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ElectricalGeneration

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ElectricalGeneration
Generators
TheAlternator
Thesynchronousmachineconsistsessentiallyof(a)afieldsystemexcitedbydirect
currentand(b)anarmature.Almostinvariablythearmatureisthestationarymember
andthefieldsystemtherotatingmember.Theinducede.m.f.inthearmaturewinding
isamotionallyinducede.m.f.anditsmodeofproductionidenticalwiththatoftheD.C.
machine.Theonlydifferenceisthatitisthemagneticfieldwhichmoveswhereasthe
armatureconductorisstationary.
AswithaD.C.machinethee.m.f.inducedinanindividualarmaturecoiliaan
alternatinge.m.f.andconsequentlybybringingthewindingouttofixedterminals,the
e.m.f.betweenthesewillbealternatingalso.Thecompletefixedarmature,thatis
magneticcoreandwindings,iscalledthestator,andtherotatingfieldsystemtherotor.
Thegeneralconstructionalfeaturesofasalientpolealternatorareshownbelow

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Asthefieldsystemrotatesandcarriesitsfluxwithit,eachportionofthestatorcore
willexperiencereversalsofmagnetisation,andtherefore,asinadirectcurrent
machine,thecorehastobelaminated.Forventilationpurposes,aseriesofradial
ventilatingductsareprovided.Sincethefieldsystemrotates,itsexcitingwindinghas
tobefedbymeansoftwosliprings,butastheexcitationvoltageislowandthepower
takenbythefieldwindingsmall,thesepresentnodifficulties
Asalientpolehasonefieldcoilperpole,verylikeaD.C.machine.Fortheveryhigh
speedsofturbinedrivenalternatorsitisnecessarytoadoptacylindricalconstruction
fortherotorandinsuchacasethefieldwindinghastobehousedinanumberofslots.
Asimplifiedformshowsthecrosssectionofafourpoleturboalternator,thedispostion
oftherotorfieldofaturboalternatorrotormaybeashighas40,000ftperminor200
metrespersec.Thestressesduetocentrifugalforceareexceedinglyhigh.Therotors
arethusmadefromsteelforging,orinsomecasesfromthicksteeldiscsbolted
together.

Highspeedrotor

Theaxiallengthisnormallyconsiderablygreaterthanthediameter.Hasthe
advantageofgreatstrengthandstiffness.Theexcitingcurrentiscarriedbybartype
conductorsinthegroupsofslotsshownbelow.Allcurrentsinonegroupareinthe
samedirection,thoseonthenextgroupontheoppositedirection.Fluxproducedis
distributedoversurfaceapproximatelyaccordingtosinelaw.

Detailsofstationaryarmaturealternators

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Armaturestampingspressedoutofsheetsofspecialmagneticironorsteelalloy.In
thesmallersizesthestampingsarepressedoutincompeterings

Sectionthroughtopstatorofsalientpolemachine.Thearmaturecoreisbuiltup
oflaminationswhichareheldtightlytogetherbyendclampingrings.Spacing
stripsinsertedatintervalsleaveductsforcoolingairtopassthrough.Theairis
driventhroughbythefanactionoftherotorandescapesviatheaperturesinthe
castironsupportingframe

Typesofarmatureslot.Thefilledslothasroundwiresbutitiscommontohave
rectangularconductorstoeconomiseslotspace.

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Sectionalsimplifieddiagramofaturboalternator
Therotoristurnedfromasteelforgingansslottedtocarrytheexcitingwindingsthe
slotsbeingarrangedasshownabove.Becauseofthehighrunningspeed,
alternatorsforlargeoutputshaveaconsiderableaxiallengthcomparedwithrotor
diameter.

LayoutsofA.C.generators
Conventionalexcitationscheme(Rotary)
SeparatelyexcitedD.C.exciter(Outdated)

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Brushlessexcitationschemeusingshaftmounteddiodes
(Rotary)
Indirectselfexcitation(Error)

Comparisonofthevaluerequiredtocontrolwithafixedvalue.Whenthevariable
differsfromafixedreferencevaluean'error'existsandthefunctionofthe
controllingmediumistorestoreequilibriume.g.ifthevoltageoutputfallsonthe
brushlessrotaryexcitedalternatorthea.v.r.controlstheexciterfieldtorestore
equilibrium.

