First Dimension - Motivation, Position, Status and Personal History

MOTIVATION

[1.1] Motivation can be looked at as a cycle where thoughts influence

behaviors, and behaviors drive performance, performance impacts thoughts
and the cycle begins again. Each stage of the cycle is composed of many
dimensions including attitudes, beliefs, intentions, effort, and withdrawal
which can all affect the motivation that an individual experiences.

Rational motivations
The idea that human beings are rational and human behavior is guided by
reason is an old one. However, recent research (on Satisficing for example)
has significantly undermined the idea of homo economicus or of perfect
rationality in favour of a more bounded rationality. The field of behavioural
economics is particularly concerned with the limits of rationality in economic
agents.

Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Motivation can be divided into two different theories known as Intrinsic
(internal) motivation and Extrinsic (external) motivation.

Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation has been studied since the early 1970s. Intrinsic
motivation is the self-desire to seek out new things and new challenges, to
analyze one's capacity, to observe and to gain knowledge. It is driven by an
interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather
than relying on external pressures or a desire for reward. The phenomenon of
intrinsic motivation was first acknowledged within experimental studies of
animal behavior. In these studies, it was evident that the organisms would
engage in playful and curiosity driven behaviors in the absence of reward.
Intrinsic motivation is a natural motivational tendency and is a critical
element in cognitive, social, and physical development. Students who are
intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly as well
as work to improve their skills, which will increase their capabilities. Students

are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:

attribute their educational results to factors under their own control, also
known as autonomy or locus of control
believe they have the skills to be effective agents in reaching their desired
goals, also known as self-efficacy beliefs
are interested in mastering a topic, not just in achieving good grades
An example of intrinsic motivation is when an employee becomes an IT
professional because he or she wants to learn about how computer users
interact with computer networks. The employee has the intrinsic motivation
to gain more knowledge

Advantages: Intrinsic motivation can be long-lasting and self-sustaining.

Efforts to build this kind of motivation are also typically efforts at promoting
student learning. Such efforts often focus on the subject rather than rewards
or punishments.

Disadvantages: On the other hand, efforts at fostering intrinsic motivation

can be slow to affect behavior and can require special and lengthy
preparation. Students are individuals, so a variety of approaches may be
needed to motivate different students. It is often helpful to know what
interests ones students in order to connect these interests with the subject
matter. This requires getting to know ones students. Also, it helps if the
instructor is interested in the subject to begin with!

Extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain
a desired outcome and it is the opposite of intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic
motivation comes from influences outside of the individual. In extrinsic
motivation, the harder question to answer is where do people get the
motivation to carry out and continue to push with persistence. Usually
extrinsic motivation is used to attain outcomes that a person wouldn't get
from intrinsic motivation. Common extrinsic motivations are rewards (for
example money or grades) for showing the desired behavior, and the threat
of punishment following misbehavior. Competition is an extrinsic motivator
because it encourages the performer to win and to beat others, not simply to

enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A cheering crowd and the desire to
win a trophy are also extrinsic incentives.

Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to
overjustification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation. In one
study demonstrating this effect, children who expected to be (and were)
rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star for drawing pictures spent less time
playing with the drawing materials in subsequent observations than children
who were assigned to an unexpected reward condition. However, another
study showed that third graders who were rewarded with a book showed
more reading behavior in the future, implying that some rewards do not
undermine intrinsic motivation. While the provision of extrinsic rewards might
reduce the desirability of an activity, the use of extrinsic constraints, such as
the threat of punishment, against performing an activity has actually been
found to increase one's intrinsic interest in that activity. In one study, when
children were given mild threats against playing with an attractive toy, it was
found that the threat actually served to increase the child's interest in the
toy, which was previously undesirable to the child in the absence of threat.

Operant conditioning
Main article: Operant conditioning
B. F. Skinner believed in the idea that the best way to fully understand an
individual's behavior is to investigate the causes of an action and its
consequences. Operant conditioning, the theory which Skinner is well known
for, is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for
behavior. Skinner's operant conditioning was based on the work of Edward
Thorndike's "Law of Effect", which is the theory of learning in animals using a
puzzle box to propose the theory. In 1948, Skinner conducted an operant
conditioning experiment by using animals which he placed in a "Skinner Box".
Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's reaction to his/her
surroundings in an environment. "A response produces a consequence such
as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem." When a
particular Stimulus Response (S-R) pattern is rewarded over time, an
individual will be conditioned to respond.

Push and pull

Push motivations are those where people push themselves towards their
goals or to achieve something, such as the desire for escape, rest and

relaxation, prestige, health and fitness, adventure, and social interaction.

However, with push motivation it's also easy to get discouraged when there
are obstacles present in the path of achievement. Push motivation acts as a
willpower and people's willpower is only as strong as the desire behind the
willpower. Additionally, a study has been conducted on social networking and
its push and pull effects. One thing that is mentioned is "Regret and
dissatisfaction correspond to push factors because regret and dissatisfaction
are the negative factors that compel users to leave their current service
provider." So from reading this, we now know that Push motivations can also
be a negative force. In this case, that negative force is regret and
dissatisfaction.

Pull motivation is the opposite of push. It is a type of motivation that is much

stronger. "Some of the factors are those that emerge as a result of the
attractiveness of a destination as it is perceived by those with the propensity
to travel. They include both tangible resources, such as beaches, recreation
facilities, and cultural attractions, and traveler's perceptions and expectation,
such as novelty, benefit expectation, and marketing image." Pull motivation
can be seen as the desire to achieve a goal so badly that it seems that the
goal is pulling us toward it. That is why pull motivation is stronger than push
motivation. It is easier to be drawn to something rather than to push yourself
for something you desire. It can also be an alternative force when compared
to negative force. From the same study as previously mentioned, "Regret and
dissatisfaction with an existing SNS service provider may trigger a
heightened interest toward switching service providers, but such a motive will
likely to translate into reality in the presence of good alternative. Therefore,
alternative attractiveness can moderate the effects of regret and
dissatisfaction with switching intention" [20] And so, pull motivation can be
an attracting desire when negative influences come into the picture.

