Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Gunter Ramberger
Structural Bearings
and Expansion Joints
for Bridges
I
IABSE
AIPC
IVBH
Copyright 02002 by
International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any
information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publisher.
ISBN 3-85748-105-6
Printed in Switzerland
Publisher:
IABSE-AIPC-IVBH
ETH Honggerberg
CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
Phone: Int. + 41-1-633 2647
Fax:
Int. + 41-1-633 1241
E-mail: secretariat@iabse.ethz.ch
Web: http://www.iabse.ethz.ch
Dedicated to the commemoration of the late Prof. Dr. techn. Ferdinand Tschemmernegg,
University of Innsbruck.
Preface
It is my hope that this treatise will serve as a textbook for students and as information
for civil engineers involved in bridge construction. My intent was to give a short
guideline on bearings and expansion joints for bridge designers and not to mention all
the requirements for the manufacturers of such products. These requirements are
usually covered by product guidelines, which vary between different countries.
Not all the references are related to the content of this document. They are more or less
a collection of relevant papers sometimes dealing with special problems.
I express many thanks to Prof. Dr.-Ing. Ulrike Kuhlmann, University of Stuttgart,
chairperson of Working Commission 2 of IABSE, who gave the impetus for this work;
to her predecessor of the IABSE Commission, Prof. Dr. David A. Nethercot, Imperial
College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London, for reviewing the manuscript,
and Prof. Dr. Manfred Hirt, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne, for his
contributions and comments.
Gunter Ramberger
Table of Contents
1.
Bearings
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The role of bearings
1.3 General types of bearings and their movements
1.4 The layout of bearings
1.5 Calculation of bearing reactions and bearing movements
1.6 Construction of bearings
1.7 Materials for bearings
1.8 Analysis and design of bearings
1 .9 Installation of bearings
1.10 Inspection and maintenance
1. I 1 Replacement of bearings
1. I 2 Codes and standards
1.13 References
2.
7
7
7
9
16
19
29
33
37
38
39
41
42
Expansion Joints
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
Introduction
The role of expansion joints
Calculation of movements of expansion joints
Construction of expansion joints
Materials for expansion joints
Analysis and design of expansion joints
Installation of expansion joints
Inspection and maintenance
Replacement of expansion joints
References
51
51
51
58
70
72
84
86
87
88
Bearings
1.1
Introduction
All bridges are subjected to movements due to temperature expansion and elastic
strains induced by various forces, especially due to traffic loads. In former times our
bridges were built of stones, bricks or timber. Obviously, elongation and shortening
occurred in those bridges, but the temperature gradients were small due to the high
mass of the stone bridges. Timber bridges were small or had natural joints, so that the
full elongation values were subdivided into the elongation of each part. On the other
hand, the elongation and shortening of timber bridges due to change of moisture is often higher than that due to thermal actions. With the use of constructional steel and,
later on, of reinforced and prestressed concrete, bridge bearings had to be used. The
first bearings were rocker and roller bearings made of steel. Numerous rocker and
roller bearings have operated effectively for more than a century. With the development of ageing-, ozone- and UV-radiation-resistant elastomers and plastics, new materials for bearings became available. Various types of bearings were developed with
the advantage of an area load transmission in contrast to steel bearings with linear or
point load transmission, where elastic analysis leads theoretically to infinite compression stresses. For the bearings the problems of motion in every direction and of load
transmission were solved, but the problem of insufficient durability still exists. Whilst
it is reasonable to assume the life of steel bearings to be the same as that of the bridge,
the life of a bearing with elastomer or plastic parts can be shorter.
1.2
The role of bearings is to transfer the bearing reaction from the superstructure to the
substructure, fulfilling the design requirements concerning forces, displacements and
rotations. The bearings should allow the displacements and rotations as required by
the structural analysis with very low resistance during the whole lifetime. Thus, the
bearings should withstand all external forces, thermal actions, air moisture changes
and weather conditions of the region.
1.3
Normally, reaction forces and the corresponding movements follow a dual principle a non zero bearing force corresponds to a zero movement and vice versa. An exception
is given only by friction forces which are nearly constant during the movement, and by
elastic restraint forces which are generally proportional to the displacement.
Usually, the bearing forces are divided into vertical and horizontal components.
Bearings for vertical forces normally allow rotations in one direction, some types in
all directions. If they also transmit horizontal forces, usually vertical forces are combined.
1. Bearings
A special type of bearing transmits only horizontal forces, while allowing vertical
displacements.
The following table (Table 1.3-1) shows the common types of bearings, including the
possible bearing forces and displacements. Friction and elastic restraint forces are not
considered.
Symbol Function
Construction
All translation
fixed
Rotation all
round
Horizontal
movement in
one direction
Rotation all
around
Horizontal
movement in
all directions
Rotation all
round
Horizontal
movement in
all direction
Rotation
about one axis
All horizontal
tranal. fixed
Rotation all
round
HoriLontal force
bearing
Horizontal
movement in
one direction
Rotation all
round
Guide bearing
Tuble 1.3-1
8.2
-77
Fig. I .4. I - I : Bearings at an abutment
I -
~-
I7
10
1. Bearings
The layout of the bearings should correspond to the structural analysis of the whole
structure (super- and substructure together!). If the settlement and the deflection of the
substructure can be neglected the structural analysis of the superstructure, including
the bearings, can be separated from that of the substructure. Sometimes the model for
the analysis, especially of the superstructure, will be simplified by assuming the following: bearings are situated directly on the neutral axis of the girder (fig. 1.4.1-6),the
motion of the bearings occurs without restraint, bearings have no clearance, etc. In this
case we must consider the correct system (fig. 1.4.1-5) at least for the design of the
bearings and take into account the influence of the simplifications on the structure.
&
Fig. I .4.1-4: Reality
A
Fig. I .4.1-5: Correct system
On the abutments or separating piers it is normal to use at least two vertical bearings
to avoid torsional rotations. At intermediate piers one or more vertical bearings may
be used. If more than one bearing is used the rotational displacement at the pier is restrained. More than three vertical supports of the superstructure lead to statically indeterminate bearing conditions, but even the simplest bridge has at least four vertical
bearings. If the torsional stiffness of the superstructure is low (e.g. open cross sections) it may be neglected and the layout with four bearings becomes isostatic. If the
torsional stiffness is not negligible (e.g. box girders) we have to take it into account for
the structural analysis, especially for skewed and curved bridges. On a bridge with n
> 3 vertical supports, n - 3 bearing reactions can be chosen freely within a reasonable
bandwidth. This possibility can be used to prestress the superstructure and to distribute the bearing reactions as desired.
If the bearings are situated (nearly) in a plane we need at least one horizontally fixed
and one horizontally moveable bearing. The moving direction must not be orthogonal
11
to the polar line from the fixed to the moveable bearing. If more than two bearings in
the horizontal direction are necessary, the basic principle should be that an overall
uniform extension, caused by temperature or shrinkage, shall be possible without
restraint.
In general, there are two possibilities for the arrangement of the bearings:
a) arrangement in a horizontal position (fig. 1.4.1-7)
b) arrangement in a position parallel to the road or rail surface (fig. 1.4.1-8).
---_---,--a
-(I
f=--
,,displaced
bridge
12
1. Bearings
LA-:.
++11,
%I,
_-
- -- -
;c
Fig. 1.4.2-2: Horizontally statically determinate system (better than classical layout)
- _ - _ _ - - - -------- --- .
