Kinematics of Deformation

I.

Material and Spatial Coordinates

Consider the figure below depicting a chunk of material in the reference (material or
undeformed) configuration shown as Ro and the same chunk of material after loads have
been applied in a spatial (deformed) configuration at time t shown as Rt. P is a particle in
the reference configuration and the same particle in the spatial configuration is p. The
particle P has coordinates X and these coordinates may be used as a label to uniquely
identify P as time progresses. In the spatial configuration the particle p has coordinates
x . Note that both X and x are measured in the same vector basis e 1 ,e 2 ,e 3 . The
coordinates X are referred to as the Lagrangian or material coordinates, the coordinates
x are referred to as the Eulerian or spatial coordinates.

p
P

Rt
Ro
2
1

The spatial configuration may be related to the reference configuration through a

functional relationship

x x X ,t

or

xk xk X K ,t

(1)
(2)

Where x is in Rt and X is in Ro. We assume that the function (1) is continuous and
differentiable and is a one-to-one mapping so that a unique inverse exists, i.e.

or

X X x,t

(3)

X K X K xk ,t

(4)

Note the difference in subscript for the reference and spatial quantities. As a consequence
of the existence of the inverse we must have a non-zero Jacobian where the Jacobian is
given by

x
J det k det xk ,K
X K

(5)

Note that the values of x for a fixed value of X are the points in space occupied by the
particle P during the motion of the body. The values of X for a fixed value of x tell us
the particles that pass through the position x during the motion of the body.
Any property of the motion can be described in terms of the reference or the spatial
coordinates.
Example 1:
The motion of a body is given by

xk akK X K bk

(6)

where
t 1 0

akK 0 t 1
0 1 1

{ bk } { t ,1,0 }

(7)

a) Calculate J and show that it is positive

b) Obtain the inverse relationship for the motion
c) A scalar field within the solid is given by the reference description
L ( X ,t ) X 1 . Find the spatial description.
a)
t 1 0
J det 0 t 1 t( t 1 ) 0 for t 0
0 1 1

(8)

from (6) we can see that

b)

X K akK xk akK bk
1

(9)

or

X1
1 t
1

X 2
0
X t t 1 0

1 t( t 1 )
t( t 1 )

1 1 x 1

t t x2

(t 1)
t t 2 x3

(t 1)

(10)

c) the spatial description is obtained by expressing X in terms of x as follows:

L ( X ,t ) X 1
E ( X ( x,t ),t ) E ( x,t ) X 1 ( x1 , x 2 , x 3 )

(11)

Using the results of part b) we obtain

E ( x,t )

1 t( t 1 )
t 1 x1 x2 x3

t( t 1 )
t( t 1 )

(12)

End of Example 1

II.

Eulerian vs. Lagrangian Descriptions and the Material

Derivative

Consider a property expressed as a function in the Lagrangian (reference)

description in which each particle is labeled by its original position X .

L X I ,t

(13)

Let x be the spatial position of the material point or particle

xi x i X I ,t
We may calculate velocities and accelerations

(14)

vi

x i
t

ai

x i
t 2

(15)
2

that are functions of the particle tag, X I , and time t . In general, this description of motion
is useful for a solid but is too complicated to use for a fluid and we instead use the
Eulerian description. Expressing using an Eulerian description we have

where

E xi ,t

(16)

xi x i X I ,t

(17)

Now, in order to express our fundamental principles we must have

L X I ,t E xi x i ( X I ,t ),t

(18)

L
E
E x i

t
t
xi t

(19)

L E
E

vi
t
t
xi

(20)

L E

v E
t
t

(21)

and

or

or

Time derivative following

material particle

Local rate
of change

Convective change

III.