Self-control
Main article: Self-control
The self-control aspect of motivation is increasingly considered to be a subset
of emotional intelligence;[21] it is suggested that although a person may be
classed as highly intelligent (as measured by many traditional intelligence
tests), they may remain unmotivated to pursue intellectual endeavours.
Vroom's "expectancy theory" provides an account of when people may decide

to exert self-control in pursuit of a particular goal.

Drives
Main article: Drive theory
A drive or desire can be described as a deficiency or need that activates
behavior that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. These drives are thought to
originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to
encourage the behavior. Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies such
as hunger, which motivates a person to seek food whereas more subtle drives
might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to
behave in a manner pleasing to others. Another basic drive is the sexual
drive which like food motivates us because it is essential to our survival. The
desire for sex is wired deep into the brain of all human beings as glands
secrete hormones that travel through the blood to the brain and stimulates
the onset of sexual desire. The hormone involved in the initial onset of sexual
desire is called Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). The hormonal basis of both
men and women's sex drives is testosterone. Men naturally have more
testosterone than women do and so are more likely than woman to think
about sex, have sexual fantasies, seek sex and sexual variety (whether
positions or partners), masturbate, want sex at an early point in a
relationship, sacrifice other things for sex, have permissive attitudes for sex,
and complain about low sex drive in their partners. There are countless
amount of drives society obtains, it is primarily the reason why people have a
willingness to act in a particular way; that being generally a desire or interest
in something.

Incentive theory
Incentive theory is exactly what it sounds like it is, it is an incentive or motive
to do something. The most common incentive would be a reward. Rewards
can be tangible or intangible, and is presented generally after the occurrence
of the action or behavior that one is trying to correct or cause to happen
again. This is done by associating positive meaning to the behavior and or
action. Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the
effect is greater, and decreases as delay lengthens. Repetitive action-reward
combination can cause the action to become a habit. Motivation comes from
two sources: oneself, and other people. (Refer to Intrinsic and Extrinsic
motivation for more information)

"Reinforcers and reinforcement principles of behavior differ from the

hypothetical construct of reward." A reinforcer is anything that follows an
action, with the intentions that the action will now occur more frequently.
Positive reinforcement is demonstrated by an increase in the future frequency
or magnitude, this is due to the fact that in the past such action was followed
by a reinforcing stimulus. Positive reinforcement involves a stimulus change
consisting of the presentation or magnification of a positive stimulus
following a response. Negative reinforcement involves stimulus change
consisting of the removal of a stimulus following a response. From this
perspective, the concept of distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic
forces is irrelevant.

Another principle of reinforcement is intermittent reinforcement. This is the

on-and-off use of reinforcement. It is very effective in locking in behaviors
that precede it by preventing the reward from losing its value. Intermittent
reinforcement can also make it more difficult to modify a behavior later. "Dr.
Skinner actually mapped out schedules of reinforcement in thousands of
studies showing how the strength of reinforcement changed as a function of
how often the reinforcer occurred."

Applying proper motivational techniques can be much harder than it seems,

especially because its different for every person. Take note that when
creating a reward system, it can be easy to reward A, while hoping for B, and
in the process, reap harmful effects that can jeopardize your goals.[28]

Incentive theory in psychology treats motivation and behavior of the

individual as they are influenced by beliefs, such as engaging in activities
that are expected to be profitable. Incentive theory is promoted by behavioral
psychologists, such as B.F. Skinner. Incentive theory is especially supported
by Skinner in his philosophy of Radical behaviorism, meaning that a person's
actions always has social ramifications: and if actions are positively received
people are more likely to act in this manner, or if negatively received people
are less likely to act in this manner.

Incentive theory distinguishes itself from other motivation theories, such as

drive theory, in the direction of the motivation. In incentive theory, stimuli
"attract", a person towards them, and push them towards the stimulus. In
terms of behaviorism, incentive theory involves positive reinforcement: the

reinforcing stimulus has been conditioned to make the person happier. As

opposed to in drive theory, which involves negative reinforcement: a stimulus
has been associated with the removal of the punishmentthe lack of
homeostasis in the body. For example, a person has come to know that if they
eat when hungry, it will eliminate that negative feeling of hunger, or if they
drink when thirsty, it will eliminate that negative feeling of thirst.

Drive-reduction theory

Clark Hull was the behaviorist who developed the drive-reduction theory of
motivation.
Drive theory grows out of the concept that people have certain biological
drives, such as hunger. As time passes the strength of the drive increases if it
is not satisfied (in this case by eating). Upon satisfying a drive the drive's
strength is reduced. Created by Clark Hull and further developed by Kenneth
Spence, the theory became well known in the 1940s and 1950s. Many of the
motivational theories that arose during the 1950s and 1960s were either
based on Hull's original theory or were focused on providing alternatives to
the drive-reduction theory, including Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs,
which emerged as an alternative to Hull's approach.

Drive theory has some intuitive or folk validity. For instance when preparing
food, the drive model appears to be compatible with sensations of rising
hunger as the food is prepared, and, after the food has been consumed, a
decrease in subjective hunger. There are several problems, however, that
leave the validity of drive reduction open for debate.

Cognitive dissonance theory

Main article: Cognitive dissonance
Suggested by Leon Festinger, cognitive dissonance occurs when an individual
experiences some degree of discomfort resulting from an inconsistency
between two cognitions: their views on the world around them, and their own
personal feelings and actions. For example, a consumer may seek to reassure
themselves regarding a purchase, feeling that another decision may have
been preferable. Their feeling that another purchase would have been
preferable is inconsistent with their action of purchasing the item. The

difference between their feelings and beliefs causes dissonance, so they seek
to reassure themselves.

While not a theory of motivation, per se, the theory of cognitive dissonance
proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance. The
cognitive miser perspective makes people want to justify things in a simple
way in order to reduce the effort they put into cognition. They do this by
changing their attitudes, beliefs, or actions, rather than facing the
inconsistencies, because dissonance is a mental strain. Dissonance is also
reduced by justifying, blaming, and denying. It is one of the most influential
and extensively studied theories in social psychology.

