Personality and Individual Differences 86 (2015) 477481

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Personality and Individual Differences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid

#Me: Narcissism and its facets as predictors of sele-posting frequency

Eric B. Weiser
Department of Psychology, Curry College, United States

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 27 April 2015
Received in revised form 29 June 2015
Accepted 3 July 2015
Available online xxxx
Keywords:
Narcissism
Photo sharing
Seles
Social media
Social networking sites

a b s t r a c t
Seles are amateur photographs people take of themselves, usually with a smartphone. Sharing seles on social
media has become a popular activity, prompting questions about its psychological meaning and dispositionallyrelevant motives. This study was performed to examine the association between narcissism, a personality trait
characterized by inated self-views and attempts to seek attention and admiration from others, and frequency
of posting seles on social networking sites. In addition, the association between posting seles and three facets
of narcissism (i.e., Leadership/Authority, Grandiose Exhibitionism, Entitlement/Exploitativeness) was explored.
These questions were addressed in a nationally representative sample of 1204 men and women who completed
an online survey. Results showed that narcissism, as well as the Leadership/Authority and Grandiose Exhibitionism facets, but not Entitlement/Exploitativeness, exhibited positive and signicant associations with seleposting frequency. Age did not moderate the predictive effects of narcissism or any of its three dimensions, indicating that the relationship between narcissism, its facets, and posting seles is not age dependent. However, the
more adaptive Leadership/Authority facet emerged as a stronger predictor of sele posting among women than
men, whereas the maladaptive Entitlement/Exploitativeness facet predicted sele posting among men, but not
women. Interpretations and implications of these ndings are discussed.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Photo sharing has become an important part of the online social experience. Over half of U.S. internet users post photos online (Pew
Research Center, 2013), perhaps owing to the increasing use of
smartphones; in the U.S., nearly two-thirds of adults own a smartphone,
compared to 35% in 2011 (Pew Research Center, 2015). These devices
simplify photo sharing through social media by enabling users to take
and post digital photographs on social networking sites (SNSs) instantaneously. This function is facilitated through photo-sharing sites such as
Instagram, a mobile photo platform allowing users to share photographs and videos over SNSs such as Facebook and Twitter. Instagram
hosts over 30 billion photographs, and, on average, 70 million photographs are posted to the site each day from its 300 million users
(Instagram, 2014).
The rise in photo sharing has helped spark a precipitous new social
phenomenon: the snapping and sending of amateur self-portrait photographs known as seles to SNSs. Sele is now part of today's vernacular and is formally dened as a photograph that one has taken of
oneself, typically one taken with a smartphone or webcam and
uploaded to a social media website ("Infographic: A Closer Look at
'Sele,'" 2013, para. 4). In 2013, Oxford Dictionaries added sele to its
lexicon and later named it their international Word of the Year
(Brumeld, 2013). Seles permeate the social media landscape; for
Department of Psychology, Curry College, Milton, MA 02186, United States.
E-mail address: eweiser@curry.edu.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.007
0191-8869/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

example, Instagram hosts over 238 million photographs hashtagged

with #sele and over 126 million hashtagged with #me.
The pervasiveness of sele posting raises questions concerning the
social and psychological motives behind this behavior. What important
needs and goals does sele posting reect, and from which dispositional
attributes do they emanate? The objective of this study is to extend previous work on trait predictors of SNS use and behavior by examining the
connection between sele posting and narcissism, a personality trait
marked by grandiosity and egocentrism, and by the constant pursuit
of veneration by others (Brown, Budzek & Tamborski, 2009; Campbell,
Reeder, Sedikides & Elliot, 2000). Photographs convey important social
information in numerous online domains (Ellison, Heino & Gibbs,
2006; Kapidzic, 2013; Whitty, 2008). Of the photographs shared online,
seles seem inherently to contain the most explicit elements of ostentation and self-propagation. Indeed, seles have been described as a
symptom of social media-driven narcissism (Pearlman, 2013, para.
20), reecting the intuitive assumption that the taking and posting of
such photographs constitute self-promoting gambits by the selfabsorbed. Empirically, however, sele posting and its association with
narcissism has been largely unexplored. Because narcissists are motivated to gain others' attention and admiration to maintain their inated
self-views (Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001), posting seles plausibly may
function as a novel psychological maneuver through which narcissistic
individuals attempt to meet these self-regulatory objectives. Hence, examining the relationship between narcissism and sele posting is an
issue of importance because it may shed light on the psychological
meanings of this activity in the social media milieu.