The Displacement Vector, the Displacement Gradient Tensor

and Two Possible Strain Tensors

Consider the figure shown below. Particle P is shown in the reference configuration with
coordinate X and in the spatial configuration (labeled as p) with coordinate x . The
displacement vector of P may be described in reference coordinates as
(22)
U( X ,t ) x( X ,t ) X
note that the capital U is used to remind us that the displacement vector is written in
reference coordinates. We may just as well write u( X ,t ) x( X ,t ) X and the meaning
would be the same. We may also write the displacement vector in spatial coordinates as
u( x,t ) x X ( x,t )

(23)

p
P

Rt
Ro
2
1

Consider next the particle Q located at reference coordinate X dX and spatial

coordinate x dx . We denote the displacement vector at point P as U( X ) and the
displacement vector at point Q as U( X dX ) . Note that we are using the reference
description. We have
U( X dX ) U( X ) dx dX

Or, using indicial notation

(24)

U i ( X k dX k ) U i ( X k ) dU i ( X k ) dxi dX i

(25)

change in dX i

Assuming the dX k are small, the left hand side can be expanded in a first order Taylor
series resulting in
U i
(26)
dX k dU i ( X k ) dxi dX i
X k
change in dX i

where

U i
displacement gradient tensor( reference coordinates )
(27)
X k
Note that some physical meaning for the displacement gradient tensor may be found in
equation (26). The length of the fiber pq in the spatial configuration may be found from
the expression
ds 2 dxi dxi

(28)

and the length of the fiber PQ in the reference configuration may be found from the
expression
dS 2 dX i dX i

(29)

ds 2 dS 2 dxi dxi dX i dX i

(30)

The change in the fiber length is thus

Using (25) to eliminate dxi we have

dxi dU i dX i

(31)

Substituting this into (30) we arrive at

ds 2 dS 2 dU i dX i dU i dX i dX i dX i

(32)

using equation (26) we have

U i
U i
ds 2 dS 2
dX k dX i
dX j dX i dX i dX i

X k
X j

(33)

U i U i
U i
U i
dX k dX j
dX k dX i
dX i dX j
X k X j
X k
X j

(34)

Re-arranging
ds 2 dS 2

factoring dX j dX k out of each term (be careful with dummy indices) we arrive at


U j
U k
U U i

ds 2 dS 2 i

dX j dX k
X k
X j
X j X k

(35)

ds 2 dS 2 2E jk dX j dX k

(36)

or

where

U k
U i U i
1
U j

E jk

2
X j
X j X k
X k

Green Lagrange Strain Tensor

(37)

Normally this expression will be written with uppercase indices to remind us that the
Green-Lagrange strain tensor of a function of reference coordinates, i.e.:

U K
U I U I
1 U
EJK J

2 X K
X J
X J X K

(38)

Suppose we wish to use the spatial description where the particle p is located at spatial
coordinate x and the particle q is located at spatial coordinate x dx . We denote the
displacement vector at point p as u( x ) and the displacement vector at point q as
u( x dx ) . We have
u( x dx ) u( x ) dx dX

(39)

ui ( xk dxk ) ui ( xk ) dui ( xk ) dxi dX i

(40)

Or, using indicial notation

change in dX i

Assuming the dxk are small the left hand side can be expanded in a first order Taylor
series resulting in
ui
dx dui ( xk ) dxi dX i
(41)
xk k
where
ui
displacement gradient tensor ( spatial coordinates )
(42)
xk
Following the same procedure as before, we form the change in the fiber length (squared)
ds 2 dS 2 dxi dxi dX i dX i

(43)

dX i dxi dui

(44)

and use (25) to eliminate dX i

thus we arrive at

ds 2 dS 2 dxi dxi dxi dui dxi dui

(45)

Next, we use (41) to eliminate dui

u
u
ds 2 dS 2 dxi dxi dxi i dxk dxi i dx j

xk
x j

(46)

re-arranging
ds 2 dS 2

ui ui
u
u
dxk dx j i dxk dxi i dx j dxi
xk x j
xk
x j

(47)

and factoring dx j dxk out of each term (be careful with dummy indices) we arrive at

u j
u
u ui
ds 2 dS 2
k i
x
x j
xk x j
k

dx j dxk

(48)

or

ds 2 dS 2 2 e jk dx j dxk

(49)

where

e jk

IV.

u
u ui
1
u j

k i

2
x j
xk x j
xk

Almansi Eulerian Strain Tensor

(50)

Infinitesimal Strain

Infinitesimal strain may be defined as

ui
x j

(51)

U i
X j

(52)

and

Suppose we have a function expressed in reference coordinates:

Xi

(53)
Next suppose that we need to calculate the gradient of this function with respect to the
spatial coordinates
X i

x j X i x j

(54)

