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Recognition, Characterization and Implications of

High-Grade Silicic Ignimbrite Facies from the
Paleoproterozoic Bijli Rhyolites, Dongargarh
Supergroup, Central India
ARTICLE in GONDWANA RESEARCH JULY 2001
Impact Factor: 8.12 DOI: 10.1016/S1342-937X(05)70351-8

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Gondwana Research, V 4, No. 3, p p . 519-527.

02001 International Association for Gondwana Research, Japan.
ISSN: 1342-93Z

GRiW;

Recognition, Characterization and Implications of High-Grade

Silicic Ignimbrite Facies from the Paleoproterozoic Bijli
Rhyolites, Dongargarh Supergroup, Central India
Joydip Mukhopadhyay, Arijit Ray, Gautarn Ghosh, Rajkalpo A. Medda and
Partho Pratim Bandyopadhyay
Department of Geology, Presidency College, 86/1 College Street, Kolkata - 700 073, India, E-mail: joydeep17@hotmail.com
(Manilscript received October 21,2000; accepted March 9,2001)

Abstract
A controversy regarding the distinction between the highly welded lava-like ignimbrites sometimes showing strongly
rheomorphic characters, and the extensive silicic lava flow has been overwhelming in the recent literature. However, a
rethinking, after Walker (1983), has brought into light the concept of grade referring to the degree and extent of
welding between the pyroclasts. Various parameters and characteristics were suggested for strengthening the idea of
densely welded ignimbrites, which differentiate them from lava. Here, a comprehensive study on early Proterozoic acid
magmatic rocks forming lower part of the Dongargarh Supergroup, central India, has been made to suggest extensive
occurrence of hlgh-grade welded rheomorphic tuffs. The possibility of their being welded ignimbrite rather than lava
flow has been explored in the light of facies analysis as well as detailed microscopic evidences. Despite having overall
monolithologic look various units bear distinction on account of their nature of welding, enrichment of phenocrysts and
degree of stretching. The presence of vitroclastic texture, melt inclusions and radial fracturing of phenocrysts suggests
pyroclastic nature of these deposits. Based on these characters four facies - A, B, C and D from bottom to the top
respectively, have been identified from field studies around Salekasa. Facies-A and B represent clast-supported/matrix
supported welded pyroclastic flow deposits. Facies-C represents extremely welded thinly laminated rheomorphic tuffs
while lava-like tuffs with an autobreccia carapace is represented by facies D. A complete gradation of facies A / B to D
through C exists. High to extremely high-grade nature of welding in these deposits suggests a low column-height subaerial
plinian to fissure eruption of a very high temperature silicic magma in a continental setting.

Key words: Rheoignimbrite, Proterozoic, Dongargarh Supergroup, Bijli rhyolites, high-grade welding, pyroclastics.

Introduction
Textural and structural studies of extensive sheets of
silicic volcanics have been a major field of volcaniclastic
research in recent years. The subject of interest in this
field has gained ground from the fact that many of the
silicic volcanics have been interpreted either as lava-flows
or highly welded lava-like ignimbrites. Since the discovery
of welded ignimbrites during 1960s there has been lot of
controversy in recognition and origin of several extensive
silicic sheets that closely resemble lava-flows without
unequivocal vitroclastic texture. In ancient successions,
these have been described as tuffolavas or clastolavas
(Fisher and Schmincke, 1984, p. 228). However, with the
emerging concept of grade in ignimbrites mainly
depending upon their nature and degree of welding
(Walker, 1983; Mahood, 1984), many silicic volcanic

successions have been reassessed in this line. The

mechanism of emplacement and characteristics of these
highly welded lava-like ignimbrites might differ
significantly with those of non-welded particulate
pyroclastic flows. Walker (1983) introduced the class
high-grade ignimbrites to those which show intense
welding and near obliteration of vitroclastic texture, and
low-gradeignimbritesto those flow deposits that are nonwelded or less welded with distinct particulate texture.
On the basis of welding intensity of ignimbrites, Branney
et al. (1992) have further extended the classification into:
extremely high-grade ignimbrites (lava-like ignimbrites),
high-grade ignimbrite (rheomorphic ignimbrite),
moderate-grade ignimbrites that have both welded and
non welded zones, and low-grade ignimbrites with no
welding and distinct particulate nature. The grading
parameter corresponds to variability of particle viscosity