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E.B. Weiser / Personality and Individual Differences 86 (2015) 477481

1.1. Narcissism and SNS use

Narcissism has received particular attention in research examining
predictors of SNS use, the presumption being that SNSs may create or
reinforce narcissistic tendencies by serving as channels for selfpromotional displays (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008). Several studies
have revealed a positive relationship between narcissism and the frequency of using SNSs (Panek, Nardis & Konrath, 2013; Ryan & Xenos,
2011), as well as narcissistic-like patterns of self-promoting behaviors
(e.g., status updates, number of Facebook friends, use of language and
photographs to draw attention to oneself) on these sites (Carpenter,
2012; DeWall, Buffardi, Bonser & Campbell, 2011; Mehdizadeh, 2010).
To date, there have been only two studies investigating the link between narcissism and posting seles. Although positive associations
were reported in both, investigators in one of these studies (Fox &
Rooney, 2015) assessed narcissism using a four-item subscale of the
Dirty Dozen (Jonason & Webster, 2010), a 12-item measure of Dark
Triad personality traits (Paulus & Williams, 2002). Moreover, participation in this study was limited to adult males age 40 and younger.
Sorokowski et al. (2015) used a Polish adaptation of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI; Raskin & Terry, 1988), which has a different
factor structure than the original version, to examine how various components of narcissism relate to sele-posting behavior. These investigators found that three of the four subscales specic to the Polish
adaptation (i.e., Vanity, Leadership, Admiration Demand) predicted
sele posting among men, whereas one (Admiration Demand) predicted sele posting among women.
It is necessary to continue examining how narcissism and its components are related to sele posting. Narcissism is a complex, multifaceted
construct consisting of socially adaptive and maladaptive components
(Ackerman et al., 2011; Emmons, 1987; Kubarych, Deary & Austin,
2004). Thus, viewing narcissism as a unidimensional rather than a nuanced, dimensional construct may obfuscate relationships between its
facets and important criterion variables (Brown et al., 2009). Further,
age and gender differences in narcissism have been documented; specically, recent generations are more narcissistic than previous generations (Twenge, Konrath, Foster, Campbell & Bushman, 2008), and men
are more narcissistic than are women (Grijalva et al., 2015). It is therefore crucial to examine and clarify how these demographic variables
moderate associations between narcissism, its facets, and outcome
measures.
1.2. The dimensions of narcissism
Factor analytic studies of the NPI, the primary self-report measure of
narcissism used in social and personality research (Cain, Pincus & Ansell,
2008), have revealed varying factor structures, with as few as two
(Corry, Merritt, Mrug & Pamp, 2008) and as many as seven (Raskin &
Terry, 1988) factors having been reported. Most recently, Ackerman
et al. (2011) demonstrated that the NPI assesses three robust and empirically useful components of narcissism: Leadership/Authority, Grandiose Exhibitionism, and Entitlement/Exploitativeness.
Leadership/Authority (LA) reects self-perceptions of leadership,
dominance, and the capacity for social agency. Individuals who score
high on LA are motivated to lead and seek power and authority over
others. Grandiose Exhibitionism (GE) reects self-absorption, vanity,
and exhibitionistic propensities. Individuals who score high on GE are
in love with themselves and crave attention; they enjoy showing off
and actively seek opportunities for self-promotion. Entitlement/
Exploitativeness (EE) reects entitlement, a sense one deserves respect,
and a willingness to exploit others. Individuals who score high on EE
possess unmerited or unreasonable expectations of favorable treatment; they believe they deserve whatever they wish and will take advantage of others in the service of their goals. Of these, LA is
considered adaptive in that it is related to indices of psychological adjustment (e.g., self-esteem), and unrelated to narcissism's more