Content theories
The content theory was one of the earliest theories of motivation. Content
theories can also be referred to needs theories, because the theory focuses
on the importance of what motivates us (needs). In other words they try to
identify what our "needs" are and how they relate to motivation to fulfilled
those needs. Another definition could be defined by Pritchard and Ashwood, is
the process used to allocate energy to maximize the satisfaction of needs.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Maslow's Pyramid
Content theory of human motivation includes both Abraham Maslow's
hierarchy of needs and Herzberg's two-factor theory. Maslow's theory is one
of the most widely discussed theories of motivation. Abraham Maslow
believed that man is inherently good and argued that individuals possess a
constantly growing inner drive that has great potential. The needs hierarchy
system, devised by Maslow(1954), which is a commonly used scheme for
classifying human motives.

The American motivation psychologist Abraham H. Maslow developed the

hierarchy of needs consisting of five hierarchic classes. According to Maslow,
people are motivated by unsatisfied needs. The needs, listed from basic
(lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as follows:

Physiology (hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.)

Safety/Security/Shelter/Health
Social/Love/Friendship
Self-esteem/Recognition/Achievement
Self actualization/achievement of full potential/can never be fully
accomplished
The basic requirements build upon the first step in the pyramid: physiology. If
there are deficits on this level, all behavior will be oriented to satisfy this
deficit. Essentially, if you have not slept or eaten adequately, you won't be
interested in your self-esteem desires. Subsequently we have the second
level, which awakens a need for security. After securing those two levels, the
motives shift to the social sphere, the third level. Psychological requirements
comprise the fourth level, while the top of the hierarchy consists of selfrealization and self-actualization.

Marlow's hierarchy of needs theory can be summarized as follows:

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior. Only
unsatisfied needs influence behavior, satisfied needs do not.
Needs are arranged in order of importance to human life, from the basic to
the complex.
The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level
need is at least minimally satisfied.
The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness
and psychological health a person will show.
Herzberg's two-factor theory
Main article: Two-factor theory

Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory concludes that certain factors in the

workplace result in job satisfaction, but if absent, they don't lead to
dissatisfaction but no satisfaction. The factors that motivate people can

change over their lifetime, but "respect for me as a person" is one of the top
motivating factors at any stage of life.

He distinguished between:

Motivators (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility) which give

positive satisfaction, and
Hygiene factors (e.g. status, job security, salary and fringe benefits) that do
not motivate if present, but, if absent, result in demotivation.)
Herzberg concluded that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction were the
products of two separate factors: motivating factors (satisfiers) and hygiene
factors (dissatisfiers). Some motivating factors (satisfiers) were:
Achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, and
growth. Some hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) were: company policy,
supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relations, salary, status, job
security, and personal life.

The name hygiene factors is used because, like hygiene, the presence will not
improve health, but absence can cause health deterioration.
Herzberg's theory has found application in such occupational fields as
information systems and in studies of user satisfaction such as computer user
satisfaction.

Alderfer's ERG theory

Main article: ERG theory
Alderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created the ERG theory.
This theory posits that there are three groups of core needs existence,
relatedness, and growth, hence the label: ERG theory. The existence group is
concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements. They
include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety
needs. The second group of needs are those of relatedness- the desire we
have for maintaining important personal relationships. These social and
status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and
they align with Maslow's social need and the external component of Maslow's
esteem classification. Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needs as an intrinsic

desire for personal development. Maslow's categories are broken down into
many different parts and there are a lot of needs. The ERG categories are
more broad and covers more than just certain areas. As a person grows, the
existence, relatedness, and growth for all desires continue to grow. All these
needs should be fulfilled to greater wholeness as a human being. These
include the intrinsic component from Maslow's esteem category and the
characteristics included under self-actualization.

Self-determination theory
Main article: Self-determination theory
Since the early seventies Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan[citation
needed] have conducted research that eventually led to the proposition of
the self-determination theory (SDT). This theory focuses on the degree to
which an individuals behaviour is self-motivated and self-determined. SDT
identifies three innate needs that, if satisfied, allow optimal function and
growth: competence, relatedness, and autonomy. These three psychological
needs motivate the self to initiate specific behaviour and mental nutriments
that are essential for psychological health and well-being. When these needs
are satisfied, there are positive consequences, such as well-being and growth,
leading people to be motivated, productive and happy. When they are
thwarted, people's motivation, productivity and happiness plummet.

There are three essential elements to the theory:

Humans are inherently proactive with their potential and mastering their
inner forces (such as drive and emotions).
Humans have an inherent tendency towards growth, development and
integrated functioning.
Optimal development and actions are inherent in humans but they do not
happen automatically.
Temporal motivation theory
Main article: Temporal motivation theory
The latest approach in developing a broad, integrative theory of motivation is
temporal motivation theory. Introduced in a 2006 Academy of Management
Review article, it synthesizes into a single formulation the primary aspects of

several other major motivational theories, including Incentive Theory, Drive

Theory, Need Theory, Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting. It simplifies the field of
motivation and allows findings from one theory to be translated into terms of
another. Another journal article that helped to develop the Temporal
Motivation Theory, "The Nature of Procrastination,[46] " received American
Psychological Association's George A. Miller award for outstanding
contribution to general science.

\mathrm{Motivation} = \frac{\mbox{Expectancy Value}}{\mbox{1 +

Impulsiveness Delay}}

where Motivation, the desire for a particular outcome, Expectancy or selfefficacy is the probability of success, Value is the reward associated with the
outcome, Impulsiveness is the individuals sensitivity to delay and Delay is
the time to realization.

Achievement motivation
Achievement motivation is an integrative perspective based on the premise
that performance motivation results from the way broad components of
personality are directed towards performance. As a result, it includes a range
of dimensions that are relevant to success at work but which are not
conventionally regarded as being part of performance motivation. The
emphasis on performance seeks to integrate formerly separate approaches
as need for achievement[48] with, for example, social motives like
dominance. Personality is intimately tied to performance and achievement
motivation, including such characteristics as tolerance for risk, fear of failure,
and others.

Achievement motivation can be measured by The Achievement Motivation

Inventory, which is based on this theory and assesses three factors (in 17
separated scales) relevant to vocational and professional success. This
motivation has repeatedly been linked with adaptive motivational patterns,
including working hard, a willingness to pick learning tasks with much
difficulty, and contributing success to effort.