Since X i xi ui this becomes

( x ui )
x j X i x j i

(55)

or

xi ui

)
x j X i x j x j
The first term on the right hand side becomes the Kronecker delta thus
u

( ij i )
x j X i
x j

Now, for infinitesimal strain

ui
x j

(56)

(57)

1 and the last term is negligible leaving

ij
x j X i
X j

(58)

Thus for infinitesimal strain there is no distinction between reference or spatial

coordinates in derivatives, furthermore the strain tensors become
U j
U k
U i U i
2E jk

X k
X j
X j X k

U j
x k

U k
U i U i

x j
x j x k

(59)

and
2e jk

U j
x k
u j
x k

U k
x j

uk
ui ui

x j
x k x j
0

u j
x k

uk
x j

And at xk xk X K ,t , u j = U j hence the strain tensors are the same.

For infinitesimal strain there is no distinction between the spatial and reference
coordinates and the Green-Lagrange and Almansi-Euler strain tensors are the same.

(60)

Example 2:
Consider a rectangular block of dimensions a b c where c
block deformation is described by

x1 X 1
x2 X 2

a,b . Suppose that the

X2
(61)

X1

x3 X 3
This deformation is shown graphically below:

(i)
(ii)

Determine the Green-Lagrange strain tensor and the Almansi-Euler strain tensor.
Show that they are identical as 0

(i) In order to calculate the Green-Lagrange strain tensor we must have U( X ) . We begin
by using the motion (given by equation (61) to obtain

U 1 ( X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ) x1 ( X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ) X 1
U 2 ( X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ) x2 ( X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ) X 2

a
U 3 ( X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ) x3 ( X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ) X 3 0

Now

X2
X1

(62)

2
2
2
U 1 1 U 1 U 2 U 3
E11

X 1 2 X 1 X 1 X 1

1 2

2 a

U 2 1 U 1 U 2 U 3
E 22

X 2 2 X 2 X 2 X 2

1 2

2 b

2
2
2
U 3 1 U 1 U 2 U 3
E 33

X 3 2 X 3 X 3 X 3

E12

1 U 1 U 2 U 1 U 1 U 2 U 2 U 3 U 3 1

2 X 2 X 1 X 1 X 2 X 1 X 2 X 1 X 2 2 a
b

E13

1 U 1 U 3 U 1 U 1 U 2 U 2 U 3 U 3

0
2 X 3 X 1 X 1 X 3 X 1 X 3 X 1 X 3

E 23

1 U 2 U 3 U 1 U 1 U 2 U 2 U 3 U 3

0
2 X 3 X 2 X 2 X 3 X 2 X 3 X 2 X 3

(63)

In order to calculate the Almansi-Euler strain tensor we must have u( x ) . We begin by

inverting the motion (given by equation (61) to obtain

ab
a
x1
x
2
ab
ab 2 2
b
ab
X2
x1
x
2
ab
ab 2 2
X 3 x3

X1

(64)

and u( x ) is now found as

u1 ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) x1 X 1 ( x1 , x 2 , x 3 )

b
ab
x1
x2

2
2
b ab
ab

ab
a
x1
x2

2
2
a ab
ab

u3 ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) x3 X 3 ( x1 , x2 , x 3 ) 0

u2 ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) x2 X 2 ( x1 , x 2 , x 3 )

Finally, this may be used to calculate the Almansi-Euler strain tensor

(65)

2
2
2
2
2
u1 1 u1 u2 u3
2
1 2 b

e11






x1 2 x1 x1 x1 ab 2
2 ab 2 ab 2

2
2
2
2
2
u2
1 u1 u2 u3
2
1 a 2
e22

x 2
2 x2 x2 x2 ab 2
2 ab 2 ab 2

(66)
e33 0

1 u2 u1 u1 u1 u2 u2 u3 u3 1 ( a b ) ( a b ) 3

2 x 1 x 2 x 1 x 2
x 1 x 2
x1 x 2 2 ab 2 ab 2 2

e13 0

e12

e23 0

(ii) Now, as 0 we keep only terms linear in and arrive at the only non-zero strains

1
E12 e12
2 a
b

(67)