Fig. 1.4.2-3: System with separated vertical and horizontal bearings (statically determinate system)
13
For skewed or horizontally curved single span bridges we have to decide whether the
horizontal force should be combined with the higher or with the lower vertical reaction force. For all bearing constructions it is easier to transfer horizontal forces in combination with a high vertical force. In this case the resultant force stays nearer to the
centre, its angle to the vertical is smaller and leads to smaller bending moments in suband superstructure (fig. 1.4.2-4).
!
I
I
HI
14
1. Bearings
For straight continuous girders normally two bearings are used at every abutment and
pier. If the torsional stiffness is high (box girder) the intermediate piers can be reduced
to a round column with one bearing on the axis under the diaphragm. Constrained
bearings in the cross direction are the rule at all piers. If the horizontal bending stiffness is very high we can transfer the horizontal forces only at the abutments. The same
considerations are suitable also for skewed and curved bridges (fig. 1.4.2-6).
Bearings for horizontal forces and guide bearings which transfer only horizontal
forces may be used in combination with leaf or link bearings which cannot transmit
horizontal forces.
The movement of an expansion joint must be linked by a guide like a constraint bearing. The main movement of an expansion joint should be in the axis of the traffic way.
Generally, this direction does not coincide with the direction of the polar line from the
fixed bearing to the moveable bearing at the abutment (fig.1.4.2-7). If all other
bearings have the same angle between the polar line and the moving direction there
results a layout of the bearings with no restraints on uniform elongation or shortening
(e.g. caused by thermal actions or shrinkage), as shown below (fig.1.4.2-8).
Fig. 1.4.2-8: Layout for curved continuous girders (no constraint under overall tempe ra ture)
15
The elongation is
A,, = k . r, << r,
A- = k . r << r
proportional elongation
The rotation is
A;tana
r+A,
A;tana
r
k.r.tana
=k.tana
r
For Cp, = Cp, the bridge simply rotates as a rigid body without constraint.
One special case of this general rule is well known: the bearings are moveable in the
direction of the polar lines with a = 0 (fig.1.4.2-10). However, this layout has the
disadvantage that generally the main movement of the joint does not coincide with the
movement of the bearing.
16
I . Bearings
A+
Fig. 1.4.3-1: Prying effect due to a eccentric loading
b) A similar situation occurs for a continuous girder with chequer pattern loading.
~
~
Fig. 1.4.3-3: Prying forces for a skewed bridge with vertical loading
Similar effects can occur for curved bridges. For the correct analysis of the bearing
reactions it is always necessary to model the bearings at the very point where they
are actually situated, and in combination with the substructure. The deflection of the
substructure can influence the constraint bearing reactions significantly.
1.5
1.5.1 Actions
According to Eurocode 1 (ENV 1991) the actions can be subdivided into:
- permanent actions,
- variable actions,
- extraordinary actions.
17
The bridge should take up the desired shape under all permanent loads, at the average
temperature (+lo" C in most of the European countries) and, if time-dependant
displacements occur, at the time t = 00, at which time all moveable bearings should be
in the zero adjustment (null position). Variable actions and extraordinary actions lead
to deviation from this form.
Variable actions to consider are:
- traffic loads, considering the applicable dynamic coefficients
- loads due to traffic loads, i.e.
nosing forces
centrifugal forces
braking forces
traction forces
- wind loads
wind on construction
wind on traffic loads
- settlements of abutments and piers
- thermal actions
uniform temperature
vertical temperature gradient
horizontal temperature gradient
temperature differences between individual parts of the bridge (e.g. stay
cables, pylon and stiffening girder)
- creep and shrinkage of concrete
Extraordinary actions to consider are:
- earthquake actions
- vehicle impact
- derailment
- rupture of the conductor line
others
'
18
1. Bearings
To obtain the extreme bearing reaction it is necessary to consider that all bridges are
three-dimensional and not merely plane systems.
The influence lines (influence surfaces) of the bearing reactions can be found as the
displacement curves (displacement surfaces) of the system, due to unit displacements
F = 1 or cp = 1, acting at the position and in the direction of the required force. If these
analyses are performed on a three dimensional model, the definitive influence area
will result directly (fig.1 S.2-1; fig.1 S.2-2). If plane models are used for the analyses,
special care is necessary, particularly with continuous girders with open or box sections. The following examples demonstrate the difference:
Fig.1.5.2-1: Influence area for the verticul bearing reaction A, box section.
I .6 Construction of bearings
1.6
Construction of bearings
19
20
1. Bearings
21
22
1. Bearings
Point rocker bearings are used for bearing reactions in the range 500 and 2500 kN, line
rocker bearings and roller bearings for loads in the range 200 and 20 000 kN.
I .6 Construction of bearings
23
i
Fig. 1.6.2-5: Roller bearing (left side without guide rail; right side with guide rail)
The contact zones of steel bearings cannot be protected against corrosion. Therefore
corrosion-resistant layers of high alloyed steel should be used for the contact areas.
This can be done by building up a surface by forging or by welding. Between the mild
steel and the hardened high alloyed steel of the surface there should be a welded or
forged tough buffer zone. The thickness (in mm) of the hardened layer both on the
roller (radius R in mm) and of the plate should be t 2 0,14 . R - 2.
24
1. Bearings
tomeric pad should not exceed 4.0 kN/cm2. The allowable compression for the PTFE
is 3 kN/cm2for permanent loads and 4.5 kN/cm2for short term loads (traffic, wind etc.).
Pot bearings have the advantage of a very high vertical stiffness (nearly incompressible elastomeric part). It is comparatively independent of the size of bearing and the
applied load. This characteristic is important for the bearing of high velocity railway
bridges. Bearings with low vertical stiffness can lead to damage of the rails.
astomere disc
Lid
Sealing
Pot - wall
Pot - bottom
25
Anchoring plate
Sliding plate
Polished stainless steel
PTFE (Polytetrafluorethylen)
Lid
Pot -wall
Sealing
Elastomere disc
Pot - bottom
26
1. Bearings
Like pot bearings, spherical bearings are used for vertical forces in the range of 1000
to 100 000 kN.
Polished
Sliding plate
hb
Part of sphere
PTFE
Chrome plated
polished surface
I
I
I
Fig. 1.6.4-4: Free spherical bearing
27
62
Next Page
28
1. Bearings
-top plate
bearing
assembly
base plate
Previous Page
1.7 Materials for bearings
1.7
29
1.7.1 Steel
Structural steel
Structural steel is used for all parts of bearings which are not under extraordinary
local stress or do not require special properties against corrosion. Structural steel for
bearings can be:
- Non-alloy structural steels according to EN 10025
- Fine-grained structural steels according to EN 10113
- Quenched and tempered steels according to EN I0082
Eurocode 3 may be used for the design of all bearing components made from structural steel according to EN 10025 and EN 10113 and for all connections (bolts, welds
etc.). Quenched and tempered steels are used mostly for non-welded parts under high
pressure (parts with Hertz compression, bolts of leaf and link bearings). In contact
areas with Hertz compression layers of corrosion-resistant hard steel can be applied
by forging or by welding. In the case of hard-surface welding a tough intermediate
(puffer) layer must be welded between the steel and the hard-surface.
Stainless steel
Stainless steel according to EURONORM 88-2 or I S 0 683 can also be used for bearings. For design one should use EC 3 , part 1-4. Concerning stainless steel for sliding
plates see 1.7.3.
