
The Studio Boat, 1874, Krller-Mller Museum, Otterlo, Netherlands
Flowers on the riverbank at Argenteuil, 1877, Pola Museum of Art, Japan
Saint Lazare trainstation, Paris, 1877, The Art Institute of Chicago
Vtheuil in the Fog, 1879, Muse Marmottan Monet,
Paris
82

signs and layouts for plantings, and invoices for his oral
purchases and his collection of botany books. As Monet's
wealth grew, his garden evolved. He remained its architect,
even after he hired seven gardeners.* [36]
Monet purchased additional land with a water meadow. In
1893 he began a vast landscaping project which included
lily ponds that would become the subjects of his best-known
works. White water lilies local to France were planted along
with imported cultivars from South America and Egypt,
resulting in a range of colours including yellow, blue and
white lilies that turned pink with age.* [37] In 1899 he began painting the water lilies, rst in vertical views with a
Japanese bridge as a central feature, and later in the series
of large-scale paintings that was to occupy him continuously
for the next 20 years of his life. This scenery, with its alternating light and mirror-like reections, became an integral
part of his work. By the mid-1910s Monet had achieved:
a completely new, uid, and somewhat audacious style of painting in which the water-lily
pond became the point of departure for an
almost abstract art
Gary Tinterow* [38]* [39]
Monet's garden
In the Garden, 1895, Collection E. G. Buehrle, Zrich
Study of a Figure Outdoors: Woman with a Parasol, facing left,
1886. Muse d'Orsay
6.3 Giverny
6.3.1
Monet's house and garden
At the beginning of May 1883, Monet and his large family rented a house and 2 acres (8,100 m2 ) from a local
landowner. The house was situated near the main road between the towns of Vernon and Gasny at Giverny. There
was a barn that doubled as a painting studio, orchards and
a small garden. The house was close enough to the local schools for the children to attend and the surrounding landscape oered many suitable motifs for Monet's
work. The family worked and built up the gardens and
Monet's fortunes began to change for the better as his
dealer Paul Durand-Ruel had increasing success in selling
his paintings.* [35] By November 1890, Monet was prosperous enough to buy the house, the surrounding buildings
and the land for his gardens. During the 1890s, Monet built
a greenhouse and a second studio, a spacious building well
lit with skylights.
Agapanthus, between 1914 and 1926, Museum of

Modern Art, New York
The rose arches, Giverny, 1913, private collection
Water Lilies and the Japanese bridge, 189799,
Princeton University Art Museum
Water Lilies, 1906, Art Institute of Chicago
Water Lilies, Muse Marmottan Monet
Water Lilies, c. 1915, Neue Pinakothek, Munich
Water Lilies, c. 1915, Muse Marmottan Monet
6.4
6.4.1
Last years
Failing sight
Monet's second wife, Alice, died in 1911, and his oldest son
Jean, who had married Alice's daughter Blanche, Monet's
particular favourite, died in 1914.* [10] After Alice died,
Blanche looked after and cared for Monet. It was during this time that Monet began to develop the rst signs of
Monet wrote daily instructions to his gardener, precise de- cataracts.* [40]
6.5. MONET'S METHODS
83
opened for visits in 1980, following restoration.* [43] In
addition to souvenirs of Monet and other objects of his
life, the house contains his collection of Japanese woodcut prints. The house and garden, along with the Museum
of Impressionism Giverny, are major attractions in Giverny,
which hosts tourists from all over the world.
Monet's late paintings
Water Lilies and Reections of a Willow (191619),
Muse Marmottan Monet
Water-Lily Pond and Weeping Willow, 19161919,
Sale Christie's New York, 1998
Weeping Willow, 19181919, Columbus Museum of
Art
Weeping Willow, 19181919, Kimball Art Museum,
Fort Worth, Monet's Weeping Willow paintings were
an homage to the fallen French soldiers of World War
I
House Among the Roses, between 1917 and 1919,
Albertina, Vienna
Monet, right, in his garden at Giverny, 1922
During World War I, in which his younger son Michel

served and his friend and admirer Clemenceau led the
French nation, Monet painted a series of weeping willow
trees as homage to the French fallen soldiers. In 1923,
he underwent two operations to remove his cataracts. The
paintings done while the cataracts aected his vision have
a general reddish tone, which is characteristic of the vision
of cataract victims. It may also be that after surgery he was
able to see certain ultraviolet wavelengths of light that are
normally excluded by the lens of the eye; this may have had
an eect on the colors he perceived. After his operations
he even repainted some of these paintings, with bluer water
lilies than before.* [41]
6.4.2
Death
Monet died of lung cancer on 5 December 1926 at the age

of 86 and is buried in the Giverny church cemetery.* [33]
Monet had insisted that the occasion be simple; thus only
about fty people attended the ceremony.* [42]
His home, garden, and waterlily pond were bequeathed by
his son Michel, his only heir, to the French Academy of
Fine Arts (part of the Institut de France) in 1966. Through
the Fondation Claude Monet, the house and gardens were
The Rose Walk, Giverny, 192022, Muse Marmottan

Monet
The Japanese Footbridge, 192022, Museum of Modern Art
The Garden at Giverny
6.5
Monet's methods
Monet has been described asthe driving force behind Impressionism.* [44] Crucial to the art of the Impressionist
painters was the understanding of the eects of light on the
local colour of objects, and the eects of the juxtaposition
of colours with each other.* [45] Monet's long career as a
painter was spent in the pursuit of this aim.
In 1856, his chance meeting with Eugene Boudin, a painter
of small beach scenes, opened his eyes to the possibility of
plein-air painting. From that time, with a short interruption
for military service, he dedicated himself to searching for
new and improved methods of painterly expression. To this
end, as a young man, he visited the Paris Salon and familiarised himself with the works of older painters, and made
friends with other young artists.* [44] The ve years that
he spent at Argenteuil, spending much time on the River
Seine in a little oating studio, were formative in his study
of the eects of light and reections. He began to think in
terms of colours and shapes rather than scenes and objects.
He used bright colours in dabs and dashes and squiggles of
84

traditions by cropping the subject so that only a portion
of the facade is seen on the canvas. The paintings do not
focus on the grand Medieval building, but on the play of
light and shade across its surface, transforming the solid masonry.* [48]
Other series include Poplars, Mornings on the Seine, and
the Water Lilies that were painted on his property at
Giverny. Between 1883 and 1908, Monet traveled to the
Mediterranean, where he painted landmarks, landscapes,
and seascapes, including a series of paintings in Venice. In
London he painted four series: the Houses of Parliament,
London, Charing Cross Bridge, Waterloo Bridge, and Views
of Westminster Bridge. Helen Gardner writes:
Monet, with a scientic precision, has given
us an unparalleled and unexcelled record of the
passing of time as seen in the movement of light
over identical forms.* [49]
Series of paintings
La Gare Saint-Lazare, 1877, Muse d'Orsay
Arrival of the Normandy Train, Gare Saint-Lazare,
1877, The Art Institute of Chicago* [1]
The Clis at Etretat,
Williamstown
Rouen Cathedral at sunset, 1893, Muse Marmottan Monet. An

example of the Rouen Cathedral Series.
paint. Having rejected the academic teachings of Gleyre's

studio, he freed himself from theory, sayingI like to paint
as a bird sings.* [46]
In 1877 a series of paintings at St-Lazare Station had Monet
looking at smoke and steam and the way that they aected
colour and visibility, being sometimes opaque and sometimes translucent. He was to further use this study in
the painting of the eects of mist and rain on the landscape.* [47] The study of the eects of atmosphere were to
evolve into a number of series of paintings in which Monet
repeatedly painted the same subject in dierent lights, at
dierent hours of the day, and through the changes of
weather and season. This process began in the 1880s and
continued until the end of his life in 1926.
His rst series exhibited as such was of Haystacks, painted
from dierent points of view and at dierent times of the
day. Fifteen of the paintings were exhibited at the Galerie
Durand-Ruel in 1891. In 1892 he produced what is probably his best-known series, twenty-six views of Rouen Cathedral.* [45] In these paintings Monet broke with painterly
1885,
Clark Institute,
Sailboats behind the needle at Eretat, 1885

Two paintings from a series of grainstacks, 1890-91:
Grainstacks in the Sunlight, Morning Eect,
Grainstacks, end of day, Autumn, 18901891, Art Institute of Chicago
Poplars (Autumn), 1891, Philadelphia Museum of Art
Poplars at the River Epte, 1891 Tate
The Seine Near Giverny, 1897, Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston
Morning on the Seine, 1898, National Museum of
Western Art
Charing Cross Bridge, 1899, Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum Madrid
Charing Cross Bridge, London, 18991901, Saint
Louis Art Museum
Two paintings from a series of The Houses of Parliament, London, 190001, Art Institute of Chicago
London, Houses of Parliament. The Sun Shining
through the Fog, 1904, Muse d'Orsay
6.7. SEE ALSO
85
Grand Canal, Venice, 1908, Museum of Fine Arts,

Boston
Water Lilies, 1919, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New

York
Grand Canal, Venice, 1908, Fine Arts Museums of

San Francisco
Water Lilies, 19171919, Honolulu Museum of Art
1. ^ Art Institute of Chicago
6.6 Fame
In 2004, London, the Parliament, Eects of Sun in the Fog
(Londres, le Parlement, troue de soleil dans le brouillard)
(1904), sold for US$20.1 million.* [50] In 2006, the journal
Proceedings of the Royal Society published a paper providing evidence that these were painted in situ at St Thomas'
Hospital over the river Thames.* [51]
Falaises prs de Dieppe (Clis near Dieppe) has been stolen
on two separate occasions: once in 1998 (in which the museum's curator was convicted of the theft and jailed for
ve years and two months along with two accomplices) and
most recently in August 2007.* [52] It was recovered in June
2008.* [53]
Monet's Le Pont du chemin de fer Argenteuil, an 1873
painting of a railway bridge spanning the Seine near
Paris, was bought by an anonymous telephone bidder
for a record $41.4 million at Christie's auction in New
York on 6 May 2008. The previous record for his
painting stood at $36.5 million.* [54] Just a few weeks
later, Le bassin aux nymphas (from the water lilies series) sold at Christie's 24 June 2008 auction in London,
lot 19,* [55] for 36,500,000 ($71,892,376.34) (hammer
price) or 40,921,250 ($80,451,178) with fees, nearly doubling the record for the artist* [56] and representing one of
the top 20 highest prices paid for a painting at the time.
In October 2013, Monet's paintings, L'Eglise de Vetheuil
and Le Bassin aux Nymphease, became subjects of a legal case in New York against NY-based Vilma Bautista,
one-time aide to Imelda Marcos, wife of dictator Ferdinand
Marcos,* [57] after she sold Le Bassin aux Nymphease for
$32 million to a Swiss buyer. The said Monet paintings,
along with two others, were acquired by Imelda during her
husband's presidency and allegedly bought using the nation's funds. Bautista's lawyer claimed that the aide sold
the painting for Imelda but did not have a chance to give
her the money. The Philippine government seeks the return of the painting.* [57] Le Bassin aux Nymphease, also
known as Japanese Footbridge over the Water-Lily Pond at
Giverny, is part of Monet's famed Water Lilies series.
Series of water lilies in dierent lights
Le Bassin Aux Nymphas, 1919. Monet's late series of
Waterlily paintings are among his best-known works.
Water lilies (Yellow Nirwana), 1920, The National

Gallery, London
Water Lilies, circa 1915-26, Nelson-Atkins Museum
of Art
The Water Lily Pond, c. 191719, Albertina, Vienna
6.7
See also
List of works by Claude Monet

History of painting
Western painting
6.8
References
[1] House, John, et al.: Monet in the 20th century, page 2, Yale
University Press, 1998.
[2] Claude MONET biography. Giverny.org. 2 December
2009. Retrieved 5 June 2012.
[3] From John Rewald, The History of Impressionism
[4] Impressionism: A Centenary Exhibition, the Metropolitan
Museum of Art, December 12, 1974-February 10, 1975,
Anne Distel, Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York,
N.Y.)
[5] Impressionism Overview ARTinthePICTURE.com. Retrieved 6 January 2007.
[6] P. Tucker Claude Monet: Life and Art, p. 5
[7] S. Patin, Monet un il ... mais bon Dieu, quel il !", Collection Dcouverte Gallimard. p. 14.
[8] Steven Z. Levine (1994). 6. Monet, Narcissus, and SelfReection: The Modernist Myth of the Self (2 ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 66. ISBN 9780226475431. Much
closer to Monet's own atheism and pessimism is Schopenhauer, already introduced to the impressionist circle in the
criticism of Theodore Duret in the 1870s and whose inuence in France was at its peak in 1886, the year of The World
as Will and Idea.
[9] Ruth Butler (2008). Hidden in the Shadow of the Master: the
Model-wives of Czanne, Monet, and Rodin. Yale University
Press. p. 202. ISBN 9780300149531. Then Monet took
the end of his brush and drew some long straight strokes in
the wet pigment across her chest. It's not clear, and probably
not consciously intended by the atheist Claude Monet, but
somehow the suggestion of a Cross lies there on her body.
86
[10] Biography for Claude Monet Guggenheim Collection. Retrieved 6 January 2007.
[31] Biography of Oscar-Claude Monet, The Life and Work of

Claude Monet. Monetalia.com. Retrieved 5 June 2012.
[11] Gary Tinterow, Origins of Impressionism, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Jan 1, 1994, ISBN 0870997173,
9780870997174
[32] Charles Merrill Mount, Monet a biography, Simon and

Schuster publisher, copyright 1966, pp.309322.
[12] Muse d'Orsay, Le djeuner sur l'herbe, Notice de l'uvre,

Iconographie
[13] Charles F. Stuckey, p. 1116
[14] Metropolitan Museum of Art. Metmuseum.org. Retrieved 20 December 2012.
[15] Charles Stuckey Monet, a Retrospective, Hugh Lauter
Levin Associates, 195
[16] Monet, Claude Nicolas Pioch, www.ibiblio.org, 19 September 2002. Retrieved 6 January 2007.
[17] The texts of seven police reports, written on 2 June 9 October 1871 are included in Monet in Holland, the catalog of
an exhibition in the Amsterdam Van Gogh Museum (1986).
[18] Wattenmaker, Richard J.; Distel, Anne, et al. (1993). Great
French Paintings from the Barnes Foundation. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf. p. 98.ISBN 0-679-40963-7
[33] Monet's Village. Giverny. 24 February 2009. Retrieved

5 June 2012.
[34] Charles Merrill Mount, Monet a biography, Simon and
Schuster publisher, copyright 1966, p326.
[35] Mary Mathews Gedo, Monet and His Muse: Camille Monet in
the Artist's Life, University of Chicago Press, Sep 30, 2010,
ISBN 0226284808, 9780226284804
[36] Garrett, Robert (20 May 2007).Monet's gardens a draw to
Giverny and to his art. Globe Correspondents. Retrieved
13 October 2008.
[37] Art Gallery of Victoria, Monet's Garden, (retrieved 16 December 2013)
[38] The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Water Lilies, Heilbrunn
Timeline of Art History
[39] Gary Tinterow, Modern Europe, Metropolitan Museum of
Art (New York, N.Y.), Jan 1, 1987
[19] His paintings are shown and discussed here .
[40] Forge, Andrew, and Gordon, Robert, Monet, page 224.

Harry N. Abrams, 1989.
[20] Bernard Denvir, The Chronicle of Impressionism: A Timeline

History of Impressionist Art, Bulnch Press Book, 1993
[41] Let the light shine in Guardian News, 30 May 2002. Retrieved 6 January 2007.
[21] Bernard Denvir, The chronicle of impressionism: an intimate

diary of the lives and world of the great artists, Thames &
Hudson, Limited, 1993
[42] P. Tucker Claude Monet: Life and Art, p.224
[22] archives, Notes for The First Impressionist Exhibition,

1874
[44] Jennings, Guy (1986). Impressionist Painters.

Books. ISBN 9780706426601.
[23] Stdelsches Kunstinstitut und Stdtische Galerie, Frankfurt

am Main
[45] Gardner, Helen (1995). Art through the Ages (10th Reiss
edition ed.). Harcourt College Pub. p. 669. ISBN 9780155011410.
[24] Kennedy, Ian. Kansas city or Moscow?", Apollo, 1 March

2007. Retrieved on 8 June 2009.
[25] Nathalia Brodskaya, Claude Monet, Parkstone International,
Jul 1, 2011
[26] Nathalia Brodskaa, Impressionism, Parkstone International,
2010
[27] Jiminez, Jill Berk (2013). Dictionary of Artists' Models.
Routledge. p. 165. ISBN 1135959145.
[28] La Japonaise. artelino. Retrieved 5 June 2012.
[29] http://members.aol.com/wwjohnston/camille.htm
[30] Berger, John (1985). The Eyes of Claude Monet from Sense
of Sight. New York: Pantheon Books. pp. 194195. ISBN
0-679-73722-7.
[43] Historical record. Fondation-monet.fr. Retrieved 19

January 2010.
Octopus
[46] Jennings, p. 130

[47] Jennings, p. 132
[48] Jennings p. 137
[49] Helen Gardner, Art through the Ages, p. 669
[50] Monet's masterpiece reaches record high bid newsfromrussia.com, 5 November 2004. Retrieved 6 January 2007.
[51] Virtual Monet Thumbnails Pg 1 | Special reports.
guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 5 June 2012.
[52] Monet and Others Stolen in Museum Heist in Nice. artforum.com. 8 August 2007. Retrieved 8 August 2007.
[53] French police recover stolen Monet painting. artforum.com. 1 October 2009. Retrieved 1 October 2009.
87
[54] Monet fetches record price at New York auction. Google.

AFP. 6 May 2008. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
The Unknown Monet exhibition view sketchbooks,

clarkart.edu
[55] Le Bassin Aux Nymphas. Christies of London. 24 June

Union List of Artist Names, Getty Vocabularies.
[56] Monet work auctioned for 40.9m. BBC News. 24 June

[57] Ex-Imelda Marcos aide on trial in NYC for selling Monet
work. Associated Press. 17 October 2013. Retrieved 17
October 2013.
6.9 Further reading

Howard, Michael The Treasures of Monet. (Muse
Marmottan Monet, Paris, 2007).
Kendall, Richard Monet by Himself, (Macdonald & Co
1989, updated Time Warner Books 2004), ISBN 0316-72801-2
Monet's years at Giverny: Beyond Impressionism.
New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1978.
ISBN 978-0-8109-1336-3. (full text PDF available)
Stuckey, Charles F., Monet, a retrospective, Bay Books,
(1985) ISBN 0-85835-905-7
Tucker, Paul Hayes, Monet in the '90s. (Museum of
Fine Arts in association with Yale University Press,
New Haven and London, 1989).
Tucker, Paul Hayes Claude Monet: Life and Art Amilcare Pizzi, Italy 1995 ISBN 0-300-06298-2
Tucker, Paul Hayes, Monet in the 20th century. (Royal
Academy of Arts, London, Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston and Yale University press. 1998).
6.10 External links

Claude Monet at the Museum of Modern Art
Claude Monet by himself, intermonet.com
Claude Monet paintings, media & interactive timeline,
mootnotes.com
Claude Monet: life and paintings
Comparison of reproductions of Monet, kasrl.org
Monet at Giverny
Photos of Monet's grave
Claude Monet Works

Works by or about Claude Monet in libraries
(WorldCat catalog)
Claude Monet at The Guggenheim
Impressionism: a centenary exhibition, an exhibition
catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully
available online as PDF), which contains material on
Monet (p. 131167)
Chapter 7
Vincent van Gogh

Van Goghredirects here. For other uses, see Van Gogh of speculation since his death. Despite a widespread ten(disambiguation).
dency to romanticize his ill health, modern critics see an
artist deeply frustrated by the inactivity and incoherence
Vincent Willem van Gogh (Dutch: [vnsnt lm vn brought about by his bouts of illness. According to art critic
Robert Hughes, Van Gogh's late works show an artist at the
x] ( );* [note 1] 30 March 1853 29 July 1890) was
height
of his ability, completely in control andlonging for
a major Post-Impressionist. A Dutch painter whose work
concision and grace.* [4]
notable for its rough beauty, emotional honesty, and bold
color had a far-reaching inuence on 20th-century art.
After years of painful anxiety and frequent bouts of mental illness,* [1]* [2] he died aged 37 from a gunshot wound, 7.1 Letters
generally accepted to be self-inicted (although no gun was
ever found).* [3]* [note 2]
See also: The Letters of Vincent van Gogh
He began to draw as a child, and he continued to draw
throughout the years that led up to his decision to become
an artist. He did not begin painting until his late twenties,
completing many of his best-known works during the last
two years of his life. In just over a decade, he produced
more than 2,100 artworks, consisting of 860 oil paintings
and more than 1,300 watercolors, drawings, sketches, and
prints. His work included self portraits, landscapes, still
lifes, portraits as well as paintings of cypresses, wheat elds
and sunowers.
Vincent c. 1873 aged 19. This photograph was taken at
He spent his early adulthood working for a rm of art deal- the time when he was working at the branch of Goupil &
*
*
ers, traveling between The Hague, London, and Paris, af- Cie's gallery in The Hague. [5] [6]
ter which he taught for a time in England at Isleworth and
Ramsgate. One of his early aspirations was to become a
pastor, and from 1879 he worked as a missionary in a mining region in Belgium, where he began to sketch people
from the local community. In 1885, he painted his rst
major work, entitled The Potato Eaters. His palette at the
time consisted mainly of somber earth tones and showed
no sign of the vivid coloration that distinguished his later
work. In March 1886, he moved to Paris and discovered
the French Impressionists. Later, he moved to the south of
France and was inuenced by the strong sunlight he found
there. His work grew brighter in color, and he developed the
unique and highly recognizable style that became fully realized during his stay in Arles in 1888. The extent to which
his mental health aected his painting has been a subject
Theo in 1888 at 31. Theo was a life-long supporter and

friend to his brother. The two are buried together at
Auvers-sur-Oise.
The most comprehensive primary source for the understanding of Van Gogh as an artist is the collection of let-
88
7.2. BIOGRAPHY
ters between him and his younger brother, art dealer Theo
van Gogh.* [7] They lay the foundation for most of what is
known about the thoughts and beliefs of the artist.* [8]* [9]
Theo provided his brother with both nancial and emotional support. Their lifelong friendship, and most of what
is known of Van Gogh's thoughts and theories of art, is
recorded in the hundreds of letters they exchanged between
1872 and 1890: more than 600 from Vincent to Theo and
40 from Theo to Vincent.
89
in turn after his own father's uncle, the successful sculptor
Vincent van Gogh (17291802).* [15]* [16] Art and religion
were the two occupations to which the Van Gogh family
gravitated. His brother Theodorus Theowas born on 1
May 1857. He had another brother, Cor, and three sisters:
Elisabeth, Anna, and Willemina Wil.* [17]
Although many are undated, art historians have generally

been able to put them in chronological order. Problems
remain, mainly in dating those from Arles, although it is
known that during that period, Van Gogh wrote 200 letters
to friends in Dutch, French and English.* [10] The period
when Vincent lived in Paris is the most dicult for historians to analyze because the brothers lived together and
had no need to correspond.* [11] In addition to letters to
and from Theo, other surviving documents include those to
Van Rappard, mile Bernard, Van Gogh's sister Wil and her
friend Line Kruysse.* [12] The letters were rst annotated in
1913 by Theo's widow Johanna van Gogh-Bonger who explained that she published them withtrepidationbecause
she did not want the drama in the artist's life to overshadow
his work. Van Gogh himself was an avid reader of other
artists' biographies and expected their lives to be in keeping
with the character of their art.* [7]
7.2 Biography
Main article: Vincent van Gogh chronology
7.2.1
Early life
See also: Van Gogh's family in his art

Vincent Willem van Gogh was born on 30 March 1853 in
Groot-Zundert, a village close to Breda, in the province
of North Brabant in the southern Netherlands, a predominantly Catholic area.* [13]* [14] He was the oldest surviving child of Theodorus van Gogh, a minister of the Dutch
Reformed Church, and Anna Cornelia Carbentus. Vincent
was given the name of his grandfather, and of a brother stillborn exactly a year before his birth.* [note 3] The practice
of reusing a name was not unusual. Vincent was a common name in the Van Gogh family: his grandfather, Vincent
(17891874), had received his degree of theology at the
University of Leiden in 1811. Grandfather Vincent had six
sons, three of whom became art dealers, including another
Vincent who was referred to in Van Gogh's letters asUncle Cent. Grandfather Vincent had perhaps been named
Vincent c. 1866, approx. age 13
As a child, Vincent was serious, silent, and thoughtful. He

attended the Zundert village school from 1860, where the
single Catholic teacher taught around 200 pupils. From
1861, he and his sister Anna were taught at home by a
governess, until 1 October 1864, when he went to Jan
Provily's boarding school at Zevenbergen about 20 miles
(32 km) away. He was distressed to leave his family home
as he recalled later as an adult. On 15 September 1866,
he went to the new middle school, Willem II College in
Tilburg. Constantijn C. Huysmans, a successful artist in
Paris, taught Van Gogh to draw at the school and advocated
a systematic approach to the subject. Vincent's interest in
art began at an early age. He began to draw as a child and
continued making drawings throughout the years leading to
his decision to become an artist. Though well-done and expressive,* [18] his early drawings do not approach the intensity he developed in his later work.* [19] In March 1868,
Van Gogh abruptly left school and returned home. A later
comment on his early years was in an 1883 letter to Theo
in which he wrote, My youth was gloomy and cold and
sterile.* [20]
90
Van Gogh's drawing of 87 Hackford Road
In July 1869, his uncle Cent helped him obtain a position

with the art dealer Goupil & Cie in The Hague. After his
training, in June 1873, Goupil transferred him to London,
where he lodged at 87 Hackford Road, Brixton, and worked
at Messrs. Goupil & Co., 17 Southampton Street.* [21] This
was a happy time for Vincent; he was successful at work
and was, at 20, earning more than his father. Theo's wife
later remarked that this was the happiest year of Vincent's
life. He fell in love with his landlady's daughter, Eugnie
Loyer, but when he nally confessed his feelings to her, she
rejected him, saying that she was secretly engaged to a former lodger. He became increasingly isolated and fervent
about religion; his father and uncle arranged for him to be
transferred to Paris, where he became resentful at how art
was treated as a commodity, a fact apparent to customers.
On 1 April 1876, Goupil terminated his employment.* [22]
CHAPTER 7. VINCENT VAN GOGH

teacher in a small boarding school overlooking the harbor in
Ramsgate, where he made sketches of the view. When the
proprietor of the school relocated to Isleworth, Middlesex,
Van Gogh moved with him, taking the train to Richmond
and the remainder of the journey on foot.* [25] The arrangement did not work out and he left to become a Methodist
minister's assistant, following his wish topreach the gospel
everywhere.* [26] At Christmas, he returned home and
found work in a bookshop in Dordrecht for six months. He
was not happy in this new position, and he spent much of
his time either doodling or translating passages from the
Bible into English, French, and German.* [27] His roommate at the time a young teacher named Grlitz recalled that Van Gogh ate frugally, and preferred not to eat
meat.* [28]* [note 4]
Van Gogh's religious zeal grew until he felt he had found
his true vocation. To support his eort to become a pastor, his family sent him to Amsterdam to study theology in
May 1877, where he stayed with his uncle Jan van Gogh,
a naval Vice Admiral.* [29]* [30] Vincent prepared for the
entrance exam with his uncle Johannes Stricker, a respected
theologian who published the rst Life of Jesusin the
Netherlands. Van Gogh failed the exam, and left his uncle
Jan's house in July 1878. He then undertook, but failed, a
three-month course at the Vlaamsche Opleidingsschool, a
Protestant missionary school in Laeken, near Brussels.* [31]
The house where Van Gogh stayed in Cuesmes in 1880; while living
here he decided to become an artist
In January 1879, he took a temporary post as a missionary

in the village of Petit Wasmes* [note 5] in the coal-mining
district of Borinage in Belgium at Charbonnage de Marcasse, Van Gogh lived like those he preached to, sleeping
on straw in a small hut at the back of the baker's house
The house Holme Courtin Isleworth, where Van Gogh stayed where he was staying. The baker's wife reported hearing
Van Gogh sobbing at night in the hut. His choice of squalid
in 1876 * [23] * [24]
living conditions did not endear him to the appalled church
Van Gogh returned to England for unpaid work as a supply authorities, who dismissed him for undermining the dig-
7.2. BIOGRAPHY
91
nity of the priesthood. He then walked to Brussels,* [32]

returned briey to the village of Cuesmes in the Borinage,
but gave in to pressure from his parents to return home to
Etten. He stayed there until around March the following
year,* [note 6] a cause of increasing concern and frustration
for his parents. There was particular conict between Vincent and his father; Theodorus made inquiries about having
his son committed to the lunatic asylum at Geel.* [33]* [note
7]
He returned to Cuesmes, where he lodged until October
with a miner named Charles Decrucq.* [34] He became interested in the people and scenes around him, and recorded
his time there in his drawings, following Theo's suggestion that he take up art in earnest. He traveled to Brussels
that autumn, intending to follow Theo's recommendation to
study with the prominent Dutch artist Willem Roelofs, who
persuaded himin spite of his aversion to formal schools
of artto attend the Acadmie Royale des Beaux-Arts in
Brussels, where he registered on 15 November 1880. At
the Acadmie, he studied anatomy and the standard rules
of modeling and perspective, about which he said, "...you
have to know just to be able to draw the least thing.* [35]
Van Gogh aspired to become an artist in God's service, stating: "...to try to understand the real signicance of what
the great artists, the serious masters, tell us in their masterpieces, that leads to God; one man wrote or told it in a
book; another in a picture.* [36]
7.2.2
Etten, Drenthe and The Hague
See also: Early works of Vincent van Gogh