Note that as expected, the Green-Lagrange and Almansi-Euler strains are identical. We
will use the symbol ij to refer to the infinitesimal strain. Thus for this example we may
say that the only non-zero infinitesimal strain component is
1
12
(68)
2 a
b
End of Example 2
The infinitesimal strain tensor (used in linear elasticity) is

u
1 u j
k
2 xk
x j

jk

(69)

and, as discussed above, no distinction need be made between the reference or spatial
coordinates. It is obvious from inspection of equation (69) that the infinitesimal strain
tensor is symmetric, i.e.
(70)
jk kj

This is also true of the Green-Lagrange and Almansi-Euler strain tensors. A geometrical
interpretation for infinitesimal strains may be found in the following diagram:

deformed element

undeformed element
The notation in this diagram is that u1 u, u2 v, u3 w, x1 x, x2 y, x3 z . The first
interpretation is that for material fibers aligned with the x-direction
u
dx
length
u
(71)
xx
x

length
dx
x
A similar interpretation may be made for yy and zz . Another interpretation may be
arrived at by inspection of the change in angle of the material fibers aligned with the x
and y directions:

xy 2 xy XY

(72)

where XY is the angle between the material fibers aligned with the x and y directions
(originally equal to

). Another interpretation may be seen from this diagram by

2
considering the quantity
1 v u
yx z

2 x y

(73)

This quantity looks like a rigid body rotation. If we define

1 w v

2 y
z
1 u w
y

2 z
x

zy x
xz

(74)

Then we may define a skew-symmetric tensor that represents rigid body rotation as
0

ij ji z

y

z
0

x
0

(75)

or

(76)

and it is easy to see that the displacement gradient may be written as the sum of two
tensors

ij

u j
1 ui

2 x j
xi

ui
ij ij
x j

(77)

with the first term representing deformation and the second representing rigid body
rotation. This expression is important because it indicates that in infinitesimal strain the
stress should be a function of the infinitesimal strain ( ij ) and not of the displacement
gradient (

ui
) because the displacement gradient includes rigid-body motion.
x j

It is instructive to consider the case where the strains are all zero and integrate these
strains to demonstrate the presence of rigid body motion. We start with.

ij
Using the normal strains we have:

0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0

(78)

 xx 0

yy 0

zz 0

u
0
x
v
0
y
w
0
z

u f y, z

v g x,z

w h x , y

(79)

and using the shear strains we have:

xy 0

yz 0

xz 0

1 u v

0
2 y x
1 v w

0
2 z y
1 u w

0
2 z x

f
g

F( z )
y
x

g
h

H( x )
z
y

f
h

G( y )
z
x

(80)

Equation (80) indicates that

G ( y ) F ( z )
H ( x ) G ( y )
F ( z ) H ( x )

(81)

Equation (81) can only be satisfied trivially, i.e.

F ( z ) 0 F ( z ) A
G ( y ) 0 G( y ) B
H ( x ) 0 H ( x ) C

This may be used in equation (80) to obtain

(82)

f
g

A
y
x

f f ( y , z ) Ay f o ( z )
g g( x , z ) Ax go ( z )

g
h

C
z
y

g g( x , z ) Cz g1 ( x )

(83)

h h( x , y ) Cy ho ( x )
f
h

B
z
x

f f ( y , z ) Bz f 1 ( y )
h h( x , y ) Bx h1 ( y )

Comparing the two expressions for f,g, and h we arrive at

u f y, z uo Ay Bz
v g x , z vo Ax Cz

(84)

w h x , y wo Bx Cy

where uo , vo , and wo are rigid body displacements. We may express A, B, and C in

terms of the rotation tensor components as follows

1 w v
C

2 y z
1 u w
y

B
2 z x

(85)

1 v u
A

2 x y

And finally we may express the displacement field in terms of the rigid body
displacement and rotation as

u f y, z uo z y y z
v g x , z vo z x x z

(86)

w h x , y wo y x x y
This result indicates that pure rigid body motion results in zero strains (as we suspected).

V.

Velocity Gradient Tensor, the Rate of Deformation Tensor and

the Spin Tensor.