30
1. Bearings
If the surface of the rubber is fixed to a rigid body shear stresses develop between the
two surfaces under compression (fig. 1.7.2-2). Under compression we obtain a virtual
modulus of elasticity E, Lllmpr which depends not only on the shear modulus G but also
on the thickness of the part between two plates. For rectangular parts a good approximation for E, co,npr is given by
1'
conipr
=G
(: )
. (1
0,6
g)
for b 2 a
The maximum stresses under compression between two rigid bodies are
31
is not in the middle of one half but nearer the outer side; thus we
a
- -1 E l compr. This is described very well by the
finally obtain: a + < , El
2
following approximate formula:
the maximum
(3
for b 2 a
Under the rotation a we obtain a curvature p =
and a restraining moment
a=
Mi?
bending
with I =
'
a'b
12
_____
32
1. Bearings
der pressure the PTFE yields. To keep the PTFE in the desired shape it is necessary to
keep about half the thickness in a <<chamber>>
with sharp edges. Over the sharp edges
we obtain a small bulge. It is also possible to glue PTFE to a steel surface. In this case
the PTFE is about 2.5 mm thick.
The friction coefficient increases with decreasing temperature and with decreasing
compression. The static friction coefficient (first movement) is higher than the dynamic coefficient. After movement has taken place the dynamic friction coefficient remains at this value and returns to the static value after a few hours. This might depend
on the orientation of the large polymer molecules; during movement they are orientated into the direction of motion within a very thin surface layer. When the motion is
stopped, the orientation is lost within a few hours. Fig. 1.7.3-1 shows the design values of the friction coefficient pLdbetween PTFE and stainless steel, depending on the
compression force (EN 1337-2).
I
I
0.00
0.0
I
I
0.5
1.o
1.5
I
I
I
I
I
2.0
2.5
3.0
p [kNicm']
33
For slow movements caused by thermal actions we obtain long sliding movements but
at a low velocity. Quick movements caused by traffic loads have short sliding movements but they occur at high velocity. Wearing is mostly caused by the second case.
For the stainless steel plate, austenitic steel X6CrNiMo17122 according to EURONORM 88-2, surface n (IIIc), should be used. The stainless steel plate must cover
the PTFE plate completely in all situations. The thickness of the plate should be at
least of 1 .5 mm. The connection to the carrying plate of mild steel can be welded or
glued. For 2.5 mm thick plates the connection can be riveted or bolted.
1.8
3F(I-v2) .
b=
7
2E
1
1
-f-
= 1,109
73
-*-
34
1. Bearings
with
F
1
rl
r2
~-~
bearing reaction
length of the cylinder
radii of the bodies in contact
Young's modulus
Fig. 1.8.1-2: Stress distribution
Poisson's ratio (v = 0.3 for steel)
maximum normal stress at the contact area
half the width of the contact zone
r,, r2
E
V
max (3
b
For the usual rocker or roller bearings the max (3 beneath the vertical bearing reaction
greatly exceeds the material yield strength (fig. 1.8.1-2). However, at the contact zone
we have not only vertical but also horizontal compression stresses. According to the
von Mises criterion the comparison stress
I
Ov =
d0i2 + O2
+ Oj3 - (3~(32 -
f 2
E d
with
35
we find
maxo, 1 0 . 4 1 8 . f i . f " = 1,77.fu=oRd
.
EN 1337-6 - rocker bearings - gives for the design load Fz,dof a point rocker bearing
(sphere against plane surface) Fz,d5 170. R 2 .
f"
Ed
we find
m a x o , 10.388..1/170.f, = 2,15f, =oRd.
For cylindrical rocker bearings the same formulae as for roller bearings are used.
1.8.2 Pin and pin plate for leaf and link bearings
A special problem of all leaf and link bearings concerns the design of the pin and the
pin plate. Eurocode 3, part 1- 1, gives simple but satisfactory design rules. The design
values of the shear force and the bending moment for the pin can be found using the
simple model of distributing the force of each pin plate uniformly over the pin.
c ,
In the case of fig. 1.8.2-1 we obtain the shear force and the bending moment according
to fig. 1 3.2-2 and fig. 1.8.2-3.
1. Bearings
36
c
w
Fig. 1.8.2-2: Shearforce
b
.
2
d2n
~
/YMp
37
e, 2
FSd
'
YMp
2 t . f,
d
= e 2 +3
3
1.9
Installation of bearings
Concerning the installation of bearings, the need for a later simple replacement must
be taken into account. So it should be common practice to put every bearing between
a lower and an upper steel cover plate. These cover plates are anchored or connected
both with the substructure and the superstructure. These cover plates are connected to
the bearings during the installation but remain fixed to the structure while the bearings
are replaced (fig. 1.9-1). Thus, the connection between bearing and cover plates should
be constructed in order to allow a simple release. Bolted connections are often used
but after many years often the bolts can hardly be unscrewed. According to the
author's experience, fastening the bearings with small fillet welds that can be ground
off and remade during the replacement process is simpler.
38
1. Bearings
bearings should be adjusted exactly. Thus, the lower plate will get exactly the desired
inclination (horizontal or parallel to the gradient, see fig. 1.9-1) and all moveable bearings will have the desired pre-adjustment, which depends on the temperature of the
bridge and the expected shrinkage and creep. The installation of the bearings should
be done early in the morning when the bridge has a (nearly) constant temperature. The
designer has to provide a table with the pre-adjustment of every bearing depending on
the measured bridge temperature.
For good functioning, careful handling of the bearings during installation is very important. The bearings must be kept free of dirt, mortar, water and dust, especially from
all moving parts. Many bearings, such as pot bearings and spherical bearings, are protected against dust by rubber bulges, but others are not protected at all. These have to
be cleaned to remove mortar and sand after the installation.
The gap between the lower plate of the bearing and the substructure is normally 3 to 5
cm thick and must be completely filled with a mortar bedding. This can be done in different ways:
- by a fresh mortar bedding, chambered in the centre where the bearing is set. The
excess of mortar will come out on all sides and must be removed.
- by a special joint filling mortar which must be mixed in a pan type concrete mixer
with a precise quantity of water. This mortar is liquid at first and should be poured
in a formwork around the bearing only from one side, so that the air can escape on
the other side. The special mortar fills the gap without air bubbles, it sets and hardens very quickly so that after one day the mortar bedding can be fully loaded and
the formwork removed. If the gap is less than 1 cm a two-component epoxy resin
should be used instead of mortar. Initially this resin is a lighter fluid than mortar,
thus completely filling even very small gaps.
- by boxing up earth-damp mortar in the gap with a wooden stick also from one side
to avoid air bubbles. This method will be difficult for the lower plates with a short
side larger than half a metre.
All mortars should be non-shrinking.
39
i
_m_
40
1. Bearings
Force
kN
500
1000
2000
SO00
Required clearance
Normal hydraulicjack
mm
300
360
450
600
Required clearance
Flat piston jack
mm
150
180
200
250
!!
pipe or
t-------I
L
----____
c=
41
42
EN
EN
EN
EN
EN
EN
EN
1. Bearings
1337-5
1337-6
1337-7
1337-8
1337-9
1337-10
1337-1 1
Pot bearings
Rocker bearings
Spherical and cylindrical PTFE bearings
Guided bearings and Restrained bearings
Protection
Inspection and maintenance
Transport, storage and installation
1.13 References
Books and special chapters about bearings for bridges:
Eggert H., J. Grote, W. Kauschke: Lager im Bauwesen. Verlag von Wilhelm
Ernst & Sohn, Berlin, Munchen, Dusseldorf 1974.
Lee D.J.: Bridge Bearings and Expansion Joints. Second edition by E & FN Spon,
London, Glasgow, New York, Tokyo, Melbourne, Madras 1994.