In April 1881, Van Gogh moved to the Etten countryside with his parents, where he continued drawing, often
using neighbors as subjects. Throughout the summer, he
took long walks with his recently widowed cousin, Kee VosStricker. Kee was daughter of his mother's older sister and
Johannes Stricker, the relatives he had stayed in Amsterdam in 1878. The two cousins enjoyed each other's company, spending many hours in conversation.* [38] Kee
who had an eight-year-old sonwas seven years older than
Van Gogh. He proposed marriage, but she refused with the
wordsNo, nay, never("nooit, neen, nimmer").* [39]* [40]
Late that November, Van Gogh wrote a strongly worded
letter to Johannes,* [41] and then hurried to Amsterdam,
where he spoke with him on several occasions.* [42] Kee
refused to see him, and her parents wrote: Your persistence is disgusting.In desperation, he held his left hand in
the ame of a lamp, with the words: Let me see her for
as long as I can keep my hand in the ame.* [43] He did
not recall the event well, but later assumed that his uncle
blew out the ame. Kee's father made it clear to him that
Kee's refusal should be heeded and that the two would not
be married* [44] because of Van Gogh's inability to support
Kee Vos Stricker with her son Jan c. 1879/1880.
himself.* [45] Van Gogh's perception of his uncle and former tutor's hypocrisy aected him deeply and put an end to
his religious faith forever.* [46] That Christmas, he refused
to go to church, quarreling violently with his father as a result and leading him to leave home the same day for The
Hague.* [47]* [48]
In January 1882, he settled in The Hague, where he called
on his cousin-in-law, Anton Mauve (183888), who was a
Dutch realist painter and a leading member of the Hague
School. Mauve introduced him to painting in both oil and
watercolor and lent him money to set up a studio,* [49]
but the two soon fell out, possibly over the issue of drawing from plaster casts.* [50] Van Gogh's uncle Cornelis, an
art dealer, commissioned 12 ink drawings of views of the
city, which Van Gogh completed soon after arriving in The
Hague, along with a further seven drawings that May.* [51]
In June, he spent three weeks in a hospital, suering from
gonorrhea,* [52] and that summer, he began to paint in
oil.* [53]
Mauve appears to have suddenly gone cold towards Van
92

when she had a ve-year-old daughter and was pregnant.
She had already borne two children who died, although Van
Gogh was unaware of this;* [57] and on 2 July, she gave
birth to a baby boy, Willem.* [58] When Van Gogh's father
discovered the details of their relationship, he put pressure
on his son to abandon Sien and her children, although Vincent at rst deed him.* [59] Vincent considered moving the
family out of the city, but in the end, in the autumn of 1883
after a year with her, he left Sien and the two children.* [60]
It is possible that lack of money pushed Sien back to prostitution; the home became less happy, and Van Gogh may
have felt family life was irreconcilable with his artistic development. When he left, Sien gave her daughter to her
mother and baby Willem to her brother. She then moved to
Delft, and later to Antwerp.* [61]
Annotated by the artist in ink at lower left: At Eternity's Gate, 1882,

lithograph, Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art* [37]
Willem remembered being taken to visit his mother in

Rotterdam at around the age of 12, where his uncle tried
to persuade Sien to marry in order to legitimize the child.
Willem remembered his mother saying, But I know who
the father is. He was an artist I lived with nearly 20 years
ago in The Hague. His name was Van Gogh.She then
turned to Willem and saidYou are called after him.* [62]
While Willem believed himself Van Gogh's son, the timing
of his birth makes this unlikely.* [63] In 1904, Sien drowned
herself in the River Scheldt.* [64] Van Gogh moved to the
Dutch province of Drenthe, in the northern Netherlands.
That December, driven by loneliness, he went to stay with
his parents, who had been posted to Nuenen, North Brabant.* [64]
7.2.3
Emerging artist
See also: Still life paintings by Vincent van Gogh (Netherlands)
Nuenen and Antwerp (18831886)
Rooftops, View from the Atelier The Hague, 1882, watercolour,

Private collection.
In Nuenen, Van Gogh devoted himself to drawing, and he

gave money to boys to bring him birds' nests for subject
matter for paintings,* [note 8] and he made many sketches
and paintings of weavers in their cottages.* [65] In autumn
1884, Margot Begemann, a neighbor's daughter and ten
years his senior, often joined him on his painting forays.
She fell in love, and he reciprocated though less enthusiastically. They decided to marry, but the idea was opposed
by both families. As a result, Margot took an overdose of
strychnine. She was saved when Van Gogh rushed her to a
nearby hospital.* [58] On 26 March 1885, his father died of
a heart attack and he grieved deeply at the loss.* [66]
Gogh and did not return some of his letters.* [54] Van
Gogh supposed that Mauve had learned of his new domestic arrangement with an alcoholic prostitute, Clasina
MariaSienHoornik (18501904), and her young daugh- For the rst time, there was interest from Paris in his work.
ter.* [55]* [56] He had met Sien towards the end of January, That spring, he completed what is generally considered his
7.2. BIOGRAPHY
93
ings. From this period, Still-Life with Straw Hat and Pipe
and Still-life with Earthen Pot and Clogs are characterized
by smooth, meticulous brushwork and ne shading of colors.* [69] During his two-year stay in Nuenen, he completed numerous drawings and watercolors and nearly 200
oil paintings. His palette consisted mainly of somber earth
tones, particularly dark brown, and he showed no sign of
developing the vivid coloration that distinguishes his later,
best-known work. When he complained that Theo was
not making enough eort to sell his paintings in Paris,
his brother wrote back, telling him that the paintings were
too dark and not in line with the current style of bright
Impressionist paintings.* [70]
The Potato Eaters, 1885, Van Gogh Museum
In November 1885, he moved to Antwerp and rented a

small room above a paint dealer's shop in the Rue des Images (Lange Beeldekensstraat).* [71] He had little money
and ate poorly, preferring to spend the money Theo sent on
painting materials and models. Bread, coee, and tobacco
were his staple intake. In February 1886, he wrote to Theo
saying that he could only remember eating six hot meals
since May of the previous year. His teeth became loose
and painful.* [72] While in Antwerp, he applied himself to
the study of color theory and spent time in museums, particularly studying the work of Peter Paul Rubens, gaining
encouragement to broaden his palette to carmine, cobalt,
and emerald green. He bought Japanese Ukiyo-e woodcuts
in the docklands, and incorporated their style into the background of some of his paintings.* [73] While in Antwerp,
Van Gogh began to drink absinthe heavily.* [74] He was
treated by Dr. Amadeus Cavenaile, whose practice was
near the docklands,* [note 10] possibly for syphilis;* [note
11] the treatment of alum irrigation and sitz baths was jotted
down by Van Gogh in one of his notebooks.* [75] Despite
his rejection of academic teaching, he took the higher-level
admission exams at the Academy of Fine Arts in Antwerp,
and, in January 1886, matriculated in painting and drawing.
For most of February, he was ill and run down by overwork,
a poor diet, and excessive smoking.* [76]
Paris (18861888)
Skull of a Skeleton with Burning Cigarette, 18851886, oil on

canvas, Van Gogh Museum
rst major work, The Potato Eaters, the culmination of several years work painting peasant character studies.* [67] In
August 1885, his work was exhibited for the rst time, in
the windows of a paint dealer, Leurs, in The Hague. After one of his young peasant sitters became pregnant that
September, Van Gogh was accused of forcing himself upon
her* [note 9] and the Catholic village priest forbade parishioners from modeling for him.* [68]
During 1885, he painted several groups of still-life paint-
See also: Japonaiserie (Van Gogh) and Still life paintings

by Vincent van Gogh (Paris)
94
Courtesan (after Eisen), 1887, Van Gogh Museum

lished, and Van Gogh bought some of Monticelli's paintings, adding them to his collection.* [82]
The Blooming Plumtree (after Hiroshige), 1887, Van Gogh

Museum
Portrait of Pre Tanguy (1887), Muse Rodin

Van Gogh traveled to Paris in March 1886, where he shared
Theo's Rue Laval apartment on Montmartre, to study at
Fernand Cormon's studio. In June, they took a larger apartment further uphill, at 54 Rue Lepic. Because they had
no need to write letters to communicate, little is known
about this stay in Paris.* [77] In Paris, he painted portraits
of friends and acquaintances, still-life paintings, views of Le
Moulin de la Galette, scenes in Montmartre, Asnires, and
along the Seine. During his stay in Paris, he collected more
Japanese ukiyo-e woodblock prints; he became interested
in such works when, in 1885, in Antwerp he used them to
decorate the walls of his studio. He collected hundreds of
prints, which are visible in the backgrounds of several of his
paintings. In his 1887 Portrait of Pre Tanguy, several can
be seen hanging on the wall behind the main gure. In The
Courtesan or Oiran (after Kesai Eisen) (1887), Van Gogh
traced the gure from a reproduction on the cover of the
magazine Paris Illustre, which he then graphically enlarged
in the painting.* [78] His 1888 Plum Tree in Blossom (After
Hiroshige) is a vivid example of the admiration he had for
the prints he collected. His version is slightly bolder than
Hiroshige's original.* [79]
After seeing Adolphe Joseph Thomas Monticelli's work at
the Galerie Delareybarette, which he admired, Van Gogh
immediately adopted a brighter palette and a bolder attack,
particularly in paintings such as his Seascape at SaintesMaries (1888).* [80]* [81] Two years later, in 1890, Vincent and Theo paid to have a book about Monticelli pub-
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Portrait of Vincent van Gogh, 1887,

pastel drawing, Van Gogh Museum.
For months, Van Gogh worked at Cormon's studio, where

he frequented the circle of the British-Australian artist
John Peter Russell,* [83] and met fellow students like mile
Bernard, Louis Anquetin, and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
who painted a portrait of Van Gogh with pastel. The group
congregated at Julien PreTanguy's paint store (which
was, at that time, the only place where Paul Czanne's paintings were displayed). He had easy access to Impressionist
works in Paris at the time. In 1886, two large vanguard exhibitions were staged; shows where Neo-Impressionism was
rst exhibited and seen, with works by Georges Seurat and
Paul Signac becoming the talk of the town. Though Theo
kept a stock of Impressionist paintings in his gallery on
Boulevard Montmarte (by artists including Claude Monet,
Alfred Sisley, Edgar Degas, and Camille Pissarro), Van
Gogh seemingly had problems acknowledging developments in how artists view and paint their subject matter.* [84]
Conicts arose between the brothers. At the end of 1886,
Theo found that living with Vincent was almost unbearable. By the spring of 1887, they were again at peace, although Van Gogh moved to Asnires, a northwestern suburb
of Paris, where he became acquainted with Signac. With
mile Bernard, he adopted elements of Pointillism, a technique in which a multitude of small colored dots are ap-
7.2. BIOGRAPHY
95
plied to the canvas such thatwhen seen from a distance

they create an optical blend of hues.* [85] The style stresses
the value of complementary colorsincluding blue and orange to form vibrant contrasts that are enhanced when
juxtaposed.* [86] While in Asnires, he painted parks and
restaurants and the Seine, including Bridges across the Seine
at Asnieres.
In November 1887, Theo and Vincent met and befriended
Paul Gauguin, who had just arrived in Paris.* [87] Towards the end of the year, Vincent arranged an exhibition of paintings by himself, Bernard, Anquetin, and probably Toulouse-Lautrec in the Grand-Bouillon Restaurant du
Chalet, 43 Avenue de Clichy, Montmartre. In a contemporary account, mile Bernard wrote of the event: On
the avenue de Clichy a new restaurant was opened. Vincent
used to eat there. He proposed to the manager that an exhibition be held there .... Canvases by Anquetin, by Lautrec,
by Koning ...lled the hall....It really had the impact of
something new; it was more modern than anything that
was made in Paris at that moment.* [88] There Bernard
and Anquetin sold their rst paintings, and Van Gogh exchanged work with Gauguin, who soon departed to PontAven. Discussions on art, artists, and their social situations
that started during this exhibition continued and expanded
to include visitors to the show, like Pissarro and his son
Lucien, Signac, and Seurat. Finally, in February 1888, feeling worn out from life in Paris, Vincent left, having painted
over 200 paintings during his two years in the city. Only
hours before his departure, accompanied by Theo, he paid
his rst and only visit to Seurat in his atelier (studio).* [89]
7.2.4
Artistic breakthrough and nal years
Move to Arles (18881889)
See also: Langlois Bridge at Arles (Van Gogh series)
The Yellow House, 1888, Van Gogh Museum
Bedroom in Arles, 1888, Van Gogh Museum

Van Gogh moved to Arles, hoping for refuge at a time
when he was ill from drink and suering from smoker's
cough.* [10] He arrived on 21 February 1888 and took a
room at the Htel-Restaurant Carrel, which he had idealistically expected to look like one of Hokusai (17601849) or
Utamaro's (17531806) prints.* [5]* [10] He seems to have
moved to the town with thoughts of founding a utopian
art colony. The Danish artist Christian Mourier-Petersen
(18581945) became his companion for two months, and
at rst Arles appeared exotic and lthy. In a letter, he described it as a foreign country:The Zouaves, the brothels,
the adorable little Arlesiennes going to their First Communion, the priest in his surplice, who looks like a dangerous
rhinoceros, the people drinking absinthe, all seem to me
creatures from another world.* [90] A hundred years later,
Van Gogh was remembered by 113-year-old Jeanne Calment who, as a 13 year-old, was serving in her uncle's
fabric shop where Van Gogh wanted to buy some canvas
as dirty, badly dressed and disagreeable, and very
ugly, ungracious, impolite, sick. She also recalled selling
him colored pencils.* [91]* [92]
Van Gogh was enchanted by the local landscape and light,
and his works from this period are richly draped in yellow, ultramarine, and mauve. His portrayals of the Arles
landscape are informed by his Dutch upbringing; the patchwork of elds and avenues appear at and lack perspective,
but excel in their intensity of color.* [10]* [90] The vibrant
light in Arles excited him, and his newfound appreciation
is seen in the range and scope of his work. That March,
he painted local landscapes using a gridded perspective
frame. Three of these paintings were shown at the annual exhibition of the Socit des Artistes Indpendants. In
April, he was visited by the American artist Dodge MacKnight, who was living nearby at Fontvieille.* [5]* [93] On 1
May, he signed a lease for 15 francs per month in the eastern
wing of the Yellow House at No. 2 Place Lamartine. The
rooms were unfurnished and uninhabited for some time. He
was still at the Htel Restaurant Carrel, but the rate charged
by the hotel was 5 francs a week, which he found excessive.
He disputed the price, took the case to a local arbitrator, and
was awarded a twelve franc reduction on the total bill.* [94]
96

Gauguin's visit
See also: Hospital in Arles (Van Gogh series)
The Red Vineyard, November 1888, Pushkin Museum,

Moscow). Sold to Anna Boch, 1890
The Night Caf, 1888, Yale University Art Gallery, New

Haven
Paul Gauguin's Armchair, 1888, Van Gogh Museum

He moved from the Htel Carrel to the Caf de la Gare on
7 May,* [95] where he became friends with the proprietors,
Joseph and Marie Ginoux. Although the Yellow House had
to be furnished before he could fully move in, Van Gogh was
able to utilize it as a studio.* [96] Hoping to have a gallery
to display his work, his project at this time was a series of
paintings including Van Gogh's Chair (1888), Bedroom in
Arles (1888), The Night Caf (1888), Cafe Terrace at Night
(September 1888), Starry Night Over the Rhone (1888),
and Still Life: Vase with Twelve Sunowers (1888), all intended to form the dcoration for the Yellow House.* [97]
Van Gogh wrote about The Night Caf: I have tried to
express the idea that the caf is a place where one can ruin
oneself, go mad, or commit a crime.* [98]
Local newspaper report dated 30 December 1888 recording Vincent's self-mutilation.* [101]Last Sunday night at half past eleven
a painter named Vincent Vangogh, appeared at the maison de
tolrance No 1, asked for a girl called Rachel, and handed her
... his ear with these words: 'Keep this object like a treasure.' Then
he disappeared. The police, informed of these events, which could
only be the work of an unfortunate madman, looked the next morning for this individual, whom they found in bed with scarcely a sign
of life.
The poor man was taken to hospital without delay.* [102]
Still Life: Vase with Twelve Sunowers, August 1888, Neue

Pinakothek, Munich
When he visited Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer that June, he

gave drawing lessons to a Zouave second lieutenantPaulEugne Milliet* [99] and painted boats on the sea and the
village.* [100] MacKnight introduced Van Gogh to Eugne
Boch, a Belgian painter who stayed at times in Fontvieille,
and the two exchanged visits in July.* [99]
The Caf Terrace on the Place du Forum, Arles, at Night,
September 1888, Krller-Mller Museum, Otterlo, The
Netherlands
7.2. BIOGRAPHY
97
Joseph Roulin (The Postman), 1888, Museum of Fine Arts,

Boston
Paul Gauguin, The Painter of Sunowers: Portrait of Vincent van

Gogh, 1888, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam.
Van Gogh's Chair, 1888, National Gallery, London
trated Van Gogh. They quarreled ercely about art; Van

Gogh felt an increasing fear that Gauguin was going to
When Gauguin agreed to visit Arles, Van Gogh hoped for desert him, as a situation he described as one ofexcessive
friendship and for his utopian idea of a collective of artists. tensionreached crisis point.* [113]
In anticipation, that August he painted sunowers. When
The precise chain of events that led to the celebrated inciBoch visited again, Van Gogh painted a portrait of him, as
dent of van Gogh slicing o his ear is not known reliably in
well as the study The Poet Against a Starry Sky. Boch's sister
detail. The only account attesting a supposed earlier razor
Anna (18481936), also an artist, purchased The Red Vineattack on Gauguin comes from Gauguin himself some f*
*
yard in 1890. [103] [104] In preparation for Gauguin's
teen years later, and biographers agree this account must be
visit, Van Gogh bought two beds, on advice from his friend
considered unreliable and self-serving.* [114]* [115]* [116]
the station's postal supervisor Joseph Roulin, whose porHowever, it does seem likely that, by 23 December 1888,
trait he painted, and on 17 September spent the rst night
van Gogh had realized that Gauguin was proposing to leave
*
*
in the still sparsely furnished Yellow House. [105] [106]
and that there had been some kind of contretemps between
When Gauguin consented to work and live side-by-side in
the two.* [117] That evening, van Gogh severed his left ear
Arles with Van Gogh, he started to work on The Dcoration
(either wholly or in part; accounts dier) with a razor, infor the Yellow House, probably the most ambitious eort he
ducing a severe haemorrhage.* [note 12] He bandaged his
ever undertook.* [107] Van Gogh did two chair paintings:
wound, wrapped the ear in paper, and delivered the packVan Gogh's Chair and Gauguin's Chair.* [108]
age to a brothel frequented by both him and Gauguin, before
After repeated requests, Gauguin nally arrived in Arles on returning home and collapsing. He was found unconscious
23 October. During November, the two painted together. the next day by the police* [note 13] and taken to hospiGauguin painted Van Gogh's portrait The Painter of Sun- tal.* [118]* [119]* [120] The local newspaper reported that
owers: Portrait of Vincent van Gogh, anduncharacter- van Gogh had given the ear to a prostitute with an instrucisticallyVan Gogh painted some pictures from memory tion to guard it carefully.* [121]
(deferring to Gauguin's ideas in this) as well as his The Red
In Gauguin's later account, he implies thatin factvan
Vineyard. Notable amongst theseimaginativepaintings
Gogh had left the ear with the doorman as a memento for
*
*
is Memory of the Garden at Etten. [109] [110] Their rst
Gauguin.* [114] Van Gogh himself had no recollection of
joint outdoor painting exercise produced Les Alyscamps,
these events, and it is plain that he had suered an acute
and was conducted at the Alyscamps.* [111]
psychotic episode.* [122] Family letters of the time make it
The two visited Montpellier that December, and viewed clear that the event had not been unexpected.* [123] He had
works in the Alfred Bruyas collection by Courbet and suered a nervous collapse in Antwerp some three years
Delacroix in the Muse Fabre,* [112] but their relationship before, and as early as 1880 his father had proposed combegan to deteriorate. Van Gogh greatly admired Gauguin, mitting him to an asylum (at Gheel).* [124] The hospital
and desperately wanted to be treated as his equal, but Gau- diagnosis was generalized delirium, and within a few
guin was arrogant and domineering, a fact that often frus- days van Gogh was sectioned.* [123]
98
During the initial few days of his treatment, van Gogh re- The Sower, 1888, Krller-Mller Museum
peatedly asked for Gauguin, but Gauguin stayed away. Gauguin told one of the policeman attending the case,Be kind
enough, Monsieur, to awaken this man with great care, and
if he asks for me tell him I have left for Paris; the sight of
me might prove fatal for him.* [125] Gauguin wrote of
Van Gogh, His state is worse, he wants to sleep with the
patients, chase the nurses, and washes himself in the coal
bucket. That is to say, he continues the biblical mortications.* [123]* [125] Theo was notied by Gauguin, and
The Round of the Prisoners, 1890, Pushkin Museum,
visited Van Gogh, as did both Madame Ginoux and Roulin.
Moscow
*
Gauguin left Arles, and never saw Van Gogh again. [note
14]
Despite the gloomy initial diagnosis, Van Gogh made a surprisingly speedy recovery. He returned to the Yellow House
by the beginning of January, but was to spend the following month between the hospital and home, suering from
hallucinations and delusions that he was being poisoned. In
March, the police closed his house after a petition by 30
townspeople (including the Ginoux family), who called him
fou roux(the redheaded madman).* [123] Paul Signac vis- Two Peasant Women Digging in a Snow-Covered Field at
ited him in the hospital, and Van Gogh was allowed home Sunset, 1890, Foundation E.G. Bhrle Collection, Zurich,
in his company. In April, he moved into rooms owned by Switzerland
his hospital physician Dr. Rey after oods damaged paintings in his own home.* [126]* [127] Around this time, he
wrote,Sometimes moods of indescribable anguish, sometimes moments when the veil of time and fatality of circumstances seemed to be torn apart for an instant.Two
months later, he left Arles and entered an asylum (at his
own request) in Saint-Rmy-de-Provence.* [128]
Saint-Rmy (May 1889 May 1890)
Sorrowing Old Man ('At Eternity's Gate'), 1890, KrllerMain article: Saint-Paul Asylum, Saint-Rmy (Van Gogh Mller Museum, Otterlo
series)
On 8 May 1889, accompanied by his carer, the Reverend
Salles, Van Gogh committed himself to the hospital at Saint
Paul-de-Mausole. A former monastery in Saint-Rmy less
than 20 miles (32 km) from Arles, the hospital is located in
an area of cornelds, vineyards, and olive trees and was at
the time run by a former naval doctor, Dr. Thophile Peyron. He had two small rooms: adjoining cells with barred
windows. The second was to be used as a studio.* [129]
The Starry Night, June 1889, The Museum of Modern Art, During his stay, the clinic and its garden became the main
New York
subjects of his paintings. He made several studies of the
hospital interiors, such as Vestibule of the Asylum and SaintRemy (September 1889). Some of the work from this time is
characterized by swirls, including The Starry Night, his bestknown painting.* [130] He was allowed short supervised
walks, which led to paintings of cypresses and olive trees,
such as Olive Trees with the Alpilles in the Background 1889,
Cypresses 1889, Corneld with Cypresses (1889), Country
7.2. BIOGRAPHY
99
road in Provence by Night (1890). That September, he also a Snow-Covered Field at Sunset. Hulsker believes that this
produced a further two versions of Bedroom in Arles.
small group of paintings formed the nucleus of many drawings and study sheets depicting landscapes and gures that
Van Gogh worked on during this time. He comments that
save for this short periodVan Gogh's illness had hardly
any eect on his work, but in these he sees a reection of
Van Gogh's mental health at the time.* [137] Also belonging
to this period is Sorrowing Old Man (At Eternity's Gate
), a color study that Hulsker describes as another unmistakable remembrance of times long past.* [137]* [138]
Vincent van Gogh's room in Saint Paul de Maussole
In February 1890, he painted ve versions of L'Arlsienne

(Madame Ginoux), based on a charcoal sketch Gauguin had
produced when Madame Ginoux sat for both artists at the
beginning of November 1888.* [139] The version intended
for Madame Ginoux is lost. It was attempting to deliver
this painting to Madame Ginoux in Arles that precipitated
his February relapse.* [140] His work was praised by Albert
Aurier in the Mercure de France in January 1890, when he
was described as a genius.* [141] That February, he
was invited by Les XX, a society of avant-garde painters
in Brussels, to participate in their annual exhibition. At
the opening dinner, Les XX member Henry de Groux insulted Van Gogh's work. Toulouse-Lautrec demanded satisfaction, while Signac declared he would continue to ght
for Van Gogh's honor if Lautrec should surrender. Later,
while Van Gogh's exhibit was on display with the Artistes
Indpendants in Paris, Monet said that his work was the
best in the show.* [142] In February 1890, following the
birth of his nephew Vincent Willem, he wrote in a letter
to his mother that, with the new addition to the family, he
started right away to make a picture for him, to hang in
their bedroom, branches of white almond blossom against
a blue sky.* [143]
Limited access to the world outside the clinic resulted in

a shortage of subject matter. He was left to work on
interpretations of other artist's paintings, such as Millet's Auvers-sur-Oise (MayJuly 1890)
The Sower and Noon Rest from Work (after Millet), as well
as variations on his own earlier work. Van Gogh was an ad- See also: Double-squares and Squares
mirer of the Realism of Jules Breton, Gustave Courbet, and In May 1890, Van Gogh left the clinic in Saint-Rmy to
Millet,* [131] and he compared his copies to a musician's interpreting Beethoven.* [132]* [133] Many of his most compelling works date from this period. His The Round of the
Prisoners (1890) was painted after an engraving by Gustave
Dor (18321883). It is suggested that the face of the prisoner in the center of the painting and looking toward the
viewer is Van Gogh himself, although the noted Van Gogh
scholar Jan Hulsker discounts this.* [134]* [135]
Towards the end of his stay, Van Gogh suered a severe relapse lasting two months between February and April 1890.
Nevertheless, he was able to paint and draw a little during
this time, and he later wrote Theo that he had made a few
small canvasesfrom memory ... reminisces of the North. Daubigny's Garden, July 1890, Auvers, Kunstmuseum Basel, one
*
*
[136] Amongst these was Two Peasant Women Digging in of Van Gogh's late works [144]
100
move nearer the physician Dr. Paul Gachet in Auverssur-Oise, and also to Theo. Gachet was recommended by
Camille Pissarro, had treated several other artists, and was
himself an amateur artist. Van Gogh's rst impression was
that Gachet was "...sicker than I am, I think, or shall we
say just as much.* [145] In June 1890, he painted several
portraits of the physician, including Portrait of Dr. Gachet,
and his only etching; in each, the emphasis is on Gachet's
melancholic disposition. Van Gogh stayed at the Auberge
Ravoux, where he paid 3 francs and 50 centimes to rent an
attic room measuring 75 square feet (7.0 m2 ).

his life in which he paired two square blank canvases to
form a single, larger canvas. In its turbulent intensity, it is
among his most haunting and elemental works.* [150] It is
often mistakenly believed to be his last work, but Hulsker
lists seven paintings that postdate it.* [151]
Barbizon painter Charles Daubigny had moved to Auvers
in 1861, and this in turn drew other artists there, including Camille Corot and Honor Daumier. In July 1890, Van
Gogh completed two paintings of Daubigny's Garden; one
of these is likely to be his nal work.* [144] There are also
paintings that show evidence of being unnished, including
Thatched Cottages by a Hill.* [150]
7.2.5
Death
Main article: Death of Vincent van Gogh
Wheateld Under Thunderclouds, July 1890, Van Gogh

Museum, Amsterdam, (F778), painted in July 1890 during
his last weeks.* [146]
Self-portrait, 1889, Courtauld Institute Galleries, London.