There are some materials where the rate of deformation (rather than the deformation
itself) is of interest in forming constitutive models. One such example is a fluid where the
stress is thought to be a function of the velocity gradient (this is, of course,
experimentally verified for many fluids). We write the velocity vector as (note the
unfortunate duplication of notation for velocity and displacement)
v vi e i ue 1 ve 2 we 3

(87)

and define the velocity gradient tensor as

l jk

v j
x k

(88)

A geometrical interpretation for infinitesimal strains may be found in the following

diagram.
The first interpretation is that for material fibers aligned with the x-direction
u
dx
rate of length
u

x
l xx

length
dx
x

(89)

A similar interpretation may be made for l yy and l zz . Another interpretation may be

arrived at by inspection of the change in angle of the material fibers aligned with the x
and y directions:
2l xy rate of XY

where XY is the angle between the material fibers aligned with the x and y directions
(originally equal to

).

(90)

deformed element

undeformed element
Another interpretation may be seen from this diagram by considering the quantity
W yx z

1 v u

2 x y

(91)

This quantity looks like a rigid body angular velocity. If we define

Wzy x
W xz

1 w v

2 y
z

1 u w
y

2 z
x

(92)

Then we may define a skew-symmetric tensor that represents rigid body rotation as
0

Wij W ji z

y

z
0

x
0

(93)

or

Wij

u j
1 ui

2 x j
xi

(94)

This tensor is known as the spin tensor or the vorticity tensor and it is the anti-symmetric
part of the velocity gradient. We also define the rate of deformation tensor as the
symmetric part of the velocity gradient, i.e.

Dij

u j
1 ui

2 x j
xi

(95)

It is easy to see that the velocity gradient may be written as the sum of two tensors
ui
Dij Wij
x j

(96)

This expression is important because it indicates that the stress should be a function of
u
the rate of deformation ( Dij ) and not of the velocity gradient ( i ) because the velocity
x j
gradient includes rigid-body motion.

VI.

The Deformation Gradient Tensor

Consider again the functional relationship

xk xk X K ,t

(97)

xk
dX K
X K

(98)

We may form the total differential

dxk
or

dxk FkK dX K

(99)

where

FkK

xk
deformation gradient tensor
X K

(100)

Equation (99) provides the interpretation that the deformation gradient tensor evaluated at
a material point describes the transformation of infinitesimal line elements in the
neighborhood of that material point.
Now, if J det FkK is non-zero then FkK is non-singular and an inverse exists and

dX K

X K
dxk GKk dxk
xk

(101)

where

G F 1

(102)

The deformation gradient may be related to the displacement gradient by writing the
displacement vector in reference coordinates
u( X ,t ) x( X ,t ) X

(103)

Then the gradient with respect to the reference coordinates is formed

ui
xi
X i

X K
X K
X K

(104)

ui
FiK iK
X K

(105)

ou F

(106)

or

This is sometime written as

where the subscript o indicates that the differentiation is with respect to the reference
coordinates. An alternative, but common, expression is to define H as the displacement
gradient tensor
H F

(107)

It is also possible to relate the deformation gradient to the Green-Lagrange strain tensor
as follows:

1 T
F F
2

(108)

Example 3:
The displacement vector has components given by:
u1 X 2

u2 2 X 2 X 3 ,

u3 X 2 X 3 X 12

(109)

Where X 1 , X 2 , X 3 are reference coordinates.

(i) Determine the exact change in length of the fiber with endpoints
X P X 1 , X 2 , X 3 1,1,1 and X Q X 1 , X 2 , X 3 1,1,1.01 .
(ii) Compare this calculation with the same calculation using the linear strain tensor
(iii) Compare this calculation with the same calculation using the deformation
gradient tensor
(i) By inspection dS dX k dX k 0.01 (note dX X Q X P ).
At X P

At X Q

u1 ,u2 ,u3 1,2,2 x1 , x2 , x3 ( 2,3,3 ) x p

u1 ,u2 ,u3 1,2.02,2.01 x1 , x2 , x3 ( 2,3.02,3.02 ) xq

(110)

(111)

The fiber length in the spatial frame is thus

dx xq x p ( 0.0,0.02,0.02 )

(112)

ds dxk dxk .02 2 .02 2 0.0283

(113)

or

Finally, the exact change in length of the fiber is

ds dS .0183

(ii) The pertinent component of the linear strain tensor is

(114)

 33

u3
X2
X 3

(115)

Recalling the definition given by equation (89) we have

33 X 2

ds dS
dS

(116)