Eggert H., W. Kauschke: Lager im Bauwesen. 2. Auflage, Ernst & Sohn, Berlin 1995.
Rahlwes K., R. Maurer: Lagerung und Lager von Bauwerken in: Beton-Kalender
1995, Teil2, Ernst & Sohn, Berlin.
Papers:
Albrecht, R.: Zur Anwendung und Berechnung von Gummilagern. Der Deutsche Baumeister 1969, Heft 4, Seite 326, und Heft 6, Seite 563.
Andra, Beyer, Wintergerst: Versuche und Erfahrungen mit neuen Kipp- und
Gleitlagern. Der Bauingenieur 5 (1962).
Andra, W. und Leonhardt, F.: Neue Entwicklungen fur Lager von Bauwerken,
Gummi- und Gummitopflager. Die Bautechnik 39 (1969), Heft 2, Seite 37 bis
50.
Bayer, K.: Auflager und Fahrbahnubergange fur Hoch- und Bruckenbauten aus
Kunststoff. Verein Deutscher Ingenieure VDI im Bildungswerk BV 1956 (Vortragsveroffentlichung).
Beyer, E. und Wintergerst, L.: Neue Briickenlager, neue Pfeilerform. Der Bauingenieur 35 (1960), Heft 6, Seite 227 bis 230.
Eggert, H.: Briickenlager. Die Bautechnik 50 (1973), S. 143/144.
Bub, H.: Das neue Institut fur Bautechnik. Strasse und Autobahn, Band 20
(1 969), Seite 189.
Burkhardt, E.: Gepanzerte Betonwalzgelenke, Pendel- und Rollenlager. Die
Bautechnik 17 (1939), Seite 230.
Cardillo, R. und Kruse, D.: Paper (61/WA-335) ASME (1961).
Cichocki, F.: Bremsableitung bei Briicken. Der Bauingenieur 36 (1961), Seite
304 bis 305.
1.13 References
43
44
[351
[361
[371
[431
[441
[491
[531
1. Bearings
Nordlin, E., Stoker, S. and Trinble, R.: Laboratory and Field Performance of
Elastomeric Bridge Bearing Pads, Highway Research Board (1968).
Pare u. Keiner: Elastomeric Bridge Bearings. Highway Research Board Bull
242, 1960.
Payne u. Scott: Engineering Design with Rubber
Rejcha, C.: Design of Elastomer Bearings. Journal of Prestressed Concrete
Institute Oct. 1964, Vol. 9, Nr. 5.
Resinger, F.: Langszwangungen - eine Ursache von Bruckenlagerschaden. Der
Bauingenieur 46 (1971), Seite 334.
Rieckmann, H.-P.: Einfluss der Lagerkonstruktion auf die Knicklange von
Pfeilern. Strasse Briicke Tunnel 1970, Seite 36 bis 42 und Seite 270 bis 272.
Sasse, H.-R. und Schorn, H.: Bewehrte Elastomerlager - Stand der Entwicklung. Plastik-Konstruktion 1971, Heft 5 , Seite 209 bis 227.
Schonhofer: Neugestaltungen auf dem Gebiet des Auflagerbaues und auf verwandten Gebieten. Werner-Verlag, Dusseldorf 1952.
Sedyter: Uber die Wirkungsweise von Bleigelenken. Beton und Eisen 1926,
Seite 29.
Shen, M. K.: Uber die Losung des Balkens mit unverschieblichen Auflagern.
Der Bauingenieur 39 (1964), Seite 100.
Suess, K. und Grote, J.: Einige Versuche an Neoprenelagern. Der Bauingenieur
38 (1963), Heft 4, Seite 152 bis 157.
Thielker, E.: Elastomeric Bearing Pads and Their Application in Structures,
Paper 207 of Leap Conference (1964).
Thul, H.: Bruckenlager. Der Stahlbau 38 (1969), Seite 353.
Topaloff, B.: Gummilager fur Briicken - Berechnung und Anwendung. Der
Bauingenieur 39 (1964), Seite 50 bis 64.
Topaloff, B.: Gummilager fur Brucken. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 54 (1959),
Heft 9.
Uetz, H. und Breckel, H.: Reibungs- und Verschleissversuche mit Teflon.
Sonderheft der Staatl. Materialprufungsanstalt an der TH Stuttgart, 7.12.1964,
Seite 61/76.
Uetz, H. und Hakenjos, V.: Reibungsuntersuchungen mit Polytetrafluorathylen
bei hin- und hergehender Bewegung. Die Bautechnik 44 (1967), Heft 5, Seite
159 bis 166.
Uetz, H. und Hakenjos, V.: Gleitreibungs- und Gleitverschleissversuche an
Kunststoffen. Kunststoffe, 59. Jahrgang 1969, Heft 3, Seite 161 bis 168.
Weiprecht, M.: Auflagerung von Briicken. Elsners Taschenbuch fur den Bautechnischen Eisenbahndienst, 1967, Seite 23 1 bis 277, Abschnitt E Bruckenund Ingenieurhochbau.
Zies, K.-W.: Stabilitat von Stutzen mit Rollenlagern. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau
65 ( 1 970), Seite 297.
AASHO-LRFD: American Association of State Highway Officials (1994).
Dupont de Nemours Co.: Design of Neoprene Bridge Bearing Pads, Wilmington ( 1959).
CNR-UNI 10018-68 (Italian Standards for rubber bearings).
1.13 References
45
46
1. Bearings
Pfohl, H.: Reaktionskraft am Festpunkt von Briicken aus Bremslast und Bewegungswiderstanden der Lager. Bauingenieur 58 (1983), Seite 453 bis 457.
Eggert, H. und Hakenjos, V.: Die Wirkungsweise von Kalottenlagern. Der Bauingenieur 49 (1974), Heft 3 , Seite 93/94.
Lehmann, Dieter: Beitrage zur Berechnung der Elastomerlager. Die Bautechnik I (1978), Seite 19 bis 22, I1 (1978), Seite 99 bis 102, I11 (1978), Seite 190
bis 198, IV (l979), Seite 163 bis 169.
Kordina, K. und Nolting, D.: Zur Auflagerung von Stahlbetonteilen mittels
unbewehrter Elastomerlager. Der Bauingenieur 56 (1981), Seite 41 bis 44.
Kordina, K. und Osterath, H.-H.: Zur Auflagerung von Stahlbetonteilen mittels
unbewehrter und bewehrter Elastomerlager. Der Bauingenieur 59 (1 984),
Seite 461 bis 466.
Kessler, E. und Schwerm, D.: Unebenheiten und Schiefwinkligkeiten der Auflagerflachen fur Elastomerlager bei Stahlbetonfertigteilen. Fertigteilbauforum 13/83, Seite 1 bis 5 (Betonwerk + Fertigteil-Technik).
Kessler, E.: Die Anwendung unbewehrter Elastomerlager. Betonwerk + Fertigteil-Technik, Heft 6 (1987), Seite 419 bis 429.
Bundesminister fur Verkehr: Schlden an Brucken und anderen Ingenieurbauwerken. Dokumentation 1982. Verkehrsblatt-Verlag, Dortmund.
Bundesminister fur Verkehr: Bericht uber Schaden an Bauwerken der Bundesverkehrswege. Januar 1984. Eigenverlag BMV.
Beyer, E. und Eisermann, G.: Nachstellbare Bruckenlager. Erfahrungen beim
Bauvorhaben Dusseldorf-Hauptbahnhof. Beton 5/1983.