Mirror-image self portrait with bandaged ear
The Church at Auvers, 1890, Muse d'Orsay, Paris
Still Life with Absinthe, 1887, Van Gogh Museum

On 22 February 1890, Van Gogh suered a new crisis that
Portrait of Dr. Gachet, 1890, was sold for US$ 82.5 million was the starting point for one of the saddest episodes in
in 1990.* [147] Private collection
a life already rife with sad events,according to Hulsker.
From February until the end of April he was unable to
Before he left, in his last weeks at Saint-Rmy, Van Gogh's bring himself to write, though he did continue to draw and
thoughts returned to his memories of the North,* [148] paint,* [140] which follows a pattern begun the previous
and several of the approximately 70 oils he painted during May, in 1889. For a year he had ts of despair and halhis 70 days in Auvers-sur-Oise, such as The Church at Au- lucination during which he could not work, and in between
them, long clear months in which he could and did, punctuvers, are reminiscent of northern scenes.* [149]
ated by extreme visionary ecstasy.* [152]
Wheat Field with Crows (July 1890) is an example of the use
of double square canvases he developed in the last weeks of On 27 July 1890, aged 37, Van Gogh is believed to have shot
himself in the chest with a revolver (although no gun was
7.3. WORK
ever found).* [153] There were no witnesses and the location where he shot himself is unclear. Ingo Walther writes,
Some think Van Gogh shot himself in the wheat eld that
had engaged his attention as an artist of late; others think
he did it at a barn near the inn.* [154] Biographer David
Sweetman writes that the bullet was deected by a rib bone
and passed through his chest without doing apparent damage to internal organsprobably stopped by his spine. He
was able to walk back to the Auberge Ravoux, and there
was attended by two physicians; however, without a surgeon present the bullet could not be removed. After tending to him as best they could, the two physicians left Van
Gogh alone in his room, smoking his pipe. The following
morning (Monday), Theo rushed to be with Van Gogh as
soon as he was notied, and found him in surprisingly good
shape, but within hours Van Gogh began to fail due to an
untreated infection caused by the wound. Van Gogh died
in the evening, 29 hours after he supposedly shot himself.
According to Theo, his brother's last words were: The
sadness will last forever.* [153]* [155]
101
Van Gogh's letters published, Jo Bonger had Theo's body
exhumed, moved from Utrecht and re-buried with Vincent
at Auvers-sur-Oise.* [160] * [161]
While many of Van Gogh's late paintings are somber, they
are essentially optimistic and reect his desire to return to
lucid mental health right up to the time of his death. Yet
some of his nal works reect his deepening concerns. Referring to his paintings of wheatelds under troubled skies,
he commented in a letter to his brother Theo: I did not
have to go out of my way very much in order to try to
express sadness and extreme loneliness.Nevertheless, he
adds in the same paragraph: these canvases will tell you
what I cannot say in words, that is, how healthy and invigorating I nd the countryside.* [162]* [163]
There has been much debate over the years as to the
source of Van Gogh's illness and its eect on his work.
Over 150 psychiatrists have attempted to label its root,
with some 30 dierent diagnoses.* [164] Diagnoses include
schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, syphilis, poisoning from
swallowed paints, temporal lobe epilepsy, and acute intermittent porphyria. Any of these could have been the culprit,
and could have been aggravated by malnutrition, overwork,
insomnia, and consumption of alcohol, especially absinthe.
In Van Gogh: the Life (2011), biographers Steven Naifeh
and Gregory White Smith argue that Van Gogh did not
commit suicide. They contend he was shot accidentally
by two boys he knew who had a malfunctioning gun
.* [165] Experts at the Van Gogh Museum remain unconvinced.* [166]
7.3
Work
Vincent and Theo buried together in Auvers-sur-Oise. Vincent's

stone bears the inscription: Ici Repose Vincent van Gogh (1853
1890), Theo's Ici Repose Theodore van Gogh (18571891)
Van Gogh was buried on 30 July in the municipal cemeThe Old Mill, 1888, Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Bualo,
tery of Auvers-sur-Oise at a funeral attended by Theo van
NY.
Gogh, Andries Bonger, Charles Laval, Lucien Pissarro,
mile Bernard, Julien Tanguy, and Dr. Gachet, amongst
some 20 family and friends, as well as some locals. The funeral was described by mile Bernard in a letter to Albert
Aurier.* [156]* [157] Theo suered from syphilis and his
health declined rapidly after Vincent's death. Weak and
unable to come to terms with Vincent's absence, he died
six months later, on 25 January, at Den Dolder, and he was
buried in Utrecht. * [158] * [159] In 1914, the year she had Starry Night Over the Rhone, 1888, Muse d'Orsay, Paris.
102
Olive Trees with the Alpilles in the Background, 1889,

Museum of Modern Art, New York.
Main article: List of works by Vincent van Gogh
Van Gogh drew and painted with watercolors while at
schoolonly a few of these paintings survive and authorship is challenged on some of those that do.* [167] When
he committed to art as an adult, he began at an elementary
level, copying the Cours de dessin, a drawing course edited
by Charles Bargue. Within two years he had begun to seek
commissions. In spring 1882, his uncle, Cornelis Marinus,
owner of a well-known gallery of contemporary art in Amsterdam, asked him for drawings of the Hague. Van Gogh's
work did not live up to his uncle's expectations. Marinus offered a second commission, this time specifying the subject
matter in detail, but was once again disappointed with the
result. Nevertheless, Van Gogh persevered. He improved
the lighting of his studio by installing variable shutters and
experimented with a variety of drawing materials. For more
than a year he worked on single gures highly elaborated
studies in Black and White,* [168] which at the time
gained him only criticism. Today, they are recognized as
his rst masterpieces.* [169]
White House at Night, 1890, Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg,

painted six weeks before the artist's death
Early in 1883, he began to work on multi-gure compositions, which he based on his drawings. He had some of
them photographed, but when his brother remarked that

they lacked liveliness and freshness, he destroyed them and
turned to oil painting. By Autumn 1882, his brother had
enabled him nancially to turn out his rst paintings, but
all the money Theo could supply was soon spent. Then, in
spring 1883, Van Gogh turned to renowned Hague School
artists like Weissenbruch and Blommers, and received technical support from them, as well as from painters like De
Bock and Van der Weele, both second generation Hague
School artists.* [170] When he moved to Nuenen after the
intermezzo in Drenthe he began several large-sized paintings but destroyed most of them. The Potato Eaters and its
companion pieces The Old Tower on the Nuenen cemetery and The Cottage are the only ones to have survived.
Following a visit to the Rijksmuseum, Van Gogh was aware
that many of his faults were due to lack of technical experience.* [170] So in November 1885 he traveled to Antwerp
and later to Paris to learn and develop his skill.* [171]
After becoming familiar with Impressionist and NeoImpressionist techniques and theories, Van Gogh went to
Arles to develop on these new possibilities. But within a
short time, older ideas on art and work reappeared: ideas
such as working with serial imagery on related or contrasting subject matter, which would reect on the purposes of
art. As his work progressed, he painted many Self-portraits.
Already in 1884 in Nuenen he had worked on a series that
was to decorate the dining room of a friend in Eindhoven.
Similarly in Arles, in spring 1888 he arranged his Flowering
Orchards into triptychs, began a series of gures that found
its end in The Roulin Family series, and nally, when Gauguin had consented to work and live in Arles side-by-side
with Van Gogh, he started to work on The Dcorations for
the Yellow House, which was by some accounts the most
ambitious eort he ever undertook.* [107] Most of his later
work is involved with elaborating on or revising its fundamental settings. In the spring of 1889, he painted another,
smaller group of orchards. In an April letter to Theo, he
said,I have 6 studies of Spring, two of them large orchards.
There is little time because these eects are so short-lived.
*
[172]
Art historian Albert Boime believes that Van Gogh even
in seemingly fantastical compositions like Starry Night
based his work in reality.* [173] The White House at Night,
shows a house at twilight with a prominent star surrounded
by a yellow halo in the sky. Astronomers at Southwest
Texas State University in San Marcos calculated that the
star is Venus, which was bright in the evening sky in June
1890 when Van Gogh is believed to have painted the picture.* [174]
7.3. WORK
7.3.1
Self portraits
103
Van Gogh created many self-portraits during his lifetime.
See also: Self-portraits by Vincent van Gogh
Self-Portrait with Straw Hat, Paris, Winter 1887/88,

Metropolitan Museum of Art, (F365v)
Detail of Self-portrait (1889)
He was a prolic self-portraitist, who painted himself 37

times between 1886 and 1889.* [175] In all, the gaze of the
painter is seldom directed at the viewer; even when it is a
xed gaze, he appears to look elsewhere. The paintings vary
in intensity and color and some portray the artist with beard,
some beardless, some with bandages depicting the episode
in which he severed a portion of his ear. Self-portrait Without Beard, from late September 1889, is one of the most
Self-Portrait, September 1889, (F 627), Oil on canvas, 65
expensive paintings of all time, selling for $71.5 million in
cm 54 cm. Muse d'Orsay, Paris.
1998 in New York.* [176] At the time, it was the third (or
an ination-adjusted fourth) most expensive painting ever
sold. It was also Van Gogh's last self-portrait, given as a
birthday gift to his mother.* [5]
All of the self-portraits painted in Saint-Rmy show the
artist's head from the right, the side opposite his mutilated ear, as he painted himself reected in his mirror.* [177]* [178]* [179] During the nal weeks of his life in
Auvers-sur-Oise, he produced many paintings, but no selfportraits, a period in which he returned to painting the natSelf-portrait without beard, end September 1889, (F 525), ural world.* [180]
Oil on canvas, 40 31 cm., Private collection. This was
Van Gogh's last self portrait, given as a birthday gift to his
mother.* [5]
7.3.2 Portraits
See also: Portraits by Vincent van Gogh and Paintings of
Children (Van Gogh series)
Self-portrait, 1889, National Gallery of Art. All selfportraits executed in Saint-Rmy show the artist's head
from the right, i.e. the side with the unmutilated ear, since
L'Arlesienne: Madame Ginoux with Books, November
he painted himself as he saw himself in the mirror.
104
1888. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, New 7.3.3

York (F488)
Cypresses
See also: Olive Trees (series)

One of Van Gogh's most popular and widely known series is his cypresses. During the summer of 1889, at sister
Wil's request, he made several smaller versions of Wheat
Field with Cypresses.* [183] These works are characterised
Patience Escalier, second version August 1888, Private by swirls and densely painted impasto, and produced one
of his best-known paintings, The Starry Night. Other works
collection (F444)
from the series include Olive Trees with the Alpilles in the
Background (1889) Cypresses (1889), Cypresses with Two
Figures (18891890), Wheat Field with Cypresses (1889),
(Van Gogh made several versions of this painting that year),
Road with Cypress and Star (1890), and Starry Night Over
the Rhone (1888).
La Mousm, 1888, National Gallery of Art, Washington

D.C.
Road with Cypress and Star, May 1890, Krller-Mller

Museum
Le Zouave (half-gure), June 1888, Van Gogh Museum,

Amsterdam (F423)
Although Van Gogh is best known for his landscapes,
he seemed to nd painting portraits his greatest ambition.* [181] He said of portrait studies, The only thing in Wheat Field with Cypresses, 1889, National Gallery,
painting that excites me to the depths of my soul, and which London
makes me feel the innite more than anything else.* [182]
To his sister he wrote,I should like to paint portraits which
appear after a century to people living then as apparitions.
By which I mean that I do not endeavor to achieve this
through photographic resemblance, but my means of our
impassioned emotions that is to say using our knowledge
and our modern taste for color as a means of arriving at the
expression and the intensication of the character.* [181]
Cypresses, 1889, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
7.3. WORK
105
View of Arles,
Pinakothek.
Flowering Orchards,
1889,
Neue
Cypresses with Two Figures, 188990, Krller-Mller

Museum (F620)
Almond Blossoms, 1890, Van Gogh Museum.
Road with Cypress and Star (1890), is compositionally as
unreal and articial as The Starry Night. Pickvance goes on
to say the painting Road with Cypress and Star represents
an exalted experience of reality, a conation of North and
South, what both Van Gogh and Gauguin referred to as an
abstraction. Referring to Olive Trees with the Alpilles in
the Background, on or around 18 June 1889, in a letter to
Theo, he wrote,At last I have a landscape with olives and
also a new study of a Starry Night.* [184]
Hoping to obtain a gallery for his work, his undertook a series of paintings including Still Life: Vase with
Twelve Sunowers (1888), and Starry Night Over the Rhone
(1888), all intended to form the dcorations for the Yellow
House.* [185]* [186]
7.3.4
Flowering Orchards
The series of Flowering Orchards, sometimes referred to

as the Orchards in Blossom paintings, were among the rst
groups of work that Van Gogh completed after his arrival
in Arles, Provence in February 1888. The 14 paintings in
this group are optimistic, joyous and visually expressive of
the burgeoning Springtime. They are delicately sensitive,
silent, quiet and unpopulated. About The Cherry Tree Vincent wrote to Theo on 21 April 1888 and said he had 10
orchards and: one big (painting) of a cherry tree, which
I've spoiled.* [187] The following spring he painted another
smaller group of orchards, including View of Arles, Flowering Orchards.* [172] Van Gogh was taken by the landscape
and vegetation of the South of France, and often visited the
farm gardens near Arles. Because of the vivid light supplied by the Mediterranean climate his palette signicantly
brightened.* [188]
See also: Flowering Orchards
7.3.5
Flowers
See also: Sunowers (series of paintings)

Van Gogh painted several versions of landscapes with owers, including hisView of Arles with Irises, and paintings of
owers, including Irises, Sunowers,* [189] lilacs and roses.
Some reect his interests in the language of color, and also
Cherry Tree, 1888, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New in Japanese ukiyo-e woodblock prints.* [190]
York.
View of Arles with Irises, 1888, Van Gogh Museum,

Amsterdam.
106
to the landscape around Arles. He made paintings featuring harvests, wheat elds and other rural landmarks of
the area, including The Old Mill (1888); a good example
of a picturesque structure bordering the wheat elds beyond.* [192] It was one of seven canvases sent to Pont-Aven
on 4 October 1888 as exchange of work with Paul Gauguin, mile Bernard, Charles Laval, and others.* [192] At
various times in his life, Van Gogh painted the view from
Irises, 1889, Getty Center, Los Angeles
his window at The Hague, Antwerp, Paris. These works
culminated in The Wheat Field series, which depicted the
He completed two series of sunowers. The rst dated from view he could see from his adjoining cells in the asylum at
*
his 1887 stay in Paris, the second during his visit to Arles Saint-Rmy. [193]
the following year. The Paris series shows living owers in Writing in July 1890, after he had already moved to Auvers,
the ground, in the second, they are dying in vases. The 1888 Van Gogh said that he had become absorbed in the impaintings were created during a rare period of optimism for mense plain against the hills, boundless as the sea, delicate
the artist. He intended them to decorate a bedroom where yellow.* [194] He had become captivated by the elds in
Gauguin was supposed to stay in Arles that August, when May when the wheat was young and green. The weather
the two would create the community of artists Van Gogh worsened in July, and he wrote to Theo of vast elds of
had long hoped for. The owers are rendered with thick wheat under troubled skies, adding that he did notneed
brushstrokes (impasto) and heavy layers of paint.* [191]
to go out of my way to try and express sadness and extreme
loneliness.* [195] In particular, the work Wheateld with
In an August 1888 letter to Theo, he wrote,
Crows serves as a compelling and poignant expression of
the artist's state of mind in his nal days, a painting Hulsker
I am hard at it, painting with the enthusiasm of a
discusses as being associated with melancholy and exMarseillais eating bouillabaisse, which won't surtreme loneliness,a painting with asomber and threatenprise you when you know that what I'm at is the
ing aspect, adoom-lled painting with threatening skies
painting of some sunowers. If I carry out this
and ill-omened crows.* [196] Hulsker identies seven oil
idea there will be a dozen panels. So the whole
paintings by Van Gogh as following the completion of the
thing will be a symphony in blue and yellow. I
Wheateld with Crows in July 1890 while in Auvers.* [197]
am working at it every morning from sunrise on,
for the owers fade so quickly. I am now on the
fourth picture of sunowers. This fourth one is a
bunch of 14 owers ... it gives a singular eect.
7.4 Legacy
*
[191]
7.4.1
7.3.6
Posthumous fame
Wheat elds
Main article: Posthumous fame of Vincent van Gogh

Following his rst exhibitions in the late 1880s, Van Gogh's
fame grew steadily among colleagues, art critics, dealers,
and collectors.* [198] After his death, memorial exhibitions
were mounted in Brussels, Paris, The Hague, and Antwerp.
In the early 20th century, there were retrospectives in Paris
(1901 and 1905) and Amsterdam (1905), and important
group exhibitions in Cologne (1912), New York (1913),
and Berlin (1914).* [199] These had a noticeable impact on
later generations of artists.* [200] By the mid 20th century,
Van Gogh was seen as one of the greatest and most recogWheateld with Crows, 1890, Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam
nizable painters in history.* [201]* [202] In 2007, a group of
Dutch historians compiled the "Canon of Dutch History" to
See also: Wheat Fields (Van Gogh series) and The Wheat be taught in schools, and included Van Gogh as one of the
Field
fty topics of the canon, alongside other national icons such
as Rembrandt and De Stijl.* [203]
Van Gogh made several painting excursions during visits Together with those of Pablo Picasso, Van Gogh's works
7.5. FOOTNOTES
107
1950s is seen as in part inspired from Van Gogh's broad,
gestural brush strokes. In the words of art critic Sue Hubbard:At the beginning of the twentieth century Van Gogh
gave the Expressionists a new painterly language that enabled them to go beyond surface appearance and penetrate
deeper essential truths. It is no coincidence that at this
very moment Freud was mining the depths of that essentially modern domain the subconscious. This beautiful
and intelligent exhibition places Van Gogh where he rmly
belongs; as the trailblazer of modern art.* [208]
Painter on the Road to Tarascon, August 1888, Vincent van Gogh

on the road to Montmajour, oil on canvas, 48 44 cm., formerly
Museum Magdeburg, believed to have been destroyed by re in
World War II
are among the world's most expensive paintings ever sold,

based on data from auctions and private sales. Those
sold for over US$100 million (today's equivalent) include
Portrait of Dr. Gachet,* [204] Portrait of Joseph Roulin, and
Irises. A Wheateld with Cypresses was sold in 1993 for
US$57 million, a spectacularly high price at the time, while
his Self Portrait with Bandaged Ear was sold privately in the
late 1990s for an estimated US$80/$90 million.* [205]
In 1947, Antonin Artaud, who himself suered from multiple mental disorders, was invited by the art dealer Pierre
Loeb to write on Van Gogh as a great retrospective of his
works opened at the Orangerie in Paris.* [209] This lead
to the book Van Gogh le suicid de la socit (Van Gogh,
The Man Suicided by Society), in which Artaud argued
that Van Gogh's psychological condition was to be understood as a superior lucidity misunderstood by his contemporaries.* [210] In 1957, Francis Bacon (19091992) based
a series of paintings on reproductions of Van Gogh's The
Painter on the Road to Tarascon, the original of which was
destroyed during World War II. Bacon was inspired by not
only an image he described as haunting, but Van Gogh
himself, whom Bacon regarded as an alienated outsider, a
position which resonated with Bacon. Bacon further identied with Van Gogh's theories of art, and quoted lines written in a letter to Theo: "[R]eal painters do not paint things
as they are ... [T]hey paint them as they themselves feel them
to be.* [211]
An exhibition devoted to Vincent van Gogh's letters took

place in the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam from October 2009 to January 2010,* [212] and moved to the Royal
Academy in London from late January to April.* [213]
From 1 May 2013 to 12 January 2014, the Van Gogh
Museum hosted an exhibition entitled Van Gogh at Work,
A newly discovered painting by the Dutch artist was pubfeaturing 200 paintings and drawings, 150 of them by
licly unveiled on September 10, 2013, after it was retrieved
van Gogh and others including Paul Gauguin and mile
from the attic of a Norwegian collector who misjudged the
Bernard.* [214]
work as a fraud following its purchase in 1908. Sunset
at Montmajour is a large oil landscape painting and as
of September 24, 2013is displayed at Amsterdam's Van
Gogh Museum.* [206]
7.5 Footnotes
7.4.2
Inuence
In his nal letter to Theo, Van Gogh stated that, as he did not
have any children, he viewed his paintings as his progeny.
Reecting on this, the historian Simon Schama concluded
that he did have a child of course, Expressionism, and
many, many heirs.Schama mentioned many artists who
have adapted elements of Van Gogh's style, including
Willem de Kooning, Howard Hodgkin, and Jackson Pollock.* [207] The Abstract Expressionism of the 1940s and
[1] The pronunciation of Van Goghvaries in both English

and Dutch. Especially in British English it is /vnx/ vanGOKH or sometimes /vnf/ van-GOF. U.S. dictionaries
list /vno/ van-GOH, with a silent gh, as the most common pronunciation. In the dialect of Holland, it is [vnsnt
fxx] ( ), with a voiceless V. He grew up in Brabant (although his parents were not born there), and used Brabant
dialect in his writing; it is therefore likely that he himself
pronounced his name with a Brabant accent: [v], with
a voiced V and palatalized G and gh. In France, where much
of his work was produced, it is [v * ]
108
[2] A biography published in 2011 contends that Van Gogh did

not kill himself. The authors claim that he was shot by two
boys he knew, who had amalfunctioning gun.See Vincent
van Gogh's death. Gompertz, Will (17 October 2011).Van
Gogh did not kill himself, authors claim. BBC News. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
[3] It has been suggested that being given the same name as his
dead elder brother might have had a deep psychological impact on the young artist, and that elements of his art, such as
the portrayal of pairs of male gures, can be traced back to
this. See Lubin (1972), pp. 8284.
[4] "...he would not eat meat, only a little morsel on Sundays,
and then only after being urged by our landlady for a long
time. Four potatoes with a suspicion of gravy and a mouthful of vegetables constituted his whole dinner from a letter
to Frederik van Eeden, to help him with preparation for his
article on Van Gogh in De Nieuwe Gids, Issue 1, December
1890. Quoted in Van Gogh: A Self-Portrait; Letters Revealing His Life as a Painter. W. H. Auden, New York Graphic
Society, Greenwich, CT. (1961), pp. 3739
[5] Letter 129, April 1879, and Letter 132. Van Gogh lodged
in Wasmes at 22 rue de Wilson with Jean-Baptiste Denis,
a breeder or grower (cultivateur, in the French original) according to Letter 553b. In the recollections of his nephew
Jean Richez, gathered by Wilkie (in the 1970s!), 728. Denis and his wife Esther were running a bakery, and Richez
admits that the only source of his knowledge is Aunt Esther.
[6] There are dierent views as to this period; Jan Hulsker
(1990) opts for a return to the Borinage and then back to
Etten in this period; Dorn, in: Ges7k (2006), 48 & note 12
supports the line taken in this article
[7] see Jan Hulsker's speech The Borinage Episode and the Misrepresentation of Vincent van Gogh, Van Gogh Symposium,
1011 May 1990. In Erickson (1998), pp. 6768
[8] Johannes de Looyer, Karel van Engeland, Hendricus
Dekkers, and Piet van Hoorn all as old men recalled being
paid 5, 10 or 50 cents per nest, depending on the type of
bird. See Theo's son's Webexhibits.org
[9] The girl was Gordina de Groot, who died in 1927; she
claimed the child's father was not Van Gogh, but a relative.
[10] Vincent's doctor was Hubertus Amadeus Cavenaile. Wilkie,
pp. 14346
[11] Arnold, p. 77. The direct evidence for syphilis is thin, coming solely from interviews with the grandson of the doctor;
see Tralbaut (1981), pp. 17778, and for a review of the
evidence overall see Naifeh and Smith p. 477 n. 199
[12] According to Doiteau & Leroy, the diagonal cut removed the
lobe and probably a little more.
[13] Gauguin, who had spent the night in a nearby hotel, arrived
independently at the same time.
[14] They continued to correspond and in 1890 Gauguin proposed they form an artist studio in Antwerp. See Pickvance
(1986), p. 62
7.6
References
[1] Tralbaut (1981), pp. 286-87

[2] Hulsker (1990), 390
[3] Vincent Van Gogh expert doubts 'accidental death' theory. The Daily Telegraph. 17 October 2011. Retrieved 8
February 2012.
[4] Hughes (1990), p. 144
[5] Pickvance (1986), 129
[6] Tralbaut (1981), 39
[7] Pomerans (1996), ix
[8] Van Gogh: The Letters, vangoghletters.org; retrieved 7
October 2009.
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[10] Hughes (1990), p. 143
[11] Pomerans (1996), pp. ixxvi
[12] Pomerans (1997), xiii
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[14] Pomerans (1997), pg. 1
[15] Erickson (1998), 9
[16] Van Gogh-Bonger, Johanna. Memoir of Vincent van
Gogh. Van Gogh's Letters. Retrieved 12 July 2011.
[17] Tralbaut (1981), p. 24
[18] Tralbaut (1981), 2535
[19] Hulsker (1984), 89
[20] Letter 347, Vincent to Theo, 18 December 1883. Van
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[21] Letter 7 Vincent to Theo, 5 May 1873. Van Gogh's Letters.
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[22] Tralbaut (1981), pp. 3547
[23] Vincent van Gogh walked through Brentford. Brentford
Dock. Retrieved 11 May 2014.
[24] Blue plaque record. Retrieved 11 May 2014.
[25] Letter from Vincent to Theo, August 1876. Van Gogh's Letters. Retrieved 12 July 2011.
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[26] Tralbaut (1981), pp. 4756.
[52] Letter 206, Vincent to Theo, 8 June/9 June 1882
[27] Callow (1990), p. 54.
[53] Tralbaut (1981), p. 110
[28] See the recollections gathered in Dordrecht by M. J. Brusse,

Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant, 26 May and 2 June 1914.
[54] Tralbaut (1981), 96103
[29] McQuillan (1989), 26

[30] Erickson (1998), 23
[31] Hulsker (1990), pp. 6062, 73.
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[33] Letter 158 Vincent to Theo, 18 November 1881. Van Gogh's
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[34] Letter 134, Van Gogh's Letters, 20 August 1880 from
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(1990), pp. 123124
[56] Letter 224. Vincent van Gogh. The Letters. Amsterdam:
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[57] Callow (1990), 117,116; citing the research of Jan Hulsker;
the two dead children were born in 1874 and 1879.
[58] Tralbaut (1981), p. 107
[59] Callow (1990), 132; Tralbaut (1981), 102104, 112
[60] Arnold, 38
[61] Tralbaut (1981), p. 113
[35] Tralbaut (1981) 6771

[62] Wilkie, p. 185
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[38] Erickson (1998), 5
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[64] Tralbaut (1981), pp. 11122
[65] Vincent's nephew noted some reminiscences of local residents in 1949, including the description of the speed of his
drawing
[39] Letter 153 Vincent to Theo, 3 November 1881

[66] Tralbaut (1981), p. 154
[40] Letter 179. Vincent to Theo, 3 November 1881. Van Gogh
Museum
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[42] Letter 164 Vincent to Theo, from Etten c.21 December
1881, describing the visit in more detail
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1882.
[67] McQuillan, p. 127

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[69] Hulsker (1980) 196205
[70] Tralbaut (1981), pp. 123160
[71] Callow (1990), 181
[44]Uncle Stricker, as Van Gogh refers to him in letters to

Theo.
[72] Callow (1990), 184
[45] Gayford (2006), 1301
[73] Hammacher (1985), 84
[46] Pomerans (1997), 112
[74] Callow (1990), p. 253
[47] Letter 166 Vincent to Theo, 29 December 1881
[75] Van der Wolk (1987), 104105
[48] Letter 194: To Theo van Gogh. The Hague, Thursday,

29 December 1881. Vincent van Gogh: The Letters. Van
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Christmas I had a rather violent argument with Pa ...
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Van Gogh Museum.
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Van Gogh Museum.
[51] McQuillan, p. 34
[77] Tralbaut (1981) 187192

[78] Pickvance (1984), 3839
[80] Letter 626a. Retrieved 24 August 2010.

[81] Van Gogh et Monticelli. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
[82] Turner, J. (2000), p. 314
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[110] Letter 719 to Theo van Gogh. Arles, Sunday, 11 or Monday, 12 November 1888. Vincent van Gogh: The Letters.
[84] Tralbaut (1981), pp. 21213
Van Gogh Museum. 1v:3. Ive been working on two canvases.
[85] Glossary term: Pointillism, National Gallery London.
A reminiscence of our garden at Etten with cabbages, cyRetrieved 13 September 2007.
presses, dahlias and gures ...Gauguin gives me courage to
imagine, and the things of the imagination do indeed take on
[86]Glossary term: Complimentary colours, National Gallery,
a more mysterious character.
London. Retrieved 13 September 2007.
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[95] Gayford (2006), 16
[122] Naifeh and Smith p. 707-8
[96] Callow (1990), p. 219
[123] Concordance, lists, bibliography: Documentation. Vincent van Gogh: The Letters. Van Gogh Museum.
[97] Pickvance (1984), pp. 17576, and Dorn (1990), passim

[98] Tralbaut (1981), p. 266
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[132] Pickvance (1984), 102103
[104] Pickvance (1984), 168169;206
[133] Pickvance (1986), 154157
[105] Letter 534; Gayford (2006), p. 18
[134] Tralbaut (1981), p. 286
[106] Letter 537; Nemeczek, p. 61
[135] Hulsker (1990), p. 434
[107] See Dorn (1990)

[108] Pickvance (1984), pp. 23435
[136] To Theo van Gogh. Saint-Rmy-de-Provence, Tuesday,

29 April 1890.. Vincent van Gogh: The Letters. Vincent
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[139] Pickvance (1986) 175177
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[144] Pickvance (1986), pp. 27273
[168] Artists working in Black & White, i.e., for illustrated papers
like The Graphic or Illustrated London News were among
Van Gogh's favorites. See Pickvance (1974/75)
[145] Letter 648 Vincent to Theo, 10 July 1890
[169] See Dorn, Keyes & alt. (2000)
[146] Van Gogh Museum collection
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[162] Vincent van Gogh, Letter to Theo van Gogh, written c.
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7.8 External links

Vincent van Gogh Gallery: The complete works and
letters of Vincent van Gogh, vggallery.com; accessed
20 November 2014.
The complete letters of Van Gogh (translated into English and annotated), vangoghletters.org; accessed 20
November 2014.
Interactive Map of the Life and Art of Vincent
van Gogh, maps.google.com; accessed 20 November
2014.

Memoir of Vincent van Gogh, vggallery.com; accessed 20 November 2014.
Memoir of Vincent van Gogh, webexhibits.org; accessed 20 November 2014.
Van Gogh's Letters (unabridged and annotated), webexhibits.org; accessed 20 November 2014.
Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam, Netherlands; accessed 20 November 2014.
Vincent van Gogh at the Museum of Modern Art
Works by or about Vincent van Gogh in libraries
(WorldCat catalog)
Van Gogh at the National Gallery of Art, Washington,
D.C.; accessed 20 November 2014.
Gallery of all works, pubhist.com; accessed 20
November 2014.
Painted with Words: Vincent van Gogh's Letters to
Emile Bernard, themorgan.org; accessed 20 November 2014.
Union List of Artist Names, Getty Vocabularies
(ULAN Full Record Display for Vincent van Gogh.
Getty Vocabulary Program, Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles, California); accessed 20 November
2014.
Van Gogh, paintings and drawings: a special loan exhibition (fully digitized exhibition catalog from The
Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries); accessed 20
November 2014.
References to Van Gogh in historic European newspapers www.theeuropeanlibrary.org; accessed 23
November 2014
Chapter 8
Pablo Picasso
Picassoredirects here. For other uses, see Picasso Picasso achieved universal renown and immense fortune for
(disambiguation).
his revolutionary artistic accomplishments, and became one
This name uses Spanish naming customs: the rst or of the best-known gures in 20th-century art.
paternal family name is Ruiz and the second or maternal
family name is Picasso.
8.1
Early life
Pablo Ruiz y Picasso, also known as Pablo Picasso

(/pkso, -kso/;* [2] Spanish: [palo pikaso]; 25 October 1881 8 April 1973), was a Spanish painter, sculptor,
printmaker, ceramicist, stage designer, poet and playwright
who spent most of his adult life in France. As one of the
greatest and most inuential artists of the 20th century, he
is known for co-founding the Cubist movement, the invention of constructed sculpture,* [3]* [4] the co-invention of
collage, and for the wide variety of styles that he helped
develop and explore. Among his most famous works are
the proto-Cubist Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907), and
Guernica (1937), a portrayal of the Bombing of Guernica
by the German and Italian airforces at the behest of the
Spanish nationalist government during the Spanish Civil
War.
Picasso, Henri Matisse and Marcel Duchamp are regarded
as the three artists who most dened the revolutionary
developments in the plastic arts in the opening decades
of the 20th century, responsible for signicant developments in painting, sculpture, printmaking and ceramics.* [5]* [6]* [7]* [8]
Picasso demonstrated extraordinary artistic talent in his
early years, painting in a realistic manner through his childhood and adolescence. During the rst decade of the 20th
century, his style changed as he experimented with dierent theories, techniques, and ideas. His work is often categorised into periods. While the names of many of his later
periods are debated, the most commonly accepted periods
in his work are the Blue Period (19011904), the Rose Period (19041906), the African-inuenced Period (1907
1909), Analytic Cubism (19091912), and Synthetic Cubism (19121919).
Pablo Picasso and his sister Lola, c.1889
Picasso was baptised Pablo, Diego, Jos, Francisco de

Paula, Juan Nepomuceno, Maria de los Remedios, Cipriano
de la Santisima Trinidad,* [1] a series of names honouring
various saints and relatives.* [9] Added to these were Ruiz
Exceptionally prolic throughout the course of his long life, and Picasso, for his father and mother, respectively, as per
Spanish law. Born in the city of Mlaga in the Andalusian
115
116
CHAPTER 8. PABLO PICASSO
region of Spain, he was the rst child of Don Jos Ruiz y

