06/07/2015

ShortNotesonCarbonCycle,NitrogenCycleandSulphurCycle(2158Words)

ShortNotesonCarbonCycle,
NitrogenCycleandSulphurCycle
(2158Words)
byPujaMondalNotes

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ShortnotesonCarbonCycle,NitrogenCycleandSulphur
Cycle!
Variousmaterialsincludingdifferentnutrientsandmetalsmoveinthe
ecosysteminacyclicmanner.Themajorreservesorstorage
compartmentofthematerialsareknownasreservoirs.Whenthe
majorreservoirofanutrientisintheatmosphere,itisknownasa
gaseouscycle,e.g.,nitrogencycle,whichhasitsreservoirintheformof
nitrogengas(N2)constitutingabout78%oftheatmosphere.

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ImageCurtsey:esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/carbon_toolkit/images/carbon_cycle.jpg

Whenthereservoirisintheearthscrustorsediments,itisknownasa
sedimentarycyclee.g.,phosphoruscyclewhichhasitsreserveas
phosphaterocks.Sulphurcycleisanexampleofanintermediatetype,
whichhasreservoirbothinsoilandtheatmosphere.
Movementofthematerialsfromonereservoirtoanothermaybe
drivenbyphysicalagentslikewindorgravitationalenergy.Itmayalso
beduetochemicalenergy,e.g.,whenthewaterbodyreaches
saturationthereservoirischemicallyfullandtherefore,nolongercan
holditassuch.
Thenthematerialusuallyisprecipitatedout.Theaveragetimefor
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whichamaterial(moleculeofasubstance)remainsinareservoiris
knownasitsresidencetime.
Nutrientslikecarbon,nitrogen,sulphur,oxygen,hydrogen,
phosphorusetc.moveincircularpathsthroughbioticandabiotic
componentsandareknownasbiogeochemicalcycles.
Wateralsomovesinacycle,knownashydrologicalcycle.Thenutrients
tomovethroughthefoodchainandultimatelyreachthedetritus
compartment(containingdeadorganicmatter)wherevarious
microorganismscarryoutdecomposition.
Variousorganicallyboundnutrientsofdeadplantsandanimalsare
convertedintoinorganicsubstancesbymicrobialdecompositionthat
arereadilyusedupbyplants(primaryproducers)andthecyclestarts
afresh.

1.CarbonCycle:
Thecarboncycleisthebiogeochemicalcyclebywhichcarbonis
exchangedamongthebiosphere,pedosphere,geosphere,hydrosphere,
andatmosphereoftheEarth.Itisoneofthemostimportantcyclesof
theearthandallowsforcarbontoberecycledandreusedthroughout
thebiosphereandallofitsorganisms.
TheCarbonCycleisacomplexseriesofprocessesthroughwhichallof
thecarbonatomsinexistencerotate.Thewoodburnedjustafew
decadesagocouldhaveproducedcarbondioxidewhichthrough
photosynthesisbecamepartofaplant.Whenyoueatthatplant,the
samecarbonfromthewoodwhichwasburntcanbecomepartofyou.
Thecarboncycleisthegreatnaturalrecyclerofcarbonatoms.
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Withouttheproperfunctioningofthecarboncycle,everyaspectoflife
couldbechangeddramatically.Plants,animals,andsoilinteractto
makeupthebasiccyclesofnature.Inthecarboncycle,plantsabsorb
carbondioxidefromtheatmosphereanduseit,combinedwithwater
theygetfromthesoil,tomakethesubstancestheyneedforgrowth.
Theprocessofphotosynthesisincorporatesthecarbonatomsfrom
carbondioxideintosugars.
Animals,suchastherabbiteattheplantsandusethecarbontobuild
theirowntissues.Otheranimals,suchasthefox,eattherabbitand
thenusethecarbonfortheirownneeds.Theseanimalsreturncarbon
dioxideintotheairwhentheybreathe,andwhentheydie,sincethe
carbonisreturnedtothesoilduringdecomposition.Thecarbonatoms
insoilmaythenbeusedinanewplantorsmallmicroorganisms.The
followingmajorreservoirsofcarboninterconnectedbypathwaysof
exchange:
i.Theatmosphere.
ii.Theterrestrialbiosphere,whichisusuallydefinedtoincludefresh
watersystemsandnonlivingorganicmaterial,suchassoilcarbon.
iii.Theoceans,includingdissolvedinorganiccarbonandlivingand
nonlivingmarinebiota.
iv.Thesedimentsincludingfossilfuels
v.TheEarthsinterior,carbonfromtheEarthsmantleandcrustis
releasedtotheatmosphereandhydrospherebyvolcanoesand
geothermalsystems.