Hence
dS( 33 ) dS( X 2 ) ds dS

(117)

Evaluating this at point P we have

ds dS dS( X 2 ) .01( 1.0 ) 0.01

(118)

(iii) note that dX X Q X P 0,0,0.01 thus the formula dxk FkK dX K reduces to
dxk Fk 3 dX 3

(119)

And we need only the F13 ,F23 ,F33 components of the deformation gradient. The
displacement field ( equation(109)) yields the spatial coordinates in terms of the reference
coordinates
x1 X 1 X 2

x2 X 2 2 X 2 X 3 ,

x3 X 3 X 2 X 3 X 12

(120)

And the components of the deformation gradient we need are

F13

x1
0
X 3

F23

x2
2 X2
X 3

F33

x3
1 X2
X 3

(121)

Evaluating these at point P we have

F13 0

the dxk can now be calculated

F23 2

F33 2

(122)

dx1 F13 dX 3 0
X3Q

dx2

F23 dX 3 ( 2 )(.01 ) .02

(123)

X3 P
X3Q

dx3

F33 dX 3 ( 2 )(.01 ) .02

X3 P

and finally

ds dxk dxk .02 2 .02 2 0.0283

(124)

Thus the change of length of the fiber is

ds dS .0183

(125)

As expected, this result is in better agreement with the exact answer than is the solution
based upon the infinitesimal strain tensor.
End of Example 3

VII.
The Polar Decomposition of the Deformation Gradient
Tensor and the right Cauchy-Green Strain Tensor
Recall that for infinitesimal strain we decomposed the displacement gradient into
a rigid body rotation and a deformation. The purpose of this decomposition was to isolate
the deformation part of the displacement gradient for use in constitutive equations (stress
vs. strain relationships). The deformation gradient tensor may similarly be decomposed
using the polar decomposition theorem. That theorem states that the deformation gradient
may be uniquely decomposed into the form
(126)
F RU
Where U is a positive-definite symmetric tensor (orthogonal eigenvectors and real
eigenvalues) containing the deformation information and R is a proper orthogonal
rotation tensor ( RT R1 and R 1 ). Since U is positive-definite symmetric it has three
real positive eigenvalues and three mutually orthogonal eigenvectors. We denote the
eigenvalues by 1 , 2 , 3 and these are termed the principal stretches. The eigenvectors
are denoted by u1 ,u2 ,u3 and these are termed the principal directions.
Equation (99) may be written as
dxk FkK dX K RkLU LK dX K

If we define

(127)

dyL U LK dX K

(128)

dxk RkLdyL

(129)

then

Now equations (128) and (129) describe successive transformations of the fiber dX and
the interpretation of these successive transformations may be described as a stretching
followed by a rotation. Specifically, if our basis vectors are aligned with the principal
directions of U then we have
dy1 1dX 1 ,

dy2 2 dX 2 ,

dy3 3dX 3

(130)

These expressions indicate that the components of the intermediate fiber dy are obtained
from stretching i 1 or compressing i 1 the original fibers dX .Note that in
general dy will not be in the same direction as dX . dx is then obtained from dy through
a rigid body rotation as expressed in equation (129).
Calculation of U given F is accomplished as follows. First, equation (126) is multiplied
by F T
F T F ( RU )T ( RU )
U T RT RU

(131)

U U
T

But U U so
T

U 2 FTF

(132)

Now the difficulty is in finding U given U 2 . If U 2 is expressed using the principal

directions then U 2 is diagonal and U is found trivially, otherwise some effort must be
expended. Assuming U has been obtained R may be found by manipulating equation
(126) to obtain

R FU 1

(133)

An alternative tensor that avoids the difficulties associated with computing U is the right
Cauchy-Green tensor defined as
C U 2 FTF

(134)

A parallel development begins by invoking an alternative form of the polar

decomposition theorem
F VR

(135)

Where V is a symmetric positive definite tensor and following the same procedure as
above we arrive at the definition for the left Cauchy-Green tensor
b V 2 FF T

(136)

The notation used above for C and b is meant to imply what frame the strain tensor
resides in. To see this we write the deformation gradient in dyadic form:

xi
e E J
X J i

(137)