Dickerhoff, K.J.: Bemessung von Bruckenlagern unter Gebrauchslast. Dissertation Universitat Karlsruhe 1985.
Petersen, Chr.: Zur Beanspruchung moderner Briickenlager. Festschrift J.
Scheer, Marz 1987.
Hehn, K.-H.: Priifeinrichtung zur Untersuchung von Lagern. VDI-Z 118
(1976), Seite 1 14 bis 118.
N.N., Sanierung der Kolnbreinsperre, Projektierung und Ausfuhrung. 1. Auflage Mai 1991. Herausgeber: Osterreichische Donaukraftwerke AG.
Hakenjos, V. und Richter, K.: Dauergleitreibungsverhalten der Gleitpaarung
PTFE weiss/Austenitischer Stahl fur Lager im Briickenbau. Strasse, Briicke,
Tunnel 1 1 (1979, Seite 294 bis 297.
Imbimbo M. und Kelly J.M.: Influence of Material Stiffening on Stability of
Elastomeric Bearings at Large Displacements. Journal of Engineering Mechanics. Sept. 1998.
Zederbaum, J. (1966): The frame action of a bridge deck supported on elastic
bearings. Civil Engineering and Public Works Review 61(7 14), 67-72.
Leonhardt, F. und Andra, W. (1 960): Stutzprobleme der Hochstrassenbrucken.
Beton- und Stahlbetonbau, 55(6), 121-32.
Tanaka, R., Natsukawa, K. and Ohira, T. (1984): Thermal behaviour of multispan viaduct in frame. In International Association of Bridge and Structural
Engineering, 12th Congress, Vancouver, Canada, 3-7 September.
Building Research Establishment (1979) Estimation of thermal and moisture
movements and stresses; Part 2, Digest 228, Watford.
1.13 References
47
[96] Emerson M. (1977): Temperature differences in bridges: basis of design requirements. TRRL Laboratory Report 765. Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne.
[97] Emerson M. (1968): Bridge temperatures and movements in the British Isles.
RRL Report LR 228, pp.38. Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne.
[98] Emerson M. (1973): The calculation of the distribution of temperature in
bridges. TRRL Report LR 561. Transport and Road Research Laboratory,
Crowthorne.
[99] Emerson M. (1976): Bridge temperatures estimated from the shade temperature. TRRL Report LR 696. Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne.
[ 1001 Stephenson, D.A. (1961): Effects of differential temperature on tall slender columns. Concrete and Constructional Engineering, 56(5), 175-8: 56( 1l), 401-3.
[ 1011 Garrett, R.J. (1985): The distribution of temperature in bridges. The Journal of
the Hong Kong Institution of Engineers, May, 35-8.
[ 1021 ComitC Euro-International du BCton (1984). Design manual on structural
effects of time-dependent behaviour of concrete (Bulletin No. 142). George
Publishing Company.
[ 1031 ComitC Euro-International du BCton (1985). Manual of Cracking and Deformations. Bulletin 158E, Lausanne.
[ 1041 Neville, A.M., Dilger, W.H. and Brooks, J.J. (1983): Creep of Plain and Structural Concrete. Construction Press, London and New York.
[ 1051 Mattock A.H. (1961): Precast-prestressed concrete bridge 5.Creep and shrinkage studies. Journal of the Portland Cement Association Research and Development Laboratories, May.
[ I061 Institution of Geological Sciences: National Environmental Research Council
(1 976), Atlas of Seismic Activity 1909-1968. Seismological Bulletin No.5.
[ 1071 Dollar, A.T.J., Abedi, S.M.H., Lilwall, R.C. und Willmore, R.L. (1975): Earthquake risk in the UK. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, 58,
123-4.
[ 1081 ICE and SECED (1 985): Earthquake engineering in Britain. Proceedings of
Conference of the Institution of Civil Engineers and the Society of Earthquake
and Civil Engineering Dynamics, University of East Anglia, April.
[ 1091 Lee, D.J. (197 1): The Theory and Practice of Bearings and Expanison Joints for
Bridges, Cement and Concrete Association.
[ 1 101 Buchler, W. (1987): Design of Pot Bearings, American Concrete Institute
Publication, SP-94, V01.2, pp. 882-915.
[ 1 1 11 Black, W. (1971): Notes on bridge bearings, RRL Report LR 382, Transport
and Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne.
[ I 121 Kauschke, W. and Baignet, M. (1987) Improvements in the Long Term Durability of Bearings in Bridges, American Concrete Institute Publication SP-94,
V01.2,577-612.
[ 1 131 Taylor, M.E. (1970): PTFE in highway bridges. TRRL Report LR 491, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne.
[ 1141 Eggert, H., Kauschke, W.: Lager im Bauwesen, Ernst & Sohn, Berlin 1996.
48
1. Bearings
[ 1 151 Hakenjos, V.: Lager im Bauwesen mit Komponenten aus Kunststoff verdran-
[ 1 161
[ 1 171
[ I 181
[ 1 191
[I201
[ 1211
[ 1221
11231
11241
[ 1251
[ 1261
[ 1271
11281
[ 1291
[ 1301
[ 1311
1.13 References
49
[132] Stanton, J. F., Scroggins, G., Taylor, A. W. and Roeder, C. W.: Stability of
Laminated Elastomeric Bearings. ASCE, Journal of Engineering Mechanics,
Vol. 116, No. 6, June 1990, pp 1351-1371.
[ 1331 Structural Bearing Specification. FHWA Region 3 Structural Committee for
Economical Fabrication, Subcommittee for High Load Multi-Rotational Bearings (HLMRB), October 1991.
51
Expansion Joints
2.1
Introduction
As mentioned in chapter 1.1, movements in old stone and timber bridges were small
and no additional devices were necessary to close the gaps between bridges and abutments due to bridge movements. The first expansion joints were built for steel railway
bridges because their movements were not negligible. With the increase of road traffic and of its speed, closing the gaps became necessary for safety reasons, especially
at the moveable bearings. Initially, cover plates were used for expansion joints. For
longer bridges these cover plates were not sufficient, so that finger joints and sliding
plate joints were used. All these types of expansion joints were not watertight and so
the water ran down to the bearings and to the abutments. The first watertight expansion joints were built using steel rails between rubber tubes to absorb the movements.
This principle led to a lot of different multisealed expansion joints which differed in
the means of supporting the steel rails, in the rubber profiles and in controlling the gap
widths. Another type of watertight expansion joint is the cushion joint, consisting of a
rubber cushion with vulcanised steel plates which transfer the traffic loads. In spite of
continuous amendments of all constructions for expansion joints, these still remain
wearing parts, especially in bridges with high traffic density and high traffic loads.
The following chapters give a short survey of expansion joints for different movements used in the construction of bridges.
2.2
The role of expansion joints is to carry loads and to provide safety to the traffic over the
gap between bridge and abutment or between two bridges in a way that all bridge
displacements can take place with very low resistance or with no resistance at all.
A further requirement is a low noise level especially in an urban environment. The
expansion joints should provide a smooth transition from the bridge to the adjacent
areas. The replacement of an expansion joint is always combined with a traffic interruption - at least of the affected lane. Therefore expansion joints should be robust and
suitable for all loads and local actions under all weather conditions, moisture and deicing agents. The replacement of all wearing parts should be possible in a simple way.
2.3
Movements of expansion joints depend on the size of the bridge and the arrangement
of the bearings. Normally the form of construction depends on the horizontal translation orthogonal to the joint. But it is necessary to consider all translations and rotations
to ensure that the displacements will not reach the limits of the joint construction.