520

J. MUKHOPADHYAY ET AL.

and yield-strength during ignimbrite emplacement, and

provide much information for the nature and controls of
the volcanic activity.
Distinguishing these categories is a major challenge in
the field of volcanology due to a spectrum of gradational
characters between the lavas and welded ignimbrites. The
problems in recognition are again compounded in
deformed and metamorphosed terrains. Till date most of
the records of high-grade ignimbrites come from Recent
to sub-Recent volcanic provinces and from Phanerozoic
successions. The facies characters of ignimbrite deposits
from Precambrian metamorphosed successions are
relatively poorly known. However, field and textural
studies of ignimbrite deposits would likely to throw light
on the nature and environmental settings of volcanic
activities even from low-grade Precambrian mobile belt
successions (cf., Henry and Wolff, 1992; Bhushan, 2000).
The rhyolites and rhyodacites of the Paleoproterozoic
Bijli rhyolites (ca. 2200 Ma) of the Dongargarh
Supergroup (Sarkar, 1958; Gangopadhay and Ray, 1997;
Neogi et al., 1996; Deshpande et al., 1990; Divakara Rao
et al., 2000) offer an excellent opportunity to study the
nature and emplacement mechanism of extensive highgrade rheomorphic rhyolitic ignimbrites. Though rhyolitic
tuffs and ash deposits have been mentioned from this
formation (Sarkar, 1958; Krisnamurthy et al., 1988a;
Gangopadhyay and Ray, 1997), bulk of these silicic
volcanics have been interpreted as lava flows. However,
a reconnaissance revealed many variations in texture and
organization of these rhyolites that could be interpreted
in terms of the pyroclastic nature of these volcanics rather
than lava flows (see also Pasayat, 1981). In this paper we
attempt a detailed facies analysis of these rhyolitic
pyroclastics and explore their implications for nature,
mode of emplacement, possible source and environmental
setting.
The work is based on detailed facies analysis of the
rhyolitic pyroclastics in a number of sections in the vicinity
of the village of Salekasa (8028' and 20"16'; toposheet
no 64C/7, Survey of India). Textural and petrographic
studies of about 30 selected samples were carried out.

Dongargarh Supergroup (Fig. 1) is a predominantly

low-grade volcano-sedimentary Proterozoic succession in
the Bhandara craton, central India. It forms a part of the
Bhandara triangle with Sakoli and Sausar Series. Sarkar
et al. (1981) divided the Dongargarh Supergroup
into three groups such as, Amgaon, Nandgaon and
Khairagarh, in the ascending order (Table 1).
The Amgaon Group comprises migmatites,
metasedimentary and metaigneous rocks of amphibolite

ll

Fig. 1. Geological map of Dongargarh Supergroup (modified after

Sarkar, 1 9 5 8 ) . 1- Sijli rhyolites, 2-Pitepani volcanics,
3-Dongargarh granite, 4-Bortalao Formation, 5- Sitegota
volcanics, 6-Karutola Formation, 7-Mangikhuta volcanics,
Dashed lines - major faults.
Table 1. Stratigraphic succession of Dongargarh Supergroup (after
Sarkar et al., 1981; Deshpande et al., 1990).
Chhatisgarh Supergroup

5
0
p:

Khairagarh Group

a
5
(A

Nandgaon Group

Geologic Setting

z
0
a
Amgaon Group

Raipur Group
Chandarpur Sandstone
Unconformity-Khairagarh Orogenic phase
Kotima Volcanics
Ghogra Formation
Mangikhuta Volcanics
Karutola Formation
Sitagota Volcanics
(Intertrappean shale)
Bortalao Formation
Basal shale
Unconformity
Dongargarh Granite
Pitepani Volcanics
Sijli Rhyolites
Amgaon Orogeny, metamorphism, and
granitization, Quartz-sericite schist,
feldspathic quartzite, garnet-epidote
quartzite, hornblende biotite quartzite,
quartz-feldspar biotite gneiss,
hornblende schist, and amphibolite.

facies of metamorphism. Nandgaon Group includes Bijli

rhyolites, Pitepani volcanics and the Dongargarh granite
intrusive into the volcanics. The Khairagarh Group is a
metasedimentary and metavolcanic assemblage,
Gondwana Research, V. 4, No. 3,2001

