Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION
The introduction of liberisation into the power system and
the deregulating process across the world mean that
operators are faced with new challenges in power system
operation. Power system operation is becoming more
competitive and is dictated heavily by market conditions [1].
This has led to power systems frequently being run closer to
their limits of both steady state and transient stability. The
Power Transfer Limit (PTL) dictates how much power can be
sent through a transmission corridor without making a
system unstable. This limit is typically defined as an active
power limit which is a static limit defined for a worst-case
scenario voltage condition, 0.9 p.u. With the growing trends
in Smart Grid technology and the introduction of Wide-AreaMeasurement Systems (WAMS) and Phasor Measurement
Units (PMUs, there is now more availability of accurate
measurement

of

system

variables.

The

use

of

these

technologies in power systems provides operators with

dynamic operation data that was previously more difficult to
attain. Work such as [2] used these data to perform complex
stability analysis to locate sources of oscillation within a
system and identify key generators that are contributing to
unstable oscillations. Transient stability is important as it is
the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism
1

when subjected to a severe transient disturbance such as a

fault on transmission lines, loss of generation, or loss of a
large load. To prevent transient instability, various
counteracting measures can be taken. These measures can
include changing voltage phase angles through a phaseshifter [3], changing network impedance through series
compensation [4], dynamic braking [5] or online instability
detection [6]. There is also a need to look at expanding the
transmission system capacity, but there are limits that
restrict how far a
system can be pushed in order to retain stability. Work such
as [7] looks at enhancing the approach to the PTL by using
an algorithm to reallocate generation based on a Transient
Time Margin (TTM). The TTM provides a standard for
comparing the stability degree for different contingencies.
The minimum TTM of critical contingencies corresponds to
the stability level of a power transmission corridor. By using
these sensitivity
factors, generation can be reallocated in order to increase
the stability level of a power transmission corridor. Work in
[8] looks at using fuzzy logic intelligent systems combined
with OPF to calculate the transmission capability between
two areas. Using the OPF, the interchange between the two
areas can be maximised and constraints are added until both
dynamic and static stability limits are met. The methodology
used in this paper looks to improve on the active power limit
2

that is currently used as a constraint for transient stability. In

system operation, for the same power flow through a line,
the angle difference between the two buses will be greater
at lower voltages. This also means that it will be closer to its
transient stability limit. The limit is typically defined in terms
of the active power, which is defined at the worst case
voltage profile, when voltage is low. By this reasoning, when
voltage support is high, a stronger voltage profile, the angle
difference will be much less for the same power flow. Yet, the
constraint stays constant as it is defined in terms of the
active

power.

More

power

could

be

sent

through

transmission corridor when voltage support was higher, and

therefore, a higher active power limit could be realised.
There has been work covered in the areas of increasing
transmission

capacity.

[9]

looks

at

the

use

of

superconducting generators in
the network to increase transmission capacity, and by using
them in critical locations can also add to system stability. In
[10], the authors develop a tool for transient stability that
can assess the online transient stability margin using
potential energy or potential energy boundary surface
methods

CHAPTER-2
BACKGROUND
The theory behind this concept can be illustrated using the
Equal Area Criterion (EAC) on a Single Machine Infinite Bus
(SMIB) system, shown in Fig. 1. The equal area criterion is a
well understood concept which simply states that stability is
maintained only if an area A2 at least equal to A1 can be
found above the input mechanical power, Pm [12] shown in
Fig. 2. If the area A1 is greater than A2, for the post fault
period, the rotor angle, _rotor > _u, the unstable rotor angle
and stability is lost.

Fig. 1. Single machine infinite bus

Fig. 2. Equal Area Criterion

It is well known that higher voltage helps transient stability

where the electrical power can be increased and reduces the
accelerating power. This approach is investigating the effect
of adequate voltage support which would correspond to a
higher voltage at the generator terminal, Et. Operating limits
for voltage in the UK are _10% of 1 p.u. Pmax
e=
EtEB
X
(1)
The maximum electrical power, Pmax e , shown in Fig. 2
occurs at an angle _ = 90_, and is shown in Equation (1). Et
is the generator terminal voltage, EB is the voltage at the
infinite bus, shown in Fig. 1 and X is the total reactance
between the generator and the infinite bus, which can
include the transient reactance of the generator, x
0
d.
To show the effect of higher voltage support, the generator
terminal voltage, Et, is set at 1.1 p.u. According to equation
(1) an increase in Et would correspond to a larger value of
Pe. This would correspond to a decrease in accelerating
power and an increase in the decelerating power, A2.
Therefore, a larger potential energy is beneficial to preserve
stability. This means that if there is high voltage support,
there is a higher potential energy to stabilise the system so
6

that the system can be pushed harder and it will remain

stable.
Fig.