Next we form the right Cauchy-Green strain tensor

x
x
C F T F m E N e m i e i E J
X N
X J

x x i
m
E N e m e i E J
X N X J

x x i
m
E N E J
X N X J

e i

(138)

x i x i
E E J
X N X J N

Now, we do the same for the left Cauchy-Green strain tensor

x
x

b FF T i e i E J m E N e m

X J
X N

x i x m
e E J E N e m
X J X N i

x x m
i
e e m
X J X N i

E J E N

(139)

x i x m
e e m
X J X J i

Inspection of equations (138) and (139) indicates that C is a reference frame based tensor
while b is a spatial frame based tensor. Some authors indicate reference frame based
tensors with capital symbols and spatial frame based tensors with lower case symbols.

Note that the deformation gradient tensor exists in both frames and is often referred to as
a two-point tensor.
The right and left Cauchy Green strain tensors are related to the Green-Lagrange and
Almansi strain tensors as
1
E C I
(140)
2
(shown below) and
1
e
I b1
(141)
2

Example:
Given the deformation
x1 X 1
x2 X 2 X 3

(142)

x3 X 3 X 2

Find F, C, U, and R
By inspection
1 0
F 0 1
0

0

1

(143)

and
1 0
C F F 0 1
0
T

0 1 0
0 1
1 0

0 1
0

0 1 2
1 0
0

0
1 2
0

(144)

Now, since C U 2 the diagonal form indicates that U 2 given by equation (144) is
expressed in principal coordinates thus U is easily obtained as

U 0

0
Finally, using equation (133)

0
1 2
0

1 2
0

(145)

1
1 0 0

R FU 1 0 1 0
0 1
0

1
1 2 2
0

1
2

(146)

or

1
0

R 0 1 2 2

1
0 1 2 2

1
2
2
1

1
2
2
1

(147)

To see that R represents a rigid body rotation define

tan

(148)

R then becomes a rigid body rotation about the x-direction:

0
1

R 0 cos
0 sin

sin
cos
0

(149)

End of Example
Recall that the right Cauchy-Green strain tensor may be written as
C FT F

(150)

C LK xk ,L xk ,K X k ,L uk ,L X k ,K uk ,K

(151)

Or, in component form

or
X k
X k

C LK
uk ,L
uk ,K
X L
X K

kL uk ,L kK uk ,K

KL uL ,K uK ,L uk ,L uk ,K

Recall the definition of the Green-Lagrange strain tensor

(152)

ui ui
uK
1 u
E LK L

2 X K
X L
X L X K

(153)

Comparing equations (152) and (153) we see that the right Cauchy-Green and GreenLagrange strain tensors are related by
C LK LK 2ELK

(154)

These strain tensors will be important when we discuss constitutive equations for the
stress as they both contain information about deformation without rigid body motion. An
additional relationship may found by noticing that
C F T F ( H )T ( H ) H T H H H T

(155)

1
1
E ( C ) ( H H T H T H )
2
2

(156)

and

The last term in equation (156) may be neglected for small strain and the resulting
infinitesimal strain tensor is

1
( H HT )
2

(157)

Note again that there is no distinction between reference and spatial coordinates when
using the linearized strain tensor.

VIII.

Deformation of Surface and Volume Elements

Consider an infinitesimal parallelepiped in the reference configuration with edges dX ( 1 ) ,

dX ( 2 ) , and dX ( 3 ) . The volume of this parallelepiped is
dV dX (1) ( dX (2) dX (3) )
dX (1) ( eIJK dX J (2)dX K (3) )

(158)

eIJK dX I (1)dX J (2)dX K (3)

Similarly, consider an infinitesimal parallelepiped in the spatial configuration with edges

dx ( 1 ) , dx ( 2 ) , and dx ( 3 ) . The volume of this parallelepiped is

dv eijk dxi (1)dx j (2)dxk (3)

Now, dxi

(k )

xi ,I dX

(k )
I

(159)

and substituting this into equation (159) yields

dv eijk xi ,I dX I( 1 ) x j ,J dX J (2) xk ,K dX K (3)
eijk xi ,I x j ,J xk ,K dX I( 1 )dX J (2)dX K (3)

(160)

A useful identity is that if a is a second order tensor

eijk aiI a jJ akK eIJK det( aij )