HIGH GRADE SILICIC lGNIMBRITE, CENTRAL INDIA

unconformably overlying the Bijli rhyolites and

Dongargarh granite. Excepting the Amgaon Group the
other two groups have mainly undergone a greenschist
facies of metamorphism (Deshpande et al., 1990). Yedekar
et al. (1990) and Jain et al. (1991) suggested that the
metavolcanics and metasedimentary associations of the
Nandgaon and the Khairagarh Groups represent subduction
zone assemblage of the northward subducting Deccan
protocontinent below the northern Bundelkhand
protocontinent. Alternatively, based on the co-magamatic
rhyolite-anorogenic granite assemblage together with
bimodal rhyolite-basalt assemblage, a continental rift
model has been proposed (Krishnamurthy et al., 1988a,
1990; Gangopadhyay and Ray, 1992,1997; Neogi et al.,
1996).

The Bijli Rhyolites

Petrology and age

The Bijli rhyolites are composed of thick stacks of

rhyolitic volcanics unconformably overlying the gneissic
rocks of Amgaon Group. The volcanic unit attains a
maximum thickness of 4500m (Sarkar, 1958). These rocks
are massive but often show laterally persistent flow layers.
The rhyolitic volcanic unit contains lenses of fragmental
rocks described as rhyolite conglomerate by Sarkar
(1956) or tuff and agglomerate by Gangopadhyay and
Ray (1997).
The rhyolitic volcanics are dominantly fine-grained and
are mineralogically similar, consisting of quartz and
feldspar phenocrysts set in a recrystallized mosaic of
quartz and feldspar with widely varying amount of
chlorite, sericite, carbonates and Fe-oxides. These acid
volcanics fall within rhyolite-dacite field of the TASdiagram and are peraluminous in composition
(Gangopadhyay and Ray, 1997; their Fig. 5). A number
of varieties in terms of content of phenocrysts such as (1)
non-porphyritic type with phenocryst content less than
5%, (2) porphyritic rhyolites with phenocryst content 5
to 50% and (3) rhyolite porphyry containing more than
50% phenocrysts of quartz and feldspar (alkali feldspar
and albite) have been recognized (Gangopadhyay and Ray,
1997). Sarkar et al. (1967, 1981) determined the wholerock isochron ages of rhyolite and associated granitoid
rocks and found them to be 2180 k 25 Ma with initial
87Sr/86Srratioof 0.7057rt 0.0015 for rhyolite and 2270 f
90 Ma with initial 87Sr/86Srratio of 0.7092+ 0.0054 for
granite, respectively. Krisnamurthy et al. (1988b)
suggested a twelve-sample Rb/Sr age of 2462 f 25 Ma
with an initial 87Sr/86Srratio 0.7054 rt 0.0014 for the
rhyolites with relatively high MSWD, and 2503rt 35 Ma
with an initial 87Sr/86Srratio of 0.7035+ .0017 for eight
samples of rhyolite with reduced MSWD.
Gondwana Reseauclz, V. 4, No. 3, 2001

521

Facies Analysis of Rhyolitic Ignimbrites

The rhyolite forms laterally discontinuous small hillocks
forming a strike-parallel chain of ridges for several tens
of kilometers. Individual mounds range from 60 to lOOm
in height and 300 to 600m in width. The thickness: lateral
extent ratio indicates these deposits as high aspect ratio
ignimbrites (after Walker, 1983). Apparently in most
instances the rhyolite lacks any particulate texture or
vitroclastic texture, but there are considerable variations
in internal character along and across strike, mainly
reflected in the form of presence or absence of very well
developed plane parallel banding (mm-scale) and some
deformation features. However, very careful looks on
weathered surface reveal vitroclastic textures that are
nearly absent on homogeneous fresh surface. Besides this,
at a number of profiles, there are beds of monolithologic
breccias and monolithologic matrix-supported coarse ashto lapilli tuffs. Based on characters such as clast size, clast
support, internal banding, lamination and vitroclastic
texture, following facies have been identified,

Facies A: CZast-supported welded coarse ash tuff

This facies is defined by a monolithologic brown to
dark gray coloured massive rhyolitic rock rich in
phenocrysts. A close examination in fresh and weathered
surfaces reveals that the entire rock is made up of subrectangular coarse sand-sized clasts of rhyolite (Fig. 2).
The margins of the clasts are predominantly welded nearly
obliterating the vitroclastic texture. The clast size (long
axis: short axis) varies between 3 x 0.5cm and 0.1 x O.lcm.
Phenocrysts form about 1520% of the total rock and do
not show any preferred orientation.
The facies is primarily clast-supported with very low
amount of interstitial matrix. Internally, it is massive but
locally shows incipient crude lamination. Clasts other than

Fig. 2. Clast-supported welded coarse ash tuff (facies A). (Diameter of

the coin is 2.55 cm).