To describe the movements of an expansion joint in detail we have to consider three
translations and three rotations (fig. 2.3- 1).
52
2. Expansion Joints
/
Fig.2.3-1:Possible movements
These movements result from temperature, displacements due to external loads, and
creep and shrinkage in concrete and composite bridges. We may obtain the movements (displacements and rotations) from the structural analysis of the system. Movements due to loads depend on the location of the loads. The controlling deformations
can be determined with influence lines (fig. 2.3-2 and fig. 2.3-3). The influence line of
a deflection is the bending line due to a unit load acting in the direction of the considered movement.
1
.-
I"
Fig.2.3-3:Influence line for a rotation
To obtain the displacement caused by a rotation it is also possible to calculate the
rotations; the displacements can be determined from the known rotations.
53
Temperature:
UXt.= UT C
l i ATi
i=l
N,,
E,,
Shrinkage coefficient
li
i=l
A possible problem is the change of the location of the fixing point or the unknown location of the fixing point. On arch bridges the superstructure is usually fixed at the
crown of the arch. The fixing point is moved by the deformation of the arch due to the
asymmetrical load.
Buried expansion joints are often used for short bridges (Chapter 2.4). If the fixing
point is situated on longer piers, it acts as a horizontal spring bearing. Due to a movement
in the joint a plastic deformation of the asphalt layer occurs and the construction has a
certain rigidity. A different rigidity of the expansion joints on the right and left abutment and a possible longitudinal deformation can lead to the cracking of the asphalt
layer at one abutment. As the rigidity of this joint is higher than the rigidity of the piers
the new fixing point is situated near the undamaged expansion joint (fig. 2.3.1-2).
Cracking of the asphalt layer of
the buried expansion joint
54
2. Expansion Joints
In the case of an elastic fixing point there are additional movements at expansion
joints due to acceleration and braking forces.
The actual rigidity of piers can differ from the planned rigidity. Moreover, if the bridge
is fixed on more than one pier, the position of the fixing point can differ from the
planned position.
Creep and shrinkage in composite bridges (acting in the concrete parts of crosssection only) mainly lead to deflections which result in rotations above the y-axis (fig.
2.3.1-4). Creep can be considered using a reduced section area and a reduced moment
of inertia, shrinkage by a substitute tensile force Nshacting on the free shrinking concrete. N\,, is a compression force acting on the composite cross-section.
-1
-I-
E,,
Shrinkage coefficient
A, Area of concrete
positive definition:
cp
-+
u x
55
Tn
F Y I
Fig.2.3.1-5: Displacement of bearings
UXd1
Uxd n
= $1
'
e, + @" .e ,
If a fixing point is located on a high pier the additional movements due to pier deformation must be considered in the structural analysis. The movements can result from
acceleration, braking forces, uniform and non-uniform temperature actions.
u, = sincp. ueff
uy = C0Scp~Ueff
56
2. Expansion Joints
u, = u x .tan)
...............
57
.............
7 Hydraulic jack
Tr-
........
- ........
Hydraulic jack
Fig.2.3.4-1: Lijting on one side
2.3.5
58
2. Expansion Joints
'PZ
....~~..........~....
2.4
2.4.1 General
The construction of expansion joints has to fulfil the following requirements:
- movement capacity
- bearing capacity for static and dynamic loading,
- watertightness to save bearings, substructure and possible linkage of expansion
joints from deterioration,
- low noise emission,
- traffic safety.
To fulfil the last two requirements a limitation of gap widths is essential. Additionally, it is recommended to avoid slopes exceeding about 3 % and vertical steps between
joined surfaces exceeding 8 mm (fig. 2.4.1- 1).
59
In particular, all elastomeric components must be readily accessible and easily replaceable.
2.4.2 Small movements (up to 25 mm)
For movements up to 15 mm it is possible to construct a continuous asphaltic carriageway pavement with a supporting element covering the gap of the superstructure.
This kind of joint is also called a buried expansion joint (fig. 2.4.2-1). Up to 10 mm a
flat metal plate is sufficient; for movements above 10 mm an elastomeric pad is necessary to avoid pavement cracks at the edges of the supporting plate. An additional reinforcement of the pavement is advisable to provide a uniform strain distribution. The
thickness of the pavement should be at least 80 mm and should be equal to the thickness of the corresponding parts of the superstructure and the abutment. To fulfil this
requirement the cover of the gap is usually extended into a niche.
The asphaltic pavement does not provide sufficient watertightness. An additional sealing is recommended to protect bearings and substructure from deterioration.
Flexible filler
60
2. Expansion Joints
Flexible filler
Reinforcement
//
Fig.2.4.2-3: Buried expansion joint with continuous sealing and additional rubber
projile
For movements between 15 and 25 mm the asphaltic material above the joint can be
replaced by a specially modified asphaltic material. Constructions of this kind are
called asphaltic plug joints (fig. 2.4.2-4 and fig. 2.4.2-5).The thickness should be at
least 80 mm, while the length should not exceed 700 mm.
Though movements exceeding 25 mm could be managed in laboratory tests the influence of temperature and of deformation velocity is not known adequately. Incorrect
placement of material results in tearing of the adjacent carriageway pavement. Further
problems are yielding of asphaltic material under the wheels of standing vehicles,
brake and acceleration forces combined with high environment temperatures, and the
development of rutting.
Because of their low lifetime (though combined with low relative costs) asphaltic plug
joints are recommended for temporary purposes.
,Flexible matenal
61
Fixing element
Sealing element
/Edge element ( steel laws
Cushion element
62
2. Expansion Joints
El
63
The use of seals made from cellular neoprene extrusion has the advantage of a closed
carriageway surface. In addition to the function as sealing, they are able to transfer
traffic loads. Movements up to 80 mm can be accommodated (fig. 2.4.3-8).
I
I
64
2. Expansion Joints
Intermediate e l e y t S,,eanilg
Fixing element
Linkage element
element
Support element
65
-7
I
I
I
- -
66
2. Expansion Joints
Fig.2.4.4- 7: Linkage
67
If the supporting beams are skew (Swivel System, fig. 2.4.4-6) they control the gap
width by means of the kinematic characteristic of the mechanism (fig. 2.4.4-7). The
number of supporting beams does not depend on the number of rails. The higher the
number of rails the more economical becomes the application of hinged supporting
beams.
As an alternative to the application of multiple seal expansion joints, special nonwatertight constructions like cantilever-toothed joints or rolling leaf joints (also called
roller shutter plate expansion joint) are used. Both the cantilever-toothed joint and the
rolling leaf joint are as a rule not watertight, so that an additional drainage system is
necessary.
The cantilever-toothed joint (fig. 2.4.4-8), also called finger joint, is a very robust construction but with several disadvantages. The deformation capacity in the crosswise
direction is severely limited and vertical deformations of the joint can prejudice traffic safety. To accommodate small vertical deformations without hazard the free finger
ends should be rounded. Finger joints with supported fingers (fig. 2.4.4-9) have
proved to be not as good as with cantilever fingers.
The rolling leaf joint (fig. 2.4.4-10) consists of a tongue plate, a rocker plate, and
sliding plates. The acceptable movement depends on the size and number of sliding
plates.
Rolling leaf joints can exhibit the following disadvantages:
- broken hinges (falling shutter plates cause gaps in the motorway),
- wear of the bearing surface,
- breaking of the restraining spring elements.
Some manufactures have carried out important improvements by:
- stronger hinges,
- use of specially designed bearings for the shutter plates,
- stronger restraining elements with elastomeric springs,
- rubber seals between the plates (it makes the joint watertight to a great extent).