Blasco (18381913) and Mara Picasso y Lpez.* [10] Despite being baptised Catholic, Picasso would later on become an atheist.* [11] Picasso's family was middle-class.
His father was a painter who specialised in naturalistic depictions of birds and other game. For most of his life Ruiz
was a professor of art at the School of Crafts and a curator
of a local museum. Ruiz's ancestors were minor aristocrats.
Picasso showed a passion and a skill for drawing from an
early age. According to his mother, his rst words were
piz, piz, a shortening of lpiz, the Spanish word forpencil.* [12] From the age of seven, Picasso received formal
artistic training from his father in gure drawing and oil
painting. Ruiz was a traditional academic artist and instructor, who believed that proper training required disciplined
copying of the masters, and drawing the human body from
plaster casts and live models. His son became preoccupied
with art to the detriment of his classwork.
The family moved to A Corua in 1891, where his father
became a professor at the School of Fine Arts. They stayed
almost four years. On one occasion, the father found his
son painting over his unnished sketch of a pigeon. Observing the precision of his son's technique, an apocryphal
story relates, Ruiz felt that the thirteen-year-old Picasso had
surpassed him, and vowed to give up painting,* [13] though Pablo Picasso, 1901, Old Woman (Woman with Gloves, Woman
With Jewelery), oil on cardboard, 67 x 52.1 cm, Philadelphia Mupaintings by him exist from later years.
seum of Art
In 1895, Picasso was traumatised when his seven-year-old

sister, Conchita, died of diphtheria.* [14] After her death,
the family moved to Barcelona, where Ruiz took a position at its School of Fine Arts. Picasso thrived in the city,
regarding it in times of sadness or nostalgia as his true
home.* [15] Ruiz persuaded the ocials at the academy to
allow his son to take an entrance exam for the advanced
class. This process often took students a month, but Picasso completed it in a week, and the jury admitted him,
at just 13. The student lacked discipline but made friendships that would aect him in later life. His father rented a
small room for him close to home so he could work alone,
yet he checked up on him numerous times a day, judging
his drawings. The two argued frequently.
8.2
8.2.1
Career beginnings
Before 1900
Picasso's training under his father began before 1890. His

progress can be traced in the collection of early works now
held by the Museu Picasso in Barcelona, which provides
one of the most comprehensive records extant of any major artist's beginnings.* [16] During 1893 the juvenile quality of his earliest work falls away, and by 1894 his career
as a painter can be said to have begun.* [17] The academic
realism apparent in the works of the mid-1890s is well displayed in The First Communion (1896), a large composition
that depicts his sister, Lola. In the same year, at the age of
14, he painted Portrait of Aunt Pepa, a vigorous and dramatic portrait that Juan-Eduardo Cirlot has calledwithout
a doubt one of the greatest in the whole history of Spanish
painting.* [18]
Picasso's father and uncle decided to send the young artist

to Madrid's Royal Academy of San Fernando, the country's foremost art school.* [15] At age 16, Picasso set o for
the rst time on his own, but he disliked formal instruction
and stopped attending classes soon after enrolment. Madrid
held many other attractions. The Prado housed paintings by
Diego Velzquez, Francisco Goya, and Francisco Zurbarn.
Picasso especially admired the works of El Greco; elements In 1897 his realism became tinged with Symbolist inusuch as his elongated limbs, arresting colours, and mystical ence, in a series of landscape paintings rendered in nonnaturalistic violet and green tones. What some call his Modvisages are echoed in Picasso's later work.
ernist period (18991900) followed. His exposure to the
work of Rossetti, Steinlen, Toulouse-Lautrec and Edvard
Munch, combined with his admiration for favourite old
8.2. CAREER BEGINNINGS
117
La Vie (1903), Cleveland Museum of Art
Pablo Picasso, 1901-02, Femme au caf (Absinthe Drinker), oil on

canvas, 73 x 54 cm, Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, Russia
The Old Guitarist (1903), Chicago Art Institute
8.2.2
Blue Period
For more details on this topic, see Picasso's Blue Period.
masters such as El Greco, led Picasso to a personal version

of modernism in his works of this period.* [19]
Picasso made his rst trip to Paris in 1900, then the art capital of Europe. There, he met his rst Parisian friend, journalist and poet Max Jacob, who helped Picasso learn the
language and its literature. Soon they shared an apartment;
Max slept at night while Picasso slept during the day and
worked at night. These were times of severe poverty, cold,
and desperation. Much of his work was burned to keep the
small room warm. During the rst ve months of 1901,
Picasso lived in Madrid, where he and his anarchist friend
Francisco de Ass Soler founded the magazine Arte Joven
(Young Art), which published ve issues. Soler solicited articles and Picasso illustrated the journal, mostly contributing grim cartoons depicting and sympathising with the state
of the poor. The rst issue was published on 31 March
1901, by which time the artist had started to sign his work
Picasso; before he had signed Pablo Ruiz y Picasso.* [20]
Picasso's Blue Period (19011904), characterized by

somber paintings rendered in shades of blue and blue-green,
only occasionally warmed by other colours, began either in
Spain in early 1901, or in Paris in the second half of the
year.* [21] Many paintings of gaunt mothers with children
date from the Blue Period, during which Picasso divided
his time between Barcelona and Paris. In his austere use
of color and sometimes doleful subject matter prostitutes
and beggars are frequent subjects Picasso was inuenced
by a trip through Spain and by the suicide of his friend
Carlos Casagemas. Starting in autumn of 1901 he painted
several posthumous portraits of Casagemas, culminating in
the gloomy allegorical painting La Vie (1903), now in the
Cleveland Museum of Art.* [22]
Infrared imagery of Picasso's 1901 painting The Blue Room
reveals another painting beneath the surface.* [23]
The same mood pervades the well-known etching The Frugal Repast (1904),* [24] which depicts a blind man and a
sighted woman, both emaciated, seated at a nearly bare ta-
118
ble. Blindness is a recurrent theme in Picasso's works of

this period, also represented in The Blindman's Meal (1903,
the Metropolitan Museum of Art) and in the portrait of Celestina (1903). Other works include Portrait of Soler and
Portrait of Suzanne Bloch.
Portrait of Gertrude Stein, 1906, Metropolitan Museum of Art,

New York City. When someone commented that Stein did not look
like her portrait, Picasso replied, She will.* [26]
Pablo Picasso, 1905, Garon la pipe, (Boy with a Pipe), Rose

Period
8.2.3
Rose Period
For more details on this topic, see Picasso's Rose Period.

The Rose Period (19041906)* [25] is characterised by a
more cheery style with orange and pink colours, and featuring many circus people, acrobats and harlequins known
in France as saltimbanques. The harlequin, a comedic character usually depicted in checkered patterned clothing, became a personal symbol for Picasso. Picasso met Fernande
Olivier, a bohemian artist who became his mistress, in Paris
in 1904.* [14] Olivier appears in many of his Rose Period
paintings, many of which are inuenced by his warm relationship with her, in addition to his increased exposure to
French painting. The generally upbeat and optimistic mood
of paintings in this period is reminiscent of the 18991901
period (i.e. just prior to the Blue Period) and 1904 can be
considered a transition year between the two periods.
Stein and his wife Sarah also became collectors of his

work. Picasso painted portraits of both Gertrude Stein
and her nephew Allan Stein. Gertrude Stein became Picasso's principal patron, acquiring his drawings and paintings and exhibiting them in her informal Salon at her home
in Paris.* [27] At one of her gatherings in 1905, he met
Henri Matisse, who was to become a lifelong friend and
rival. The Steins introduced him to Claribel Cone and her
sister Etta who were American art collectors; they also began to acquire Picasso and Matisse's paintings. Eventually
Leo Stein moved to Italy. Michael and Sarah Stein became
patrons of Matisse, while Gertrude Stein continued to collect Picasso.* [28]
In 1907 Picasso joined an art gallery that had recently been

opened in Paris by Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler. Kahnweiler
was a German art historian and art collector who became
one of the premier French art dealers of the 20th century. He was among the rst champions of Pablo Picasso,
Georges Braque and the Cubism that they jointly developed.
Kahnweiler promoted burgeoning artists such as Andr Derain, Kees van Dongen, Fernand Lger, Juan Gris, Maurice
By 1905, Picasso became a favourite of American art col- de Vlaminck and several others who had come from all over
lectors Leo and Gertrude Stein. Their older brother Michael the globe to live and work in Montparnasse at the time.* [29]
8.3. MODERN ART TRANSFORMED
119
also brought in for questioning, but both were later exonerated.* [30]
1909, Femme assise (Sitzende Frau), oil on canvas, 100
80 cm, Staatliche Museen, Neue Nationalgalerie,
Berlin
190910, Figure dans un Fauteuil (Seated Nude,
Femme nue assise), oil on canvas, 92.1 73 cm, Tate
Modern, London. This painting from the collection of
Wilhelm Uhde was conscated by the French state and
sold at the Htel Drouot in 1921
1910, Woman with Mustard Pot (La Femme au pot de
moutarde), oil on canvas, 73 60 cm, Gemeentemuseum, The Hague. Exhibited at the Armory Show,
New York, Chicago, Boston 1913
Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907), Museum of Modern Art, New

York
8.3 Modern art transformed

8.3.1
African-inuenced Period
See also: Picasso's African Period and Proto-Cubism

Picasso's African-inuenced Period (19071909) begins
with the two gures on the right in his painting, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, which were inspired by African artefacts.
Formal ideas developed during this period lead directly into
the Cubist period that follows.
8.3.2
Cubism
Analytic cubism (19091912) is a style of painting Picasso

developed with Georges Braque using monochrome brownish and neutral colours. Both artists took apart objects
and analyzedthem in terms of their shapes. Picasso
and Braque's paintings at this time share many similarities.
Synthetic cubism (19121919) was a further development
of the genre, in which cut paper fragments often wallpaper or portions of newspaper pages were pasted into
compositions, marking the rst use of collage in ne art.
In Paris, Picasso entertained a distinguished coterie of
friends in the Montmartre and Montparnasse quarters, including Andr Breton, poet Guillaume Apollinaire, writer
Alfred Jarry, and Gertrude Stein. Apollinaire was arrested
on suspicion of stealing the Mona Lisa from the Louvre in
1911. Apollinaire pointed to his friend Picasso, who was
1910, Girl with a Mandolin (Fanny Tellier), oil on canvas, 100.3 73.6 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New
York
1910, Portrait of Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, The Art
Institute of Chicago. Picasso wrote of Kahnweiler
What would have become of us if Kahnweiler hadn't
had a business sense?"
191011, Guitariste, La mandoliniste (Woman playing
guitar or mandolin), oil on canvas
c.1911, Le Guitariste. Reproduced in Albert Gleizes
and Jean Metzinger, Du Cubisme, 1912
1911, Still Life with a Bottle of Rum, oil on canvas, 61.3
50.5 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
1911, The Poet (Le pote), oil on linen, 131.2 89.5
cm (51 5/8 35 1/4 in), The Solomon R. Guggenheim
Foundation, Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice
191112, Violon (Violin), oil on canvas, 100 73 cm
(oval), Krller-Mller Museum, Otterlo, Netherlands.
This painting from the collection of Wilhelm Uhde
was conscated by the French state and sold at the
Htel Drouot in 1921
1913, Bouteille, clarinet, violon, journal, verre, 55
45 cm. This painting from the collection of Wilhelm
Uhde was conscated by the French state and sold at
the Htel Drouot in 1921
1913, Femme assise dans un fauteuil (Eva), Woman in
an Armchair, oil on canvas, 148 99 cm, Leonard A.
Lauder Cubist Collection
191314, Head (Tte), cut and pasted colored paper,
gouache and charcoal on paperboard, 43.5 33 cm,
Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, Edinburgh
120
191314, L'Homme aux cartes (Card Player), oil on

canvas, 108 89.5 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New
York
191415, Nature morte au compotier (Still Life with
Compote and Glass), oil on canvas, 63.5 78.7 cm
(25 31 in), Columbus Museum of Art, Ohio
1916, L'anis del mono (Bottle of Anis del Mono), oil on
canvas, 46 54.6 cm, Detroit Institute of Arts, Michigan
8.3.3
Fame
Pablo Picasso and scene painters sitting on the front cloth for
Lonide Massine's ballet Parade, staged by Sergei Diaghilev's
Ballets Russes at the Thtre du Chtelet, Paris, 1917
Parade, 1917, curtain designed for the ballet Parade. The work
is the largest of Picasso's paintings. Centre Pompidou-Metz, Metz,
France, May 2012.
Costume design by Pablo Picasso representing skyscrapers and

boulevards, for Serge Diaghilev's Ballets Russes performance of
Parade at Thtre du Chtelet, Paris 18 May 1917
At the outbreak of World War I (August 1914) Picasso lived

in Avignon. Braque and Derain were mobilized and Apollinaire joined the French artillery, while the Spaniard Juan
Gris remained from the Cubist circle. During the war Picasso was able to continue painting uninterrupted, unlike
his French comrades. His paintings became more sombre
and his life changed with dramatic consequences. Kahnweilers contract had terminated on his exile from France.
At this point Picassos work would be taken on by the art
dealer Lonce Rosenberg. After the loss of Eva Gouel, Picasso had an aair with Gaby Lespinasse. During the spring
of 1916 Apollinaire returned from the front wounded. They
renewed their friendship, but Picasso began to frequent new
social circles.* [32]
After acquiring some fame and fortune, Picasso left Olivier

for Marcelle Humbert, who he called Eva Gouel. Picasso
included declarations of his love for Eva in many Cubist
works. Picasso was devastated by her premature death from Towards the end of World War I, Picasso made a number of
important relationships with gures associated with Serge
illness at the age of 30 in 1915.* [31]
Portrait d'Olga dans un fauteuil (Olga in an Armchair), 1917-18,

Muse Picasso, Paris, France
Diaghilev's Ballets Russes. Among his friends during this

period were Jean Cocteau, Jean Hugo, Juan Gris, and
others. In the summer of 1918, Picasso married Olga
Khokhlova, a ballerina with Sergei Diaghilev's troupe, for
whom Picasso was designing a ballet, Erik Satie's Parade,
in Rome; they spent their honeymoon near Biarritz in the
villa of glamorous Chilean art patron Eugenia Errzuriz.
After return from honeymoon, and in desperate need of
money, Picasso started his exclusive relationship with the
French-Jewish art dealer Paul Rosenberg. As part of his
rst duties, Rosenberg agreed to rent the couple an apartment in Paris at his own expense, which was located next
to his own house. This was the start of a deep brother-like
friendship between two very dierent men, that would last
until the outbreak of World War II.
Khokhlova introduced Picasso to high society, formal dinner parties, and all the social niceties attendant to the life
of the rich in 1920s Paris. The two had a son, Paulo,* [33]
who would grow up to be a dissolute motorcycle racer and
chaueur to his father. Khokhlova's insistence on social
propriety clashed with Picasso's bohemian tendencies and
the two lived in a state of constant conict. During the same
121
Portrait of Igor Stravinsky, c. 1920
period that Picasso collaborated with Diaghilev's troupe, he

and Igor Stravinsky collaborated on Pulcinella in 1920. Picasso took the opportunity to make several drawings of the
composer.
In 1927 Picasso met 17-year-old Marie-Thrse Walter
and began a secret aair with her. Picasso's marriage to
Khokhlova soon ended in separation rather than divorce,
as French law required an even division of property in the
case of divorce, and Picasso did not want Khokhlova to
have half his wealth. The two remained legally married until Khokhlova's death in 1955. Picasso carried on a longstanding aair with Marie-Thrse Walter and fathered a
daughter with her, named Maya. Marie-Thrse lived in
the vain hope that Picasso would one day marry her, and
hanged herself four years after Picasso's death. Throughout
his life Picasso maintained several mistresses in addition to
his wife or primary partner. Picasso was married twice and
had four children by three women:
Paulo (4 February 1921 5 June 1975) (Born Paul
Joseph Picasso) with Olga Khokhlova
Maya (5 September 1935 ) (Born Maria de la Con-
122

cepcion Picasso) with Marie-Thrse Walter
ritual and abandon in the imagery recalls the primitivism of

the Demoiselles and the elusive psychological resonances
Claude (15 May 1947 ) (Born Claude Pierre Pablo of his Symbolist work, writes McQuillan.* [35] SurrealPicasso) with Franoise Gilot
ism revived Picassos attraction to primitivism and eroti*
cism.
[35]
Paloma (19 April 1949 ) (Born Anne Paloma Picasso) with Franoise Gilot
Photographer and painter Dora Maar was also a constant
companion and lover of Picasso. The two were closest in
the late 1930s and early 1940s, and it was Maar who documented the painting of Guernica.
8.3.4
Classicism and surrealism

Guernica, 1937, Museo Reina Soa
During the 1930s, the minotaur replaced the harlequin as a

common motif in his work. His use of the minotaur came
partly from his contact with the surrealists, who often used
it as their symbol, and it appears in Picasso's Guernica.
The minotaur and Picasso's mistress Marie-Thrse Walter are heavily featured in his celebrated Vollard Suite of
etchings.* [36]
In 193940 the Museum of Modern Art in New York City,
under its director Alfred Barr, a Picasso enthusiast, held a
major retrospective of Picasso's principal works until that
Pablo Picasso, 1919, Sleeping Peasants, gouache, watercolor and time. This exhibition lionised the artist, brought into full
pencil on paper, 31.1 x 48.9 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York public view in America the scope of his artistry, and resulted in a reinterpretation of his work by contemporary art
*
In February 1917, Picasso made his rst trip to Italy.* [34] historians and scholars. [37]
In the period following the upheaval of World War I, Pi- Arguably Picasso's most famous work is his depiction of
casso produced work in a neoclassical style. This "return to the German bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil
order" is evident in the work of many European artists in the War Guernica. This large canvas embodies for many the
1920s, including Andr Derain, Giorgio de Chirico, Gino inhumanity, brutality and hopelessness of war. Asked to exSeverini, Jean Metzinger, the artists of the New Objectiv- plain its symbolism, Picasso said,It isn't up to the painter
ity movement and of the Novecento Italiano movement. Pi- to dene the symbols. Otherwise it would be better if he
casso's paintings and drawings from this period frequently wrote them out in so many words! The public who look at
recall the work of Raphael and Ingres.
the picture must interpret the symbols as they understand
*
*
In 1925 the Surrealist writer and poet Andr Breton de- them. [38] [39]
clared Picasso as 'one of ours' in his article Le Surralisme et
la peinture, published in Rvolution surraliste. Les Demoiselles was reproduced for the rst time in Europe in the
same issue. Yet Picasso exhibited Cubist works at the rst
Surrealist group exhibition in 1925; the concept of 'psychic automatism in its pure state' dened in the Manifeste
du surralisme never appealed to him entirely. He did at the
time develop new imagery and formal syntax for expressing
himself emotionally, releasing the violence, the psychic
fears and the eroticism that had been largely contained or
sublimated since 1909, writes art historian Melissa McQuillan.* [35] Although this transition in Picasso's work was
informed by Cubism for its spatial relations,the fusion of
Guernica was on display in New York's Museum of Modern

Art for many years. In 1981, it was returned to Spain and
was on exhibit at the Casn del Buen Retiro. In 1992 the
painting was put on display in Madrid's Reina Sofa Museum when it opened.
8.3.5
World War II and beyond
During the Second World War, Picasso remained in Paris

while the Germans occupied the city. Picasso's artistic style
did not t the Nazi ideal of art, so he did not exhibit during
this time. He was often harassed by the Gestapo. During
123
one search of his apartment, an ocer saw a photograph an old, grotesque dwarf as the doting lover of a beautiof the painting Guernica. Did you do that?" the German ful young model. Jacqueline Roque (19271986) worked
asked Picasso. No,he replied, You did.* [40]
at the Madoura Pottery in Vallauris on the French Riviera,
Retreating to his studio, he continued to paint, producing where Picasso made and painted ceramics. She became his
works such as the Still Life with Guitar (1942) and The Char- lover, and then his second wife in 1961. The two were tonel House (194448).* [41] Although the Germans outlawed gether for the remainder of Picasso's life.
bronze casting in Paris, Picasso continued regardless, using His marriage to Roque was also a means of revenge against
bronze smuggled to him by the French Resistance.* [42]
Gilot; with Picasso's encouragement, Gilot had divorced her
then husband, Luc Simon, with the plan to marry Picasso
to secure the rights of her children as Picasso's legitimate
heirs. Picasso had already secretly married Roque, after
Gilot had led for divorce. This strained his relationship
with Claude and Paloma.
By this time, Picasso had constructed a huge Gothic home,
and could aord large villas in the south of France, such
as Mas Notre-Dame-de-Vie on the outskirts of Mougins,
and in the Provence-Alpes-Cte d'Azur. He was an international celebrity, with often as much interest in his personal
life as his art.
In addition to his artistic accomplishments, Picasso made a
few lm appearances, always as himself, including a cameo
in Jean Cocteau's Testament of Orpheus. In 1955 he helped
make the lm Le Mystre Picasso (The Mystery of Picasso)
directed by Henri-Georges Clouzot.
Stanisaw Lorentz guides Pablo Picasso through the National Museum in Warsaw in Poland during exhibition Contemporary French
Painters and Pablo Picasso's Ceramics, 1948. Picasso gave Warsaw's museum over a dozen of his ceramics, drawings and color
prints.* [43]
8.3.6
Later works
Picasso was one of 250 sculptors who exhibited in the 3rd

Sculpture International held at the Philadelphia Museum of
Art in mid-1949. In the 1950s, Picasso's style changed once
again, as he took to producing reinterpretations of the art
of the great masters. He made a series of works based
on Velzquez's painting of Las Meninas. He also based
paintings on works by Goya, Poussin, Manet, Courbet and
Delacroix.
Around this time, Picasso took up writing as an alternative

outlet. Between 1935 and 1959 he wrote over 300 poems.
Largely untitled except for a date and sometimes the location of where it was written (for example Paris 16 May
1936), these works were gustatory, erotic and at times scatological, as were his two full-length plays Desire Caught by
the Tail (1941) and The Four Little Girls (1949).* [44]
He was commissioned to make a maquette for a huge 50In 1944, after the liberation of Paris, Picasso, then 63 years foot (15 m)-high public sculpture to be built in Chicago,
old, began a romantic relationship with a young art student known usually as the Chicago Picasso. He approached the
named Franoise Gilot. She was 40 years younger than he project with a great deal of enthusiasm, designing a sculpwas. Picasso grew tired of his mistress Dora Maar; Picasso ture which was ambiguous and somewhat controversial.
and Gilot began to live together. Eventually they had two What the gure represents is not known; it could be a bird,
children: Claude, born in 1947 and Paloma, born in 1949. a horse, a woman or a totally abstract shape. The sculpIn her 1964 book Life with Picasso,* [45] Gilot describes ture, one of the most recognisable landmarks in downtown
his abusive treatment and myriad indelities which led her Chicago, was unveiled in 1967. Picasso refused to be paid
to leave him, taking the children with her. This was a severe $100,000 for it, donating it to the people of the city.
blow to Picasso.
Picasso's nal works were a mixture of styles, his means
Picasso had aairs with women of an even greater age disparity than his and Gilot's. While still involved with Gilot,
in 1951 Picasso had a six-week aair with Genevive Laporte, who was four years younger than Gilot. By his 70s,
many paintings, ink drawings and prints have as their theme
of expression in constant ux until the end of his life. Devoting his full energies to his work, Picasso became more
daring, his works more colourful and expressive, and from
1968 to 1971 he produced a torrent of paintings and hundreds of copperplate etchings. At the time these works were
124
8.4
The Chicago Picasso a 50-foot high public Cubist sculpture. Donated by Picasso to the people of Chicago
dismissed by most as pornographic fantasies of an impotent

old man or the slapdash works of an artist who was past his
prime. Only later, after Picasso's death, when the rest of
the art world had moved on from abstract expressionism,
did the critical community come to see that Picasso had already discovered neo-expressionism and was, as so often
before, ahead of his time.
8.3.7
Death
Political views
Aside from the several anti-war paintings that he created,

Picasso remained personally neutral during World War I,
the Spanish Civil War, and World War II, refusing to join
the armed forces for any side or country. He had also remained aloof from the Catalan independence movement
during his youth despite expressing general support and being friendly with activists within it. At the outbreak of the
Spanish Civil War in 1937, Picasso was already in his late
fties. He was even older at the onset of World War II,
and could not be expected to take up arms in those conicts. As a Spanish citizen living in France, Picasso was
under no compulsion to ght against the invading Germans
in either World War. In the Spanish Civil War, service
for Spaniards living abroad was optional and would have
involved a voluntary return to their country to join either
side. While Picasso expressed anger and condemnation of
Francisco Franco and fascists through his art, he did not
take up arms against them. The Spanish Civil War provided the impetus for Picasso's rst overtly political work,
The Dream and Lie of Franco which was producedspecifically for propagandistic and fundraising purposes.* [48]
This surreal fusion of words and images was intended to be
sold as a series of postcards to raise funds for the Spanish
Republican cause.* [48]* [49]
In 1944 Picasso joined the French Communist Party, attended an international peace conference in Poland, and in
1950 received the Stalin Peace Prize from the Soviet government,* [50] But party criticism of a portrait of Stalin
as insuciently realistic cooled Picasso's interest in Soviet politics, though he remained a loyal member of the
Communist Party until his death. In a 1945 interview with
Jerome Seckler, Picasso stated: I am a Communist and
my painting is Communist painting. ... But if I were a shoemaker, Royalist or Communist or anything else, I would not
necessarily hammer my shoes in a special way to show my
politics.* [51] His Communist militancy, common among
continental intellectuals and artists at the time (although it
was ocially banned in Francoist Spain), has long been the
subject of some controversy; a notable source or demonstration thereof was a quote commonly attributed to Salvador
Dal (with whom Picasso had a rather strained relationship* [52]):
Pablo Picasso died on 8 April 1973 in Mougins, France,

Picasso es pintor, yo tambin; [...] Picasso es eswhile he and his wife Jacqueline entertained friends for dinpaol, yo tambin; Picasso es comunista, yo tamner. He was interred at the Chateau of Vauvenargues near
poco.
Aix-en-Provence, a property he had acquired in 1958 and
(Picasso is a painter, so am I; [...] Picasso is a
occupied with Jacqueline between 1959 and 1962. JacqueSpaniard, so am I; Picasso is a communist, neiline Roque prevented his children Claude and Paloma from
*
ther am I.)* [53]* [54]* [55]
attending the funeral. [46] Devastated and lonely after the
death of Picasso, Jacqueline Roque killed herself by gunIn the late 1940s his old friend the surrealist poet and
shot in 1986 when she was 59 years old.* [47]
8.6. ARTISTIC LEGACY
125
Trotskyist* [56] and anti-Stalinist Andr Breton was more

blunt; refusing to shake hands with Picasso, he told him:
I don't approve of your joining the Communist Party nor
with the stand you have taken concerning the purges of the
intellectuals after the Liberation.* [57]
several large neoclassical paintings and two versions of the

Cubist composition Three Musicians (Museum of Modern
Art, New York; Philadelphia Museum of Art).* [34] In an
interview published in 1923, Picasso said, The several
manners I have used in my art must not be considered as an
*
In 1962, he received the Lenin Peace Prize. [58] Biogra- evolution, or as steps towards an unknown ideal of painting
pher and art critic John Berger felt his talents as an artist ... If the subjects I have wanted to express have suggested
dierent ways of expression I have never hesitated to adopt
were wastedby the communists.* [59]
them.* [34]
According to Jean Cocteau's diaries, Picasso once said to
him in reference to the communists:I have joined a family, Although his Cubist works approach abstraction, Picasso
never relinquished the objects of the real world as subject
and like all families, it's full of shit.* [60]
matter. Prominent in his Cubist paintings are forms easily
He was against the intervention of the United Nations and recognized as guitars, violins, and bottles.* [68] When Pithe United States* [61] in the Korean War and he depicted casso depicted complex narrative scenes it was usually in
it in Massacre in Korea.
prints, drawings, and small-scale works; Guernica (1937) is
one of his few large narrative paintings.* [67]
8.5 Style and technique

Picasso was exceptionally prolic throughout his long lifetime. The total number of artworks he produced has been
estimated at 50,000, comprising 1,885 paintings; 1,228
sculptures; 2,880 ceramics, roughly 12,000 drawings, many
thousands of prints, and numerous tapestries and rugs.* [62]
The medium in which Picasso made his most important
contribution was painting.* [63] In his paintings, Picasso
used color as an expressive element, but relied on drawing
rather than subtleties of color to create form and space.* [63]
He sometimes added sand to his paint to vary its texture. A
nanoprobe of Picasso's The Red Armchair (1931) by physicists at Argonne National Laboratory in 2012 conrmed art
historians' belief that Picasso used common house paint in
many of his paintings.* [64] Much of his painting was done
at night by articial light.
Picasso's early sculptures were carved from wood or modeled in wax or clay, but from 1909 to 1928 Picasso abandoned modeling and instead made sculptural constructions
using diverse materials.* [63] An example is Guitar (1912),
a relief construction made of sheet metal and wire that Jane
Fluegel terms a three-dimensional planar counterpart of
Cubist paintingthat marks arevolutionary departure from
the traditional approaches, modeling and carving.* [65]
From the beginning of his career, Picasso displayed an interest in subject matter of every kind,* [66] and demonstrated a great stylistic versatility that enabled him to work
in several styles at once. For example, his paintings of 1917
included the pointillist Woman with a Mantilla, the Cubist
Figure in an Armchair, and the naturalistic Harlequin (all in
the Museu Picasso, Barcelona). In 1919, he made a number
of drawings from postcards and photographs that reect his
interest in the stylistic conventions and static character of
posed photographs.* [67] In 1921 he simultaneously painted
Picasso painted mostly from imagination or memory. According to William Rubin, Picassocould only make great
art from subjects that truly involved him ... Unlike Matisse, Picasso had eschewed models virtually all his mature
life, preferring to paint individuals whose lives had both impinged on, and had real signicance for, his own.* [69]
The art critic Arthur Danto said Picasso's work constitutes
a vast pictorial autobiographythat provides some basis
for the popular conception that Picasso invented a new
style each time he fell in love with a new woman.* [69]
The autobiographical nature of Picasso's art is reinforced
by his habit of dating his works, often to the day. He explained: I want to leave to posterity a documentation that
will be as complete as possible. That's why I put a date on
everything I do.* [69]
8.6
Artistic legacy
At the time of Picasso's death many of his paintings were

in his possession, as he had kept o the art market what
he did not need to sell. In addition, Picasso had a considerable collection of the work of other famous artists, some
his contemporaries, such as Henri Matisse, with whom he
had exchanged works. Since Picasso left no will, his death
duties (estate tax) to the French state were paid in the form
of his works and others from his collection. These works
form the core of the immense and representative collection
of the Muse Picasso in Paris. In 2003, relatives of Picasso
inaugurated a museum dedicated to him in his birthplace,
Mlaga, Spain, the Museo Picasso Mlaga.
The Museu Picasso in Barcelona features many of his early
works, created while he was living in Spain, including many
rarely seen works which reveal his rm grounding in classical techniques. The museum also holds many precise
and detailed gure studies done in his youth under his fa-
126
ther's tutelage, as well as the extensive collection of Jaime

Sabarts, his close friend and personal secretary.
Museu Picasso is located in the gothic palaces of

Montcada street in Barcelona
Several paintings by Picasso rank among the most expensive

paintings in the world. Garon la pipe sold for US$104
million at Sotheby's on 4 May 2004, establishing a new price
record. Dora Maar au Chat sold for US$95.2 million at
Sotheby's on 3 May 2006.* [70] On 4 May 2010, Nude,
Green Leaves and Bust was sold at Christie's for $106.5
million. The 1932 work, which depicts Picasso's mistress
Marie-Thrse Walter reclining and as a bust, was in the
personal collection of Los Angeles philanthropist Frances
Lasker Brody, who died in November 2009.* [71] The previous auction record ($104.3 million) was set in February
2010, by Alberto Giacometti's Walking Man I.* [72]
Art Museum Pablo Picasso Mnster Arkaden
As of 2004, Picasso remained the top-ranked artist (based

on sales of his works at auctions) according to the Art Market Trends report.* [73] More of his paintings have been
stolen than any other artist's;* [74] the Art Loss Register has
550 of his works listed as missing.* [75]
The Picasso Administration functions as his ocial Estate.
The US copyright representative for the Picasso Administration is the Artists Rights Society.* [76]
8.7
See also
Picasso's poetry
Pierre Le Guennec
8.8
Notes
[1] Pierre Daix, Georges Boudaille, Joan Rosselet, Picasso,

1900-1906: catalogue raisonn de l'oeuvre peint, Editions
Ides et Calendes, 1988
[2] Picasso. Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
[3] "The Guitar, MoMA. Moma.org. Retrieved 3 February
2012.
In the 1996 movie Surviving Picasso, Picasso is portrayed

by actor Anthony Hopkins.* [77] Picasso is also a character
in Steve Martin's 1993 play, Picasso at the Lapin Agile.
[4] Sculpture, Tate. Tate.org.uk. Retrieved 3 February 2012.
8.6.1
[6] Searle, Adrian (7 May 2002). A momentous, tremendous

exhibition. Guardian (UK). Retrieved 13 February 2010.
Recent major exhibitions
Picasso: Masterpieces from the Muse National Picasso,

Paris, an exhibition of 150 paintings, sculptures, drawings,
prints and photographs from the Muse National Picasso in
Paris. The exhibit touring schedule includes:
8 October 2010 17 January 2011, Seattle Art Museum, Seattle, Washington, US.
19 February 2011 15 May 2011, Virginia Museum
of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia, US.
11 June 2011 9 October 2011, M. H. de
Young Memorial Museum, San Francisco, California,
US.* [78]
12 November 2011 25 March 2012, Art Gallery of
New South Wales, Sydney.* [79]
28 April 2012 26 August 2012, Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
[5] Green, Christopher (2003), Art in France: 19001940,

New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, p. 77, ISBN
0300099088, retrieved 10 February 2013
[7] Trachtman, Paul (February 2003). Matisse & Picasso.