interpersonally aversive elements. Conversely, GE and especially EE

are regarded as socially toxic and are more readily linked to maladaptive
social outcomes (Ackerman et al., 2011).
1.3. Overview and predictions
Given that narcissism is associated with the use of self-promoting
SNS behaviors, it was expected that narcissism would be positively related to the frequency of positing seles on SNSs. In addition, the NPI
subscales of LA, GE, and EE were analyzed to determine their differential
contributions to the prediction of sele posting and, thus, to gain insight
into the specic narcissistic needs this activity serves. As GE strongly
predicts self-promoting SNS behavior (Carpenter, 2012), it was expected that this relationship extends to sele posting. Therefore, it was further predicted that, of the narcissism facets, GE would exhibit the
strongest association with sele-posting frequency.
Finally, age and gender were included in this study to test their potential roles as moderators. As noted above, generational increases in
narcissism have been reported (Twenge et al., 2008); further, millennials are more inclined toward posting seles than are previous generations (Pew Research Center, 2014a). Thus, if narcissism predicts sele
posting, this relationship may be stronger for younger than older individuals. In addition, although men score higher on all three narcissism
facets (Grijalva et al., 2015), women post more seles than do men
(Sorokowski et al., 2015). It is therefore necessary to examine gender
as a possible moderator of the hypothesized associations.
2. Method
2.1. Participants and procedure
A total of 1248 U.S. residents were recruited from Amazon's Mechanical Turk (Mason & Suri, 2012) to participate in the study in return
for a small payment. Participants completed an online survey developed
through QuestionPro. Forty-four participants failed to complete the survey fully and were excluded from the analysis. The nal sample (N =
1204) was predominantly White (75%) and female (65%), with an average age of 32.81 (range = 1674, SD = 11.56).
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Time using SNSs
Participants indicated, on average, how many times per day they visited SNSs and the average duration in minutes per visit. The product of
these two open-ended responses yielded an estimate of the amount of
time participants spend using SNSs (Panek, Nardis & Konrath, 2013)
and was used as a covariate in later analyses.1
2.2.2. Posting frequency
Frequency of participants' posting (e.g., status updates, comments,
pictures, links) on SNSs was assessed and used as an additional covariate
in subsequent analyses. Posting frequency was determined by a single
item using a response scale ranging from 1 (never) to 8 (more than once
per day).
2.2.3. Sele-posting frequency
Participants responded to the following item: Do you know what a
sele is? Those who indicated No were branched to an item providing a formal denition of a sele; those who indicated Yes (97%)
were branched to another item providing a denition, but beginning
with, As you know, a sele is Next, all participants responded to a
second yes-or-no item: Have you ever shared a sele on a photo
1
Examination of the distributions for each variable revealed that the amount of time
using SNSs exhibited substantial positive skew; hence, this variable was subjected to a logarithmic transformation. All other variables were normally distributed.

E.B. Weiser / Personality and Individual Differences 86 (2015) 477481

479

Table 1
Correlations between variables, means, and standard deviations.
Measure

SD

1. Sele-posting frequency
2. Time using SNSs
3. Posting frequency
4. Age
5. Narcissism
6. Leadership/Authority
7. Grandiose Exhibitionism
8. Entitlement/Exploitativeness

.22

.41
.28

.32
.07

.32
.12
.18
.22

.26
.09
.16
.13
.87

.27
.08
.12
.18
.77
.50

.16
.06
.10
.20
.55
.36
.36

3.49
100.96
5.32
32.81
12.79
4.41
2.32
0.90

2.38
156.36
2.05
11.56
7.61
3.08
2.42
1.05

.05

Note: Pearson product-moment correlations. M = mean; SD = standard deviation.

p b .05.
p b .01.
p b .001.

sharing or social networking site, such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram,

Flickr, and Snapchat? Participants who indicated No were branched
to a subsequent section of the survey; those who indicated Yes
(64%) were branched to an item asking, How often would you say
that you share seles on photo sharing or social networking sites? Response options consisted of: less than once a year; once a year; several times per year, but less than once a month; once a month; a few
times a month, but less than once a week; once a week; a few times
per week; once a day; and more than once a day.