Fig. 3. Comparison of decelerating area

Fig. 3 shows a comparison of the post fault P_ curve showing

the change in the decelerating area A2 and the unstable
rotor angle, _u. This angle shows that when there is higher
voltage support, the rotor angle can be increased further
without going unstable. This is quite obvious, so the aim of
the paper is to show how to exploit this benefit for increased
capacity in transmission corridors
CHAPTER-3
METHODOLOGY OF INCREASING TRANSIENT
STABILITY
nderstood. The methodology can be carried out with a
twolevel approach. The methodology relies on the operation
of WAMS in a power systems for utilisation of an angle based
constraint over the traditional active power constraint. The
introduction of an angle based constraint on transient
stability can be looked at in two ways using: (1) a static and
(2)a dynamic angle constraint. This can be illustrated using
the SMIB system of Fig. 1. A. Using a
static angle constraint As the limit is currently defined by a
fixed active power limit, the corresponding critical clearing
angle for the worstcase scenario is found at 0.9 p.u. which is
used as the active power limit. Fig. 4 shows this active power
8

limit as Plimit calculated for the system of Fig. 1. In current

operation, this is a static value, hence independent of the
current voltage status of the system. For the extreme case
when voltage on the system is 1.1 p.u., a new active power
limit can be used, shown here as Pu limit. Rather than set a
new active power limit based on this value, WAMS allow for
angle measurement, so the constraint can be defined as per
_limit shown in Fig. 4. The advantage to this method is that
the angle limit can be found in a similar way to how the
active power limit is currently defined. This will allow
increased transmission through a corridor based on the
voltage of that network which would be an increase of Pu
limit - Plimit.

Fig. 4. Extra capacity by using static angle constraint

B. Using a dynamic angle constraint

The previous static angle constraint can also be viewed as
conservative in the way that it used the worst case angle.
An increased benefit can be achieved if the angle constraint
that is used is dynamic. This would mean that the critical
clearing angle is dependent upon system conditions instead
of being set at the base case. It was seen in section II that
for increased voltage support, the unstable angle increases.
If this can be taken into account then the transmission
capacity can be increased further.
10

Fig. 5. Extra capacity by using dynamic angle constraint

Fig. 5 shows the critical clearing angle for the 0.9 p.u. and
1.1 p.u. voltage cases. These were calculated using the SMIB
system shown in Fig. 1. As critical clearing angle is
dependent on the voltage support, the corresponding power
output can be enhanced further. The angle shown as _cl 0:9
is the same as the static angle constraint shown in Fig. 4.
Using the critical clearing angle for the higher voltage case
of _cl 1:1, which as expected is higher, would correspond to
the value of Pdyn limit which is an increase from the power
11

defined using a static constraint of Psta limit. This dynamic

angle limit can be utilised with dynamic measurements
offered by PMUs and WAMS. Such a dynamic constraint
would allow the system to be run more effectively depending
on the voltage conditions of the system and maximise
throughput of a transmission corridor based on the real time
status. These
results correspond to the benefit when using 1.1 p.u. but
having normal operating voltages of 1.0 p.u. would still allow
extra power to be transmitted when compared to using the
conservative active power constraint

12

TRANSIENT STABILITY

Generators are connected to each other by a network that

behaves much like weights interconnected by rubber bands
(see Figure 5). The weights represent the rotating inertia of
the turbine generators and the rubber bands are analogous
to the inductance of the transmission lines. By pulling on a
weight and letting go, an oscillation is setup with several of
the weights that are interconnected by the rubber bands.The
result of disturbing just one weight will result in all the
weights oscillating. Eventually the system will come to rest,
based on its damping characteristics. The frequency of
oscillation depends on the mass of the weights and the
springiness of the rubber bands. Likewise, a transient
disturbance to the generator/network can be expected to
cause

some

oscillations

due

to

the

inability

of

the

mechanical torque to instantaneously balance out the

transient variation in electrical torque. Both components of
torque act on each generator in the system. A lack of
13

sufficient

synchronizing

synchronism.