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Theannualmovementsofcarbon,thecarbonexchangesbetween
reservoirs,occurbecauseofvariouschemical,physical,geological,and
biologicalprocesses.Theoceancontainsthelargestactivepoolof
carbonnearthesurfaceoftheEarth,butthedeepoceanpartofthis
pooldoesnotrapidlyexchangewiththeatmosphereintheabsenceof
anexternalinfluence,suchasanuncontrolleddeepwateroilwellleak.
Theglobalcarbonbudgetisthebalanceoftheexchanges(incomesand
losses)ofcarbonbetweenthecarbonreservoirsorbetweenonespecific
loopthecarboncycle.
Carbonisreleasedintotheatmosphereinseveralways:
i.Throughtherespirationperformedbyplantsandanimals.Thisisan
exothermicreactionanditinvolvesthebreakingdownofglucose(or
otherorganicmolecules)intocarbondioxideandwater.
ii.Throughthedecayofanimalandplantmatter.Fungiandbacteria
breakdownthecarboncompoundsindeadanimalsandplantsand
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convertthecarbontocarbondioxideifoxygenispresent,ormethaneif
not.
iii.Throughcombustionoforganicmaterialwhichoxidizesthecarbon
itcontains,producingcarbondioxide(andotherthings,likewater
vapour).Burningfossilfuelssuchascoal,petroleumproductsreleases
carbondioxide.Burningagrofuelsalsoreleasescarbondioxide
iv.Volcaniceruptionsandmetamorphismreleasegasesintothe
atmosphere.Volcanicgasesareprimarilywatervapour,carbondioxide
andsulphurdioxide.
v.Carbonistransferredwithinthebiosphereasheterotrophsfeedon
otherorganismsortheirparts(e.g.,fruits).Thisincludestheuptakeof
deadorganicmaterial(detritus)byfungiandbacteriaforfermentation
ordecay.
vi.Mostcarbonleavesthebiospherethroughrespiration.When
oxygenispresent,aerobicrespirationoccurs,whichreleasescarbon
dioxideintothesurroundingairorwater,followingthereaction
C6H12O6+602>6CO2+6H2O.Otherwise,anaerobicrespiration
occursandreleasesmethaneintothesurroundingenvironment,which
eventuallymakesitswayintotheatmosphereorhydrosphere(e.g.,as
marshgasorflatulence).
Circulationofcarbondioxide:
i.Plantsabsorbsthecarbondioxidefromtheatmosphere.
ii.Duringtheprocessofphotosynthesis,plantsincorporatesthe
carbonatomsfromcarbondioxideintosugars.
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iii.Animals,suchastherabbiteattheplantsandusethecarbonto
buildtheirowntissues,chainthecarboncontent
iv.Throughthefoodchain,carbonistransferredintofoxes,lionsetc.
v.Theanimalsreturncarbondioxideintotheairwhentheybreathe,
andwhentheydie,sincethecarbonisreturnedtothesoilduring
decomposition
InCaseofOcean:
Inregionsofoceanicupwelling,carbonisreleasedtotheatmosphere.
Conversely,regionsofdownwellingtransfercarbon(CO2)fromthe
atmospheretotheocean.WhenCO2enterstheocean,itparticipatesin
aseriesofreactionswhicharelocallyinequilibrium:
i.ConversionofCO2(atmospheric)toCO2(dissolved).
ii.ConversionofCO2(dissolved)tocarbonicacid(H2CO3).
iii.Conversionofcarbonicacid(H2CO3)tobicarbonateion.
iv.Conversionofbicarbonateiontocarbonateion.
Intheoceans,dissolvedcarbonatecancombinewithdissolvedcalcium
toprecipitatesolidcalciumcarbonate,CaCO3,mostlyastheshellsof
microscopicorganisms.Whentheseorganismsdie,theirshellssink
andaccumulateontheoceanfloor.Overtimethesecarbonate
sedimentsformlimestonewhichisthelargestreservoirofcarbonin
thecarboncycle.
Thedissolvedcalciumintheoceanscomesfromthechemical
weatheringofcalciumsilicaterocks,duringwhichcarbonicandother
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acidsingroundwaterreactwithcalciumbearingmineralsliberating
calciumionstosolutionandleavingbehindaresidueofnewlyformed
aluminiumrichclaymineralsandinsolublemineralssuchasquartz.
Thefluxorabsorptionofcarbondioxideintotheworldsoceansis
influencedbythepresenceofwidespreadviruseswithinoceanwater
thatinfectmanyspeciesofbacteria.Theresultingbacterialdeaths
spawnasequenceofeventsthatleadtogreatlyenlargedrespirationof
carbondioxide,enhancingtheroleoftheoceansasacarbonsink.