Moderncompoundscheme(static)
Directselfexcited(Functional)

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Controlofthevoltagetoasetvalueisachievedbytheinherentcharacteristicsof
themachine.
Acompoundwoundd.c.generatorwithalevelcompoundcharacteristichas
additionalcurrentintheseriesfieldunderloadconditions.Intheselfexcited
compoundalternatorthereisaconstantamountofexcitationrequiredfornoload
condition.Additionalexcitationduetomorecurrentformthecurrenttransformers
isobtainedinresponsetoextraexternaldemands

Recoverygraphsforfunctionaland'error'layouts

Shaftdrivengeneratingsystem
Methodsofdrive
1. Beltorchaindriven
2. Directcouplingengagingthepropellershaft
3. Powertakenfromthemaingearbox.
4. Powertakenfromthefreeendoftheengine
WithD.C.auxiliariespowercanbetakenbyeitherachainorbeltdrive
fromthepropulsionsystemwithanA.V.R.maintainingconstantvoltage.
ForA.C.systemsmethodsusedincludetheuseofaD.C.generatorwith
anD.C./A.C.converter,ordirectA.C.generation.Withthelattereithera
constantspeeddriveisrequiredorafrequencyconverter.Witheither
methodtherevolutionsatwhichtheshaftalternatorcanbeusedis
limited.Inthiswaydirectdrivesystemswillgenerallybefittedin
conjunctionwithaC.P.systemwhichmaintainsconstantenginespeed
underfullawayconditions.
Advantages
Savingonfuelcosts,allowsefficientuseofheavy
ratherthangasoil
reducedmaintenancecosts
Capitalsavingonreducednumberofauxiliarysets
Reducedspaceandweight
Reductioninnoise
Disadvantages
Poweravailableforpropulsionreduced
Capitolcostofplant
Auxiliariesrequiredformanoeuvring,althoughsome
mediumspeedplantsarecapableofmanoeuvringwith
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shaftalternatorsandC.P.system
Complicatedconstantspeedorfrequencygearrequired
withslowspeedengines

AirGap
Iftheairgaparoundarotorisnotuniformthemotormaynotstartincertain
positions.Becausetherotorisnotcentred,probablyduetowornbearings,thereis
anoutofbalancemagneticpull.
Radialplayinbetweentheshaftandthehousingshouldbedetectedbyhandand
bearingweardetectedbyfeelergaugebetweentherotorandthestator,or
armatureandfieldpolesmaybemeasuredatthreeorfourfairlyequidistantpoints
aroundthemachine.Ifpossibleonemeasurementshouldbemadeatthebottom
ofthemachineandanotherinlinewiththedrive.Comparewithpreviousrecords
tocheckwear.Atminimumairgap.Clearanceofthebearingsshouldberenewed
toavoidthepossibilityoftherotorrubbingonthestator.
Onsmallmachinestwofeelersonoppositesidesoftherotorshouldbeusedto
avoiderrorcausedbyrotormovementfromnormalpositionwhenonlyonefeeler
gaugeisused.
InsynchronousmotorsandD.C.motorssparkingmayoccuriftheradialairgaps
betweenthearmatureandthefieldpolesareunequal.Ifnecessaryrenewbearings
oraddorremovesoftironshimsfromunderthepoleshoes.Unequalfieldstrength
hasasimilareffectofsparkingatthebrushes.Thismightbeduetoshortcircuitor
earthfaultonthefieldcoils,orashortcircuitontheshuntandfieldcoils.
Anincreaseofairgapgivesanincreasein'reluctance'.
InasalientpoleA.C.generatorthisfactmaybeusedtoproduceasinusoidalflux
densitycurvebygraduallyincreasingthelengthiftheairgaptowardsthepole
tips.