Smithsonian (Smithsonianmag.com). Retrieved 13 February
2010.
[8] Duchamp's urinal tops art survey. news.bbc.co.uk. 1
December 2004. Retrieved 10 December 2010.
[9] The name on his baptismal certicate diers slightly from
the name on his birth record. On line Picasso Project
[10] Hamilton, George H. (1976). Picasso, Pablo Ruiz Y. In
William D. Halsey. Collier's Encyclopedia 19. New York:
Macmillan Educational Corporation. pp. 2526.
[11] Neil Cox (2010). The Picasso Book. Tate Publishing. p.
124. ISBN 9781854378439. Unlike Matisse's chapel, the
ruined Vallauris building had long since ceased to full a
religious function, so the atheist Picasso no doubt delighted
in reinventing its use for the secular Communist cause of
'Peace'.
[12] Wertenbaker 1967, 9.
Postage stamp, USSR, 1973. Picasso has been hon- [13] Wertenbaker 1967, 11.
oured on stamps worldwide.
Muse Picasso, Paris (Hotel Sal, 1659)
[14]Picasso: Creator and Destroyer 88.06. Theatlantic.com.

8.8. NOTES
[15] Wertenbaker 1967, 13.

[16] Cirlot 1972, p.6.
[17] Cirlot 1972, p. 14.
[18] Cirlot 1972, p.37.
[19] Cirlot 1972, pp. 87108.
[20] Cirlot 1972, p. 125.
[21] Cirlot 1972, p.127.
[22] Wattenmaker, Distel, et al. 1993, p. 304.
[23] BBC News - Hidden painting found under Picasso's The
Blue Room. Bbc.com. 2014-06-17. Retrieved 2014-0717.
[24] The Frugal Repast, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved
11 March 2010.
[25] Wattenmaker, Distel, et al. 1993, p. 194.
[26] Portrait of Gertrude Stein. Metropolitan Museum. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
[27] Special Exhibit Examines Dynamic Relationship Between
the Art of Pablo Picasso and Writing(PDF). Yale University Art Gallery. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
[28] James R. Mellow. Charmed Circle. Gertrude Stein and
Company.
[29] Cubism and its Legacy. Tate Liverpool. Retrieved 26
August 2010.
[30] Richard Lacayo (7 April 2009). Art's Great Whodunit:
The Mona Lisa Theft of 1911. TIME (Time Inc.). Retrieved 28 June 2013.
[31] Harrison, Charles; Frascina, Francis; Perry, Gillian (1993).
Primitivism, Cubism, Abstraction. Google Books. Retrieved
26 August 2010.
[32] Melissa McQuillan, ''Primitivism and Cubism, 190615,
War Years'', From Grove Art Online, MoMA. Moma.org.
1915-12-14. Retrieved 2014-07-17.
[33] Paul (Paolo) Picasso is born. Xtimeline.com. Retrieved
3 February 2012.
[34] Cowling & Mundy 1990, p. 201.
[35] Melissa McQuillan, ''Pablo Picasso, Interactions with Surrealism, 192535'', from Grove Art Online, 2009 Oxford
University Press, MoMA. Moma.org. 1931-01-12. Retrieved 2014-07-17.
[36] Richard Dorment (8 May 2012). Picasso, The Vollard
Suite, British Museum, review. The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 19 May 2012.
127
[37] The MoMA retrospective of 193940 see Michael C.

FitzGerald, Making Modernism: Picasso and the Creation of
the Market for Twentieth-Century Art (New York: Farrar,
Straus and Giroux, 1995; Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1996), pp. 243262.
[38] Guernica Introduction. Pbs.org. Retrieved 21 December
2009.
[39] The Spanish Wars of Goya and Picasso, Costa Tropical
News. Retrieved 4 June 2010.
[40] Reagan, Georey (1992). Military Anecdotes. Guinness
Publishing. p. 25. ISBN 0-85112-519-0
[41] Kendall, L. R., Pablo Picasso (18811973): The Charnel
House in Pieces... Occasional and Various April 2010
[42] Artnet, Fred Stern, Picasso and the War Year Retrieved 30
March 2011
[43] Lorentz, Stanisaw (2002). Sarah Wilson, ed. Paris: capital
of the arts, 19001968. Royal Academy of Arts. p. 429.
ISBN 09-00946-98-9.
[44] Rothenberg, Jerome. Pablo Picasso, The Burial of the Count
of Orgaz & other poems. Exact Exchange Books, Cambridge, MA, 2004, viixviii
[45] Franoise Gilot and Carlton Lake, Life with Picasso,
Random House. May 1989. ISBN 0-385-26186-1; rst published in November 1964.
[46] Zabel, William D (1996).The Rich Die Richer and You Can
too. John Wiley and Sons, p.11. ISBN 0-471-15532-2
[47] Kimmelman, Michael (28 April 1996). Picasso's Family
Album,. New York Times. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
[48] Picasso's commitment to the cause. PBS.
[49] National Gallery of Victoria (2006). An Introduction to
Guernica. Retrieved 2 April 2013.
[50] Picassos Party Line, ARTnews Retrieved 31 May 2007.
[51] Ashton, Dore and Pablo Picasso (1988). Picasso on Art: A
Selection of Views. Da Capo Press. p. 140. ISBN 0-30680330-5.
[52] Failed attempts at correspondence between Dal and Picasso. Larepublica.com.pe. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
[53] Study on Salvador Dal". Monograas.com. 7 May 2007.
[54] Article on Dal in ',El Mundo',. Elmundo.es. Retrieved
26 August 2010.
[55] Dannatt, Adrian (7 June 2010), Picasso: Peace and Freedom. Tate Liverpool, 21 May 30 August 2010, Studio International, retrieved 10 February 2013
[56] Rivera, Breton and Trotsky Retrieved 9 August 2010
128
[57] Hungton, Arianna S. (1988). Picasso: Creator and Destroyer. Simon and Schuster. p. 390. ISBN 978-0-78610642-4.
[58] Pablo Ruiz Picasso (18811973) | Picasso gets Stalin Peace
Prize | Event view. Xtimeline.com. Retrieved 3 February
2012.
8.9
References
Becht-Jrdens, Gereon; Wehmeier, Peter M. (2003).

Picasso und die christliche Ikonographie: Mutterbeziehung und knstlerische Position. Berlin: Dietrich
Reimer Verlag. ISBN 978-3-496-01272-6.
[59] Berger, John (1965). The Success and Failure of Picasso.

Penguin Books, Ltd. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-679-73725-4.
Berger, John (1989). The success and failure of Picasso. Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0-679-72272-4.
[60] Charlotte Higgins (28 May 2010). Picasso nearly risked

his reputation for Franco exhibition. The Guardian (UK:
Guardian News and Media).
Cirlot, Juan Eduardo (1972). Picasso, birth of a genius. New York and Washington: Praeger.
[61] Picasso A Retrospective, Museum of Modern Art, edited by

William Rubin, copyright MoMA 1980, p.383
[62] On-line Picasso Project, citing Selfridge, John, 1994.
[63] McQuillan, Melissa. Picasso, Pablo.Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press, accessed
February 1, 2014
[64] Moskowitz, Clara (8 February 2013). Picasso's Genius
Revealed: He Used Common House Paint, Live Science.
Retrieved 9 February 2013.
[65] Rubin 1980, pp. 150151.
[66] Cirlot 1972, p. 164.
[67] Cowling & Mundy 1990, p. 208.
[68] Cirlot 1972, pp. 158159.
[69] Danto, Arthur (August 26/September 2, 1996). Picasso
and the Portrait. The Nation 263 (6): 3135.
[70] Picasso portrait sells for $95.2 million. Retrieved 4 May
2006.
[71] Vogel, Carol (9 March 2010).Christie's Wins Bid to Auction $150 Million Brody Collection. Nytimes.com. Retrieved 3 February 2012.
[72] Vogel, Carol (4 May 2010). Picasso Sells at Auction for
$106.5 Million, a Record for a Work of Art. New York
Times. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
[73] 2004 Art Market Trends report (PDF). Retrieved 26
August 2010.
[74] S. Goodenough, 1500 Fascinating Facts, Treasure Press,
London, 1987, p 241.
[75] Revealed: The extraordinary security blunders behind Paris
art gallery heist The Daily Mail
[76] Most frequently requested artists list of the Artists Rights
Society. Arsny.com. Retrieved 2014-07-17.
[77] IMDB
Cowling, Elizabeth; Mundy, Jennifer (1990). On classic ground: Picasso, Lger, de Chirico and the New
Classicism, 19101930. London: Tate Gallery. ISBN
978-1-85437-043-3.
Daix, Pierre (1994). Picasso: life and art. Icon Editions. ISBN 978-0-06-430201-2.
FitzGerald, Michael C. (1996). Making modernism:
Picasso and the creation of the market for twentiethcentury art. Berkeley: University of California Press.
ISBN 978-0-520-20653-3.
Granell, Eugenio Fernndez (1981). Picasso's Guernica: the end of a Spanish era. Ann Arbor, Mich.:
UMI Research Press. ISBN 978-0-8357-1206-4.
Krauss, Rosalind E. (1999). The Picasso papers. MIT
Press. ISBN 978-0-262-61142-8.
Malln, Enrique (2003). The visual grammar of Pablo
Picasso. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-0-82045692-8.
Malln, Enrique (2005). La sintaxis de la carne: Pablo
Picasso y Marie-Thrse Walter. Santiago de Chile:
Red Internacional del Libro. ISBN 978-956-284-4550.
Malln, Enrique (2009). A Concordance of Pablo Picasso's Spanish Writings. New York: Edwin Mellen
Press. ISBN 978-0-7734-4713-4.
Malln, Enrique (2010). A Concordance of Pablo Picasso's French Writings. New York: Edwin Mellen
Press. ISBN 978-0-7734-1325-2. Retrieved 8 October 2010.
Nill, Raymond M (1987). A Visual Guide to Pablo
Picasso's Works. New York: B&H Publishers.
[78] Picasso: Masterpieces from the Muse National Picasso,

Paris. deYoung Museum. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
Picasso, Olivier Widmaier (2004). Picasso: the real

family story. Prestel. ISBN 978-3-7913-3149-2.
[79] Art Gallery of New South Wales. Artgallery.nsw.gov.au.

Retrieved 2014-07-17.
Rubin, William (1981). Pablo Picasso: A Retrospective. Little Brown & Co. ISBN 978-0-316-70703-9.

Wattenmaker, Richard J. (1993). Great French paintings from the Barnes Foundation: Impressionist, Postimpressionist, and Early Modern. New York: Alfred
A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-40963-2.
Wertenbaker, Lael Tucker (1967). The world of Picasso (1881 ). Time-Life Books.
8.10 External links

ULAN Full Record Display for Pablo Picasso. Getty
Vocabulary Program, Getty Research Institute. Los
Angeles, California
Picasso's works at the Guggenheim Museum
Works by or about Pablo Picasso in libraries
(WorldCat catalog)
Guggenheim Museum Biography
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
Muse National Picasso (Paris, France)
Museo Picasso Mlaga (Mlaga, Spain)
Museu Picasso (Barcelona, Spain)
Pablo Picasso at the Museum of Modern Art
National Gallery of Art
Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA) (Los
Angeles, California)
129
Chapter 9
Salvador Dal
This is a Catalan name. The rst family name is Dal and
the second is Domnech.
Salvador Domingo Felipe Jacinto Dal i Domnech,
1st Marqus de Dal de Pubol (May 11, 1904 January 23, 1989), known as Salvador Dal (/dli/;* [1] Catalan: [so i]), was a prominent Spanish Catalan
surrealist painter born in Figueres, Spain.
Dal was a skilled draftsman, best known for the striking
and bizarre images in his surrealist work. His painterly
skills are often attributed to the inuence of Renaissance
masters.* [2]* [3] His best-known work, The Persistence of
Memory, was completed in August 1931. Dal's expansive
artistic repertoire included lm, sculpture, and photography, in collaboration with a range of artists in a variety of
media.
Dal attributed his love of everything that is gilded and The Dal family in 1910: from the upper left, aunt Maria Teresa,
excessive, my passion for luxury and my love of oriental mother, father, Salvador Dal, aunt Caterina (later became second
clothes* [4] to an Arab lineage, claiming that his an- wife of father), sister Anna Maria and grandmother Anna
cestors were descended from the Moors.
Dal was highly imaginative, and also enjoyed indulging in
unusual and grandiose behavior. His eccentric manner and
attention-grabbing public actions sometimes drew more attention than his artwork, to the dismay of those who held
his work in high esteem, and to the irritation of his critics.* [5]* [6]
notary* [9] whose strict disciplinary approach was tempered

by his wife, Felipa Domenech Ferrs, who encouraged her
son's artistic endeavors.* [10]
When he was ve, Dal was taken to his brother's grave

and told by his parents that he was his brother's reincarnation,* [11] a concept which he came to believe.* [12] Of
his brother, Dal said, "...[we] resembled each other like
9.1 Biography
two drops of water, but we had dierent reections.* [13]
He was probably a rst version of myself but conceived
too much in the absolute.* [13] Images of his long-dead
9.1.1 Early life
brother would reappear embedded in his later works, inSalvador Domingo Felipe Jacinto Dal i Domnech was cluding Portrait of My Dead Brother (1963).
born on May 11, 1904, at 8:45 am GMT* [7] in the town Dal also had a sister, Anna Maria, who was three years
of Figueres, in the Empord region, close to the French younger.* [9] In 1949, she published a book about her
border in Catalonia, Spain.* [8] Dal's older brother, also brother, Dal As Seen By His Sister.* [14] His childhood
named Salvador (born October 12, 1901), had died of friends included future FC Barcelona footballers Sagibarba
gastroenteritis nine months earlier, on August 1, 1903. His and Josep Samitier. During holidays at the Catalan resort
father, Salvador Dal i Cus, was a middle-class lawyer and of Cadaqus, the trio played football together.
130
9.1. BIOGRAPHY
Dal attended drawing school. In 1916, Dal also discovered
modern painting on a summer vacation trip to Cadaqus
with the family of Ramon Pichot, a local artist who made
regular trips to Paris.* [9] The next year, Dal's father organized an exhibition of his charcoal drawings in their family home. He had his rst public exhibition at the Municipal Theater in Figueres in 1919, a site he would return to
decades later.
In February 1921, Dal's mother died of breast cancer. Dal
was 16 years old; he later said his mother's death was the
greatest blow I had experienced in my life. I worshipped
her... I could not resign myself to the loss of a being on
whom I counted to make invisible the unavoidable blemishes of my soul.* [15]* [6] After her death, Dal's father
married his deceased wife's sister. Dal did not resent this
marriage, because he had a great love and respect for his
aunt.* [9]
9.1.2
Madrid and Paris
131
Pichot, since there were no Cubist artists in Madrid at the
time. In 1924, the still-unknown Salvador Dal illustrated a
book for the rst time. It was a publication of the Catalan
poem Les bruixes de Llers (The Witches of Llers) by his
friend and schoolmate, poet Carles Fages de Climent. Dal
also experimented with Dada, which inuenced his work
throughout his life.
Dal was expelled from the Academia in 1926, shortly before his nal exams when he was accused of starting an
unrest.* [19]* [6] His mastery of painting skills at that time
was evidenced by his realistic The Basket of Bread, painted
in 1926.* [20] That same year, he made his rst visit to
Paris, where he met Pablo Picasso, whom the young Dal
revered.* [6] Picasso had already heard favorable reports
about Dal from Joan Mir, a fellow Catalan who introduced him to many Surrealist friends.* [6] As he developed
his own style over the next few years, Dal made a number
of works heavily inuenced by Picasso and Mir.
Some trends in Dal's work that would continue throughout his life were already evident in the 1920s. Dal
devoured inuences from many styles of art, ranging
from the most academically classic, to the most cuttingedge avant-garde.* [21] His classical inuences included
Raphael, Bronzino, Francisco de Zurbarn, Vermeer and
Velzquez.* [22] He used both classical and modernist techniques, sometimes in separate works, and sometimes combined. Exhibitions of his works in Barcelona attracted
much attention along with mixtures of praise and puzzled
debate from critics.
Dal grew a amboyant moustache, inuenced by 17thcentury Spanish master painter Diego Velzquez. The
moustache became an iconic trademark of his appearance
for the rest of his life.
Wild-eyed antics of Dal (left) and fellow surrealist artist Man Ray
in Paris on June 16, 1934
In 1922, Dal moved into the Residencia de Estudiantes

(Students' Residence) in Madrid* [9] and studied at the Real
Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando. A lean 1.72
m (5 ft. 7 in.) tall,* [16] Dal already drew attention as
an eccentric and dandy. He had long hair and sideburns,
coat, stockings, and knee-breeches in the style of English
aesthetes of the late 19th century.
At the Residencia, he became close friends with (among
others) Pepn Bello, Luis Buuel, and Federico Garca
Lorca. The friendship with Lorca had a strong element of
mutual passion,* [17] but Dal rejected the poet's sexual advances.* [18]
However it was his paintings, in which he experimented
with Cubism, that earned him the most attention from his
fellow students. His only information on Cubist art had
come from magazine articles and a catalog given to him by
9.1.3
1929 to World War II
In 1929, Dal collaborated with surrealist lm director Luis

Buuel on the short lm Un Chien Andalou (An Andalusian
Dog). His main contribution was to help Buuel write the
script for the lm. Dal later claimed to have also played
a signicant role in the lming of the project, but this is
not substantiated by contemporary accounts.* [23] Also, in
August 1929, Dal met his lifelong and primary muse, inspiration, and future wife Gala,* [24] born Elena Ivanovna
Diakonova. She was a Russian immigrant ten years his senior, who at that time was married to surrealist poet Paul
luard. In the same year, Dal had important professional
exhibitions and ocially joined the Surrealist group in the
Montparnasse quarter of Paris. His work had already been
heavily inuenced by surrealism for two years. The Surrealists hailed what Dal called his paranoiac-critical method
of accessing the subconscious for greater artistic creativ-
132
ity.* [9]* [10]
CHAPTER 9. SALVADOR DAL

seemed to tolerate Dal's dalliances with younger muses, secure in her own position as his primary relationship. Dal
continued to paint her as they both aged, producing sympathetic and adoring images of his muse. Thetense, complex
and ambiguous relationshiplasting over 50 years would
later become the subject of an opera, Jo, Dal (I, Dal) by
Catalan composer Xavier Benguerel.* [30]
Meanwhile, Dal's relationship with his father was close to

rupture. Don Salvador Dal y Cusi strongly disapproved
of his son's romance with Gala, and saw his connection to
the Surrealists as a bad inuence on his morals. The nal
straw was when Don Salvador read in a Barcelona newspaper that his son had recently exhibited in Paris a drawing of
the Sacred Heart of Jesus Christ, with a provocative inscrip- Dal was introduced to the United States by art dealer Julien
tion: Sometimes, I spit for fun on my mother's portrait Levy in 1934. The exhibition in New York of Dal's works,
.* [25]* [6]
including Persistence of Memory, created an immediate senOutraged, Don Salvador demanded that his son recant pub- sation. Social Register listees feted him at a specially orgaa glass case
licly. Dal refused, perhaps out of fear of expulsion from nized Dal Ball. He showed up wearing
*
on
his
chest,
which
contained
a
brassiere.
[31]
In
that year,
the Surrealist group, and was violently thrown out of his
Dal
and
Gala
also
attended
a
masquerade
party
in New
paternal home on December 28, 1929. His father told him
York,
hosted
for
them
by
heiress
Caresse
Crosby.
For
that he would be disinherited, and that he should never set
their
costumes,
they
dressed
as
the
Lindbergh
baby
and
his
foot in Cadaqus again. The following summer, Dal and
kidnapper.
The
resulting
uproar
in
the
press
was
so
great
Gala rented a small sherman's cabin in a nearby bay at Port
Lligat. He bought the place, and over the years enlarged that Dal apologized. When he returned to Paris, the Surconfronted him about his apology for a surrealist
it by buying the neighbouring shermen cabins, gradually realists
*
act.
[32]
building his much beloved villa by the sea. Dal's father
would eventually relent and come to accept his son's com- While the majority of the Surrealist artists had become inpanion.* [26]
creasingly associated with leftist politics, Dal maintained
an ambiguous position on the subject of the proper relationship between politics and art. Leading surrealist Andr
Breton accused Dal of defending the newand irrationalin the Hitler phenomenon, but Dal quickly rejected this claim, saying,I am Hitlerian neither in fact nor
intention.* [33] Dal insisted that surrealism could exist
in an apolitical context and refused to explicitly denounce
fascism. Among other factors, this had landed him in trouble with his colleagues. Later in 1934, Dal was subjected
to a trial, in which he was formally expelled from the
Surrealist group.* [24] To this, Dal retorted, I myself am
surrealism.* [19]
In 1936, Dal took part in the London International Surrealist Exhibition. His lecture, titled Fantmes paranoiaques
authentiques, was delivered while wearing a deep-sea diving
The Persistence of Memory
suit and helmet.* [34] He had arrived carrying a billiard cue
and leading a pair of Russian wolfhounds, and had to have
In 1931, Dal painted one of his most famous works, The the helmet unscrewed as he gasped for breath. He comPersistence of Memory,* [27] which introduced a surrealistic mented that I just wanted to show that I was 'plunging
image of soft, melting pocket watches. The general inter- deeply' into the human mind.* [35] In 1936, Dal, aged
pretation of the work is that the soft watches are a rejection 32, was featured on the cover of Time magazine.* [6]
of the assumption that time is rigid or deterministic. This
idea is supported by other images in the work, such as the Also in 1936, at the premiere screening of Joseph Cornell's
wide expanding landscape, and other limp watches shown lm Rose Hobart at Julien Levy's gallery in New York City,
Dal became famous for another incident. Levy's program
being devoured by ants.* [28]
of short surrealist lms was timed to take place at the same
Dal and Gala, having lived together since 1929, were mar- time as the rst surrealism exhibition at the Museum of
ried in 1934 in a semi-secret civil ceremony. They later re- Modern Art, featuring Dal's work. Dal was in the aumarried in a Catholic ceremony in 1958.* [29] In addition dience at the screening, but halfway through the lm, he
to inspiring many artworks throughout her life, Gala would knocked over the projector in a rage. My idea for a lm
act as Dal's business manager, supporting their extravagant is exactly that, and I was going to propose it to someone
lifestyle while adeptly steering clear of insolvency. Gala
9.1. BIOGRAPHY
133
who would pay to have it made, he said. I never wrote Joans) would continue to issue extremely harsh polemics
it down or told anyone, but it is as if he had stolen it. against Dal until the time of his death, and beyond.
Other versions of Dal's accusation tend to the more poetic:
He stole it from my subconscious!" or even He stole my
dreams!"* [36]
In this period, Dal's main patron in London was the very
wealthy Edward James. He had helped Dal emerge into
the art world by purchasing many works and by supporting
him nancially for two years. They also collaborated on two
of the most enduring icons of the Surrealist movement: the
Lobster Telephone and the Mae West Lips Sofa.
Meanwhile, Spain was going through a civil war (19361939), with many artists taking a side or going into exile.
In 1938, Dal met Sigmund Freud thanks to Stefan Zweig.
Dal started to sketch Freud's portrait, while the 82-yearold celebrity conded to others that This boy looks like
a fanatic.Dal was delighted upon hearing later about this
comment from his hero.* [6]
Later, in September 1938, Salvador Dal was invited
by Gabrielle Coco Chanel to her house La Pausain
Roquebrune on the French Riviera. There he painted numerous paintings he later exhibited at Julien Levy Gallery
in New York.* [37]* [38] At the end of the 20th century,La
Pausawas partially replicated at the Dallas Museum of Art
to welcome the Reeves collection and part of Chanel's original furniture for the house.* [39]
Also in 1938, Dal unveiled Rainy Taxi, a three-dimensional
artwork, consisting of an actual automobile with two
mannequin occupants. The piece was rst displayed at
the Galerie Beaux-Arts in Paris at the Exposition Internationale du Surralisme, organised by Andr Breton and
Paul luard. The Exposition was designed by artist Marcel
Duchamp, who also served as host.* [40]* [41]* [42]
At the 1939 New York World's Fair, Dal debuted his
Dream of Venus surrealist pavilion, located in the Amusements Area of the exposition. It featured bizarre sculptures,
statues, and live nude models incostumesmade of fresh
seafood, an event photographed by Horst P. Horst, George
Platt Lynes and Murray Korman. Like most attractions in
the Amusements Area, an admission fee was charged.* [43]
In 1939, Andr Breton coined the derogatory nickname
Avida Dollars, an anagram for Salvador Dal", which
may be more or less translated aseager for dollars.* [44]
This was a derisive reference to the increasing commercialization of Dal's work, and the perception that Dal
sought self-aggrandizement through fame and fortune. The
Surrealists, many of whom were closely connected to the
French Communist Party at the time, expelled him from
their movement.* [6] Some surrealists henceforth spoke of
Dal in the past tense, as if he were dead. The Surrealist movement and various members thereof (such as Ted
9.1.4
World War II
In 1940, as World War II tore through Europe, Dal and

Gala retreated to the United States, where they lived for
eight years. They were able to escape because on June
20, 1940, they were issued visas by Aristides de Sousa
Mendes, Portuguese consul in Bordeaux, France. Dals
arrival in New York was one of the catalysts in the development of that city as a world art center in the post-War
years.* [45] Salvador and Gala Dal crossed into Portugal
and subsequently sailed on the Excambion from Lisbon to
New York in August 1940. After the move, Dal returned
to the practice of Catholicism. During this period, Dal
never stopped writing, wrote Robert and Nicolas Descharnes.* [46]
Dal worked prolically in a variety of media during this
period, designing jewelry, clothes, furniture, stage sets for
plays and ballet, and retail store display windows. In 1939,
while working on a window display for Bonwit Teller, he
became so enraged by unauthorized changes to his work
that he shoved a decorative bathtub through a plate glass
window.* [6]
In 1941, Dal drafted a lm scenario for Jean Gabin called
Moontide. In 1942, he published his autobiography, The Secret Life of Salvador Dal. He wrote catalogs for his exhibitions, such as that at the Knoedler Gallery in New York in
1943. Therein he attacked some often-used surrealist techniques by proclaiming,Surrealism will at least have served
to give experimental proof that total sterility and attempts
at automatizations have gone too far and have led to a totalitarian system. ... Today's laziness and the total lack of
technique have reached their paroxysm in the psychological signication of the current use of the college(collage).
He also wrote a novel, published in 1944, about a fashion
salon for automobiles. This resulted in a drawing by Edwin Cox in The Miami Herald, depicting Dal dressing an
automobile in an evening gown.* [46]
Also, in The Secret Life Dal suggested that he had split with
Luis Buuel because the latter was a Communist and an
atheist. Buuel was red (or resigned) from his position
at the Museum of Modern Art (MOMA), supposedly after
Cardinal Spellman of New York went to see Iris Barry, head
of the lm department at MOMA. Buuel then went back
to Hollywood where he worked in the dubbing department
of Warner Brothers from 1942 to 1946. In his 1982 autobiography Mon Dernier soupir (My Last Sigh, 1983), Buuel
wrote that, over the years, he had rejected Dal's attempts
at reconciliation.* [47]
134
An Italian friar, Gabriele Maria Berardi, claimed to have

performed an exorcism on Dal while he was in France in
1947.* [48] In 2005, a sculpture of Christ on the Cross was
discovered in the friar's estate. It had been claimed that
Dal gave this work to his exorcist out of gratitude,* [48]
and two Spanish art experts conrmed that there were adequate stylistic reasons to believe the sculpture was made by
Dal.* [48]
9.1.5
Later years in Spain
illusions, negative space, visual puns and trompe l'il visual eects. He also experimented with pointillism, enlarged half-tone dot grids (a technique which Roy Lichtenstein would later use), and stereoscopic images.* [51] He
was among the rst artists to employ holography in an artistic manner.* [52] In Dal's later years, young artists such as
Andy Warhol proclaimed him an important inuence on
pop art.* [53]
Dal also developed a keen interest in natural science and
mathematics. This is manifested in several of his paintings,
notably from the 1950s, in which he painted his subjects as
composed of rhinoceros horn shapes. According to Dal,
the rhinoceros horn signies divine geometry because it
grows in a logarithmic spiral. He also linked the rhinoceros
to themes of chastity and to the Virgin Mary.* [54] Dal was
also fascinated by DNA and the tesseract (a 4-dimensional
cube); an unfolding of a hypercube is featured in the painting Crucixion (Corpus Hypercubus).
At some point, Dal had a glass oor installed in a room
near his studio. He made extensive use of it to study
foreshortening, both from above and from below, incorporating dramatic perspectives of gures and objects into his
paintings.* [55] He also delighted in using the room for entertaining guests and visitors to his house and studio.
Dal in 1972
In 1948 Dal and Gala moved back into their house in Port
Lligat, on the coast near Cadaqus. For the next three
decades, he would spend most of his time there painting,
taking time o and spending winters with his wife in Paris
and New York.* [26]* [6] His acceptance and implicit embrace of Franco's dictatorship were strongly disapproved of
by other Spanish artists and intellectuals who remained in
exile.
Dal's postWorld War II period bore the hallmarks of technical virtuosity and an intensifying interest in optical effects, science, and religion. He became an increasingly
devout Catholic, while at the same time he had been inspired by the shock of Hiroshima and the dawning of the
"atomic age". Therefore Dal labeled this period Nuclear Mysticism". In paintings such as The Madonna of
Port Lligat (rst version, 1949) and Corpus Hypercubus
(1954), Dal sought to synthesize Christian iconography
with images of material disintegration inspired by nuclear
physics.* [56] His Nuclear Mysticism works included such
notable pieces as La Gare de Perpignan (1965) and The Hallucinogenic Toreador (196870).
In 1960, Dal began work on his Theatre and Museum in

his home town of Figueres; it was his largest single project
and a main focus of his energy through 1974, when it
opened. He continued to make additions through the mid*
*
In 1959, Andr Breton organized an exhibit called Homage 1980s. [57] [58]
to Surrealism, celebrating the fortieth anniversary of Surre- Dal continued to indulge in publicity stunts and selfalism, which contained works by Dal, Joan Mir, Enrique consciously outrageous behavior. To promote his 1962
Tbara, and Eugenio Granell. Breton vehemently fought book The World of Salvador Dal, he appeared in a Manhatagainst the inclusion of Dal's Sistine Madonna in the Inter- tan bookstore on a bed, wired up to a machine that traced
national Surrealism Exhibition in New York the following his brain waves and blood pressure. He would autograph
year.* [49]
books while thus monitored, and the book buyer would also
*
Late in his career Dal did not conne himself to paint- be given the paper chart recording. [6]
ing, but explored many unusual or novel media and pro- In 1968, Dal lmed a humorous television advertisement
cesses: for example, he experimented with bulletist art- for Lanvin chocolates.* [59] In this, he proclaims in French
works.* [50] Many of his late works incorporated optical
9.1. BIOGRAPHY
Je suis fou du chocolat Lanvin!" (I'm crazy about Lanvin
chocolate!") while biting a morsel, causing him to become
cross-eyed and his moustache to swivel upwards. In 1969,
he designed the Chupa Chups logo, in addition to facilitating the design of the advertising campaign for the 1969 Eurovision Song Contest and creating a large on-stage metal
sculpture that stood at the Teatro Real in Madrid.
135
time. By his own admission, he had agreed not to go there
without written permission from his wife.* [26] His fears of
abandonment and estrangement from his longtime artistic
muse contributed to depression and failing health.* [6]
In 1980 at age 76, Dal's health took a catastrophic turn.