522

J. MUKHOPADHYAY ET AL.

Fig. 3 . Photomicrograph (under crossed polars) of welded coarse ash

tuff, note intense welding of clasts. (Scale bar: 20 pin).

Fig. 4. Photomicrograph (under crossed polars) of broken phenocryst

with melt inclusion. (Scale bar: 20 pm).

rhyolite are conspicuously absent. The vitroclastic texture

is more evident under microscope with low-illumination
plane-polarized light. Clasts vary from sub-elliptical to
bent rectangular in shape (Fig. 3 ) . Commonly, the
boundaries are wavy or curved and some clasts tend to
project into others along the zone of welding. Rinds of
chlorite, biotite and iron oxides of dark brown colour
define the welding margins that are best distinguished
under low-illumination plane-polarized light. Phenocrysts
of quartz, plagioclase and potash feldspar, and with
euhedral to subhedral outlines occur in the interstices of
the clasts. The extent of recrystallisation is overall similar
although minor variation is observed locally. Phenocrysts
are mostly broken and fractured with melt-inclusions,
centered on radial fractures of the phenocrysts (Fig. 4).
The boundaries of clasts are attenuated against
phenocrysts. Phenocrysts have mostly embayed and
irregular margins.

Facies B: Matrix-supported welded coarse ash tuff

w i t h floating lapilli
This facies is very similar to the facies A in composition.
It is also a monolithologic rock made up of lapilli to sand
sized rhyolitic clasts floating within highly welded
monolithologic rhyolitic matrix (Fig. 5). Matrix portion
constitutes more than 60% of the total volume. This facies
lacks any internal stratification and is massive in
appearance. The clasts have a wide size range from

Interpretation
The prominent vitroclastic texture, observed in the hand
specimen as well as under the microscope unequivocally
suggests these deposits to be pyroclastics rather than lava
flows (cf. Henry and Wolff, 1992). Abundance of broken,
fractured and embayed phenocrysts, phenoclasts and
phenocrysts with fractures radiating from melt-inclusions
supports the explosive pyroclastic nature of these deposits.
Massive, clast-supported vitroclastic texture further
suggests their deposition from a high-density laminar
viscous flow or a debris flow (e.g., Schmincke and
Swanson, 1967; Fisher, 1979; Reedman et al., 1987; Wolff
et al., 1989; Branney et al., 1992). Attenuated clasts,
partial obliteration of interclast boundaries and
deformation of clasts around or at the contact of
phenocrysts suggest a high degree of welding and
emplacement of a hot semisolid pyroclastic flow (cf.
Sparks et al., 1999).

Fig. 5. Matrix-supported coarse ash tuff with floating lapilli. (Diameter

of the coin is 1.9 cm).

5x2.8 cm to 1 . 80.5
~ cin. the coarser clasts are sub-rounded,
sub-elliptical and show a preferred orientation parallel to
the basal surface. The matrix is made up of welded
rhyolitic clasts very similar to the appearance of facies A.
The rhyolitic sand sized grains in the matrix are extremely
stretched and show near complete fusion of contacts.
Phenocrysts constitute about 10 to 12 % by volume.
Under microscope the clasts are more evident. The
matrix is made up of clasts of sand-size grade rhyolite
fragments with sub-elliptical to sub-rounded outline and
.____

Gondzuana Research, V. 4,No.3,2001

HIGH GRADE SILICIC IGNIMBRITE, CENTRAL INDIA

Fig. 6. Photomicrograph (under crossed polars) of welded matrix

[facies B). [Scale bar: 20 pm).

523

Fig. 7. Flow-laminations in rheomorphic tuff (facies C), note planar to

wavy nature of laminations and laminae deformation near the
upper part. (Length of the pen is 12 cm).

curved margins (Fig. 6). Degree of welding of the clasts

is largely similar to the facies A.