Such

loss

torque
of

will

result

synchronism

in

can

loss

of

only

be

prevented if sufficient magnetic flux can be developed when

a transient change in electrical torque occurs. This is
facilitated by a high initial response excitation system having
sufficient forcing capability and sufficiently fast response to
resist the accelerating or decelerating rotor. In order to be
effective

for

both

accelerating

and

decelerating

rotor

response, the exciter must be capable of forcing both

positively and negatively. When the rotor is accelerating with
respect to the stator flux, the rotor angle is increasing due to
mechanical torque higher than electrical torque. The exciter
system must increase excitation by applying a high positive
voltage to the alternator field as quickly as possible.
Conversely, when the rotor angle is decreasing due to
mechanical torque less than electrical torque, the exciter
system must decrease excitation by applying a high negative
voltage to the alternator field as quickly as possible

14

Fig:-Transient Stability Illustration

Transient stability is primarily concerned with the immediate

effects of a transmission line disturbance on generator
synchronism. Figure 6 illustrates the typical behavior of a
generator in response to a fault condition. Starting from the
initial operating condition (point 1), a close-in transmission
fault causes the generator electrical output power Pe to be
drastically

reduced.

The

resultant

difference

between

electrical power and the mechanical turbine power causes

the generator rotor to accelerate with respect to the system,
increasing the power angle (point 2). When the fault is
cleared,

the

electrical

power

is

restored

to

level

corresponding to the appropriate point on the power angle

15

curve (point 3). Clearing the fault necessarily removes one or

more transmission elements from

service and atleast

temporarily weakens the transmission system. After clearing

the fault, the electrical power out of the generator becomes
greater than the turbine power. This causes the unit to
decelerate (point 4), reducing the momentum the rotor
gained during the fault. If there is enough retarding torque
after fault clearing to make up for the acceleration during
the fault, the generator will be transiently stable on the first
swing and will move back toward its operating point. If the
retarding torque is insufficient, the
power angle will continue to increase until synchronism with
the power system is lost. Power system stability depends on
the clearing time for a fault on the transmission system.
Comparing the two examples in Figure 7 illustrates this
point. In the example of slower fault clearing (left figure), the
time duration of the fault allows the rotor to accelerate so far
along the curve of PE, that the decelerating torque comes
right to the limit of
maintaining the rotor in synchronism. The shorter
fault clearing time (right figure) stops the acceleration of the
rotor much sooner, assuring that sufficient synchronizing
torque is available to recover with a large safety margin. This
effect is the demand placed on protection engineers to
install the fastest available relaying equipment to protect the
transmission system. Figure 7: Effect of Fault Clearing Time
16

Fig:-Effect of Fault Clearing Time

17

3PowerSystemStabilityImprovementwith

(FACTs)
18

Controller
T HE electrical power demand is gradually increasing with
increase in load demand. This requires the highest reliability
and security with minimum transmission expenditure. Power
system engineers are currently facing challenges to increase
the power transfer capabilities of existing transmission
system with above constraints. However it becomes much
difficult to construct new transmission lines Vasundhara
Mahajan is with Department of Electrical Engineering,
because of the geographical and environmental conditions.
For solving these problems, it is significant to use existing
power

system

networks

more

effectively

up

to

their

maximum
capability. In such situations it is necessary to improve the
performance and stability of the power system network. Due
to these conditions the stability margin of power systems
has decreased significantly. Thus, new techniques are
required to improve the performance and stability. Flexible
AC Transmission system (FACTs) controllers can balance the
power flow and thereby using the existing power system
network most efficiently. Because of their fast response
FACTs controllers can also improve the stability of an
electrical power system by helping critically disturbed
generators to give away the excess energy gained through
the acceleration during fault. Thyristor controlled series
19

compensator (TCSC) is an important device in FACTs family

and is widely recognized as an effective and economical
means to solve the power system stability problem. TCSC
controller can control the line impedance through the
introduction of a thyristor-controlled capacitor in series with
the transmission line [1-10].