Achievement motivation was studied intensively by David C. McClelland, John

W. Atkinson and their colleagues since the early 1950s. This type of
motivation is a drive that is developed from an emotional state. One may feel
the drive to achieve by get striving for success and avoiding failure. In
achievement motivation, one would hope that they excel in what they do and
not think much about the failures or the negatives. Their research showed
that business managers who were successful demonstrated a high need to
achieve no matter the culture. There are three major characteristics of people
who have a great need to achieve according to McClellands research.

They would prefer a work environment in which they are able to assume
responsibility for solving problems.
They would take calculated risk and establish moderate, attainable goals.
They want to hear continuous recognition, as well as feedback, in order for
them to know how well they are doing.
Cognitive theories
The Cognitive Theory of motivation are derived from two basic theories which
are the Goal-Setting Theory and the Expectancy Theory. The Goal-Setting
Theory states the importance of setting a goal or which direction to aim for
that goal in motivating an individual. As for the Expectancy Theory of
Motivation states why and how people chooses to act in a certain way over
another. Cognitive theory defines motivation in terms how an individual
reacts to different situations by examining and the process of thoughts to
respond instead of an inner built set of instructions to react to different
situations.

Goal-setting theory
Main article: Goal-setting theory
Goal-setting theory is based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a
drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a reward in
itself. A goal's efficiency is affected by three features: proximity, difficulty and
specificity. Good goal setting incorporates the SMART criteria, in which goals
are: specific, measurable, accurate, realistic, and timely. An ideal goal should
present a situation where the time between the initiation of behavior and the
end state is close. This explains why some children are more motivated to
learn how to ride a bike than to master algebra. A goal should be moderate,
not too hard or too easy to complete. In both cases, most people are not

optimally motivated, as many want a challenge (which assumes some kind of

insecurity of success). At the same time people want to feel that there is a
substantial probability that they will succeed. Specificity concerns the
description of the goal in their class. The goal should be objectively defined
and intelligible for the individual. A classic example of a poorly specified goal
is to get the highest possible grade. Most children have no idea how much
effort they need to reach that goal.

Expectancy theory
Main article: Expectancy theory
Expectancy theory was proposed by Victor H. Vroom in 1964, the Expectancy
Theory explains the behavior process in which an individual selects a
behavior option over another, and why/how this decision is made in relation
to their goal.

There's also an equation for this theory which goes as follows: M=E*I*V or
Motivation = Expectancy*instrumentality*valence M(Motivation) is the
amount an individual will be motivated by the condition or environment they
placed themselves in. Which is based from the following hence the equation.
"E(Expectancy) is the person's perception that effort will result in
performance. In other words, it's the person assessment of how well and what
kind of effort will relate in better performance. I(Instrumentality) is the
person's perception that performance will be rewarded or punished.
V(Valence) is the perceived amount of the reward or punishment that will
result from the performance."

Models of behavior change

Social-cognitive models of behavior change include the constructs of
motivation and volition. Motivation is seen as a process that leads to the
forming of behavioral intentions. Volition is seen as a process that leads from
intention to actual behavior. In other words, motivation and volition refer to
goal setting and goal pursuit, respectively. Both processes require selfregulatory efforts. Several self-regulatory constructs are needed to operate in
orchestration to attain goals. An example of such a motivational and
volitional construct is perceived self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is supposed to
facilitate the forming of behavioral intentions, the development of action
plans, and the initiation of action. It can support the translation of intentions
into action.

John W. Atkinson, David Birch and their colleagues developed the theory of
"Dynamics of Action" to mathematically model change in behavior as a
consequence of the interaction of motivation and associated tendencies
toward specific actions. The theory posits that change in behavior occurs
when the tendency for a new, unexpressed behavior becomes dominant over
the tendency currently motivating action. In the theory, the strength of
tendencies rises and falls as a consequence of internal and external stimuli
(sources of instigation), inhibitory factors, and consummatory in factors such
as performing an action. In this theory, there are three causes responsible for
behavior and change in behavior:

Instigation (Ts) - increases tendency when an activity has intrinsic ability to

satisfy;
Inhibition (Taf) - decreases tendency when there are obstacles to performing
an activity; and
Consummation - decreases a tendency as it is performed.
Thematic Apperception Test
Main article: Thematic Apperception Test
Psychologists David C. McClelland and John W. Atkinson argued that
motivation should be unconscious. They refined measures of motivation by
means of content analysis of imaginative thought using, for example, the
Thematic Apperception Test.'

Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic desires theory

Starting from studies involving more than 6,000 people, Professor Steven
Reiss has proposed a theory that found 16 basic desires that guide nearly all
human behavior. Intrinsic motivation is the tendency to find challenges, to
push to find out for more, explore, and learn as much as possible. It is about
reaching the most possible potential as a human being. The 16 basic desires
that motivate our actions and define our personalities are:

Acceptance, the need for approval

Curiosity, the need to learn

Eating, the need for food

Family, the need to raise children
Honor, the need to be loyal to the traditional values of one's clan/ethnic
group
Idealism, the need for social justice
Independence, the need for individuality
Order, the need for organized, stable, predictable environments
Physical activity, the need for exercise
Power, the need for influence of will
Romance, the need for sex and for beauty
Saving, the need to collect
Social contact, the need for friends (peer relationships)
Social status, the need for social standing/importance
Tranquility, the need to be safe
Vengeance, the need to strike back and to compete
Attribution theory[edit]
Main article: Attribution (psychology)
Attribution theory is a theory developed by psychologist, Fritz Heider that
describes the processes by which individuals explain the causes of their
behavior and events.[68] A form of attribution theory developed by
psychologist, Bernard Weiner describes an individuals beliefs about how the
causes of success or failure affect their emotions and motivations. Bernard
Weiners theory can be defined into two perspectives: intrapersonal or
interpersonal. The intrapersonal perspective includes self-directed thoughts
and emotions that are attributed to the self. The interpersonal perspective
includes beliefs about the responsibility of others and other directed affects
of emotions; the individual would place the blame on another individual.