Interpretation
This facies with vitroclastic texture comprising lapilli
to coarse ash tuff is likely to be a product of pyroclastic
flow. The pyroclastic nature is further supported from the
fair abundance of broken phenocrysts, phenocrysts with
melt-inclusions etc. Matrix-supported texture together
with sub-parallel clast alignment suggests a viscous
pyroclastic debris flow within laminar flow-regime
(cf. Branney et al., 1992). Undeformed clasts with sharp
margin emplaced in cryptocrystslline matrix are
presumably derived from crater wall as cognate
components. Presence of these clasts of cognate origin
indicates a greater explosiveness during emplacement of
these deposits in comparison to those of facies A. The
matrix of highly bent and welded rhyolite fragments
suggests that emplacement temperature was high enough
as to emplace the clasts in subsolidus state (e.g., Branney
et al., 1992).

Fig. 8. Eutaxitic to parataxitic texture in rheomorphic tuff. (Diameter

of the coin is 2.2 cm).

Facies C: Thinlyflow-laminatedrheomorphic tuff

This facies is characterized by uniformly flow-laminated
rhyolite without any vitroclastic texture recognizable in
hand specimen. The flow laminations, defined by mmscale recessive surfaces on weathered faces, are 1-3 mm
thick, and planar to wavy in nature (Fig. 7). On fresh
surface, laminae give an eutaxitic to parataxitic texture
(Fig. 8). However, locally extremely stretched, folded and
curved lenticular fiamme become prominent into
differential lamina (Fig. 9). The flow laminations are
commonly set into flow folds whose geometry and
orientation changes rapidly within short distances. The
flow
are tight
plunging to recumbent types
and resemble slump folds of soft-sediment deformation
Gondwana Research, V. 4, No. 3,2001

Fig. 9. Thinly flow laminated rheomorphic tuff showing extremely

stretched, curved and folded clasts.(Scale bar: 3 cm).

524

J. MUKHOPADHYAY ET AL.

Under crossed polars this facies is predominantly a nearisotopic mosaic of lenticular clasts made up of
cryptocrystalline quartz surrounded by somewhat coarser
microcrystalline quartz rim that defines the clast boundaries
and gives rise to avitroclastic texture (Fig. 12). The clasts
are extremely stretched and nearly completely fused along
their margins obliterating the vitroclsatic texture. The
broken phenocrysts (phenoclasts) in parts appear
separately surrounded by cryptocrystalline matrix.

Interpretation

Fig. 10. Flow folds in rheomorphic tuff. (Length of the pen is 12 cm).

Fig. 11. Second-generation clast in rheomorphic tuffs. (Diameter of the

coin is 2.55 cm).

The cryptocrystalline areas are evidently devitrified

fiammes with boundary-controlled recrystallized
microcrystallinerims. The vitroclastic texture evident from
the boundary-controlled recrystallisation of the extremely
stretched and fused fiammes under microscope suggests
a pyroclastic origin of these deposits. Presence of
phenoclasts also supports this contention. Near
obliteration of clast boundaries is likely to be caused by a
very high degree of welding that almost generated a nonparticulate flow of agglutinated, low-viscosity fiammes
during a laminar viscous flow (Schmincke and Swanson,
1967; Kobberger and Schmincke, 1999). The flow
laminations presumably reflect original layers with
differing crystallinity or vesicularity and a shear
deformation or rheomorphism during emplacement. The
flow-laminations thus may result from extreme
attenuation of agglutinated fluidal particles with different
textures. Flow folds and autobrecciation suggest a high
viscosity flow and rheomorphic flow during and after
emplacement of hot ignimbrite (cf. Chapin and Lowell,
1979; Wolff and Wright, 1981; Branney and Kokelaar,
1992).

Facies D: Autobreccia
The flow-laminated facies (C) grades upwards to
several meter thick zone of autobreccia. The autobreccia
is composed of framework-supported to matrix-supported
angular to sub-rounded blocks of flow-laminated
rheomorphic tuff of facies C below (Fig. 13). The clast
size varies between 21x 3.5 cm and 2.0 x 0.6 cm. Clasts
include detached hinges of slump folds. The interstitial
matrix is made up of sand-sized welded flow-laminated
ash tuff.