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Intheinductionmotortheairgapshouldbeassmallaspossibleifthemotoristoact
withahighpowerfactor.Anincreaseinairgapincreasesthereactanceofthemotor
andlowersitspowerfactor.Smallmotorsareaccuratelymachinedandcentringof
therotorisveryimportantsoballorrollerbearingsarefitted.
AirgapMotorsize
0.25mm1kW
0.75mm10kW
2.0mm100kW

Paralleloperationofgenerators
D.C.generators
ForcompoundwoundD.C.generatorsitisusuallysufficienttoensurethatthe
voltagesoftheincominggeneratoristhesameasthebusbarvoltage.Theequalising
connectionjoiningthejunctionsbetweenthearmaturesandtheirseriesfieldsis
incorporatedinthecircuitbreakerinsuchawaythattheequalisingconnectionis
automaticallyclosedbeforeandopensafter,themaincontacts.Byadjustmentofthe
shuntfieldregulatortheloadsharingmaybecontrolled

A.C.alternators
Toparallelalternatorsthefollowingconditionsarerequired
Samevoltagecheckedwiththevoltmeter
Samefrequencycheckedwiththefrequencymeterandsynchroscope
Samephaseanglecheckedwithsynchroscope
Samephaserotationcheckedwithrotationmeter.Onlyimportantwhen
connectingshoresupply,oraftermaintenanceonswitchgearor
alternator.

LoadSharingOfAlternatorsInParallel
Alternatorsinparallelmustalwaysrunatthesamespeed.Afteramachinehasbeen
paralleledandisrequiredtotakeupitsshareoftheload,thiswillnotbeachievedby
adjustingthefieldexcitationcurrent.Althoughtheincreaseine.m.f.willcausea
currenttoflowinthebusbars,andthiswillshowonthemachinesammeters,thisisa
reactivecurrentthatlagsthee.m.f.by90oandproducesareactive(kVAr)butnot
kW.Itsonlyeffectistoaltertheoperatingpowerfactorofthealternator.
Morepowermaybeobtainedatthebusbarsfromtheincomingalternatoronlyby
supplyingmorepowertoitsprimemover.Thisincreaseofsteamorfuelsupplyis
achievedbyalteringthegovernorsettingeitherelectricallyormanually.
Afteradjustingthegovernortheincomingmachinetakesupitsdesiredamountofthe
kWloadingandthisisrecordedonthemachineswattmeter.However,ifthekW
loadingissharedequallybetweentwomachinesitmaybefoundthattheLoad
Currentoftheincomingmachineismoreorlessthantheothermachine.Thisisfue
totheincomingmachinehavingadifferentpowerfactor.Thismaybecorrectedby
adjustingtheexcitationoftheincomingalternator.
Thusafterparallelinganalternator
AdjustprimemovergovernoruntilkWloadingiscorrect
Adjustfieldexcitationcurrentuntilcurrentsharingiscorrect.
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Ifthealternatorshavesimilarloadcharacteristics,onceadjusted,theloadwill
continuetobeshared.Iftheloadcharacteristicsofalternatorsvary,thekWloading
andloadcurrentsharingmayrequirereadjustingunderdifferentloadconditions.
Loadsharingofalternators
No1onload

No1onload,No2synchronisedandtaking100kW

No1andNo2sharingloadafteradjustinggovernorsettings,excitation
adjustedtopreventexcessivevoltdropinNo2

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No1andNo2sharingloadwithbalancedpowerfactorsbyadjusting
excitation

TheeffectsofalteringTorqueandExcitationonsinglephasealternatorplantandby
extrapolationa3phasecircuit

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Beforeparalleling,byvaryingRb,adjusttheexcitationcurrentintherotorfieldof
'B'untilVa=Vb.Wheninphaseandatthesamefrequencysynchronisingmaytake
place.
IftherewasnoexternalloadonthebusbarsthetorqueontheprimemoversofA
andBisonlythatrequiredbyitsownalternatorandRaandRbareadjustedsothat
EaandEbareequal.