His right hand trembled terribly, with Parkinson-like symptoms. His near-senile wife allegedly had been dosing him
In the television programme Dirty Dal: A Private View with a dangerous cocktail of unprescribed medicine that
broadcast on Channel 4 on June 3, 2007, art critic Brian damaged his nervous system, thus causing an untimely end
Sewell described his acquaintance with Dal in the late to his artistic capacity.* [62]
1960s, which included lying down in the fetal position with- In 1982, King Juan Carlos bestowed on Dal the title of
out trousers in the armpit of a gure of Christ and mastur- Marqus de Dal de Pbol* [63]* [64] (Marquis of Dal de
bating for Dal, who pretended to take photos while fum- Pbol) in the nobility of Spain, hereby referring to Pbol,
bling in his own trousers.* [60]* [61]
the place where he lived. The title was in rst instance
9.1.6
Final years and death
hereditary, but on request of Dal changed to life only in

1983.* [63]
Gala died on June 10, 1982, at the age of 87. After Gala's death, Dal lost much of his will to live. He
deliberately dehydrated himself, possibly as a suicide attempt, with claims stating he had tried to put himself into
a state of suspended animation as he had read that some
microorganisms could do. He moved from Figueres to the
castle in Pbol, which was the site of her death and her
grave.* [26]* [6]
In May 1983, Dal revealed what would be his last painting, The Swallow's Tail, a work heavily inuenced by the
mathematical catastrophe theory of Ren Thom.
Church of Sant Pere in Figueres, site of Dal's baptism, rst communion, and funeral
In 1984, a re broke out in his bedroom* [65] under unclear

circumstances. It was possibly a suicide attempt by Dal,
or possibly simple negligence by his sta.* [19] Dal was
rescued by friend and collaborator Robert Descharnes* [66]
and returned to Figueres, where a group of his friends, patrons, and fellow artists saw to it that he was comfortable
living in his Theater-Museum in his nal years.
There have been allegations that Dal was forced by his
guardians to sign blank canvases that would later, even after
his death, be used in forgeries and sold as originals.* [67]
It is also alleged that he knowingly sold otherwise-blank
signed lithograph paper, possibly producing over 50,000
such sheets from 1965 until his death.* [6] As a result, art
dealers tend to be wary of late works attributed to Dal.
In November 1988, Dal entered the hospital with heart failure; a pacemaker had already been implanted previously.
On December 5, 1988, he was visited by King Juan Carlos,
who confessed that he had always been a serious devotee of
Dal.* [68] Dal gave the king a drawing (Head of Europa,
which would turn out to be Dal's nal drawing) after the
Dal's crypt at the Dal Theatre and Museum in Figueres displays king visited him on his deathbed.
his name and preferred title
On January 23, 1989, while his favorite record of Tristan

In 1968, Dal had bought a castle in Pbol for Gala, and and Isolde played, Dal died of heart failure at Figueres at
starting in 1971 she would retreat there alone for weeks at a the age of 84. He is buried in the crypt below the stage
136
of his Theatre and Museum in Figueres. The location is 9.2.1 Science

across the street from the church of Sant Pere, where he
had his baptism, rst communion, and funeral, and is only References to Dal in the context of science are made in
three blocks from the house where he was born.* [69]
terms of his fascination with the paradigm shift that accomThe Gala-Salvador Dal Foundation currently serves as his panied the birth of quantum mechanics in the twentieth cenocial estate.* [70] The US copyright representative for the tury. Inspired by Werner Heisenberg's Uncertainty PrinciGala-Salvador Dal Foundation is the Artists Rights Soci- ple, in 1958 he wrote in hisAnti-Matter Manifesto":In
ety.* [71] In 2002, the Society made news when it asked the Surrealist period, I wanted to create the iconography of
Google to remove a customized version of its logo put up the interior world and the world of the marvelous, of my
to commemorate Dal, alleging that portions of specic art- father Freud. Today, the exterior world and that of physics
works under its protection had been used without permis- has transcended the* one of psychology. My father today is
sion. Google complied with the request, but denied that Dr. Heisenberg. [76]
there was any copyright violation.
9.2 Symbolism
In this respect, The Disintegration of the Persistence of Memory, which appeared in 1954, in harking back to The Persistence of Memory and in portraying that painting in fragmentation and disintegration, summarizes Dal's acknowledgment of the new science.* [76]
Dal employed extensive symbolism in his work. For instance, the hallmark melting watchesthat rst appear 9.3 Endeavors outside painting
in The Persistence of Memory suggest Einstein's theory that
time is relative and not xed.* [28] The idea for clocks funcDal was a versatile artist. Some of his more popular works
tioning symbolically in this way came to Dal when he was
are sculptures and other objects, and he is also noted for his
staring at a runny piece of Camembert cheese on a hot Aucontributions to theatre, fashion, and photography, among
gust day.* [72]
other areas.
The elephant is also a recurring image in Dal's works. It
rst appeared in his 1944 work Dream Caused by the Flight
of a Bee Around a Pomegranate a Second Before Awak- 9.3.1 Sculptures and other objects
ening. The elephants, inspired by Gian Lorenzo Bernini's
sculpture base in Rome of an elephant carrying an ancient Two of the most popular objects of the surrealist movement
obelisk,* [73] are portrayed with long, multijointed, al- were Lobster Telephone and Mae West Lips Sofa, completed
most invisible legs of desire* [74] along with obelisks on
by Dal in 1936 and 1937, respectively. Surrealist artist and
their backs. Coupled with the image of their brittle legs, patron Edward James commissioned both of these pieces
these encumbrances, noted for their phallic overtones, crefrom Dal; James inherited a large English estate in West
ate a sense of phantom reality.The elephant is a distortion Dean, West Sussex when he was ve and was one of the
in space, one analysis explains,its spindly legs contrastforemost supporters of the surrealists in the 1930s.* [77]
ing the idea of weightlessness with structure.* [74]I am Lobsters and telephones had strong sexual connotations
painting pictures which make me die for joy, I am creating for [Dal]", according to the display caption for the Lobwith an absolute naturalness, without the slightest aesthetic ster Telephone at the Tate Gallery, and he drew a close
concern, I am making things that inspire me with a pro- analogy between food and sex.* [78] The telephone was
found emotion and I am trying to paint them honestly. functional, and James purchased four of them from Dal to
Salvador Dal, in Dawn Ades, Dal and Surrealism.
replace the phones in his retreat home. One now appears
The egg is another common Dalesque image. He connects
the egg to the prenatal and intrauterine, thus using it to symbolize hope and love;* [75] it appears in The Great Masturbator and The Metamorphosis of Narcissus. The Metamorphosis of Narcissus also symbolized death and petrication.
Various other animals appear throughout his work as well:
ants point to death, decay, and immense sexual desire; the
snail is connected to the human head (he saw a snail on a
bicycle outside Freud's house when he rst met Sigmund
Freud); and locusts are a symbol of waste and fear.* [75]
at the Tate Gallery; the second can be found at the German

Telephone Museum in Frankfurt; the third belongs to the
Edward James Foundation; and the fourth is at the National
Gallery of Australia.* [77]
The wood and satin Mae West Lips Sofa was shaped after
the lips of actress Mae West, whom Dal apparently found
fascinating.* [24] West was previously the subject of Dal's
1935 painting The Face of Mae West. Mae West Lips Sofa
currently resides at the Brighton and Hove Museum in England.
9.3. ENDEAVORS OUTSIDE PAINTING
137
9.3.2
Theatre and lm
In theatre, Dal constructed the scenery for Federico Garca Lorca's 1927 romantic play Mariana Pineda.* [81] For
Bacchanale (1939), a ballet based on and set to the music of Richard Wagner's 1845 opera Tannhuser, Dal provided both the set design and the libretto.* [82] Bacchanale
was followed by set designs for Labyrinth in 1941 and The
Three-Cornered Hat in 1949.* [83]
Dal became intensely interested in lm when he was young,
going to the theatre most Sundays. He was part of the era
where silent lms were being viewed and drawing on the
medium of lm became popular. He believed there were
two dimensions to the theories of lm and cinema: things
themselves, the facts that are presented in the world of
the camera; andphotographic imagination, the way the
camera shows the picture and how creative or imaginative it
looks.* [84] Dal was active in front of and behind the scenes
in the lm world.
He is credited as co-creator of Luis Buuel's surrealist lm
Un Chien Andalou, a 17-minute French art lm co-written
with Luis Buuel that is widely remembered for its graphic
opening scene simulating the slashing of a human eyeball
with a razor. This lm is what Dal is known for in the independent lm world. Un Chien Andalou was Dal's way
Homage to Newton (1985). Signed and numbered cast no. 5/8.
of creating his dreamlike qualities in the real world. ImBronze with dark patina. Size: 388 x 210 x 133cm. UOB Plaza,
ages would change and scenes would switch, leading the
Singapore. Dal's homage to Isaac Newton, with an open torso and
suspended heart to indicateopen-heartedness,and an open head viewer in a completely dierent direction from the one they
indicating open-mindednessthe two very qualities important were previously viewing. The second lm he produced with
Buuel was entitled L'Age d'Or, and it was performed at
for science discovery and successful human endeavors
Studio 28 in Paris in 1930. L'Age d'Or was banned for
years after fascist and anti-Semitic groups staged a stink
bomb and ink-throwing riot in the Paris theater where it
was shown.* [85]
Between 1941 and 1970, Dal created an ensemble of 39

jewels. The jewels are intricate, and some contain moving
parts. The most famous jewel,The Royal Heart, is made
of gold and is encrusted with 46 rubies, 42 diamonds, and
four emeralds and is created in such a way that the center
beatsmuch like a real heart. Dal himself commented that
Without an audience, without the presence of spectators,
these jewels would not fulll the function for which they
came into being. The viewer, then, is the ultimate artist.
*
[79] The Dal Joies(The Jewels of Dal") collection can be seen at the Dal Theater Museum in Figueres,
Catalonia, Spain, where it is on permanent exhibition.
Although negative aspects of society were being thrown into

the life of Dal which aected the commercial success of his
artwork, it did not hold him back from expressing his own
ideas and beliefs in his art. Both of these lms, Un Chien
Andalou and L'Age d'Or, have had a tremendous impact on
the independent surrealist lm movement. If Un Chien
Andalou stands as the supreme record of Surrealism's adventures into the realm of the unconscious, then L'ge d'Or
is perhaps the most trenchant and implacable expression of
its revolutionary intent.* [86]
Dal worked with other famous lmmakers, such as Alfred

Hitchcock. The most well-known of his lm projects is
probably the dream sequence in Hitchcock's Spellbound,
which heavily delves into themes of psychoanalysis. HitchDal took a stab at industrial design in the 1970s with a cock needed a dreamlike quality to his lm, which dealt
500-piece run of the upscale Suomi tableware by Timo with the idea that a repressed experience can directly trigger
Sarpaneva that Dal decorated for the German Rosenthal a neurosis, and he knew that Dal's work would help create
porcelain maker's Studio Linie.* [80]
the atmosphere he wanted in his lm. He also worked on a
138
documentary called Chaos and Creation, which has a lot of

artistic references thrown into it to help one see what Dal's
vision of art really is.
Dal also worked with Walt Disney on the short lm production Destino. Completed in 2003 by Baker Bloodworth
and Walt's nephew Roy E. Disney, it contains dreamlike images of strange gures ying and walking about. It is based
on Mexican songwriter Armando Dominguez' song Destino. When Disney hired Dal to help produce the lm
in 1946, they were not prepared for the quantity of work
that lay ahead. For eight months, they worked on it continuously, until their eorts had to stop when they realized
they were in nancial trouble. However, it was eventually
nished 48 years later, and shown in various lm festivals.
The lm consists of Dal's artwork interacting with Disney's
character animation.
Dali Atomicus, photo by Philippe Halsman (1948), shown before
Dal completed only one other lm in his lifetime, Impres- support wires were removed from the image
sions of Upper Mongolia (1975), in which he narrated a
story about an expedition in search of giant hallucinogenic
9.3.3 Fashion and photography
mushrooms. The imagery was based on microscopic uric
acid stains on the brass band of a ballpoint pen on which
Dal built a repertoire in the fashion and photography busiDal had been urinating for several weeks.* [87]
nesses as well. His cooperation with Italian fashion designer
In the mid-1970s, lm director Alejandro Jodorowsky cast Elsa Schiaparelli was well-known, when Dal was commisDali in the role of the Padishah Emperor in a production sioned to produce a white dress with a lobster print. Other
of Dune, based on the novel by Frank Herbert. According designs Dal made for her include a shoe-shaped hat, and
to the 2013 documentary on the lm, Jodorowsky's Dune, a pink belt with lips for a buckle. He was also involved in
Jodorowsky met Dali in the King Cole Bar in the St. Regis creating textile designs and perfume bottles. In 1950, Dal
hotel in Manhattan to discuss the role. Dali expressed inter- created a specialcostume for the year 2045with Christian
est in the lm but required as a condition of appearing that Dior.* [82]
he be made the highest paid actor in Hollywood. Jodorowsky accordingly cast Dali as the emperor, but he planned Photographers with whom he collaborated include Man
to cut Dali's screen time to mere minutes, promising he be Ray, Brassa, Cecil Beaton, and Philippe Halsman. With
the highest-paid actor on a per minute basis. The lm was Man Ray and Brassa, Dal photographed nature; with the
others, he explored a range of obscure topics, including
ultimately never made.* [88]
(with Halsman) the Dal Atomica series (1948) inspired
In the year 1927, Dali began to write the libretto for an by his painting Leda Atomica which in one photograph
opera, which he called tre Dieu(To Be God). He depicts a painter's easel, three cats, a bucket of water,
wrote this together with Federico Garcia Lorca one after- and Dal himself oating in the air.* [82]
noon in the Caf Regina Victoria in Madrid. In 1974, for
a recording in Paris, the opera was adapted by the Spanish One of Dal's most unorthodox artistic creations may have
writer Manuel Vazquez Montalban, who wrote the libretto, been an entire persona, in addition to his own. At a French
while the music was created by Igor Wakhevitch. During nightclub in 1965, Dal met*Amanda Lear, a fashion model
as Peki D'Oslo. [89] Lear became his protge
the recording, however, Dali refused to follow the text writ- then known
*
[89]
later writing about their aair in her authoand
muse,
ten by Montalban, and instead, began to improvise in the
*
belief that Salvador Dali never repeats himself.Thus, rized biography My Life With Dal (1986). [90] Transxed
he holds the distinction of being the only painter who has by the mannish, larger-than-life Lear, Dal masterminded
written a libretto for an opera-poem that reects his person- her successful transition from modeling to the music world,
advising her on self-presentation and helping spin mysteriality.
ous stories about her origin as she took the disco-art scene
by storm. According to Lear, she and Dal were united in a
spiritual marriageon a deserted mountaintop.* [89] She
was referred to as Dal's Frankenstein,* [91] and some
observers believed Lear's assumed name was a pun on the
French phrase L'Amant Dal", or Lover of Dal". Lear
9.4. POLITICS AND PERSONALITY
139
took the place of an earlier muse, Ultra Violet (Isabelle and her responsibilities as a landowner and businesswoman
Collin Dufresne), who had left Dal's side to join The Fac- drive them apart. It is variously set in Paris, rural France,
tory of Andy Warhol.* [92]
Casablanca in North Africa and Palm Springs in the United
Both former apprentices would go on to successfully pro- States. Secondary characters include ageing widow Barbara
mote their own careers in the arts. On April 10, 2005, they Rogers, her bisexual daughter Veronica, Veronica's somejoined a panel discussionReminiscences of Dal: A Con- time female lover Betka, and Baba, a disgured US ghter
versation with Friends of the Artistas part of a sympo- pilot. The novel concludes at the end of the Second World
can return to
sium The Dal Renaissancefor a major retrospective War, with Solange dying before Grainsalles
his former property and reunite with her * [95]
*
Dal show at the Philadelphia Museum of Art. [93] Their
conversation is recorded in the 236-page exhibition catalog His other, nonctional literary works include The Secret Life
The Dal Renaissance: New Perspectives on His Life and Art of Salvador Dal (1942), Diary of a Genius (195263), and
after 1940.* [94]
Oui: The Paranoid-Critical Revolution (192733).
9.3.4
Architecture
9.3.6
Graphic arts
The artist worked extensively in the graphic arts, producing many etchings and lithographs. While his early work in
printmaking is equal in quality to his important paintings, as
he grew older he would sell the rights to images but not be
involved in the print production itself. In addition, a large
number of fakes were produced in the 1980s and 1990s,
thus further confusing the Dal print market.
9.3.7
Dal Theatre and Museum in Figueres also holds the crypt where
Dal is buried
Publicity
After his arrival in the United States, Dal engaged in

heavy self-promotion. While many of his stunts were
seen as antics by art critics, they were later interpreted as
performances.
His status as an extravagant artist was put to use in several

publicity campaigns for Lanvin chocolates,* [59]If you got
Architectural achievements include his Port Lligat house it, aunt it!" for Brani International Airlines (1968),* [96]
near Cadaqus, as well as his Theatre and Museum in and Iberia Airlines.
Figueres. A major work outside of Spain was the temporary
Dream of Venus surrealist pavilion at the 1939 New York
World's Fair, which contained within it a number of unusual
9.4 Politics and personality
sculptures and statues, including live performers posing as
statues.* [43]
Salvador Dal's politics played a signicant role in his emergence as an artist. In his youth, he embraced both anarchism
9.3.5 Literary works
and Communism, though his writings tell anecdotes of
making radical political statements more to shock listeners
Under the encouragement of poet Federico Garca Lorca, than from any deep conviction. This was in keeping with
Dal attempted an approach to a literary career through the Dal's allegiance to the Dada movement.
means of thepure novel. In his literary production Hidden Faces (1944), Dal describes, in vividly visual terms, As he grew older his political allegiances changed, espethe intrigues and love aairs of a group of dazzling, eccen- cially as the Surrealist movement went through transformatric aristocrats who, with their luxurious and extravagant tions under the leadership of the Trotskyist writer Andr
lifestyle, symbolize the decadence of the 1930s. The Comte Breton, who is said to have called Dal in for questioning on
de Grainsalles and Solange de Clda pursue an awkward his politics. In his 1970 book Dal by Dal, Dal declared
love aair, but property transactions, interwar political tur- himself to be both an anarchist and monarchist.
moil, the French Resistance, his marriage to another woman With the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War (19361939),
140

He also once sent a telegram praising the Conductor,
Romanian Communist leader Nicolae Ceauescu, for his
adoption of a scepter as part of his regalia. The Romanian daily newspaper Scnteia published it, without suspecting its mocking aspect. One of Dal's few possible bits of
open disobedience was his continued praise of Federico
Garca Lorca even in the years when Lorca's works were
banned.* [18]
Dal, a colorful and imposing presence with his ever
present long cape, walking stick, haughty expression, and
upturned waxed moustache, was famous for having said that
every morning upon awakening, I experience a supreme
pleasure: that of being Salvador Dal".* [102] The entertainer Cher and her husband Sonny Bono, when young,
came to a party at Dal's expensive residence in New York's
Plaza Hotel and were startled when Cher sat down on an
oddly shaped sexual vibrator left in an easy chair. In the
1960s, he gave the actress Mia Farrow a dead mouse in a
bottle, hand-painted, which her mother, actress Maureen
O'Sullivan, demanded be removed from her house.* [103]
In his later years, while still remaining a Roman Catholic,
Dal also claimed to be an agnostic.* [104]
When signing autographs for fans, Dal would always keep

their pens. Salvador Dal frequently traveled with his pet
Dal in the 1960s sporting his characteristic amboyant moustache. ocelot Babou, even bringing it aboard the luxury ocean liner
Photographed holding his pet ocelot
SS France.* [105] He was also known to avoid paying tabs at
restaurants by drawing on the checks he wrote. His theory
was the restaurant would never want to cash such a valuable
piece of art, and he was usually correct.* [106]
Dal ed from the ghting and refused to align himself with
any group. He did the same during World War II (1939 Besides visual puns, Dal shared in the surrealist delight in
1945), for which he was heavily criticized; George Orwell verbal puns, obscure allusions, and word games. He often
accused him of scuttling o like a rat as soon as France spoke in a bizarre combination of French, Spanish, Catalan,
is in dangerafter Dal had prospered in France during the and English which was sometimes amusing as well as arpre-war years. When the European War approaches he cane. His copious writings freely mixed words from dierhas one preoccupation only: how to nd a place which has ent languages with terms entirely of his own devising.
good cookery and from which he can make a quick bolt if
danger comes too near, Orwell observed.* [97] In a notable
1944 review of Dal's autobiography, Orwell wrote, One
ought to be able to hold in one's head simultaneously the
two facts that Dal is a good draughtsman and a disgusting
human being.* [97]
When interviewed by Mike Wallace on his 60 Minutes television show, Dal kept referring to himself in the third
person, and told the startled Wallace matter-of-factly that
he did not believe in his death.* [107] In a late 1950s appearance on the panel show What's My Line?, he was a
mystery guest, and signed the chalkboard with thick white
*
After his return to Catalonia post World War II, Dal moved paint. [108]
closer to the authoritarian regime of Francisco Franco.
Some of Dal's statements were supportive, congratulating
Franco for his actions aimedat clearing Spain of destructive forces.* [98] Dal, having returned to the Catholic 9.5 Legacy
faith and becoming increasingly religious as time went on,
may have been referring to the Republican atrocities during Salvador Dal has been cited as major inspiration from
the Spanish Civil War.* [99]* [100] Dal sent telegrams to many modern artists, such as Damien Hirst, Noel FieldFranco, praising him for signing death warrants for prison- ing, Je Koons and most other modern surrealists. Salvador
ers.* [98] He even met Franco personally,* [101] and painted Dal's manic expression and famous moustache have made
a portrait of Franco's granddaughter.
him something of a cultural icon for the bizarre and surreal.
9.6. LISTING OF SELECTED WORKS

He has been portrayed on lm by Robert Pattinson in Little
Ashes, and Adrien Brody in Midnight in Paris. He was also
parodied in a series of painting skits on Captain Kangaroo
as Salvador Silly(played by Cosmo Allegretti) and in a
Sesame Street muppet skit as Salvador Dada(an orange
gold AM performed by Jim Henson).
9.6 Listing of selected works

Main article: List of works by Salvador Dal
Dal produced over 1,500 paintings in his career* [109] in
addition to producing illustrations for books, lithographs,
designs for theatre sets and costumes, a great number of
drawings, dozens of sculptures, and various other projects,
including an animated short lm for Disney. He also collaborated with director Jack Bond in 1965, creating a movie
titled Dal in New York. Below is a chronological sample of
important and representative work, as well as some notes
on what Dal did in particular years.* [3]
In Carlos Lozano's biography, Sex, Surrealism, Dal, and
Me, produced with the collaboration of Cliord Thurlow,
Lozano makes it clear that Dal never stopped being a surrealist. As Dal said of himself:the only dierence between
me and the surrealists is that I am a surrealist.* [44]
1910 Landscape Near Figueras
1913 Vilabertin
1916 Fiesta in Figueras (begun 1914)
1917 View of Cadaqus with Shadow of Mount Pani
1918 Crepuscular Old Man (begun 1917)
1919 Port of Cadaqus (Night) (begun 1918) and Selfportrait in the Studio
1920 The Artist's Father at Llane Beach and View of
Portdogu (Port Aluger)
1921 The Garden of Llaner (Cadaqus) (begun 1920)
and Self-portrait
1922 Cabaret Scene and Night Walking Dreams
1923 Self Portrait with L'Humanite and Cubist Self
Portrait with La Publicitat
1924 Still Life (Syphon and Bottle of Rum) (for Garca
Lorca) and Portrait of Luis Buuel
1925 Large Harlequin and Small Bottle of Rum and a
series of ne portraits of his sister Anna Maria, most
notably Figure at a Window
141
1926 The Basket of Bread, Girl from Figueres and Girl
with Curls
1927 Composition with Three Figures (Neo-Cubist
Academy) and Honey is Sweeter than Blood (his rst
important surrealist work)
1929 Un Chien Andalou (An Andalusian Dog) lm
in collaboration with Luis Buuel, The Lugubrious
Game, The Great Masturbator, The First Days of
Spring, and The Profanation of the Host
1930 L'Age d'Or (The Golden Age) lm in collaboration with Luis Buuel
1931 The Persistence of Memory (his most famous
work, featuring the melting clocks), The Old Age
of William Tell, and William Tell and Gradiva
1932 The Spectre of Sex Appeal, The Birth of Liquid
Desires, Anthropomorphic Bread, and Fried Eggs on
the Plate without the Plate. The Invisible Man (begun
1929) completed (although not to Dal's own satisfaction)
1933 Retrospective Bust of a Woman (mixed media
sculpture collage) and Portrait of Gala With Two
Lamb Chops Balanced on Her Shoulder, Gala in the
Window
1934 The Ghost of Vermeer of Delft Which Can Be
Used As a Table and A Sense of Speed
1935 Archaeological Reminiscence of Millet's Angelus
and The Face of Mae West
1936 Autumn Cannibalism, Lobster Telephone, Soft
Construction with Boiled Beans (Premonition of Civil
War) and two works titled Morphological Echo (the
rst of which began in 1934)
1937 Metamorphosis of Narcissus, Swans Reecting
Elephants, The Burning Girae, Sleep, The Enigma of
Hitler, Mae West Lips Sofa and Cannibalism in Autumn
1938 The Sublime Moment and Apparition of Face and
Fruit Dish on a Beach
1939 Shirley Temple, The Youngest, Most Sacred Monster of the Cinema in Her Time
1940 Slave Market with the Disappearing Bust of
Voltaire, The Face of War
1941 Honey is Sweeter than Blood
1943 The Poetry of America and Geopoliticus Child
Watching the Birth of the New Man
142
1944 Galarina and Dream Caused by the Flight of a
Bee Around a Pomegranate a Second Before Awakening
194448 Hidden Faces, a novel
1945, Basket of BreadRather Death than Shame and
Fountain of Milk Flowing Uselessly on Three Shoes;
also this year, Dal collaborated with Alfred Hitchcock
on a dream sequence to the lm Spellbound, to mutual
dissatisfaction
1946 The Temptation of St. Anthony by Salvador Dali
1948 Les Elephants
1949 Leda Atomica and The Madonna of Port Lligat.
Dal returned to Catalonia this year
1951 Christ of Saint John of the Cross and Exploding
Raphaelesque Head

1965 Dal donates a gouache, ink and pencil drawing
of the Crucixion to the Rikers Island jail in New York
City. The drawing hung in the inmate dining room
from 1965 to 1981* [110]
1965 Dal in New York
1967 Tuna Fishing
1969 Chupa Chups logo
1969 Improvisation on a Sunday Afternoon, television
collaboration with the British progressive rock group
Nirvana
1970 The Hallucinogenic Toreador, acquired in 1969
by A. Reynolds Morse & Eleanor R. Morse before it
was completed
1972 La Toile Daligram, Helena Devulina Diakano
dit., GALA
1951 Katharine Cornell, a portrait of the famed actress
1973 Le Diners De Gala, an ornately illustrated

cook book
1952 Galatea of the Spheres
1976 Gala Contemplating the Mediterranean Sea
1954 The Disintegration of the Persistence of Memory (begun in 1952), Crucixion (Corpus Hypercubus)
and Young Virgin Auto-Sodomized by the Horns of Her
Own Chastity
1977 Dal's Hand Drawing Back the Golden Fleece in

the Form of a Cloud to Show Gala Completely Nude,
Very Far Away Behind the Sun (stereoscopical pair of
paintings)
1955 The Sacrament of the Last Supper, Lonesome

Echo, record album cover for Jackie Gleason
1983 Dal completes his nal painting, The Swallow's

Tail
1956 Still Life Moving Fast, Rinoceronte vestido con

puntillas
1957 Santiago el Grande oil on canvas on permanent
display at Beaverbrook Art Gallery in Fredericton,
NB, Canada
Posthumous
2003 Destino, an animated short lm originally a collaboration between Dal and Walt Disney, is released.
Production on Destino began in 1945
1958 The Meditative Rose
The largest collections of Dal's work are at the Dal Theatre and Museum in Figueres, Catalonia, Spain, followed by
1959 The Discovery of America by Christopher Columthe Salvador Dal Museum in St. Petersburg, Florida, which
bus
contains the collection of A. Reynolds Morse & Eleanor R.
Morse.
It holds over 1,500 works from Dal. Other par 1960 Composicin Numrica (de fond prparatoire inticularly
signicant collections include the Reina Soa Muachev)]
seum in Madrid and the Salvador Dal Gallery in Pacic
1960 Dal began work on the Teatro-Museo Gala Sal- Palisades, California. Espace Dal in Montmartre, Paris,
vador Dal and Portrait of Juan de Pareja, the Assistant France, as well as the Dal Universe in London, England,
to Velzquez
contain a large collection of his drawings and sculptures.
1961 Dali created one of his most interesting works The unlikeliest venue for Dal's work was the Rikers Island
jail in New York City; a sketch of the Crucixion he do"El Triomf I el Rodoli de la Gala I en Dali"
nated to the jail hung in the inmate dining room for 16
19631964 They Will All Come from Saba a work in years before it was moved to the prison lobby for safekeepwater color depicting the Magi at St. Petersburg's Dal ing. Ironically, the drawing was stolen from that location in
Museum
March 2003 and has not been recovered.* [110]
9.11. NOTES
143
9.7 Dal museums and permanent 9.11 Notes

exhibitions
[1] Dali. Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
Dal Theatre and Museum Figueres, Catalonia,
Spain
[2] Phelan, Joseph, ',The Salvador Dal Show. Artcyclopedia.com. Retrieved August 22, 2010.
Salvador Dal House-Museum - Port Lligat, Catalonia,

Spain
[3] Dal, Salvador. (2000) Dal: 16 Art Stickers, Courier Dover

Publications. ISBN 0-486-41074-9.
Gala Dal House-Museum - Pbol, Catalonia, Spain
[4] Ian Gibson (1997). The Shameful Life of Salvador Dal. W.