Interpretation
Fig. 12. Photomicrograph (under crossed polars) of rheomorphic tuff
showing near isotropic devitrified clasts (C) with
microcrystalline quartz rims (g).Note extremely stretched
condition of clast. (Scale bar: 20 ,urn).

zones (Fig. 10). Locally, autobrecciation has generated

secondaryclasts (Fig. 11). The phenocrysts are less abundant
and also smaller in size than those on facies A and B.

The blocks and matrix of the autobreccia, solely madeup of facies C, unequivocally suggest their derivation from
the underlying facies C. This unit resembles autobreccia
in viscous obsidian block lava-flows and probably formed
in a similar way, during emplacement, rheomorphism and
degassing (cf. Branney et al., 1992). Where flow exerted
a stress on the welded tuff that exceeded its tensile
Gondwana Research, V: 4, No. 3,2002

HIGH GRADE SILICIC IGNIMBRITE, CENTRAL INDIA

525

thick flow-laminated rheomorphic tuff in the middle

(facies C) followed upwards by an upper 15m thick
autobreccia (facies D). Contacts between successive facies
are gradational. The massive ash-flow tuff (facies A)
grades upwards to the well-laminated rheomorphic tuff
through a transition zone. The upper part of the flowlaminated rheomorphic tuff shows intense flow-folding
and local brecciation.

Facies sequence 2

Fig. 13. Matrix-supported autobreccia. Note: blocks of flow laminated

rheomorphic tuffs.

strength, fracturing occurred forming blocks that rotated

and fractured further as the flow continued.

This profile (Fig. 14b), from Sonartola village (Fig. l),

consists of a basal 50 m thick matrix-supported welded
coarse ash tuff with floating lapilli (facies B) overlain by
a rather thin (about 20m) thinly flow-laminated
rheomorphic tuff (facies C) showing excellent flow
layering. This profile is basically composed of pyroclastic
flow deposits.

Discussion

Facies Sequence

Eruption style

Facies sequence has been studied from two point

profiles. Each profile gives an idea about the nature and
emplacement of the pyroclastics and has been discussed
below:

Volcanic plumes are generated when explosive

eruptions discharge a mixture of pyroclasts and gas into
atmosphere. These mixtures can, behave in two
fundamentally different ways. They may either form
convective plumes, which rise to great heights in the
atmosphere, or they may collapse to form fountains at
relatively low heights to produce flow of hot particles and
gas as pyroclastic flows and surges. In a sustained eruption
column, there are three subdivisions: gas thrust region,
convective region and umbrella region, in ascending order
(Sparks et al., 1997; p. 23 ). Low-height eruption columns
commonly collapse in the basal gas thrust region due to
the inability of gas mixture to rise buoyantly further above.
A sustained explosive eruption in gas charged silicic
magma develops stratospheric (high altitude) plumes
referred as Plinian eruption. However, many monogenetic
silicic small volcanoes can develop when partially
degassed rhyolitic magma rises to the earth surface. These
are typically either low-height column collapse types or
spatter-fed fissure eruptive types.
The variation in welding characters and gradation of
eutaxitic flow-laminated rheomorphic tuffs from the more
particulate flow deposits strongly suggests that the
rhyolites in study area are pyroclastic in origin. Succession
in sequence 1 and 2 (Fig. 14) with basal pyroclastic flow
deposits to upper flow-laminated rheomorphic tuff units
indicates variation in eruption style. The basal welded
ash-flow tuff with abundant broken phenocrysts
presumably reflects a gas-charged initial explosive phase.
The ash-flow tuffs are products of eruption column
collapse during the initial explosive phase. The pervasive

Facies sequence 1
The isolated hillock on the south of Salekasa (Fig. 1)
railway level crossing gives an opportunity to study the
facies sequence. The profile (Fig. 14a) includes a lower
45m thick-welded massive ash-flow tuff (facies A), 23m

Legend

@
- . Facies D
Facies C
Facies 0
Facies A

Cover

Fig. 14. Facies sequences measured in a) Salekasa (profile-1), b)

Sonartola (profile-2). (Locations in Fig. 1).