68
2. Expansion Joints
Fixing
Fig.2.4.4-9: Finger joint with supportedfingers
69
Two different types of railway expansion joints are in use by the railway authorities.
The first type consists of a parallel joint in the rail and works according to fig. 2.4.5-1.
AS = A1 .
2
r
70
2. Expansion Joints
For bridges without a ballast bed the gap between the bridge and the abutment normally stays uncovered. For bridges with a ballast bed there are two possibilities:
a) to enclose the ballast within the bridge and on the embankment, bridging the gap
only by the rails. This construction causes problems to the automatic track ballast
tamping machine.
b) to build a continuous ballast bed by means of elastic rubber (neoprene) joints or by
sliding cover plates. In this case there is no interruption of the ballast bed and no
problem for the tamping machine. On the other hand the compactness of the ballast
increases and decreases with the expansion in the area of the expansion joint of the
rails.
2.5
71
I Resistance to tearing
Tearing strain
Resistance to crack
propagation
Behaviour after a
temperature stress
(1 4 d; 70 "C)
Change of hardness
Change of resistance to
tearing
Change of tearing strain
Resistance against
potassium chloride
(solution: 4 %; 14 d; 23 " C )
Change of volume
Change of hardness
Resistance against hot
asphaltic bitumen
(30 minutes; 220 "C)
Change of resistance to
tearing
Change of tearing strain
Bond with steel
min. 350 %
min. 1 0 N / m m
min. 400 %
min. 15 N / m m
max. +7 Shore A
max. -20 %
max. +5 Shore A
max. -15 %
max. -20 %
max. -20 %
max. +10 %
max. -5 Shore A
max. +10 %
max. -5 Shore A
max. -20 %
max. -20 %
max. -20 %
max. -20 %
Failure within the
elastomeric material
72
2. Expansion Joints
Asphaltic plug joints are made of a special modified asphaltic material. This must
have a sufficient flexibility to absorb the movements of the gap, combined with a sufficient load bearing capacity. The exact composition of the material depends on the
producer.
However, the binder material usually consists of bitumens modified with plasticizers
and polymers. The aggregates, usually, belong to the basalt group.
2.6
73
q * Rv k
stat
I no
0 Y5
n yo
0 85
0 80
0 75
n 70
0 65
0 60
n 55
n 50
Yn
80
70
50
40
?n a [ D E G ]
Fig.2.6.2-2: Factor a,
L,
= L , - ~ S ,
i=l
2. Expansion Joints
The acceleration and braking force are determined from the vertical loading. Edge
profiles and their fixing are designed for a horizontal force due to the full wheel load.
Intermediate profile:
Fh,k,dyn
= 5 . (P,, . Fv.k,stat
75
Fatigue design
Failure due to fatigue is the main reason for the observed damage. Three types of
fatigue fractures have been observed (fig. 2.6.2-5):
1) Failure of the welded joint between rail and support beam
2) Failure of the support beam
3 ) Failure of the rail
5 = 5s + 5 R -k 6 E
gs
gR
gE
again~tdriving direction
- 5 E [%I
tS,kRand cE
accelerat,O"
76
2. Expansion Joints
Fh,k.stat
= 5. Fv,k,stat
The impact causes a damped sinusoidal vibration (fig. 2.6.2-8). For the ultimate limit
state analysis the response in the fundamental mode of the system is of interest. It is
considered by the dynamic value given in the applicable standards. Fatigue of material
is caused by the stress range. Normally, only the first and second amplitude of Fv,k,dyn
exceed the constant amplitude fatigue limit.
77
The static bending moments in the vertical direction can be determined on the supported continuous beam. It depends on the stiffness of the springs if it has to be taken
into account or if the springs can be assumed to be rigid. In the horizontal direction the
consideration of the elastic fixing is essential (fig. 2.6.2- 10).
78
2. Expansion Joints
It is important to use the dynamic stiffness of the springs because it differs from the
static value. Both the spring stiffness and the damping coefficient are determined by
overrun-tests. The frequency fh and the damping coefficient can be determined from
the recorded time-deformation curve. The spring stiffness Ch,dyn in the model is varied
until the lowest natural frequency according to the experiments is observed.
The logarithmic decrement D of the damping coefficient of a spring-linked expansion
joint amounts to approximately 10 %.
Further possibilities to determine the lowest natural frequency are an analysis by FEM
or approximate methods. The following method leads to satisfactory solutions.
The fundamental vibration mode shape of the vertical direction can be described by
the static bending line of a continuous girder.
The application of the formulae of the frequency and the rotational frequency leads to
the natural frequency of the vertical system:
2= -c
(Jj
m
With known chdyn and equal span widths the frequency fh of the horizontal direction
can be determined in the same way. But the system is an elastically-supported continuous girder. The following figures show some calculated results.
79
fh
fh
450
-8
450
lh=lO@10 m
400
400
350
350
300
300
250
250
1,80 rn
200
2.00 rn
2,20rn
150
100
200
150
100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 7 1
1011
c 1 , . ~ ~ - 1[N/ml
0~
Ch,dyn
4501
1,40 m
450
rn
4oo
1,80 rn
350
2.00 rn
300
,1.60
400
l o6 /mI
10 m
15 m
Ih=40@10 m
Om
I0 rn
I0 m
2.20 rn
200
150
100
C h.dyn
1011
/mI
o6
C h.dyn 1
1011
[N/m]
Ch.dyn
80
2. Expansion Joints
Distance of
frequency
The horizontal axis of the diagram (b) contains the natural frequency of the system.
This version shows the frequency of resonance as the maximum of the graph of the design velocity. The values Acp of the resonance frequency are comparatively high. Natural system frequencies near the resonance must be avoided at least for the vertical
bending. The recommended distance from the resonance frequency is also indicated
in the diagram. With a known design velocity a maximum span of the rails can be determined. Longer spans cause higher values Acp, leading to a higher stress range. Another disadvantage is an increasing number of stress cycles exceeding the cut-off limit, which means that more than two modes of the system must be considered.
With the values Acpv and AT,, the dynamic difference moments can be calculated.
Mv.k.dyn
= 'Vv
. Mv.k.stat
Mh.k.dyn
= '(Ph
'
Mh.k.stat
k .dyn
AMh.k.dyn
WV
wh
The design load of an axle is higher than the actual load. The nominal stresses should
be reduced by the factor fredto get the actual design loads.
The value of the factor depends on the ratio between design load and loading due to
the real traffic situation. The determination of the actual traffic situation requires
extensive data for the real loads and their frequency (fig. 2.6.2-13). Infrequent high
loads exert an advantageous influence on the fatigue behaviour (overloading effect).
The maximum load for fatigue design must be determined considering the real frequency of the actual traffic loads (e.g. there may be load components occurring only
in one of a thousand cases).
Instead of the nominal stress also the design load could be reduced.
81
In
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
7,O
A 5 i 1 Amax
log 4 U R
+=2 MIO
,
No= 5 Mi0
NL= i W MID
log N
D
N=
, 2 MIO
No-
5 Mi0
NL=100 MIO
Ndarn*
log N
YFt
?/Mf
A o ~ 1110
, = a,,,,,.A
~ Constant
. ~ ~amplitude
~ ~ stress
~ ~ range for 100 million cycles
82
2. Expansion Joints
Can be ascertained by the analyses of the real sequence using the Palmgren-Miner summation (aloe = 0.4).
Fatigue strength for 100 million cycles
AOL
The construction members of the expansion joint are three-dimensional and compact.