2.2.4. Narcissism
Participants completed the 40-item Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI-40, Raskin & Terry, 1988), which assesses individual differences
in trait narcissism. The NPI-40 uses a forced-choice format, in that each
item asks respondents to choose one of two statements that is most selfdescriptive; one of the statements reects narcissistic sentiments and
the other does not (e.g., I am more capable than other people. vs.
There is a lot that I can learn from other people.). For each item, the
narcissistic statement is scored a 1 and the non-narcissistic statement
is scored a 0.
A conrmatory factor analysis was performed on the NPI to determine if the Ackerman et al. (2011) model t the data adequately.
Mplus 7.31 was used to estimate the three-factor model consisting of
the items for LA, GE, and EE. Because NPI indicators are dichotomous,
the model was estimated using the robust weighted least squares
(WLSMV) estimation method (Brown, 2006). In replication of
Ackerman et al. (2011), covariances between residuals for selected indicators were specied. Results showed that the three-factor model provided acceptable t to the data (CFI = .941, TLI = .933, RMSEA = .048).

Table 2
Summary of hierarchical multiple regression analysis predicting sele-posting frequency
from narcissism.
Predictor
Step 1
Time using SNSs
Posting frequency
Age
Gender
Step 2
Narcissism
Step 3
Age narcissism
Gender narcissism
Total R2
N

.15
.32
.29
.08

5.11
11.49
11.63
3.12

.21

8.15

.04
.03

1.94
1.25

R2

Fchg

.28

116.62

.04

66.39

b.01

2.58

.32
1204

Note. Gender was coded: 0 = female, 1 = male. is the standardized regression coefcient. For Step 2, F(5, 1199) = 111.66, p b .001; for Step 3, F(7, 1197) = 80.71, p b .001.
p b .01.
p b .001.

Along with NPI-40 total scores ( = .88), items pertaining to the

three factors were summed to form subscales: LA (11 items, = .81),
GE (10 items, = .79), and EE (4 items, = .51).2
3. Results
Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS 22.0. Intercorrelations, means,
and standard deviations are displayed in Table 1. Time using SNSs, posting frequency, narcissism, and each of the three narcissism subscales all
correlated positively with sele-posting frequency; age, however, correlated negatively with self-posting frequency.
A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was performed to test the
hypothesis that narcissism predicts sele-posting frequency. Time using
SNSs, posting frequency, age, and gender served as covariates and were
entered in Step 1. Subsequently, narcissism was entered in Step 2, and
the two-way interactions of age, gender, and narcissism were entered
in Step 3. As recommended when testing interaction effects in multiple
regression, each predictor variable was centered, and interaction terms
were formed by multiplying together the centered predictors (Aiken &
West, 1991). Examination of variance ination factors (VIFs; Stevens,
2001) indicated that multicollinearity was not a problem in any of the
regression analyses.
Table 2 summarizes the regression model. Collectively, the covariates explained a signicant proportion of the variance in sele-posting
frequency. After the covariates were entered, narcissism positively predicted sele-posting frequency ( = .21, t = 8.15, p b .001) and explained a signicant proportion of the variance. Both interaction terms
entered in Step 3 were nonsignicant, indicating that neither age nor
gender moderated the effect of narcissism on sele posting.
A second hierarchical multiple regression tested the predictive effects of the three narcissism facets on sele posting. After covariates
were entered in Step 1, the LA, GE, and EE subscales were entered in
Step 2. In Step 3, all two-way interactions involving age, gender, and
the three subscales were entered; as before, each of the relevant variables were centered. As shown in Table 3, both LA ( = .12, t = 3.98,
p b .001) and GE ( = .13, t = 4.55, p b .001) contributed signicantly
and positively to the prediction of sele-posting frequency.
A signicant gender LA interaction emerged in Step 3, indicating
that the predictive effect of LA was stronger among women than
among men. Specically, analysis of separate regression equations revealed that although LA was signicantly positively related to posting
seles among both female and male participants, this relationship was
stronger among women ( = .20, p b .001) than among men ( =
.12, p b .01). Additionally, a signicant gender EE interaction was observed in Step 3, indicating that that the predictive effect of EE was
stronger among men than women. Analysis of simple regression equations demonstrated that EE was positively related to posting seles
among men ( = .13, p b .01) but not among women ( = .03, n.s.).
2
Levene's tests revealed that men's and women's total narcissism and subscale scores
were homoscedastic.