2.NitrogenCycle:
Thenitrogencycleisthesetofbiogeochemicalprocessesbywhich
nitrogenundergoeschemicalreactions,changesform,andmoves
throughdifferencereservoirsonearth,includinglivingorganisms.
Nitrogenisrequiredforallorganismstoliveandgrowbecauseitisthe
essentialcomponentofDNA,RNA,andprotein.However,most
organismscannotuseatmosphericnitrogen,thelargestreservoir.The
fiveprocessesinthenitrogencycle
i.Nitrogenfixation
ii.Nitrogenuptake
iii.Nitrogenmineralization
iv.Nitrification
v.Denitrification
Humansinfluencetheglobalnitrogencycleprimarilythroughtheuse
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ofnitrogenbasedfertilizers.
I.Nitrogenfixation:N2>NH4+
NitrogenfixationistheprocesswhereinN2isconvertedto
ammonium,essentialbecauseitistheonlywaythatorganismscan
attainnitrogendirectlyfromtheatmosphere.Certainbacteria,for
examplethoseamongthegenusRhizobium,aretheonlyorganisms
thatfixnitrogenthroughmetabolicprocesses.
Nitrogenfixingbacteriaoftenformsymbioticrelationshipswithhost
plants.Thissymbiosisiswellknowntooccurinthelegumefamilyof
plants(e.g.beans,peas,andclover).Inthisrelationship,nitrogen
fixingbacteriainhabitlegumerootnodulesandreceivecarbohydrates
andafavourableenvironmentfromtheirhostplantinexchangefor
someofthenitrogentheyfix.Therearealsonitrogenfixingbacteria
thatexistwithoutplanthosts,knownasfreelivingnitrogenfixers.In
aquaticenvironments,bluegreenalgae(reallyabacteriacalled
cyanobacteria)isanimportantfreelivingnitrogenfixer.
II.Nitrogenuptake:NH4+>OrganicN
Theammoniaproducedbynitrogenfixingbacteriaisusuallyquickly
incorporatedintoproteinandotherorganicnitrogencompounds,
eitherbyahostplant,thebacteriaitself,oranothersoilorganism.
III.Nitrogenmineralization:OrganicN>NH4+
Afternitrogenisincorporatedintoorganicmatter,itisoftenconverted
backintoinorganicnitrogenbyaprocesscallednitrogen
mineralization,otherwiseknownasdecay.Whenorganismsdie,
decomposers(suchasbacteriaandfungi)consumetheorganicmatter
andleadtotheprocessofdecomposition.
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Duringthisprocess,asignificantamountofthenitrogencontained
withinthedeadorganismisconvertedtoammonium.Onceintheform
ofammonium,nitrogenisavailableforusebyplantsorforfurther
transformationintonitrate(NO3)throughtheprocesscalled
nitrification.