Individuals formulate explanatory attributions to understand the events they

experience and to seek reasons for their failures. When individuals seek
positive feedback from their failures, they use the feedback as motivation to

show improved performances. For example, using the intrapersonal

perspective, a student who failed a test may attribute their failure for not
studying enough and would use their emotion of shame or embarrassment as
motivation to study harder for the next test. A student who blames their test
failure on the teacher would be using the interpersonal perspective, and
would use their feeling of disappointment as motivation to rely on a different
study source other than the teacher for the next test.

Approach versus avoidance

Approach motivation can be defined as when a certain behavior or reaction to
a situation/environment is rewarded or the resulting in a positive/desirable
outcome. In contrast, avoidance motivation can be defined as when a certain
behavior or reaction to a situation/environment is punished or resulting in a
negative/undesirable outcome. Research suggests that, all else being equal,
avoidance motivations tend to be more powerful than approach motivations.
Because people expect losses to have more powerful emotional
consequences than equal-size gains, they will take more risks to avoid a loss
than to achieve a gain.

[1.2] Deeds in themselves are meaningless unless they are for some higher
purpose

~King Arthur

There are a number of theories that attempt to capture types or sources of

motivation affecting organizational members. For instance, in discussing
internal and external causes of behavior, deCharms (1968) suggested the
dichotomy of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation to characterize the different
loci of causality. Intrinsically motivated behaviors (i.e., those behaviors that
occur in the absence of external controls) are said to represent internal
causality, whereas behaviors that are induced by external forces are said to
represent external causality. Deci (1975) explored the effects of extrinsic
rewards on intrinsic motivation and in doing so, tried to shed some light on
the meaning of intrinsic motivation. He suggested that intrinsically motivated
behaviors fall into two categories. The first category includes behaviors that
individuals engage in to seek out challenging situations. These challenges
represent incongruities between stimuli and comparison standards. The
second category includes behaviors aimed at reducing these incongruities

(i.e., overcoming challenges). Thus, intrinsically motivated behavior,

according to Deci, is conceptualized as a continual process of seeking and
overcoming challenges.

Another understanding of intrinsic motivation is offered by Katz and Kahn

(1978). They argue that the bases of motivation can be categorized in terms
of legal compliance, external rewards (i.e., instrumental satisfaction), and
internalized motivation. Internalized motivation is further broken down into
self-expression, derived directly from role performance and internalized
values, resulting when group or organizational goals become incorporated
into the value system of the individual. Etzioni (1975) takes a similar view
when arguing that organizations induce involvement from their members by
one of three means: alienative, calculative, or moral. Alienative and
calculative involvement are explained by exchange processes. Moral
involvement is more complex. According to Etzioni, there are two kinds of
moral involvement, pure and social. Pure moral involvement is the result of
internalization of norms, while social involvement results from sensitivity to
pressures of primary groups and their members. Moral involvement is not
based on expected satisfaction of needs and may even demand the denial of
need satisfaction and the sacrifice of personal pleasure. For example, military
personnel who serve in the armed forces demonstrate the value of serving
one's country to the point of risking their lives, and the individual who works
a double shift for a friend who needs the night off demonstrates the value of
friendship. In these instances, the consequence of acting in line with one's
internalized values is not a sense of pleasure or need fulfillment, but rather a
sense of affirmation attained when the person abides by his or her moral
commitments.

In addition to the modes cited above numerous theories have been proposed
attempting to capture the various sources of motivation energizing individual
behavior. These content theories all propose a limited set of motivational
sources, some arranged in a hierarchy, others are viewed as developmental
stages and still others theorizing no basic process of transition from one
source to another. These models differ with respect to the degree to which
they theorize a dominant source of motivation. Some of these models are
listed below. The table is designed to match each of the "sources" models
with the Five Sources of Motivation Model.

Leonard, Beauvais, & Scholl

Intrinsic Process
Instrumental
Self Concept: External
Self Concept: Internal
Goal Identification
Ryan & Deci
Intrinsic Motivation
External Regulation
Introjected Regulation
Integrated Regulation
Identified Regulation
Deci
Task Pleasure
Extrinsic
Interpersonal
Intrinsic: Challenges
Intrinsic: Outcomes
Maslow

Physiological, Safety
Social, Ego
Ego, Self Actualization

Alderfer

Existence

Relatedness
Growth

McClelland

Power
Affiliation, Power
Achievement

Etzioni

Alienative, Calculative
Social Moral
Pure Moral
Janis & Mann

Utilitarian Gains or losses for Self

Approval or Disapproval form Significant Others
Self Approval or Disapproval
Utilitarian Gains or losses for Significant Others
Kohlberg
Heterogeneous
Instrumental
Interpersonal
Principled
Social system

Kegan
Impulsive
Imperial
Interpersonal
Institutional
Inter-Individual
Katz & Kahn

Legal Compliance
Rewards/Instrumental Satisfactions

Self Expression
Self Concept

Internalized values
Herzberg
Work conditions
Salary, security

Peer relations, subordinate relations, status, recognition

Achievement, growth

Friedman & Havighurst

Expenditure of time and energy

Income
Identification and Status

Meaningful Experience:
Self expression

Meaningful Experience:
Service to others

Barnard

Material Inducements

Social Inducements

Bandura
Sensory Intrinsic
Extrinsic

Personal Standards

deCharms

Intrinsic

Extrinsic

Extrinsic

Intrinsic

Intrinsic

LEONARD, BEAUVAIS & SCHOLL: SOURCES OF MOTIVATION MODEL

Source: Leonard, N. H., Beauvais, L. L., & Scholl, R. W. 1999. Work motivation:
The incorporation of self based processes. Human Relations, 52: 969-998.