Gondzuana Research, V. 4, No. 3, F

OX

526

J. MUKHOPADHYAY ET AL.

welding in both facies -A and B are likely to have resulted

from low-height column collapse. In low-height explosive
pyroclastic column the particles get insufficient freezing
time and deposit as hot semisolid particles that get welded
soon after deposition. The presence of cognate clasts in
facies B presumably reflects a higher explosiveness than
facies A during which early formed caldera wall rock also
have been entrained in the column.
The medial flow-laminated rheomorphic tuff (facies C)
in both sequences resulted from still lower viscosity and
higher temperature eruption that immediately followed
the initial column-collapse episode (cf. Branney and
Kokelaar, 1992; Branney et al., 1992). The very high-grade
nature of welding suggests a high temperature of
emplacement of very low viscosity particles. Agglutination
of very high temperature silicic magma eruption has been
invoked as causal mechanism for the origin of flowlaminated rheomorphic tuffs by many recent workers (e.g.,
Bonnichsen and Kauffman, 1987; Hausback, 1987;
Branney and Kokelaar, 1992).
The sequences with basal welded pyroclastic deposits
presumably represent low-column height Plinian type
eruption. The eruption was initiated with a low-gas
charged eruption column that collapsed prior to attaining
a convective buoyant lift stage. The initial violent phase
was followed by quieter phase of extrusion of hot lowviscosity particles that had given rise to the flow laminated
rheomorphic tuff unit. The autobreccia carapace
developed near the top of the flow with higher rate of
cooling after attaining a steeper flank slope.

Implications for high-grade welding

Extremely high welding grade in the observed silicic
volcanics may be attributed to very high temperature of
emplacement. Several recent studies have shown that
many intensely welded silicic rheomorphic ignimbrites
had magmatic temperature between 800C and 1100C,
much higher than common silicic rocks. The low-gas
charged eruption, suggesting an anhydrous melting
condition, can generate very low viscosity pyroclasts that
can agglutinate and coalesce to form rheomorphic
ignimbrites (Henry and Wolff, 1992). Similar high-grade
of eruption of silicic magma may result from anhydrous
melting of continental crust on a regional scale by massive
intrusion of mafic magma into the lower crust (cf., Henry
and Wolff, 1992). The nature of rhyolitic volcanics in the
studied area points to such anhydrous crustal melting
process. Similar ideas have also been put forward by
several workers from geochemical studies of the
Bijli rhyolites (Krishnamurthy et al., 1988a, 1990;
Gangopadhya and Ray, 1992,1997; Neogi et.al., 1996).
This idea is in contrary to the earlier proposals regarding
the origin of these rhyolites as late differentiates from a

basaltic liquid in a subduction zone. Furthermore, the

depositional setting for Bijli rhyolite was largely unknown
due to lack of epiclastics with unequivocal sedimentary
signature. The high-grade character of these pyroclastics
in turn suggests eruption in a subaerial continental setting.
The outcrop pattern together with the high-grade nature
of ignimbrites are likely to indicate proximal vent facies
associations (cf. Sparks et al., 1999) of small monogenetic
rhyolitic volcanoes, presumably related to major fissure
systems. A detailed mapping of the ignimbrite facies
would only reveal the volcanic landscape and paleo-vent
positions, and should be undertaken for mineral
exploration in this area. Krishnamurthy et al. (1988a,
1990) suggested potential occurrences of uraninites and
other uranium ore minerals along shear zones at the
contact of rhyolites and basic effusives. However, any late
stage hydrothermal vein-related uranium mineralization
should be further explored after carefully locating the
proximal vent ignimbrite associations.

Conclusions
The rhyolitic silicic volcanics studied around Salekasa
represent a spectrum of high-grade ignimbrites. The
volcanics include welded, pyroclastic flow deposits, flow
laminated to extremely high grade rheomorphic tuffs with
autobreccia carapace. The high-grade of welding together
with outcrop pattern of small monogenetic rhyolitic
mounts point to low-column-collapse Plinian to very high
temperature spatter-fed fissure eruptions of low viscosity
pyroclasts from partially degassed magma chamber. The
welding character also suggests a subaerial continental
volcanism due to anhydrous melting of continental crust.

Acknowledgments
We are thankful to Dr. S.K. Bhushan and one anonymous
reviewer for their helpful review which considerably
improved the final version of the Ms. We also acknowledge
the Department of Geology, Presidency College, Kolkata,
for providing UGC-SAP infrastructural facility.

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