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E.B. Weiser / Personality and Individual Differences 86 (2015) 477481

4. Discussion
The results of this study are in accordance with research examining
narcissism and its relationship to attention-seeking and self-promoting
behaviors in social media environments (e.g., Buffardi & Campbell,
2008; Carpenter, 2012; DeWall, Buffardi, Bonser & Campbell, 2011),
and they replicate and extend previous ndings supporting a positive
association between narcissism and seles (Fox & Rooney, 2015;
Sorokowski et al., 2015). Overall, ndings from this investigation suggest that posting seles, as with other self-promoting SNS behaviors,
represents an avenue through which narcissistic needs are expressed
through social media. For example, narcissistic individuals consider
themselves to be physically attractive (Bleske-Rechek, Remiker &
Baker, 2008) and, in fact, meta-analytic evidence suggests they are
(Holtzman & Strube, 2010). Hence, these individuals may consider
sele-posting as a conduit through which they can use their looks to
garner both attention and admiration.
However, the association between total NPI narcissism and posting
seles obscures which narcissism facets are driving this behavior. Specically, LA and GE predicted sele-posting frequency, whereas EE did
not. It seems, then, that for individuals high in narcissism, posting seles
constitutes a means to not only seek attention and admiration from
others (GE), but also to convey heightened perceptions of leadership,
authority, and dominance (LA). Combined, these dimensions capture
agentic, approach-oriented elements of narcissism (Ackerman et al.,
2011), suggesting that sele posting may be a manifestation of more
adaptive self-enhancement tendencies, rather than the more socially
noxious tendencies captured by EE. For their part, individuals high in
EE may regard other SNS behaviors (e.g., retaliating against others' negative comments) as viable means to satisfy narcissistic objectives
(Carpenter, 2012).
Unexpectedly, age did not moderate the predictive inuence of either total narcissism and or its dimensions on posting seles, suggesting
that self-promoting displays on SNSs may not be age dependent. Given
the increasing engagement with SNSs among adults of all ages (Pew
Research Center, 2014b), sele posting might serve to fulll narcissistic
goals throughout much of adulthood. As previous investigations examining narcissistic behaviors on SNSs have often used college-age samples (e.g., Bergman, Fearrington, Davenport & Bergman, 2011;
Kapidzic, 2013; Mehdizadeh, 2010), future work might benet from
sampling participants whose ages are sufciently representative of the
adult population.
Of importance, gender moderated the predictive effect of LA, in that
sele-posting frequency was linked to higher levels of LA among women
than among men. LA appears to represent a dimension of personality related to psychological resilience and social potency (Ackerman et al.,
2011). It embodies agentic qualities (e.g., assertiveness, dominance)
elements incongruous with female gender stereotypes (Eagly & Karau,
2002) and, in fact, men exhibit stronger LA than do women (Grijalva
et al., 2015). Agentic women who violate communal gender role stereotypes are often perceived negatively (Rudman & Glick, 2001), perhaps
discouraging women in leadership roles from presenting themselves
in ways that are distinctly masculine or feminine (Koenig, Eagly,
Mitchell & Ristikari, 2011). Because posting seles is neither inherently
masculine nor feminine, narcissistic women who harbor selfperceptions of power, authority, and dominance over others may view
sele-posting as a viable way to satisfy their agentic needs without incurring social penalties. Equally important, sele-posting frequency
was signicantly associated with EE among men, but not women. Although men score substantially higher than do women on EE, and gender differences in narcissism are driven principally by this facet (Grijalva
et al., 2015), EE is not associated with the desire to self-promote on SNSs
(Carpenter, 2012). However, EE correlates with elements of pathological
narcissism, a trait viewed as distinct from the more normal narcissism
assessed by the NPI (Pincus et al., 2009). These elements seem to capture
a fundamentally insecure and vulnerable aspect of personality and are