Intrinsic Process Motivation- Individuals primarily motivated by intrinsic

process will only engage in activities which they consider fun. These
individuals are often diverted from tasks that are relevant to goal attainment
in order to pursue tasks which are intrinsically more enjoyable. Thus, as long
as team tasks are enjoyable, these individuals will be motivated to continue
working effectively in the context of the team. Since they are relatively
indifferent to task and social feedback, such feedback will not serve to
motivate continued performance on the part of the intrinsically motivated
person.
Instrumental Motivation- Instrumental rewards are a motivating source when
individuals believe that the behaviors they engage in will lead to certain
outcomes such as pay, praise, etc. Rooted exchange theory, the basic
assumption is that individuals and organizations constitute an exchange
relationship. Expectancy and equity theories are currently accepted models
of motivation based on exchange relationships.
External Self Concept-based Motivation- Self concept motivation is externally
based when the individual is primarily other-directed. In this case, the ideal
self is derived by adopting the role expectations of reference groups. The
individual attempts to meet the expectations of others by behaving in ways
that will elicit social feedback consistent with self perceptions. When positive
task feedback is obtained, the individual finds it necessary to communicate
these results to members of the reference or peer group. The individual
behaves in ways which satisfy reference group members, first to gain
acceptance, and after achieving that, to gain status. These two needs, for
acceptance and status, are similar to McClelland's (1961) need for affiliation
and need for power. The individual continually strives to earn the acceptance
and status of reference group members. This status orientation usually leads
to an ordinal standard of self evaluation, that it is important for the individual
to be first, best, or other indicators of superiority over others.
Internal Self Concept-based Motivation- Self concept motivation will be
internally based when the individual is primarily inner-directed. Internal self
concept motivation takes the form of the individual setting internal standards
that become the basis for the ideal self. The individual tends to use fixed
rather than ordinal standards of self measurement as he/she attempts to first,
reinforce perceptions of competency, and later achieve higher levels of
competency. This need for achieving higher levels of competency is similar to

what McClelland (1961) refers to as a high need for achievement. The

motivating force for individuals who are inner-driven and motivated by their
self concept is task feedback. It is important to these individual that their
efforts are vital in achieving outcomes and that their ideas and actions are
instrumental in performing a job well. It is not important that others provide
reinforcing feedback as is true for other-directed individuals.
Goal Internalization- Behavior is motivated by goal internalization when the
individual adopts attitudes and behaviors because their content is congruent
with their value system. The individual believes in the cause, and as such is
willing to work towards the goals of an organization supporting this cause.
RYAN & DECI: SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY

Source: Ryan, Richard M. and Edward L. Deci (2000). Self-determination

theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and
well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78.

Intrinsic Motivation- The inherent tendency of seek out novelty and

challenges, to extend and exercise one's capacities, top explore, and to learn
External Regulation- Such behaviors are performed to satisfy an external
demand or reward contingency.
Introjected Regulation- Introjection involves taking in a regulation but not
fully accepting it as one's own. It is a relatively controlled form of regulation
in which behaviors are performed to avoid guilt or anxiety or attain ego
enhancement such as pride.
Identified Regulation- Identification reflects a conscious valuing of a
behavioral goal or regulation, such that the action is accepted or owned as
personally important.
Integrated Regulation- occurs when identified regulations are fully
assimilated to the self, which means they have been evaluated and brought
into congruence with one's other values and needs.
MASLOW: HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Source: Maslow, Abraham. 1954. Motivation and Personality. New York:

Harper & Row.

Physiological Needs
Safety or Security Needs
Social Needs
Ego or Esteem Needs
Self Actualization Needs
ALDERFER: ERG THEORY

Source: Alderfer, Clayton P. 1972. Existence, Relatedness, and Growth:

Human Needs in Organizational Settings. New York: The Free Press.

Existence
Relatedness
Growth
MCCLELLAND: SOCIALLY ACQUIRED NEEDS

Source: McClelland, David C. 1961. The Achieving Society. New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold.

Need for Achievement

Need for Affiliation
Need for Power
ETZIONI: TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL MEMBER INVOLVEMENT

Source: Etzioni, Amitai. 1961. A Comparative Analysis of Complex

Organizations. New York: The Free Press.

Alienative involvement- An intense negative reaction to the system based on

coercive power
Calculative involvement- A negative or positive orientation of low intensity
based on instrumental exchanges and remunerative power
Moral involvement- Positive orientation of high intensity based on reaction or
normative power.
Social moral involvement- Based on the sensitivity to pressures or primary
group members
Pure moral involvement- Based on internalization of norms and identification
with authority figures and their objective
<JANIS AND MANN: DECISIONAL BALANCE

Source: Janis, Irving L. & Mann, Leon. 1977. Decision Making: A Psychological
Analysis of Conflict, Choice, and Commitment. New York: The Free Press

In making decisions, Janis and Mann argue that individuals consider four
major kinds of consequences resulting from enacting potential courses of
action. These are:

Utilitarian gains and loses for self (Income, enjoyment, attainment of

preferences...)- The instrumental effects of the decision on the individual's
personal objectives.
Utilitarian gains and loses for significant others (Social status for family,
helping needy, developing school system...)- The instrumental effects of the
decision on the needs and goals of people other than the decision. These
range from immediate family and friends, to co-workers, to members of the
greater community.
Self-approval or disapproval (Moral considerations, ego ideal, self image...)This category includes moral standards and ideal images of personal
attributes. It involves the anticipation of affective reaction (feelings) of not
living up to personal standards and ideals, and non-affirmation of self
perceived attributes.
Social approval or disapproval (From family, friends, peers...)- The basis of
this category is the potential approval or disapproval of the decision by

reference groups. It involves the anticipation of the likelihood and affective

consequences of social feedback (praise, ridicule, respect, criticism)
regarding the decision itself, the individual's values and/or the individual's
competencies.
DECI: TYPES OF MOTIVATION

Source: Deci, E. L. 1975. Intrinsic Motivation. New York: Plenum.

Task Pleasure
Extrinsic
Interpersonal
Intrinsic- Challenges
Intrinsic- Outcome
KOHLBERG: STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Source: Kohlberg, L. 1984. The Philosophy of moral development. New York:

Harper & Row.

Level One- Preconventional

Obedience and punishment (Heterogeneous)
Instrumental purpose and exchange (Instrumental)
Level Two- Conventional
Interpersonal accord (Interpersonal)
Social accord and system maintenance (Social System)
Level Three- Principled (Principled)
Social contract and individual rights
Universal ethical principles
KEGAN: CONSTRUCTIVE/DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY

Source: Kegan, R. 1982. The evolving self: Problem and process in human
development.