THYRISTORCONTROLLEDSERIESCOMPENSATOR(TCSC)
Series capacitors offer certain major advantages over the
shunt capacitors. With series capacitors, the reactive power
increases as the square of line current, whereas with shunt
capacitors, the reactive power is proportional to the square
of bus voltage. For achieving same system benefits as those
of series capacitors, shunt capacitors required are three to
six times more reactive power rated than series capacitors.
Furthermore shunt capacitors typically must be connected at
20

the midpoint, whereas no such requirement exists for series

capacitors. A series capacitor is capable of compensating for
the voltage drop of the series inductance in a transmission
line. During low loading the system voltage drop is lower and
at the same time the series compensation voltage is lower.
When loading increases and the voltage drop becomes
higher, the contribution of series compensation increases
and therefore system voltage will be regulated as desired.
BasicModule
The

basic module has a fixed series capacitor C, in

parallel with a thyristor-controlled reactor, L, as shown in Fig.

l(a). A metal oxide varistor (MOV) is connected across series
capacitor to prevent the occurrence of high capacitor over
voltages. MOV allows the capacitor to remain in circuit even
during

fault

conditions

and

hence

improves

transient

stability. A circuit breaker (CB) is installed across capacitor

for controlling the insertion of capacitor. If TCSC valves are
required to operate in fully on mode for prolonged duration,
the conduction losses are minimized by installing an ultra
high speed contact (UHSC) across the valve. This offers a
loss less switching operation similar to that of circuit
breakers. The metallic contact is closed shortly after the
thyristor is turned on, and is opened shortly before the valve
is turned off. During a sudden overload of the valve, and also
during fault conditions, the metallic contact is closed to
21

minimize the stress on the valve as shown in Fig. 1(b) [1119].

Fig.1.TCSCmodule(a)Abasicmodule(b)apractical
module.

22

IMPROVEMENT OF TRANSIENT STABILITY OF THE

POWER SYSTEM USING SMALL
MAGNETIC ENERGY STORAGE
SMES unit typically consists of a superconducting coil,
thyristor controllers and refrigerator. The coil is kept below
the critical temperatures. The power system constitutes of a
single machine connected to an infinite bus bar through
double transmission line as shown in Fig I is considered for
study [II]. The system parameters are given in the appendix.
The disturbance of 3<p fault is made to occur at the
transmission line 2. This makes the power angle to oscillate.
The critical clearing time before which the fault has to be
removed from the system by opening the corresponding
circuit breaker is calculated as below.
Plant operating condition

Fig 3. Tranfer function model ofSMES

The coil stores electrical energy in the form of magnetic

energy. When the power system is in stable condition,
23

electrical power from the system is absorbed and stored as

electromagnetic energy. The amount power can be varied by
varying

the

triggering

angle

of

the

thyristors.

When

disturbances occur in the system, triggering angle to

thyristors is applied so that power from the coil is given to
the system. This triggering is done according to the system
response. To obtain the critical clearing time of the SMIB with
SMES, its transfer function model. The transfer function
model of SMES is shown in Fig 3 [3]. The SMES shown in Fig 3
is connected to SMIB as shown in Fig 4.

Fig 4. Single machine connected to infinite bus bar with SMES

24

REFERENCES
[1] Focus on 2030: EWEA aims for 22% of Europes
electricity by 2030,
Wind Directions, pp. 2534, Nov./Dec. 2006.
[2] 20% Wind Energy By 2030: Increasing Wind Energys
Contribution to
U.S. Electricity Supply, U.S. Department of Energy, Jul.
2008.
[3] W. Qiao and R. G. Harley, Grid connection requirements
and solutions
for DFIG wind turbines, in Proc. IEEE Energy Conf.,
Atlanta, GA,
Nov. 1718, 2008.
[4] J. P. Barton and D. G. Infield, Energy storage and its use
with

intermittent renewable energy, IEEE Trans. Energy

Convers., vol. 19, no.

2, pp. 441 448, Jun. 2004.

[5] C. Abbey and G. Joos, Supercapacitor energy storage for

wind energy
applications, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 43, no. 3, pp.
769776,
May/Jun. 2007.
25

[6] M.-S. Lu, C.-L. Chang, W.-J. Lee, and L. Wang, Combining
the wind
power generation system with energy storage
equipments, IEEE Trans.
Ind. Appl., vol. 45, no. 6, pp. 21092115, Nov./Dec. 2009

26