The fatigue strength A q can be taken from the standard used if it contains a suitable
detail category, otherwise tests become necessary. The following testing arrangements
were recently used with success (fig. 2.6.2-16). The required number of tests is normally indicated by the standards.
Ndarnage
Fh.k.stat
Fh.k.stat
5.
Rv.k.stat
Fv.k.~tat
83
The horizontal loading of edge profiles and their fixings are analysed considering the
complete wheel load. Edge profiles and fixings can be analysed in the same way as for
multiple seal joints. A possible intermediate profile can be treated as a single span
beam (fig. 2.6.3-1).
,213
1
,113
,I13
4
213
4
84
2. Expansion Joints
Fvk
5tdf
For the fatigue test the loads are reduced by the factor fred.
'red
= fie, P
The construction is applicable if experiments prove that the full load P can be supported as a static load, the reduced load Predfor 2 millions of cycles.
2.6.4 Cantilever-toothedjoint and rolling leaf joint
The Bernoulli-Euler theory of bending gives correct results provided that the height to
length ratio of a beam is at least 1/5. Fingers of cantilever-toothed joints are often not
within this range. If this requirement is satisfied the ultimate load can be calculated
easily. Otherwise tests become essential.
The fatigue behaviour must be determined by tests anyway because of the three
dimensional character of the connection cantilever / edge element. The testing
arrangement and the applied loads are the same as for cushion joints (fig. 2.6.4-1).
Maximum stresses are caused when the joint expansion is maximum.
2.7
85
Immediately before the installation the actual temperature of the bridge is measured.
If it is not within the considered tolerance the adjustment must be corrected. After that
the expansion joint is flushed and fixed temporarily. In the case of a steel bridge it is
provisionally bolted or tack-welded. The auxiliary construction must be removed immediately. After carrying out the final fixing, the protection against corrosion is completed.
In concrete bridges the expansion joints are provisionally fixed by welding together
reinforcement and anchoring. The concrete pour should be at least of the same
strength as the adjacent material of the superstructure. While pouring the concrete the
joint construction should be protected by a cover.
......
Adjustable auxiliary
construction
;a/
Reinforcement
Reinfdcement
In the case of a steel bridge the date of installing the expansion joints has no influence
on the expected range of movement. In the case of a concrete bridge or a composite
bridge, single unidirectional movements (shortening due to creep and shrinkage) occur. These movements begin with the erecting of the construction and stop within
some weeks / months / years. Creep is caused by compressive stresses, especially due
to prestressing. The movement due to prestessing forces occurs during the prestressing work. The joint construction has to accommodate the movements which occur after the installation. Therefore, the dimension and, by this, the costs of a joint construction can be reduced by a late installation.
The variation of creep and shrinkage is shown in the following figures by means of the
coefficient of creep cp(-,t,) and the shrinkage value E,, . In various standards,
t = 5 years (= 1800 days) to t = 20 years is set equal t o t = m.
86
2. Expansion Joints
500
1000
1500
2000
500
1000
1500
2000
Time Id1
Time [dl
The maximum increments of shrinkage and creep occur immediately after completion
or after prestressing. For example after 100 days (about 3 months), about 50 % of the
expected creep deformations and 25 % of the shrinkage deformation have taken place.
2.8
Expansion joints should be checked regularly by means of visual inspection. The frequency depends on the sensitivity of the construction. Before the inspection the joint
is cleaned, and cover-plates may need to be removed. The check should involve the
following items:
- Damage of the anticorrosive protection. This should be repaired before advanced
rust formations appear. The new coating must be compatible with the existing one.
- Visible cracks due to fatigue in the steel members.
- Damages to the seals. The soiled water of the carriageway can lead to the deterioration and corrosion of the bearings, the substructure and possible the linkages.
- Workability of the linkage. If it does not fulfil its function, damage of the seals may
result.
- Obstruction or damage of the drainage system.
The adjacent carriageway pavement should also be checked. A jutting joint construction due to wheelers enhances the impact loading. If it is not possible to repair the
entire pavement, asphalt ramps should be erected to protect the joints.
Service-free expansion joints are often demanded by the manufacturers. Nevertheless,
it is recommended to clean the gaps from grit and silt to protect seals and linkage. The
drainage should also be cleaned regularly.
87
2.9
The lifetime of an expansion joint should be the same as the lifetime of the carriageway pavement. A complete replacement becomes necessary if the steel parts exhibit
advanced fatigue damage. On steel bridges only the bolted or welded connections are
removed. A replacement on concrete bridges is more expensive.
More frequent is the replacement of single members, especially of the elastomer components. Seals should be replaceable from the carriageway site. Manufacturers offer
different systems for easy replacement (fig. 2.9-1).
Edge or intermediate beam
Grooved
dowel
Clamping
strip
ic
,-/'
88
2. Expansion Joints
2.10 References
Books about expansion joints for bridges:
Lee D.J.: Bridge Bearings and Expansion Joints. Second edition by E & FN Spon,
London, Glasgow, New York, Tokyo, Melbourne, Madras 1994.
Papers:
Price, A.R. (1982): The service performance of fifty buried type expansionjoints.
TRRL Report SR 740, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne.
Price, A.R. ( I 983): The performance of nosing type bridge deck expansion joints.
TRRL Report LR 1071, Transport and Road Research Laboratory Crowthorne.
Price, A.R. (1984): The performance in service of bridge expansionjoints. TRRL
Report LR 1 104, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne.
Department of Transport (1989): Expansion joints for use in highway bridge
decks. Departmental Standard BD 33/88.
Department of Transport (1989): Expansion joints for use in highway bridge
decks. Departmental Advice Note BA 26/88.
Koster W. (1969): Expansion Joints in Bridges and Concrete Roads. Maclaren
and Sons.
Busch, G.A. (1986): A review of design practice and performance of fingerjoints.
Paper presented to the 2nd World Congress on Joint Sealing and Bearing
Systems for Concrete Structures, San Antonio, Texas, September.
Watson, S.C. (1972):A review of past performance and some new considerations
in the bridge expansion joint scene. Paper presented to regional meetings of the
AASHO Committee on Bridges and Structures, Spring.
Koster W. (1986): The principle of elasticity for expansion joints. Paper presented to 2nd World Congress on Joint Sealing and Bearing Systems for Concrete
Structures, San Antonio, Texas, September.
[ 101 Lee, D.J. (1971): The Theory and Practice of Bearings and Expansion Joints for
Bridges, Cement and Concrete Association.
[ I I ] Demers, C.E. and Fisher, J.W., Fatigue Cracking of Steel Bridge Structures, Volume I : A Survey of Localized Cracking in Steel Bridges - 1981 to 1988, FHWA
Publication No. FHWA-RD-89- 166, McLean, VA, 1990
[ 121 Standard Specifications For Highway Bridges. 15th edition, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C., 1992
[ 131 Tschemmernegg, F., The Design of Modular Expansion Joints, Proceedings of
the 3rd World Congress on Joint Sealing and Bearing Systems for Concrete
Structures, Toronto, 1991.
[14] Dexter, R.J., Kaczinski, M.R., and Fisher, J.W.; Fatigue Testing of Modular Expansion Joints for Bridges, Proceeding of the 1995 IABSE Symposium, Volume
7312, San Francisco, CA, 1995.
[ 151 TL/TP-FU 92, Technische Liefer- und Priifvorschriften fur wasserundurchlassige Fahrbahnubergange von Strassen- und Wegbriicken. Bonn: Bundesministerium fur Verkehr, Ausg. 1992
2.10 References
89