Impulsive- Pleasure and pain

Imperial- Personal goals and agendas
Interpersonal- Interpersonal connections and mutual obligations
Institutional- Personal standards and value systems
Inter-Individual- Community as a whole
KATZ AND KAHN: MOTIVATIONAL PATTERNS

Source: Katz, Daniel & Robert L. Kahn. 1966. The Social Psychology of
Organizations. New York: John Wiley.

Legal compliance Securing acceptance of role prescriptions and

organizational controls on the basis of their legitimacy. The rule enforcement
approach of simple machine theory.
The use of rewards and instrumental satisfactions for inducing required
behaviors.
System rewards earned through membership or seniority
Individual rewards such a pay incentives and promotion on the basis of
individual merit.
Instrumental identification with organizational leaders in which followers are
motivated to secure the approval of leaders.
Affiliation with peers to secure social approval fro own group
Internalized pattern of self-determination and self expression. The
satisfactions from accomplishment and the expression of talents and abilities
Internalized values and the self-concept. The incorporation of organizational
goals or subgoals as reflecting values and self-concept
HERZBERG: MOTIVATOR-HYGIENE THEORY

Source: Herzberg, F., B. Mauser, & B. Snyderman. 1959. The Motivation to

Work. New York: John Wiley.

Hygiene Factors/Satisfiers: Policies, supervision, work conditions, salary, peer

relations, subordinate relations, status, security
Motivators: Achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility,
advancement, growth
FRIEDMAN & HAVIGHURST: FUNCTIONS AND MEANING OF WORK

Source: Friedmann, Eugene A., & Robert J. Havighurst. 1954. The Meaning of
Work and Retirement. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Five Functions of Work were developed by Freidmann and Havighurst. Along

with the associated meanings, these functions were viewed as the major
sources of attachment individuals had to work.

Income
Maintaining a minimum sustenance level of existence
Achieving some higher level or group standard
Expenditure of time and energy
Something to do
A way of filling the day or passing time
Identification and status
Source of self-respect
Way of achieving recognition or respect from others
Definition of role
Association
Friendship relations

Peer-group relations
Subordinate-superordindate relations
Source of meaningful life experience
Gives purpose to life
Creativity; self-expression
New experience
Service to others
BARNARD: INDUCEMENT-CONTRIBUTIONS EXCHANGE

Source: Barnard, Chester. 1938. The Functions of the Executive. Cambridge,

MA: Harvard University Press.

Two major types of organizational inducements:

Material Inducements
Social Inducements
BANDURA: SELF REGULATION

Source: Bandura, Albert. 1986. Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A

Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Sensory Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Personal Standards of Self Regulation

[1.3] Anybody who's interested in understanding, predicting, or influencing

individual behavior must start with a basic understanding of human

motivation. Why do people behave as they do? This question has interested
behavioral and social scientists, as well as everyday people for hundreds of
years. Previously, we discussed attribution theory. This theory has been
designed to explain how people attempt to explain the motivation of others.
The mere existence of attribution theory is testimony to the fact that
individuals are continually trying to figure out the motives behind their own
behavior and behavior of others. As we observe some of our colleagues
working very hard and some of them working hardly at all, we wonder what
motivates these hard workers or why those exhibiting minimum performance
are not as motivated as the hard workers? There are a number of issues, or
conflicts, that have divided both motivational scholars and every day
psychologists for many years. These issues are:

Is motivation Internal to the individual (dispositional) or the result of External

(situational) forces? That is, is the Duracell battery commercial depicting
some people with high amounts of energy (motivation), while others have low
motivation, an accurate description of human nature? Are some people more
highly motivated across all situations while others lack motivation in all
situational contexts?
What is the relative effectiveness of Extrinsic Motivation versus Intrinsic
Motivation? Does strong motivation come from something within the person,
or are people more motivated by the expectation of external, or extrinsic
rewards.
What is the relative influence of the Cognitive nature of motivation versus the
Affective nature of motivation? Can motivation best explained as a process
whereby individuals make deliberate choices among alternatives, or as a
process based on emotion and passion?
This overview will attempt to clarify some of these issues related to
motivational processes. Let's start with a definition of motivation. For our
purposes, we will define Motivation as the force that Energizes, Directs, and
Sustains behavior.

Energies Behavior- What initiates a behavior, behavioral pattern, or a change

in behavior? What determines the level of effort and how hard a person
works? This aspect of motivation deals with the question of What motivates
people? It attempts to explain the amount of effort or energy and individual
puts into a task.

Directs Behavior- What determines which behaviors an individual chooses

among the alternative actions, behaviors, or problem solutions? This aspect
of motivation deals with the question of choice and conflict among competing
behavioral alternatives. It deals directly with the direction of one's effort.
Sustains Behavior- What determines an individual's level of persistence with
respect to behavioral patterns? Why do some individuals keep working at
something long after others have quit? This aspect of motivation deals with
how behavior is sustained and stopped. It deals with the persistence and
consistency of behavior.
There are a number of approaches to the study of motivation, each
containing a number of specific related theories. I will summarize the major
assumptions of each approach along with prominent theories based on these
assumptions. Each of these approaches explains a part of the puzzle. No one
approach alone can explain the entire motivational process. Therefore, after
discussing the pure approaches, I will discuss a number of ways in which
these approaches can be integrated to form a more complete explanation of
the motivational process.

DISPOSITIONAL APPROACHES

These theories emphasize the role of stable dispositions in explaining the

variability among individuals in the behavioral patterns. According to this
group of theories, the amount and direction of effort displayed by an
individual is viewed as a function of his or her makeup up. This first approach
is based on the following set of assumptions:

Individuals have a certain set of internal dispositions that is consistent across

time and situations. We discussed a number of these dispositional variables
in Module 1.
These individual differences in values, needs, personality traits, and selfconcept are strong predictors of how an individual responds to different
situation contexts. They are a stronger predictor of behavior than the various
factors in the situational context.
The amount of effort and drive an individual exhibits is a function of his or her
internal dispositions. In fact, motivation is more an internal trait that it is a
function of external factors.