W. Norton & Company. Gibson found out thatDal" (and
its many variants) is an extremely common surname in Arab
countries like Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria or Egypt. On the
other hand, also according to Gibson, Dal's mother's family,
the Domnech of Barcelona, had Jewish roots.
Salvador Dali Museum St Petersburg, Florida, US

Dal Universe Venice, Italy
Espace Dal Paris, France
Dal, permanent exhibition - Berlin, Germany
Museum-Gallery Xpo: Salvador Dali, permanent exhibition - Bruges, Belgium
Art Bank: Salvador Dal Private Exhibition - Parainen,
Finland
9.8 Major temporary exhibitions

The Dal Renaissance: New Perspectives on His Life
and Art after 1940 (2005) Philadelphia Museum of
Art* [94]
9.9 Gallery
[5] Saladyga, Stephen Francis.The Mindset of Salvador Dal".

lamplighter (Niagara University). Vol. 1 No. 3, Summer
2006. Retrieved July 22, 2006.
[6] Meisler, Stanley (April 2005). The Surreal World of Salvador Dal". Smithsonian.com. Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2014-07-12.
[7] Birth certicate andDal Biography. Dal Museum. Dal
Museum. Retrieved August 24, 2008.
[8] Dal, The Secret Life of Salvador Dal, 1948, London: Vision
Press, p.33
[9] Llongueras, Llus. (2004) Dal, Ediciones B Mexico.
ISBN 84-666-1343-9.
[10] Rojas, Carlos. Salvador Dal, Or the Art of Spitting on Your
Mother's Portrait, Penn State Press (1993). ISBN 0-27100842-3.
[11] Salvador Dal. SINA.com. Retrieved on July 31, 2006.
Gala in the Window (1933)

Marbella
[12] Salvador Dal biography on astrodatabank.com. Retrieved

September 30, 2006.
The Rainbow (1972), M.T. Abraham Foundation
[13] Dal, Secret Life, p.2
Rinoceronte vestido con puntillas (1956)

Puerto Jos Bans
[14] Dal Biography 19041989 Part Two. artelino.com.

Retrieved September 30, 2006.
Plaza de Dal (Dal Square), Madrid
[15] Dal, Secret Life, pp.152153
Perseo (Perseus)
Marbella
Children at Dal exhibition in Sakp Sabanc Museum,
Istanbul
9.10 See also

Little Ashes
A list of Salvador Dali Images on the Web
[16] As listed in his prison record of 1924, aged 20. However,

his hairdresser and biographer, Luis Llongueras, states Dal
was 1.74 m (5 ft 8 1 2 in) tall.
[17] For more in-depth information about the Lorca-Dal connection see Lorca-Dal: el amor que no pudo ser and The
Shameful Life of Salvador Dal, both by Ian Gibson.
[18] Bosquet, Alain, Conversations with Dal, 1969. p. 1920.
(PDF format) (of Garca Lorca) 'S.D.:He was homosexual,
as everyone knows, and madly in love with me. He tried to
screw me twice .... I was extremely annoyed, because I wasn
t homosexual, and I wasnt interested in giving in. Besides,
it hurts. So nothing came of it. But I felt awfully attered
144
vis--vis the prestige. Deep down I felt that he was a great

poet and that I owe him a tiny bit of the Divine Dal's asshole.
He eventually bagged a young girl, and she replaced me in
the sacrice. Failing to get me to put my ass at his disposal,
he swore that the girl's sacrice was matched by his own: it
was the rst time he had ever slept with a woman.'
[19] Salvador Dal: Olga's Gallery. Retrieved on July 22, 2006.
[36] Program Notes by Andy Ditzler (2005) and Deborah

Solomon, Utopia Parkway: The Life of Joseph Cornell
(New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2003)". Andel.home.mindspring.com. Retrieved August 22, 2010.
[37] Salvador Dal Exhibition, Exhibition Catalogue February
16 through May 15, 2005
[20] Paintings Gallery No. 5. Dali-gallery.com. Retrieved

August 22, 2010.
[38] Salvador Dali Exhibition - Philadelphia Museum of Art February 16 through May 15, 2005. Philadelphia.about.com
(2005-05-15). Retrieved on 2014-05-12.
[21] Hodge, Nicola, and Libby Anson. The AZ of Art: The

World's Greatest and Most Popular Artists and Their Works.
California: Thunder Bay Press, 1996. Online citation.
[39] Bretell, Richard R. (1995). Impressionist paintings, drawings, and sculpture from the Wendy and Emery Reeves Collection. Dallas Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-936227-15-3.
[22] Phelan, Joseph. Artcyclopedia.com. Retrieved August

22, 2010.
[40] Salvador Dal. Gala-Salvador Dal Foundation. Retrieved

2011-06-07
[23] Koller, Michael. Un Chien Andalou. senses of cinema January 2001. Retrieved on July 26, 2006.
[24] Shelley, Landry.Dal Wows Crowd in Philadelphia. Unbound (The College of New Jersey) Spring 2005. Retrieved
on July 22, 2006.
[41] J. Herbert, Paris 1937: Worlds on Exhibition (Ithaca: Cornell

University Press, 1998) ISBN 0-8014-3494-7
[42] A. Cohen-Solal, Leo and His Circle: The Life of Leo Castelli
(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010) ISBN 978-1-40004427-6
[25] Gibson, Ian (1997). The Shameful Life of Salvador Dal.

London: Faber and Faber. pp. 2389. ISBN 0-571-193803.
[43] Schaner, Ingrid, Photogr. by Eric Schaal (2002). Salvador

Dal's Dream of Venus: the surrealist funhouse from
the 1939 World's Fair (1. ed.). New York, NY: Princeton
Architectural Press. ISBN 978-1568983592.
[26] Gala Biography. Dal. Gala-Salvador Dal Foundation.

[44] Artcyclopedia: Salvador Dal.

2006.
[27] Clocking in with Salvador Dal: Salvador Dal's Melting

Watches (PDF) from the Salvador Dal Museum. Retrieved
on August 19, 2006.
[45] Dali. Sousa Mendes Foundation (1940-06-20). Retrieved

on 2014-05-12.
[28] Salvador Dal, La Conqute de l'irrationnel (Paris: ditions

surralistes, 1935), p. 25.
[29] Carr d'Art, Jean-Pierre Thiollet, Paris, Anagramme, 2008,
p. 212
[30] Amengual, Margalida (17 October 2011). An opera on
the relationship between Salvador Dal and Gala arrives at
Barcelonas Liceu. Catalan News Agency (CNA). Intracatalnia, SA. Retrieved 27 May 2012.
[31] Current Biography 1940, pp. 219220
[32] Luis Buuel, My Last Sigh: The Autobiography of Luis
Buuel, Vintage 1984. ISBN 0-8166-4387-3
[33] Greeley, Robin Adle (2006). Surrealism and the Spanish
Civil War, Yale University Press. p. 81. ISBN 0-300-112955.
[34] Jackaman, Rob. (1989) The Course of English Surrealist Poetry Since the 1930s, Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 0-88946932-6.
[35] Current Biography 1940, p219
Retrieved September 4,
[46] Descharnes, Robert and Nicolas. Salvador Dal. New York:

Konecky & Konecky, 1993. p. 35.
[47] Luis Buuel, My Last Sigh: The Autobiography of Luis
Buuel (Vintage, 1984) ISBN 0-8166-4387-3
[48] Dal's gift to exorcist uncovered Catholic News, October 14,
2005.
[49] Lpez, Ignacio Javier. The Old Age of William Tell (A study
of Buuel's Tristana). MLN 116 (2001): 295314.
[50] The Phantasmagoric UniverseEspace Dal Montmartre.
Bonjour Paris. Retrieved on August 22, 2006.
[51] Ades, ed. by Dawn (2000). Dal's optical illusions :
[Wadsworth Atheneum Museum of Art, January 21 - March
26, 2000 : Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, April
19 - June 18, 2000 ; Scottish National Gallery of Modern
Art, July 25 - October 1, 2000]. New Haven CT: Yale Univ.
Press. ISBN 978-0300081770.
[52] The History and Development of Holography. Holophile.
Retrieved on August 22, 2006.
[53] Hello, Dal. Carnegie Magazine. Retrieved on August 22,
2006.
9.11. NOTES
145
[54] Elliott H. King in Dawn Ades (ed.), Dal, Bompiani Arte,

Milan, 2004, p. 456.
[73] Michael Taylor in Dawn Ades (ed.), Dal (Milan: Bompiani,

2004), p. 342
[55] Ades, ed. by Dawn (2000). Dal's optical illusions :

[Wadsworth Atheneum Museum of Art, January 21 - March
26, 2000 : Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, April
19 - June 18, 2000 ; Scottish National Gallery of Modern
Art, July 25 - October 1, 2000]. New Haven CT: Yale Univ.
Press. pp. 1718. ISBN 978-0300081770.
[74] Dal Universe Collection. County Hall Gallery. Retrieved

on July 28, 2006.
[56] Salvador Dal Bio, Art on 5th. Retrieved July 22, 2006.
Archived May 4, 2006 at the Wayback Machine
[57] Pitxot, Antoni; Montse Aguer Teixidor; photography, Jordi
Puig; translation, Steve Cedar (2007). The Dal TheatreMuseum. Sant Llus, Menorca: Triangle Postals. ISBN
9788484782889.
[75] Salvador Dal's symbolism. County Hall Gallery. Retrieved on July 28, 2006
[76] Dal: Explorations into the domain of science. The Triangle
Online. Retrieved August 8, 2006.
[77] Lobster telephone. National Gallery of Australia. Retrieved
on August 4, 2006.
[78] Tate Collection | Lobster Telephone by Salvador Dal. Tate
Online. Retrieved on August 4, 2006.
[58] Figueres: Teatre Museu Dal - History. Fundaci GalaSalvador Dal. 2010. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
[79] Owen Cheatham Foundation. Dali, a study of his art-injewels: the collection of the Owen Cheatham Foundation.
New York: New York Graphic Society. 1959. p. 14.
[59] Salvador Dal at Le Meurice Paris and St Regis in New York

Andreas Augustin, ehotelier.com, 2007
[80] [Anon.] (1976).Faenza-Goldmedaille fr SUOMI. Artis

29: 8. ISSN 0004-3842.
[60] Scotsman review of Dirty Dal". The Scotsman. UK. Retrieved August 22, 2010.
[81] Federico Garca Lorca. Pegsos. Retrieved on August 8,

2006.
[61] The Dali I knew By Brian Sewell, thisislondon.co.uk
[82] Dal Rotterdam Museum Boijmans. Paris Contemporary

Designs. Retrieved on August 8, 2006.
[62] Ian Gibson (1997). The Shameful Life of Salvador Dal. W.

W. Norton & Company.
[63] Excerpts from the BOE Website Herldica y Genealoga
Hispana
[64] Dal as Marqus de Dal de Pbol Boletn Ocial del
Estado, the ocial gazette of the Spanish government
[65] Dal Resting at Castle After Injury in Fire. The New
York Times. September 1, 1984. Retrieved July 22, 2006.
[66] Dcs de Robert Descharnes, l'homme qui avait sauv Salvador Dal (French)
[67] Mark Rogerson (1989). The Dal Scandal: An Investigation.
Victor Gollancz. ISBN 0-575-03786-5.
[68] Etherington-Smith, Meredith The Persistence of Memory:
A Biography of Dal p. 411, 1995 Da Capo Press, ISBN
0-306-80662-2
[69] Etherington-Smith, Meredith The Persistence of Memory:
A Biography of Dal pp. xxiv, 411412, 1995 Da Capo
Press, ISBN 0-306-80662-2
[70] http://www.salvador-dali.org/en_index.html | The GalaSalvador Dal Foundation website
[71] http://arsny.com/requested.html | Most frequently requested
artists list of the Artists Rights Society
[72] Salvador Dal, The Secret Life of Salvador Dal (New York:
Dial Press, 1942), p. 317.
[83] Past Exhibitions. Haggerty Museum of Art. Retrieved August 8, 2006.

[84]Dali & FilmEdt. Gale, Matthew. Salvador Dal Museum
Inc. St Petersburg, Florida. 2007.
[85] L'ge d'Or (The Golden Age)" Harvard Film Archive.
2006. April 10, 2008.
[86] Short, Robert. The Age of Gold: Surrealist Cinema, Persistence of VisionVol. 3, 2002.
[87] Elliott H. King, Dal, Surrealism and Cinema, Kamera
Books 2007, p. 169.
[88] http://jodorowskysdune.com/synopsis.html
[89] Prose, Francine. (2000) The Lives of the Muses: Nine
Women and the Artists they Inspired. Harper Perennial.
ISBN 0-06-055525-4.
[90] Lear, Amanda. (1986) My Life with Dal. Beaufort Books.
ISBN 0-8253-0373-7.
[91] Lozano, Carlos. (2000) Sex, Surrealism, Dal, and Me. Razor Books Ltd. ISBN 0-9538205-0-5.
[92] Etherington-Smith, Meredith. (1995) The Persistence of
Memory: A Biography of Dal. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0306-80662-2.
[93] "(Symposium announcement)". The Dal Renaissance: An
international symposium. Philadelphia Museum of Art.
April 1011, 2005. Retrieved 24 May 2012.
146
[94] Taylor, edited by Michael R. (2008). The Dal renaissance

: new perspectives on his life and art after 1940 : an international symposium. New Haven, Conn.: Philadelphia Museum of Art, distributed by Yale University Press. ISBN
9780300136470.
[95] Salvador Dali: Hidden faces: London: Owen: 1973
9.12
References
Linde Sabler.Dal". London: Haus Publishing, 2004

(paperback, ISBN 978-1-904341-75-8).
Salvador Dali interviewed by Mike Wallace on The
Mike Wallace Interview April 19, 1958
[96] Namath: A Biography, Mark Kriegel page 290

[97] Orwell, GeorgeBenet of Clergy: Some Notes on Salvador
Dal". theorwellprize.co.uk. Retrieved February 24, 2012.
9.13
External links
Biographies and news

[98] Navarro, Vicente, PhD The Jackboot of Dada: Salvador
Dal, Fascist. Counterpunch. December 6, 2003. Retrieved July 22, 2006.
Dal's surreal wind-powered organ lacks only a

rhinoceros
[99] Payne, Stanley G. THE A History of Spain and Portugal, Vol. 2, Ch. 26, p. 648651 (Print Edition: University of Wisconsin Press, 1973) (LIBRARY OF IBERIAN
RESOURCES ONLINE Accessed May 15, 2007)". Libro.uca.edu. Retrieved August 22, 2010.
UbuWeb: Salvador DalInterview and bank advertisement.
[100] De la Cueva, Julio,Religious Persecution, Anticlerical Tradition and Revolution: On Atrocities against the Clergy during the Spanish Civil War, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol XXXIII 3, 1998.
[Sex, Surrealism, Dal and Me, biography of Carlos

Lozano, Muse and lover of Salvador Dal, by Cliord
Thurlow.]
[101] Salvador Dal pictured with Francisco Franco

[102] The Surreal World of Salvador Dal. Smithsonian Magazine.
2005. Retrieved August 31, 2006.
[103] Dali and Mia Farrow a Surreal Friendship
[104] Robert Descharnes, Gilles Nret (1994). Salvador Dal,
1904-1989.
Benedikt Taschen.
p.
166.
ISBN
9783822802984. Dali, dualist as ever in his approach, was
now claiming to be both an agnostic and a Roman Catholic.
[105] Ocelot - Salvador Dali's pet - pictures and facts. Thewebsiteofeverything.com. Retrieved on 2014-05-12.
[106] Salvador Dali. Expert art authentication, certicates of authenticity and expert art appraisals - Art Experts. Artexpertswebsite.com. Retrieved on 2014-05-12.
[107] Salvador Dali - The Mike Wallace interview - transcript.
Harry Ransom Center. University of Texas at Austin. 195804-19 (interview date). Retrieved 2012-12-06. Check date
values in: |date= (help)
[108] Dali on Whats my Line
[109] The Salvador Dal Online Exhibit. MicroVision. Retrieved June 13, 2006.
[110] Dal picture sprung from jail. BBC. March 2, 2003.
Salvador Dal in the INA Archives A collection of

interviews and footage of Dal in the French television
Other links
Salvidor Dali on Wikiart.org
Literary news about Salvador Dal in Lletra, Catalan
literature online at the Open University of Catalonia.
The Image Library of prints by Salvador Dali
Robert Whitaker, Photographer, took many great images of Dali
Salvador Dal at the Museum of Modern Art
Article on Dal's religious faith
The Salvador Dal photo library 60.000 photos
Watch Un Chien Andalou at LikeTelevision
Gala-Salvador Dal Foundation English language site
St. Petersburg Dal Museum
Kurutz, Steven,Hello, Dali: Surrealist Museum Becomes a Reality, The Wall Street Journal Speakeasy
blog, January 11, 2011, 4:46 pm ET. Interview with
St. Petersburg (FL) museum director Dr. Hank Hine
about new building.
The shameful life of Salvador Dal" (the witches of
Llers)".

Dal and Fages: that intelligent and most cordial of
collaborations
El Triomf I el Rodoli de la Gala I en Dali
Not by Dali -- blog post by art appraiser and Dali
expert Bernard Ewell
Exhibitions
DaliParis.com Espace Dal, the permanent exhibition in France (Museum & Dal Fine Art Galleries)
Dal & Film Tate Modern, London
Museum-Gallery Xpo: Salvador Dal, Marquis de
Pbol in Bruges
Museum of Modern Art
ULAN Full Record Display for Salvador Dal. Getty
Vocabulary Program, Getty Research Institute. Los
Angeles, California.
147
Chapter 10
Frida Kahlo
Frida Kahlo de Rivera (Spanish pronunciation: [fia
kalo]; born Magdalena Carmen Frieda Kahlo y
Caldern; July 6, 1907 July 13, 1954)* [2]* [4] was
a Mexican painter* [5] who is best known for her selfportraits.* [6]
stated that her father was Jewish.* [12]* [13] However, genealogical research indicates that her father was not of Jewish heritage, but was from a Lutheran family.* [14]* [15]
Mexican culture and Amerindian cultural tradition are important in her work, which has been sometimes characterized as nave art or folk art.* [8] Her work has also been
described as surrealist, and in 1938 Andr Breton, principal initiator of the surrealist movement, described Kahlo's
art as a ribbon around a bomb.* [7] Frida rejected the
surrealistlabel; she believed that her work reected more
of her reality than her dreams.* [9]
Guillermo's rst wife, which occurred during the birth of

her second child. Although their marriage was quite unhappy, Guillermo and Matilde had four daughters; Kahlo
was the third. She had two older half sisters who were raised
in the same household. She remarked that she grew up in a
world surrounded by females. However, during most of her
life, she remained on amicable terms with her father.
Carl Wilhelm Kahlo traveled to Mexico during 1891, at

the age of nineteen, and upon his arrival, changed his
Kahlo's life began and ended in Mexico City, in her home German forename, Wilhelm, to its Spanish equivalent,
known as the Blue House. Her work has been celebrated in Guillermo.* [12]* [13]
Mexico as emblematic of national and indigenous tradition Kahlo's mother, Matilde Caldern y Gonzlez, was a devout
and by feminists for its uncompromising depiction of the Roman Catholic of mixed Amerindian and Spanish ancesfemale experience and form.* [7]
try.* [16] Her parents were married soon after the death of
Kahlo had a volatile marriage with the famous Mexican

artist Diego Rivera. She suered lifelong health problems,
many caused by a trac accident she survived as a teenager.
Recovering from her injuries isolated her from other people, and this isolation inuenced her works, many of which
are self-portraits of one sort or another. Kahlo suggested,
I paint myself because I am so often alone and because I
am the subject I know best.* [10] She also stated, I was
born a bitch. I was born a painter.* [11]
The Mexican Revolution began during 1910, when Kahlo

was three years old. She later gave her birth date as July
7, 1910, allegedly wanting her birth to coincide with the
beginning of the revolution so her life would begin with the
birth of modern Mexico.* [17] In her writings, she recalled
that her mother would usher her and her sisters inside the
house as gunre echoed in the streets of her hometown.
10.1 Childhood and family
Kahlo contracted polio at age six, which left her right leg
thinner than the left; she disguised this later in life by wearing long, colorful skirts. It has been conjectured that she
was born with spina bida, a congenital condition that could
have aected both spinal and leg development.* [18] She
participated in boxing and other sports.
Frida Kahlo was born on July 6, 1907, in her parents' house

known as La Casa Azul (The Blue House), in Coyoacn.
At the time, Coyoacn was a small town on the outskirts of
Mexico City.
In 1922, Kahlo was enrolled in the Escuela Nacional

Preparatoria, one of Mexico's premier schools, where she
was one of only thirty-ve girls. Kahlo joined a clique at
the school and became enamored of its strongest personality, Alejandro Gmez Arias.
Kahlo's father, Guillermo Kahlo (18711941), was born

Carl Wilhelm Kahlo in 1871, in Pforzheim, Germany, the
son of Jakob Heinrich Kahlo and Henriette Kaufmann.
During Kahlo's lifetime and subsequently, media reports
148
10.2. CAREER AS PAINTER
10.1.1
149
Bus accident
On September 17, 1925, Kahlo was riding in a bus that collided with a trolley car. She suered serious injuries as a
result of the accident, including a broken spinal column, a
broken collarbone, broken ribs, a broken pelvis, eleven fractures in her right leg, a crushed and dislocated right foot,
and a dislocated shoulder. Also, an iron handrail pierced
her abdomen and her uterus, compromising her reproductive capacity.
The accident left her in a great deal of pain, and she spent
three months recovering in a full body cast. Although she
recovered from her injuries and eventually regained her
ability to walk, she had relapses of extreme pain for the remainder of her life. The pain was intense and often left
her conned to a hospital or bedridden for months at a
time. She had as many as 35 operations as a result of the
accident, mainly on her back, her right leg, and her right
foot. The medical complications and permanent damage
also prevented Kahlo from having a child; though she conceived three times, all of her pregnancies had to be terminated.* [19]
10.2 Career as painter

See also: List of paintings by Frida Kahlo
After her accident, Kahlo abandoned the study of medicine
to begin a painting career. She painted to occupy her time
during her temporary immobilization. Her self-portraits
were a dominant part of her life when she was immobile
for three months after her accident. Kahlo once said, I
paint myself because I am so often alone and because I am
the subject I know best.* [10]
Frida Kahlo with Diego Rivera in 1932, in a photograph by Carl

Van Vechten
drawings and studies. Of her paintings, 55 are self-portraits

which often incorporate symbolic portrayals of physical
and psychological wounds. She insisted, I never painted
dreams. I painted my own reality.* [22]
Her mother had a special easel made for her so she could
paint in bed, and her father lent her his box of oil paints and
some brushes.* [20] Kahlo spent the time after her accident
in bed, where she was able to spend her time painting as
a way to entertain herself and express her pain. Her 1926
painting, titled Self Portrait in a Velvet Dress, she is shown
with a long and narrow face and neck, reective of Italian
Renaissance ideals.* [21]
Diego Rivera had a great inuence on Kahlo's painting style.

Kahlo had always admired Rivera and his work. She rst
approached him in the Public Ministry of Education, where
he had been working on a mural in 1927. She showed him
four of her paintings, and asked whether he considered her
gifted. Rivera was impressed and said, You have got talent.After that, he became a frequent welcomed guest at
Kahlo's house. He gave her many insights about her artwork
while still leaving her space to explore herself. The positive
and encouraging comments made by Rivera strengthened
Kahlo's wish to pursue a career as an artist.* [23]
Kahlo's accident made it impossible for her to have her own

children, resulting in a miscarriage when she became pregnant. Because of this, many of her pieces reference reproduction failure. Her 1932 painting, Henry Ford Hospital
was painted right after her miscarriage. In this work, Frida
is shown on a bed bleeding, with the cold and industrial feeling she got from being in Detroit behind her. Because of
this, she chose to paint on a sheet of metal to convey a more
industrial feel.* [21]
Kahlo was also inuenced by indigenous Mexican culture,

which is apparent in her use of bright colors, dramatic symbolism and primitive style. She frequently included the
symbolic monkey. In Mexican mythology, monkeys are
symbols of lust, but Kahlo portrayed them as tender and
protective symbols. Christian and Jewish themes are often
depicted in her work.* [24] She combined elements of the
classic religious Mexican tradition with surrealist renderings.
Kahlo created at least 140 paintings, along with dozens of In 1938, Kahlo had her rst and only solo gallery showing
150
in the United States at the Julien Levy Gallery. The works
were well received and the event was attended by several
prominent artists.* [25] At the invitation of Andr Breton,
she went to France during 1939 and was featured at an exhibition of her paintings in Paris. She made the acquaintance
of Wolfgang Paalen and Alice Rahon, whom she invited to
come to Mexico. The Louvre bought one of her paintings,
The Frame, which was displayed at the exhibit. This was
the rst work by a twentieth-century Mexican artist to be
purchased by the renowned museum.
10.3 Marriage
CHAPTER 10. FRIDA KAHLO
10.4
Later years and death
Active communists, Kahlo and Rivera befriended Leon

Trotsky during the late 1930s, after he ed Norway to
Mexico to receive political asylum from the Soviet Union,
where he was expelled and sentenced to death during Joseph
Stalin's leadership. During 1937, Trotsky lived initially
with Rivera and then at Kahlo's home (where he and Kahlo
had an aair).* [4] Trotsky and his wife then relocated to
another house in Coyoacn where, in 1940, he was assassinated. Both Kahlo and Rivera broke with Trotskyism and
openly became supporters of Stalin in 1939.* [28]
Kahlo died on July 13, 1954, soon after turning 47, and
was cremated according to her wishes. A few days before
her death, she wrote in her diary: I hope the exit is joyful and I hope never to return Frida.* [4] The ofcial cause of death was given as a pulmonary embolism,
although some suspected that she died from an overdose
that may or may not have been accidental.* [4] An autopsy
was never performed. She had been very ill throughout
the previous year, and her right leg had been amputated
at the knee, owing to gangrene. She had had a bout of
bronchopneumonia about that time, which had left her quite
frail.* [4]
In his autobiography, Diego Rivera would write that the day
Kahlo died was the most tragic day of his life, adding that,
too late, he had realized that the most wonderful part of his
life had been his love for her.* [4]
A pre-Columbian urn holding her ashes is on display in

her former home, La Casa Azul (The Blue House), in
Mal Block (left), Frida Kahlo (center), and Diego Rivera were Coyoacn, which since 1958 has been maintained as a muphotographed in Manhattan by Carl Van Vechten in 1932 while seum housing a number of her works of art and numerous
Rivera was working on a commissioned mural in Rockefeller Center mementos and artifacts from her personal life.* [4]
As a young artist, Kahlo communicated with the Mexican
painter Diego Rivera, whose work she admired, asking him
for advice about pursuing art as a career. He recognized her 10.5 Posthumous recognition
talent* [26] and encouraged her artistic development. They
began an intimate relationship and were married in 1929, Aside from the 1939 acquisition by the Louvre, Kahlo's
despite the disapproval of Kahlo's mother.
work was not widely acclaimed until decades after her
Their marriage was often troubled. Kahlo and Rivera both death. Often she was remembered only as Diego Rivera's
had irritable temperaments and numerous extramarital af- wife. It was not until the end of the 1970s and the early
fairs. The bisexual Kahlo had aairs with both men and 1980s, when the artistic style in Mexico known as Neomexbegan, that she became well-known to the pubwomen, including Isamu Noguchi and Josephine Baker;* [4] icanismo
*
*
[29]
[30]
It was during this time that artists such as
lic.
Rivera knew of and tolerated her relationships with women,
Kahlo,
Abraham
ngel, ngel Zrraga, and others gained
but her relationships with men made him jealous. For her
Jesus
Helguera's classical calendar paintrecognition,
and
part, Kahlo was furious when she learned that Rivera had
*
ings
became
famous.
[29]
an aair with her younger sister, Cristina. The couple
divorced in November 1939, but remarried in December
1940. Their second marriage was as troubled as the rst.
Their living quarters were often separate, although sometimes adjacent.* [27]
Also during the 1980s, additional factors helped to make

her better known. The rst retrospective of Kahlo's work
outside Mexico (exhibited alongside the photographs of
Tina Modotti) opened at the Whitechapel Gallery in Lon-
10.5. POSTHUMOUS RECOGNITION
Image of Kahlo for Day of the Dead at the Museo Frida Kahlo
don in May 1982, organized and co-curated by Peter Wollen

and Laura Mulvey. The exhibition also was shown in Sweden, Germany, Manhattan, and Mexico City. The movie
Frida, naturaleza viva (1983), directed by Paul Leduc with
Ofelia Medina as Kahlo and painter Juan Jos Gurrola as
Diego, was a great success. For the rest of her life, Medina has remained in a quasi-perpetual Kahlo role.* [31] Also
during the same time, Hayden Herrera published an inuential biography, Frida: A Biography of Frida Kahlo
(1983),* [32] which became a worldwide bestseller. Raquel
Tibol, a Mexican artist and personal friend of Kahlo, wrote
Frida Kahlo: una vida abierta (2003).* [33] Other works
about her include a biography by Mexican art critic and
psychoanalyst Teresa del Conde* [34] and texts by other
Mexican critics and theorists, such as Jorge Alberto Manrique.* [29]
From 199091, Kahlo's Diego on my Mind (1943), oil on
masonite, 76 by 61 centimeters piece was used as the representative piece on the post for the Metropolitan Museum of
Art's Mexico: Splendors of Thirty Centuries art exhibit. In
1991, the opera Frida by Robert Xavier Rodriguez, which
had been commissioned by the American Music Theater
Festival, premiered in Philadelphia.
151
Frida Kahlo, The Suicide of Dorothy Hale, 1939, Oil on masonite,