IV.Nitrification:NH4+>NO3
Someoftheammoniumproducedbydecompositionisconvertedto
nitrateviaaprocesscallednitrification.Thebacteriathatcarryoutthis
reactiongainenergyfromit.Nitrificationrequiresthepresenceof
oxygen,sonitrificationcanhappenonlyinoxygenrichenvironments
likecirculatingorflowingwatersandtheverysurfacelayersofsoils
andsediments.Theprocessofnitrificationhassomeimportant
consequences.
Ammoniumionsarepositivelychargedandthereforestick(are
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sorbed)tonegativelychargedclayparticlesandsoilorganicmatter.
Thepositivechargepreventsammoniumnitrogenfrombeingwashed
outofthesoil(orleached)byrainfall.
Incontrast,thenegativelychargednitrateionisnotheldbysoil
particlesandsocanbewasheddownthesoilprofile,leadingto
decreasedsoilfertilityandnitrateenrichmentofdownstreamsurface
andgroundwaters.
V.Denitrification:NO3>N2+N2O
Throughdenitrification,oxidizedformsofnitrogensuchasnitrate
andnitrite(NO2)areconvertedtodinitrogen(N2)and,toalesser
extent,nitrousoxidegas.Denitrificationisananaerobicprocessthat
iscarriedoutbydenitrifyingbacteria,whichconvertnitratetonitrogen
inthefollowingsequence:
NO3>NO2>NO>N2O>N2
Nitricoxideandnitrousoxidearebothenvironmentallyimportant
gases.Nitricoxide(NO)contributestosmog,andnitrousoxide(N2O)
isanimportantgreenhousegas,therebycontributingtoglobalclimate
change.

3.SulphurCycle:
Sulphurisoneofthecomponentsthatmakeupproteinsandvitamins.
Proteinsconsistofaminoacidsthatcontainsulphuratoms.Sulphuris
importantforthefunctioningofproteinsandenzymesinplants,andin
animalsthatdependuponplantsforsulphur.
Itenterstheatmospherethroughbothnaturalandhumansources.
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Naturalrecoursescanbeforinstancevolcaniceruptions,bacterial
processes,evaporationfromwater,ordecayingorganisms.When
sulphurenterstheatmospherethroughhumanactivity,thisismainlya
consequenceofindustrialprocesseswheresulphurdioxide(SO2)and
hydrogensulphide(H2S)gasesareemittedonawidescale.
Whensulphurdioxideenterstheatmosphereitwillreactwithoxygen
toproducesulphurtrioxidegas(SO3),orwithotherchemicalsinthe
atmosphere,toproducesulphursalts.Sulphurdioxidemayalsoreact
withwatertoproducesulphuricacid(H2SO4).Sulphuricacidmayalso
beproducedfromdemethylsulphide,whichisemittedtothe
atmospherebyplanktonspecies.
Alltheseparticleswillsettlebackontoearth,orreactwithrainandfall
backontoearthasaciddeposition.Theparticleswillthenbeabsorbed
byplantsagainandarereleasedbackintotheatmosphere,sothatthe
sulphurcyclewillstartoveragain.
i.Fossilfuelslikecoalandpetroleumareextremelyimportantenergy
resourceswhicharegettingexhausted.
ii.Hydrocarbonfuelbasedresourcescreatepollutionlevelsandgreen
housegases.Theirmanagementisrelatedtoimprovedtechnologyand
findingalternativeenergysourcestakingthisintoaccount.
iii.Anoverallprudentandsustainableusesofresourcesbothatan
individualandcollectivelevelcanbenefitawidecrosssectionof
societyaswellmeetthefuturegenerations.

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