RelativetothebusbarsEaandEbareactinginthesamedirectionwitheachother
makingthetopbarpositivewithrespecttothebottombar.
Varyingthedrivingtorque

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Ifthedrivingtorqueof'B'isreduced(lessfuelsupplied)therotorfallsbackbyan
anglesayp.f.(b)givingaresultante.m.f.ofEzintheclosedcircuit.
Thee.m.f.EzcirculatesacurrentIwhichlagsbehindEzbyanglep.f.(a).
ThiscirculatingcurrentIismoreorlessinphasewithEaandinoppositiontoEb.
ThismeansthatAisgeneratingpowertomotorBandthiswillcompensateforany
lossofpowerintheprimemoverofB.
OncethepowerincreaseinAequalsthepowerlossofBbalanceisrestoredandA
andBcontinuetoruninsynchronism.
Thereforethepowerissharedbyadjustingthetorque(fuelinput.)
SlightlossofpowerinBistakenupbyanincreaseinpowerfromA.Theterminal
voltagewillnotvaryandthespeedandfrequencywillstaythesameordroponly
veryslightly.
LargelossofpowerinBwithalargecirculatingcurrentfromAtoBthealternator
AwilltrytodriveBasasynchronousmotor.Theamountoffullloadpowerrequired
todriveanalternatorasamotorisonly2to3%foraturbineand10to12%for
dieselengine.
AsthecirculatingcurrentflowsfromAtoBthereversepowertriponBwilloperate
afterabout3to5seconds.
AlltheloadnowfallsonAwhichwillprobablycausetheoverloadtriptooperateand
'blackout'.
Varyingexcitation

ConsiderAandBareexertingthetorquerequiredbyitsalternatorandthe
generatede.m.f.EaandEbareequal.Thereisnocirculatingcurrent.
ByreducingRbtheexcitationcurrentinthefieldofBcanbeincreasedandEbwill
increase.Ezistheresultantdifference(EbEa)whichwillgiveacirculatingcurrent
Ithroughthesynchronousimpedancesofthetwoalternators.Asthemachinesare
similartheimpedancedropineachwillbe1/2Ezsotheterminalvoltage
V1=EbEz=Ea+Ez
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Thereforeincreasingtheexcitationcurrentwillincreasetheterminal
voltage
Asp.f.(a)isalmost90othePowercirculatingfromBtoAisverysmall
EzICos[p.f.(a)]approxequalsZero(Cos90o=Zero)
EffectofreducingExcitation
ByincreasingRbthereductionofthefieldexcitationcurrentofBwillreducethe
terminalvoltage
Ea>EbterminalVoltageV=EaEz=Eb+Ez
ThecirculatingcurrentIfromAtoBwillhavealarge'Wattless'component.Machine
Anowhasmoreofthelaggingreactivecurrentanditspowerfactorisreduced.Too
largeareductioninexcitationcurrentinBwithsubsequentincreaseinloadcurrent
inAcouldcausethecurrentoverloadtripofAtooperate.Thiscouldbefollowedby
thelowvoltageortheoverloadtripofBoperatingcausingablackout.
Voltageregulation

Thegraphdemonstratesthatexcitationmustbeincreased(generally)with
increasingloadtomaintainterminalvoltage

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Theworsethepowerfactortheworsetheterminalvoltagechangeduringload
change.
Voltageregulation=DVwhenloadremoved/Fullloadterminalvoltage
At1.0p.f.=AC/OA
At0.8p.f=AD/OA
Thereforelowerp.f.=greatervoltageregulation

Limitingvoltagedipandresponsetimeunder
impactloading
Theeffectofalargeloadsuddenlyswitchedontoasmallpowerinstallationsuchas
ashipsplantwillbeaninstantaneousdipinthegeneratorvoltage.
Thiseffect,duetothetransientreactanceonstarting,cannotbeobviatedeitherina
selfregulatedmachine,orinaconventionalgeneratorwithA.V.R.
Thesluggishresponseoftheexcitationsystemslimitsthespeedofvoltagerecovery.
Inaselfexcitedgeneratorthedipislessandtherecoverytimegreatlyimproved.
(say0.3sagainst0.7s)
Inordertomaintainconstantvoltage,undervaryingconditions,excitationmustbe
varied.
Variationofvoltageatconstantexcitation

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Variationofexcitationatconstantvoltage

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