marked by contingent self-esteem, devaluation of others who do not

provide needed adulation, and anger when entitled expectations are
not met (Ackerman et al, 2011). It is therefore possible that, among narcissistic men, sele posting might represent a pathological selfregulatory maneuver aimed at boosting self-enhancement and validation. Ideally, future work addressing how unhealthy forms of narcissism relate to SNS behavior will employ measures that assess such
forms explicitly (e.g., Pathological Narcissism Inventory [PNI]; Pincus
et al., 2009).

4.1. Strengths, limitations, and conclusions

Primary strengths of this study include the use of a large, nationally
representative sample of participants and the analysis of both total narcissism and its conceptually meaningful facets.
Nevertheless, several limitations bear mentioning. First, the low reliability of the EE subscale may have attenuated the observed associations
between this facet and self-posting frequency. However, this subscale's
low alpha coefcient likely is attributable to its small number of total
items rather than its content (Ackerman et al., 2011). More practically,
the internal consistency of personality scales is of limited utility in evaluating their validity (McCrae, Kurtz, Yamagata & Terracciano, 2011).
Second, although measurement equivalence was presumed in this
study, the observed gender differences in NPI facets may have reected
differences in the ways men and women interpret or respond to NPI
items. It should be noted, however, that Grijalva et al. (2015) ruled
out the possibility that gender differences in the three facets are artifacts
of measurement bias, concluding that differences in men's and women's
scores on the NPI can be interpreted at face value (p. 20). Third, although the predictive effect of narcissism and its facets were statistically
signicant after controlling for empirically-relevant covariates, sele
posting may be associated with other factors not assessed here, such
as other personality traits (e.g., extraversion).
In sum, the present research compliments and extends prior work
demonstrating that personality and trait-related needs are powerful architects of the behaviors on display in social media enclaves. Posting
seles is not a motivationally vacuous activity; instead, it is a form of
self-expression that carries with it social and psychological meaning.
Findings from this study demonstrate that seles tell us something important about those who share them and, as such, offer valuable insights
into the uses of social media in general.
Table 3
Summary of hierarchical multiple regression analysis predicting sele-posting frequency
from narcissism subscales.
Predictor
Step 1
Control variablesa
Step 2
LA
GE
EE
Step 3
Age LA
Gender LA
Age GE
Gender GE
Age EE
Gender EE
Total R2
N

.12
.13
.01

3.98
4.55
0.03

.04
.09

1.50
2.31
1.37
0.52
1.60
2.17

.04
.02
.04
.08

R2

Fchg

.28

116.62

.05

24.03

.01

2.54

.34
1204

Note. Gender was coded: 0 = female, 1 = male. is the standardized regression coefcient. LA = Leadership/Authority; GE = Grandiose Exhibitionism; EE = Entitlement/
Exploitativeness. For Step 2, F(7, 1197) = 80.77, p b .001; for Step 3, F(13, 1191) =
45.06, p b .001.
a
Estimated values were the same as in the previous analysis.
p b .05.
p b .001.

E.B. Weiser / Personality and Individual Differences 86 (2015) 477481

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