60.4 48.6 cm. The Phoenix Art Museum, Phoenix, Arizona,
USA the legend translated:
In the city of New York on the twenty-rst day of the
month of October, 1938, at six o'clock in the morning,
Mrs. Dorothy Hale committed suicide by throwing herself out of a very high window of the Hampshire House
building. In her memory Mrs. Clare Boothe Luce commissioned* [35] this retablo, executed by Frida Kahlo.
*
[36]
for Frida Kahlo on AudioQuest Music (now known as

Sledgehammer Blues).* [37]
On June 21, 2001, she became the rst Hispanic woman to
be honored with a U.S. postage stamp.* [38]
Frida (2002) is an American biographical movie, directed
by Julie Taymor, in which Salma Hayek portrayed the
artist.* [39] The lm, based on Herrera's book, grossed US$
58 million worldwide.* [39]
During June 9 to October 9, 2005, an international exhibition of Kahlo's work was presented at the Tate Modern in
London. It brought together 87 of her works for the display.
In 2006, Kahlo's painting Roots (1943) set a US$5.6 million
auction record for a Latin American work.* [40]
In 2008, a play based on Kahlo's life premiered at the

Edinburgh Festival Fringe. Frida Kahlo: Viva la vida!,
In 1994, American jazz autist and composer James written by Mexican Humberto Robles and performed by
Newton released an album inspired by Kahlo titled Suite Gael Le Cornec, received an Artistic Excellence Award and
152
a best female performer nomination at the Brighton Festival 10.5.1 Centennial celebration
Fringe in 2009.
During May 8 to July 5, 2009, Nickolas Muray's pho- Kahlo's 100th birthday was commemorated with the largest
tographs of Kahlo were featured alongside her Self-Portrait exhibit ever held of her paintings at the Palacio de Bellas
*
of Monkey (1938), in an exhibition at the AlbrightKnox Artes, Kahlo's rst comprehensive exhibit in Mexico. [45]
Works were on loan from Detroit, Los Angeles, Miami,
Art Gallery in Bualo, New York.
Minneapolis, San Francisco, and Nagoya, Japan. The exBarbara Kingsolver's novel, The Lacuna (2009), features hibit included one-third of her artistic production, as well
Kahlo, her life with Rivera, and her aair with Trotsky.
as manuscripts and letters that had not been displayed pre*
On July 6, 2010, to commemorate the anniversary of her viously. [45] The exhibit was open June 13 through August
birthday, Google altered its standard logo to include a por- 12, 2007, and surpassed all previous attendance records
at the museum.* [46] Some of her work was exhibited in
trait of Kahlo, depicted in her style of art.* [41]
Monterrey, Nuevo Len, and moved during September
On August 30, 2010, the Bank of Mexico issued a new 2007 to museums in the United States.
MXN$ 500-peso note, featuring Kahlo and her painting entitled Love's Embrace of the Universe, Earth, (Mexico), I, In 2008, a Frida Kahlo exhibition in the United States with
Diego, and Mr. Xlotl (1949) on the back of the note while more than 40 of her self-portraits, still lives, and portraits
her husband Diego Rivera was on the front of the note.* [42] was shown at the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis, the
Philadelphia Museum of Art, the San Francisco Museum
In February 2011, soprano Dawn Upshaw and the Saint of Modern Art, and other venues.
Paul Chamber Orchestra premiered La Centinela y La
Paloma (The Keeper and the Dove), composed by Latin A Frida Kahlo Retrospectiveexhibit at the WalterGrammy composer Gabriela Lena Frank with texts by Gropius-Bau, Berlin from April 30 to August 9, 2010, has
Pulitzer Prize playwright Nilo Cruz. The orchestral song brought together more than 120 drawings and paintings, incycle imagines Frida Kahlo as a spirit who returns to visit cluding several drawings never before displayed publicly.
Regarding Kahlo's preferredbirth year (she claimed to
with Diego Rivera during El Da de los Muertos.
be born in 1910 during the Mexican Revolution), the Berlin
From July 9 to October 2, 2011, an exhibition of works by show is also being touted as a centennialexhibition.
Frida Kahlo (19071954) and Diego Rivera (18861957),
Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera: Masterpieces from the Gelman Collection, was shown at Pallant House Gallery, Chich10.5.2 La Casa Azul
ester, West Sussex.
In 2012 Kahlo was inducted into the Legacy Walk, an out- La Casa Azul (The Blue House) in Coyoacn, Mexico City,
door public display which celebrates LGBT history and also referred to as Museo Frida Kahlo since it became a mupeople.* [43]
seum in 1958, is the family home where Frida Kahlo grew
From October 20, 2012 to January 20, 2013, Kahlo's paint- up and to which she returned in her nal years. Her father,
ings, as well as photographs of the iconic Mexican painter, Guillermo Kahlo, built the house in 1907 as the Kahlo famwere featured in a dual retrospective with partner Diego ily home. Leon Trotsky stayed at this house when he rst
Rivera, entitled Frida & Diego: Passion, Politics, and Paint- arrived in Mexico in 1937. Trotsky's nal site of residence
ing, at the Art Gallery of Ontario in Toronto. This exhibi- in Mexico City is located in close proximity to the Casa
tion later traveled to the High Museum of Art in Atlanta, Azul.
February 14 to May 12, 2013.
Kahlo and Rivera lived together in the Blue House between
In late April 2014, a musical play written and composed
by Los Angeles, California playwright Rita Ortez Provost,
entitled Tree of Hope, was in West Hollywood, California
at the Macha Theatre.
On October 17, 2014 the four-act opera Frida y Diego
by the Finnish composer Kalevi Aho had its premiere at
the Helsinki Music Centre. The libretto, in Spanish, is by
Maritza Nez.* [44]
1929 and 1954. The home was donated by Diego Rivera

upon his death in 1957, three years after that of Kahlo, and
the house is now a museum housing artifacts of her life. Her
beautiful former home is a popular destination for tourists.
10.7. REFERENCES
10.6 See also

Self portrait
Western painting
10.7 References
[1] Image full description and credit: Frida Kahlo, SelfPortrait with Thorn Necklace and Hummingbird, 1940, oil
on canvas on Masonite, 24 19 inches, Nikolas Muray
Collection, Harry Ransom Center, The University of Texas
at Austin, 2007 Banco de Mxico Diego Rivera & Frida
Kahlo Museums Trust, Av. Cinco de Mayo No. 2, Col.
Centro, Del. Cuauhtmoc 06059, Mxico, D.F.
[2] Frieda is a German name from the word for peace
(Friede/Frieden); Kahlo began omitting theein her name
about 1935
[3] Frieda and Diego Rivera (1931) at SFMOMA
[4] Herrera, Hayden (1983). A Biography of Frida Kahlo. New
York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-008589-6.
153
[16] Frida Kahlo (19071954), Mexican Painter. Biography.

Retrieved 2013-02-19.
[17] Herrera, Hayden (1983). Frida: A Biography of Frida Kahlo
(1st ed.). New York: Harper & Row. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-06011843-3.
[18] Budrys, Valmantas (February 2006).Neurological Decits
in the Life and Work of Frida Kahlo. European Neurology
55 (1): 410. doi:10.1159/000091136. ISSN 0014-3022.
PMID 16432301. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
[19] Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera. The History Show (RT
Radio 1). 17 April 2011. Retrieved 10 July 2014.
[20] Cruz, Barbara (1996). Frida Kahlo: Portrait of a Mexican
Painter. Berkeley Heights: Enslow. p. 9. ISBN 0-89490765-4.
[21] Herrera, Hayden. Kahlo, Frida. Oxford Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Retrieved 29 October 2014.
[22] Andrea, Kettenmann (1993). Frida Kahlo Pain and Passion.
Kln: Benedikt Taschen Verlag GmbH. p. 48. ISBN 38228-9636-5.
[5] Frida Kahlo. Smithsonian.com. Retrieved 2008-02-18.
[23] Andrea, Kettenmann (1993). Frida Kahlo: Pain and Passion. Kln: Benedikt Taschen Verlag GmbH. p. 3. ISBN
3-8228-9636-5.
[6] Klein, Adam G. (2005). Frida Kahlo. Edina, Minn.: ABDO

Pub. Co. ISBN 9781596797314. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
[24] Frida Kahlo. The Jewish Mexicana. Retrieved 6 July

2010.
[7] Broude, Norma & Garrard, Mary D (1992). The Expanding

Discourse: Feminism and Art History. p. 399.
[25] MoMA. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
[8] Karl, Ruhrberg; Manfred Schneckenburger; Christiane

Fricke; Klaus Honnef (2000). Frida Kahlo: Art of the
20th Century: Painting, Sculpture, New Media, Photography.
Kln: Benedikt Taschen Verlag GmbH. p. 745. ISBN 38228-5907-9.
[9] Herrera. Hayden. Oxford Online. Oxford University
Press. Retrieved 2014-09-28.
[10] Andrea Kettenmann, Frida Kahlo. Frida Kahlo, 19071954:
pain and passion page 27. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
[11] Levine, Barbara (2009). Finding Frida Kahlo: An Unexpected Archive (New York: Princeton Architectural). Print.
[26] Movie Review: Frida. The Life of Frida Kahlo, Famed

Mexican. Retrieved 6 July 2010.
[27] Mexican painter Frida Kahlo. Frida Kahlo Google Doodle. Retrieved 6 July 2010.
[28] Lowe, Sarah (2001). The Diary of Frida Kahlo. UK.
[29] Emerich, Luis Carlos (1989). Figuraciones y desguros de
los ochentas. Mexico City: Editorial Diana. ISBN 968-131908-7.
[30] Helland, Janice (Fall 1990 Winter 1991).Aztec Imagery
in Frida Kahlo's Paintings. Woman's Art Journal 11: 813.
Retrieved 26 June 2013.
[12] Beyond Mexicanidad: The Other Roots of Frida Kahlo [31] Cada quin su Frida, stage piece. Cada quien su Frida.
s Identity By Leslie Camhi. The Forward, September 26,
2003. Forward.com. 2003-09-26. Retrieved 2012-12-28.
[32] Herrera, Hayden (1983). Frida: A Biography of Frida
Khalo. p. 507. ISBN 978-0060118433.
[13] Hayden Herrara, Frida: A Biography of Frida Kahlo, 1983
p5
[33] Tibol, Raquel (1983) [1983]. Frida Kahlo: an Open Life.
USA: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1418[14] Ronnen, Meir (2006-04-20). Frida Kahlo's father wasn't
X.
Jewish after all. The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 2009-0902.
[34] Frida Khalo. Monograas de arte (in Spanish) (1 ed.).
[15] Fridas Vater: Der Fotograf Guillermo Kahlo by Gaby
Instituto de Investigaciones Esteticas, Universidad Nacional
Franger and Rainer Huhle
Autonoma de Mexico. 1992. ISBN 978-9683624369.
154
[35] These words were subsequently painted out by Kahlo on

Luce's request.
[36] Andrea Kettenmann (1999). Frida Kahlo: 19071954 Pain
and Passion. Taschen. ISBN 3-8228-5983-4.
[37] Suite for Frida Kahlo. Valley Entertainment. Retrieved
6 July 2010.
[38] Stamp Release No. 01-048 Postal Service Continues Its
Celebration of Fine Arts With Frida Kahlo Stamp. USPS.
Retrieved 29 October 2010.
[39] Frida (2002)". Box Oce Mojo. Retrieved 29 October
2010.
[40] Frida Kahlo "Roots Sets $5.6 Million Record at Sotheby's
. Art Knowledge News. 2006. Retrieved 23 August 2011.
[41] Frida Kahlo Google logo. Google. Retrieved 29 October
2010.
[42] Presentacin del nuevo billete de quinientos pesos. Bank
of Mexico. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
[43] Victor Salvo // The Legacy Project. Legacy Project
Chicago. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
[44] p. 3. Retrieved 18 December 2012 (PDF). Retrieved
28 December 2012.
[45] Largest-ever exhibit of Frida Kahlo work to open in Mexico. Agence France Presse, Yahoo News (May 29, 2007).
[46] Centenary show for Mexican painter Kahlo breaks attendance records. People's Daily Online (August 14, 2007).
10.8 Bibliography
Pierre, Clavilier (2006). Frida Kahlo, les ailes froisses, ed Jamsin ISBN 978-2-912080-53-0
Fuentes, C. (1998). Diary of Frida Kahlo. Harry N.
Abrams, Inc. (March 1, 1998). ISBN 0-8109-8195-5.
Gonzalez, M. (2005). Frida Kahlo A Life. Socialist
Review, June 2005.

Turner, C. (2005). Photographing Frida Kahlo. The
Guardian, Wednesday May 18, 2005. Retrieved May
18, 2005.
Zamora, M. (1995). The Letters of Frida Kahlo:
Cartas Apasionadas. Chronicle Books (November 1,
1995). ISBN 0-8118-1124-7
The Diary of Frida Kahlo. Introduction by Carlos
Fuentes. Essay by Sarah M. Lowe. London: Bloomsburry, 1995. ISBN 0-7475-2247-2
Griths J. (2011). A Love Letter from a Stray Moon,
Text Publishing, Melbourne Australia (forthcoming).
Frida's bed(2008) a novel based on the life of
Frida Kahlo by Croatian writer Slavenka Drakulic.
Penguin (non-classics) ISBN 978-0-14-311415-4
10.9
Further reading
Aguilar, Louis. "Detroit was muse to legendary artists

Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo.The Detroit News.
April 6, 2011.
Espinoza, Javier. "Frida Kahlo's last secret nally revealed.The Observer at The Guardian. Saturday August 11, 2007.
"Frida Kahlo, Artist, Diego Rivera's Wife" (obituary).
The New York Times. Wednesday, July 14, 1954.
de la Garza, Armida. Adapting Frida Kahlo: The
Film-Paintings, in: Lucia Nagib and Anne Jerslev
(eds.) Impure Cinema. I.B.Tauris, 2014.
10.10
External links
Frida Kahlo at the Open Directory Project.

Frida Kahlo's paintings, drawings, and photos.
Arts Galleries: Frida Kahlo. Exhibition at Tate Modern, June 9 October 9, 2005. The Guardian,
Wednesday May 18, 2005. Retrieved May 18, 2005.
The ocial Frida Kahlo Site
Nericcio, William Anthony. (2005). A Decidedly

'Mexican' and 'American' Semi[er]otic Transference:
Frida Kahlo in the Eyes of Gilbert Hernandez.
Frida Kahlo at the Museum of Modern Art
Tibol, Raquel (original 1983, English translation 1993

by Eleanor Randall) Frida Kahlo: an Open Life. USA:
University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1418X
The complete works of Frida Kahlo
Frida Kahlo & contemporary thought contains an

extensive bibliography
Gallery of Frida Kahlo self-portraits
Frida nudes photos by Julien Levy, 1938

Frida Kahlo Retrospective at Bank Austria Kunstforum, 2010 Frida Kahlo Retrospective at Bank Austria
Kunstforum, Vienna, Austria 2010
For a selection of documents on Frida at the ICAA
Museum of Fine Arts Houston
155
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File:Andrea_del_Verrocchio,_Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Baptism_of_Christ_-_Uffizi.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

commons/b/bc/Andrea_del_Verrocchio%2C_Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Baptism_of_Christ_-_Uffizi.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing
GmbH. Original artist: Andrea del Verrocchio
File:Basilique_Saint-Pierre_Vatican_dome.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Basilique_Saint-Pierre_
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File:Carp_leaping_up_a_cascade.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Carp_leaping_up_a_cascade.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Claude_Monet,_1879,_Camille_sur_son_lit_de_mort,_oil_on_canvas,_90_x_68_cm,_Muse_d'Orsay,_Paris.jpg
Source:
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License:
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domain
Contributors:
Image
source:
[http://www.musee-orsay.fr/fr/collections/catalogue-des-oeuvres/resultat-collection.html?no_
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File:Claude_Monet,_Impression,_soleil_levant,_1872.jpg Source:
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Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA
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?
File:Costume_design_by_Pablo_Picasso_representing_skyscrapers_and_boulevards,_for_Serge_Diaghilev'{}s_Ballets_Russes_
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http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/
c/c9/Costume_design_by_Pablo_Picasso_representing_skyscrapers_and_boulevards%2C_for_Serge_Diaghilev%27s_Ballets_Russes_
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Pablo Picasso
File:Coyoacn_da_de_muertos_08.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Coyoac%C3%A1n_d%C3%ADa_
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File:Cranes_Hokusai.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Cranes_Hokusai.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Visipix.com Original artist: Hokusai
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Contributors:
own work
170
Canon EF Canon Lens 100 mm F2,8

Original artist: Jean-Pol GRANDMONT
File:Da_Vinci_Studies_of_Embryos_Luc_Viatour.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Da_Vinci_Studies_
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File:Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work www.lucnix.be. 2007-09-08 (photograph). Photograpy:
Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
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File:Dali_museum.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Dali_museum.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own
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File:Design_for_a_Flying_Machine.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Design_for_a_Flying_Machine.jpg
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File:Domenikos_Theotokpoulos,_called_El_Greco_-_The_Assumption_of_the_Virgin_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg
Source:
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maximum Original artist: El Greco
File:Dormition_El_Greco.jpg
Source:
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License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/g/greco_el/01/0101grec.jpg' data-xrel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png'
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data-leheight='60' /></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/g/greco_el/01/0101grec.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information
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Contributors: http://dide-d-ath.att.sch.gr/Istorika/Hliadi/ElGreco.htm Original artist:
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http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/El_Expolio_del_
Greco_Catedral_de_Toledo.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/g/greco_el/04/
0402grec.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/
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2C_The_Vision_of_Saint_John_%281608-1614%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/g/
greco_el/ Original artist: El Greco
File:El_Greco_-_The_Burial_of_the_Count_of_Orgaz.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/El_Greco_-_
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File:El_Greco_View_of_Toledo.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/El_Greco_View_of_Toledo.jpg License:
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File:El_greco.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/El_greco.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: http:
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File:Familia_Dal_(h_1910).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Familia_Dal%C3%AD_%28h_1910%29.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Robert Descharnes, Gilles Nret: Dal, tomo I, Taschen, Kln, 2007, ISBN 978-3-8228-3820-4
Original artist: Josep Pichot (1869-1921)
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License: Public domain Contributors: Codex Forster III (Milan, about 1490-1493) Victoria and Albert Museum / V&A Prints http://www.
vandaprints.com/image.php?id=68396 Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Flag_of_Italy.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Mexico.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg License:

Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Alex Covarrubias, 9 April 2006
171
Public domain
File:Francois_I_recoit_les_derniers_soupirs_de_Leonard_de_Vinci_by_Ingres.jpg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/7/79/Francois_I_recoit_les_derniers_soupirs_de_Leonard_de_Vinci_by_Ingres.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Petit
Palais 19th Century Collection Original artist: Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres
File:Frida_Kahlo_Diego_Rivera_1932.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Frida_Kahlo_Diego_Rivera_
1932.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Carl Van Vechten photograph collection (Library of Congress), reproduction number LC-USZ6242516 DLC (b&w lm copy neg.). Original artist: Carl Van Vechten
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http://wtc.11.9.googlepages.com/picasso-boy-with-pipe.jpg Original artist:
Pablo Picasso
File:GertrudeStein.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d6/GertrudeStein.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Ghirlandaio_a-pucci-lorenzo-de-medici-f-sassetti_1.jpg
Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/
19/Ghirlandaio_a-pucci-lorenzo-de-medici-f-sassetti_1.jpg License:
Web Gallery of Art:
<a
href='http://www.wga.hu/art/g/ghirland/domenico/5sassett/frescoes/5confir3.jpg'
data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
alt='Inkscape.svg'
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wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60' /></a> Image
<a
href='http://www.wga.hu/html/g/ghirland/domenico/5sassett/frescoes/5confir3.html'
alt='Information
data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Domenico Ghirlandaio
File:Grave_of_Vincent_van_Gogh.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Grave_of_Vincent_van_Gogh.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Restored version of File:Great Wave o Kanagawa.jpg (rotated and cropped, dirt, stains, and smudges
removed. Creases corrected. Histogram adjusted and color balanced.) Original artist: Katsushika Hokusai ()
File:Gylleneportarna.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Gylleneportarna.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by Domeij Original artist: Gates of Paradise
File:Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec_056.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec_
056.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
File:Hodogaya_on_the_Tokaido.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Hodogaya_on_the_Tokaido.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://visipix.com/index.htm Original artist: Katsushika Hokusai ()
File:Hokusai-MangaBathingPeople.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Hokusai-MangaBathingPeople.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Hokusai-Manga; originally uploaded on de:WP by de:Benutzer:Doc Sleeve Original artist: Katsushika
Hokusai ()
File:Hokusai-fuji-koryuu.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Hokusai-fuji-koryuu.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Hokusai_Daruma_1817.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Hokusai_Daruma_1817.png License: Public domain Contributors: scan from temple brochure Original artist: Unknown
File:Hommage__Newton.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Hommage_%C3%A0_Newton.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Transfr de en.wikipedia par Shiroite Original artist: Salvador Dali; l'origine tlcharg par Marcus Lim
en.wikipedia.
File:Hugo_van_der_Goes_006.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Hugo_van_der_Goes_006.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by
DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Hugo van der Goes (circa 1440-1482)
File:Irises-Vincent_van_Gogh.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Irises-Vincent_van_Gogh.jpg License:
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File:Isabella_d'este.jpg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Isabella_d%27este.jpg License:
PubWeb Gallery of Art:
<a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/l/leonardo/08heads/07isabel.jpg' data-xlic domain Contributors:
rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png'
width='20'
height='20'
1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60'
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172
src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png'
width='20'
data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Julije_Klovic_2.jpg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Julije_Klovic_2.jpg License:
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height='20'
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wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png
2x'
data-le-width='60'
data-le-height='60'
/></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/g/greco_el/03/0302grec.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
width='20'
File:Kee_Vos_met_zoon_Jan.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Kee_Vos_met_zoon_Jan.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.geheugenvannederland.nl/?/nl/items/VGM01:b4888 Original artist: Albert Greiner
File:LArlesienneWithBooks.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cc/LArlesienneWithBooks.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Last_Judgement_by_Michelangelo.jpg
Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Last_Judgement_
by_Michelangelo.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: derivated work from <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Last_Judgement_(Michelangelo).jpg' class='image'><img alt='Last Judgement (Michelangelo).jpg' src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/1/18/Last_Judgement_%28Michelangelo%29.jpg/50px-Last_Judgement_%28Michelangelo%29.jpg' width='50' height='63'
srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Last_Judgement_%28Michelangelo%29.jpg/75px-Last_Judgement_
%28Michelangelo%29.jpg 1.5x,
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100px-Last_Judgement_%28Michelangelo%29.jpg 2x' data-le-width='4579' data-le-height='5762' /></a> Original artist: Michelangelo
Buonarroti
File:Le_Forum_Rpublicain_(Arles)_-_30_December_1888_-_Vincent_van_Gogh_ear_incident.jpg
Source:
http://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Le_Forum_R%C3%A9publicain_%28Arles%29_-_30_December_1888_-_Vincent_van_
Gogh_ear_incident.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://mediatheque-arles.e-corpus.org/eng/treasures/oreille_coupee/notices/
140463-Article-de-l-oreille-coup%C3%A9-e-de-Vincent-Van-Gogh-in-le-Forum-R%C3%A9-publicain-du-30-d%C3%A9-cembre-1888.
html Original artist: Le Forum Rpublicain
File:Leonardo,_san_girolamo.jpg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Leonardo%2C_san_girolamo.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/l/leonardo/01/8jerome.jpg' data-xrel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png'
width='20'
height='20'
1.5x,
2x'
data-le-width='60'
data-leheight='60' /></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/l/leonardo/01/8jerome.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information
File:Leonardo_Da_Vinci_-_Annunciazione.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Leonardo_Da_Vinci_-_
Annunciazione.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.marysrosaries.com/collaboration/index.php?title=File:Annunciation_-_
Leonardo_Da_Vinci_-_Annunciazione.jpeg Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_IMG_1759.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Leonardo_IMG_1759.JPG License: CC0
Contributors: Own work Original artist:
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Adorazione_dei_Magi_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
2/27/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Adorazione_dei_Magi_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: RQFL5tibYCPGOg at
Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Plan_of_Imola_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/
Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Plan_of_Imola_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: hgEpMgZ5mn6R4A at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Saint_John_the_Baptist_C2RMF_retouched.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
b/b8/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Saint_John_the_Baptist_C2RMF_retouched.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on File:Saint JeanBaptiste, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF.jpg, originally: C2RMF: Galerie de tableaux en trs haute dnition: image page Original artist:
Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Virgin_and_Child_with_Ss_Anne_and_John_the_Baptist.jpg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/
Public domain
wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Virgin_and_Child_with_Ss_Anne_and_John_the_Baptist.jpg License:
Contributors: National Gallery collection Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_Virgin_of_the_Rocks_(National_Gallery_London).jpg Source:
commons/4/49/Leonardo_da_Vinci_Virgin_of_the_Rocks_%28National_Gallery_London%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
1. The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing
GmbH.
Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
173
File:Leonardo_da_vinci,_The_Virgin_and_Child_with_Saint_Anne_01.jpg
Source:
commons/b/bb/Leonardo_da_vinci%2C_The_Virgin_and_Child_with_Saint_Anne_01.jpg License:
Web Gallery of Art:
<a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/l/leonardo/04/4stanne.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg'
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Image
<a
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alt='Information
icon.svg'
width='20'
data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: ?
File:Leonardo_polyhedra.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Leonardo_polyhedra.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Les_Demoiselles_d'Avignon.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4c/Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg License:
? Contributors:
Museum of Modern Art, New York
Original artist:
Pablo Picasso
File:Loudspeaker.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Man_Ray_Salvador_Dali.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Man_Ray_Salvador_Dali.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the
digital ID cph.3a42853.
artist: Van Vechten, Carl, 1880-1964, photographer
File:Mann_mit_dem_Goldhelm.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Mann_mit_dem_Goldhelm.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Hajotthu Original artist: Circle of Rembrandt
File:Metzinger,_Nu__la_chemine_(Nu),_1910,_Salon_d'Automne,_Les_Peintre_Cubist,_Apollinaire_published_1913.jpg Source:
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Les_Peintres_Cubistes%2C_1913.jpg License: ? Contributors:
Third image: Scanned from 1913 book Les Peintres Cubistes. First and second images: Guillaume Apollinaire, Les Peintres Cubistes(The
Cubsit Painters) published in 1913, (translated and analyzed by Peter F. Read, University of California Press, 25 oct. 2004 - 234 pages). Original
artist:
Jean Metzinger
File:Michaelangelo_Moses.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Michaelangelo_Moses.jpg License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from el.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Alaniaris using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original
uploader was Pvasiliadis at el.wikipedia
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Niabot (cut out)
File:Michelangelo'{}s_grave4.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Michelangelo%27s_grave4.jpg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Original author: Wknight94, Cleanup adjustments: Jaakobou.
File:Michelangelo,_ignudo_01.jpg Source:
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License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/m/michelan/3sistina/2ignudi/01_4se.jpg' datax-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png'
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data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Michelangelo Buonarroti
File:Mona_Lisa,_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci,_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/
Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Cropped and relevelled
from File:Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF.jpg. Originally C2RMF: Galerie de tableaux en trs haute dnition: image page
Original artist: C2RMF: Galerie de tableaux en trs haute dnition: image page
File:Monet_dejeunersurlherbe.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Monet_dejeunersurlherbe.jpg License:
Original artist: Claude Monet
File:Monet_in_Garden,_New_York_Times,_1922.JPG Source:
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Garden%2C_New_York_Times%2C_1922.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: From the Times online store here Original artist: ?
174
File:Office-book.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contributors:

This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project
File:Old_Man_with_his_Head_in_his_Hands_(At_Eternity'{}s_Gate).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/
a6/Old_Man_with_his_Head_in_his_Hands_%28At_Eternity%27s_Gate%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: www.vggallery.com
Original artist: Vincent van Gogh
File:Old_guitarist_chicago.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/bc/Old_guitarist_chicago.jpg License: ? Contributors:
The Art Institute of Chicago Original artist:
Pablo Picasso
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http://www.arthermitage.org/Pablo-Picasso/Absinthe-Drinker.html Original artist:
Pablo Picasso
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Agence Photographique de la Runion des Muses Nationaux Original artist:
Pablo Picasso
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Contributors:
Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) Original artist:
Pablo Picasso
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http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2b/Pablo_Picasso_and_his_
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Original artist:
Bava Alcide57
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3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Paul Gauguin
File:PicassoGuernica.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/74/PicassoGuernica.jpg License: Fair use Contributors: PICASSO, la exposicin del Reina-Prado. Guernica is in the collection of Museo Reina Soa, Madrid. Original artist: ?
175
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Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Picasso_la_vie.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b1/Picasso_la_vie.jpg License: ? Contributors:
http://www.wikipaintings.org/en/pablo-picasso/life-1903 Original artist:
Pablo Picasso
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File:Rembrandt,_Portret_van_Haesje_v.Cleyburg_1634_2.jpg
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: Pic Original artist: Rembrandt
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artist: Rembrandt
176
File:Rembrandts_house,_Amsterdam.jpg Source:
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artist: Halsman, Philippe, photographer.
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Contributors:
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Original artist: ?
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Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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177
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Key artists

Verrocchio's workshop, 146676 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Professional life, 14761513 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Old age, 15131519 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Relationships and inuences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Florence: Leonardo's artistic and social background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Assistants and pupils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Paintings of the 1480s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Paintings of the 1490s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Paintings of the 1500s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Observation and invention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Journals and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Engineering and inventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fame and reputation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Early life, 147588 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bologna, Florence and Rome, 149299 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sistine Chapel ceiling, 150512 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Florence under Medici popes, 1513 early 1534 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

St Peter's Basilica, 154664 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Madonna and Child . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sistine Chapel ceiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Early years and family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Technique and style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Suggested Byzantine anities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Architecture and sculpture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Posthumous critical reputation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Inuence on other artists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Periods, themes and styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Night Watch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Name and signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Early life and artistic training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Works and inuences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Inuences on art and culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Listing of selected works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Specic works of art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Monet and Impressionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Birth and childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Franco-Prussian War and Argenteuil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Monet's house and garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Vincent van Gogh

Etten, Drenthe and The Hague . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Artistic breakthrough and nal years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Self portraits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Flowering Orchards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Wheat elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Posthumous fame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Career beginnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

Blue Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Modern art transformed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Classicism and surrealism

World War II and beyond

Later works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Political views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

Style and technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Artistic legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Recent major exhibitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126