(161)

Using this in equation (160) we arrive at

dv eIJK JdX I( 1 )dX J (2)dX K (3)

(162)

Where we have used equation (5), J det xk ,K det F . Comparing equations (162)
and (158) it is clear that
dv JdV

(163)

If J = 1 the motion is said to be isochoric. Another identity may be derived if we consider

a surface patch dS formed by dX ( 1 ) and dX ( 2 ) with unit normal N . The volume dV
may also be written as

dV dSN dX (3) dSI dX I (3)

(164)

where dS I N I dS . A similar expression may be written in the spatial configuration

where we have a surface patch formed by dx ( 1 ) and dx ( 2 ) with unit normal n .
dv dsi dxi (3)

(165)

where dsi ni ds . Now using equation (163)

dv dsi dxi( 3 ) JdV JdSI dX I (3) JdSI X I ,i dxi( 3 )

(166)

dsi dxi( 3 ) JdS I X I ,i dxi( 3 )

(167)

This results in

or
dsi JX I ,i dS I
And finally we have (Nansons formula)

(168)

ni ds JX I ,i N I dS

IX.

(169)

Equations of Motion for Static, Large Deformation Analysis

We consider next large deformation cases where the spatial and reference coordinates
must be distinguished. We start with the linear momentum equation on Rt:

(n)

dS gdV nk nndS gk dV 0

St

Rt

St

(170)

Rt

This leads in the usual way to Cauchys equations of motion

nk
gk 0
xn

(171)

In this expression xn are spatial coordinates and this equation is valid for large
deformation but the difficulty is that the spatial coordinates are unknown. This motivates
the following approach where the reference coordinates are used. We begin by
transforming equation (170) to the reference configuration using Nansons formula and
the relationship between the two volumes developed in the previous section.

ji

n j dS gi dV ji JX I , j N I dS0 gi JdVo 0

St

Rt

So

(172)

Ro

Applying the divergence theorem to the surface integral we have

ji

JX I , j

Ro

,I

dVo gi JdVo 0

(173)

Ro

Conservation of mass requires that

dV dV
o

Ro

Rt

JdVo

(174)

Ro

from this we can see that

o J

Substituting equation (175) into equation (173) we arrive at

(175)

 ji JX I , j

o gi dVo 0
X I

Ro

(176)

Following the usual argument that this must be true for arbitrary dVo we have
ji JX I , j
X I

o gi 0

(177)

This expression looks more complicated but it has the advantage that the independent
variables (the X I ) are known. This expression motivates the definition of the first PiolaKirchoff stress
PIi JX I , j ji

(178)

Using the first Piola-Kirchoff stress tensor the linear momentum equation becomes

PIi
o gi 0
X I

(179)

One can see the motivation for the use of this stress from this expression. Another
motivation appears if we consider the force on a spatial surface element
dF j ij n j ds ij JX I ,i N I dS
PIj N I dS

(180)

From this expression we see that surface tractions applied to the boundary of the spatial
configuration can be prescribed by specifying PIj N I on the boundary of the reference
configuration.
PIj is not symmetric. There is another Piola stress, the second Piola-Kirchoff stress that

is symmetric and this stress is given by the formula

S IJ X J ,i PIi

(181)

S PGT P( F 1 )T

(182)

P SF T

(183)

PIi S IJ FiJ

(184)

or

and from this

or

Using this second order tensor the linear momentum equation becomes
S IJ xi ,J

(185)
o gi 0
X I
The second Piola-Kirchoff stress tensor also has the property that is energetically
conjugate to the Green-Lagrange strain tensor as well as the left Cauchy-Green strain
tensor. This will result in a convenient formulation of hyperelasticity where the strain
energy and second Piola-Kirchoff stress tensor are simply related. One can easily show
that the second Piola-Kirchoff stress tensor is related to the Cauchy stress tensor through
the relationship

J 1 FSF T

(186)
The Piola stresses may be viewed as convenient mathematical expressions related to the
Cauchy stress. They do not have the physical significance as does the Cauchy stress in
that they do not directly describe the tractions on the surface of a solid. If one is using the
Piola stresses in an analysis the Cauchy stresses must be calculated to reach any
conclusion involving the physics of the stresses and loading of the material.