Dispositional Or Content Theories

Need Theories. There are three major need theories with which you should
become familiar. In general, while the type of needs each list of needs differ
slightly among these theories, they all hold that an unsatisfied need is a
source of individual motivation. That is, individuals will take actions that they
believe will help them satisfy these unsatisfied needs. With respect to the
various stages of the motivation process (energizing, directing, and
sustaining), these theories are most applicable to be energizing stage of
motivation. They attempt to explain what motivates individual behavior
without particular attention to the process of deciding among behavioral
alternatives. The main question that need theories attempt to answer is:
What outcomes are individuals motivated to obtain at work? Since these
theories are given full coverage in the textbook, I will not describe each here,
but here is a short summary of each theory.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological Needs- Basic needs for sustenance and shelter.
Security Needs- The need to feel safe and secure. The need for a stable work
environment.
Belongingness Needs- The need to be part of a larger group, to be accepted
and liked by others.
Esteem Needs- The need to be valued by one's self and others as valuable
contributor.
Self-actualization Needs- The need to realize one's full potential.
Alderfer's ERG Theory
Existence Needs- They need for basic human needs and security/safety.
Relatedness Needs- The need to have high quality relationships
Growth Needs- Need for continued self-development and competency
Murray/McClelland's Manifest Need Theory
Need for Achievement- Need to perform challenging tasks and meet personal
standards for excellence
Need for Affiliation- Need to establish and maintain good relationships with

others. Need for reassurance and approval from others.

Need for Power- Need to exert emotional and behavioral influence over
others.
Questions to ask when taking an Needs Theory approach to motivational
analysis

What are the motivators for your group of employees? What important needs
are not been satisfied?
How are differences in needs by which different employees in the workgroup
are motivated?
How can we structure the job so that employees can satisfy their needs
through good performance (ERB) and long-term membership?
SELF CONCEPT MOTIVATION THEORY

Self Concept Motivation Theory (Leonard, Beauvais, & Scholl, 1999) attempts
to explain the employee motivation in terms of employee's need to reinforce
and validate his or her self-concept. The self-concept is viewed as a set of
self-perceptions the individual holds about his or her competencies, traits,
and values. A detailed description of the Self Concept Motivation Theory can
be found on the Self Concept Motivation Model page. Here is a brief review of
some of the postulates of the theory.

The basic unit in this theory is one's social identity which consists of an
individual's perception of his or her role in important reference groups. A
social identity is the way in which individuals interact with the various groups
with which they associate. Individuals often have multiple identities as they
move between various facets of their lives. You most likely have identities has
students, employees, sons/daughters, athletes, etc. (Remember George
Costanza had problems integrating Dating George with Friend George).
Within each social identity, an individual has perceptions of his or her
competencies (important skills and abilities), traits (characteristic behavioral
patterns), and values (preferences for outcomes and ideals).
Individuals are, motivated to maintain, reinforce and enhance their
perceptions and the perceptions of others of their traits, competencies, and
values through behavior that is designed to elicit Task and Social Feedback

that validates or affirms these self-perceptions.

Feedback that invalidates self-perceptions causes dissonance that individuals
are motivated to eliminate.
Individuals vary in the importance of the Internal Self and the External Self.
Self concept internals are motivated to validate their own standards and selfperceptions, while self concept externals are more focused on eliciting
approval and affirmation from members of their reference group.
Dominant Source of Motivation- While motivation in itself is not a
dispositional variable, that there is no single internal variable termed
motivation level within individuals that is consistent across situations and
time, there are a number of dispositional variables, such as values and self
concept, that interact with situations in predictable ways to produce what
often appears to a consistent level of motivation. An individual's dominant
source of motivation is one such variable. While all individuals are motivated
by all five sources of motivation at one time or another, we find that most
individuals tend to be motivated by one source more than others.
Self Concept External Motivation

This source of motivation is focused on three types of external validation:

Acceptance. Feelings of approval and acceptance from members of one's

workgroup. Perception that workgroup members and your boss like you.

Worth. Feelings that you or perceived by others as an important member in

the functioning of your workgroup, organization, or team. Members respect
your opinion and ideas.

Status. Feelings others believe that you are one of the best at what you do
and that you are an integral and indispensable part of the organization,
workgroup or team.

Self Concept Internal Motivation

SC Internal Motivation is focused on obtaining task feedback that validates

one's:

Competencies. Much like achievement motivation, the individual engages in

challenging activities designed to prove to himself of herself that are good at
something.

Values. The individual engages in activities that are consistent with his or her
important values or moral code. Dissonance is created when he or she
violates these personal standards of conduct.

Dimensions Of Self Concept

Two important dimensions of the Self Concept are developed within

individuals through experiences and interactions with others. These
dimensions of the self concept are: level and strength.

Level of the Self Concept- The level of self perception refers to the degree to
which the individual perceives he/she possesses this attribute. Does the
individual see himself or herself as highly introverted (trait), or a very good
tennis player (competency), or an honest and fair person (value)? This
dimension deals with the issue of where individuals see themselves, relative
to their ideal selves, and is directly related to the issue of high and low self
esteem. It is manifested in High versus Low self concept. When determining
the level of an attribute, individuals use two types of evaluative frames of
reference.

An ordinal standard or frame of reference is used when the individual rates or

compares himself or herself to others (i.e., how good is he or she relative to
others). To be first or the best is the ultimate criterion when using this type of
standard.

A fixed standard, whereby he/she rates or evaluates attributes against a goal

or predetermined metric or criterion (i.e., to earn a bachelors' degree) can

also be used. This may take the form of reaching a set of internalized goals or
timetables.

Strength of the Self Concept- Strength is the second dimension of the

perceived, and refers to how strongly the individual holds the perception of
attribute level.

Strong Individuals with strong perceived selves are relatively firm and secure
in their perceptions of an attribute level. These strong perceptions of self are
a result of consistent and clear feedback regarding the attribute.

Weak A weak perceived self is reflected in individuals who are relatively

unsure of an attribute level, often resulting from conflicting or ambiguous
feedback regarding the attribute.

Self Concept Types

There are four basic Self Concept Types. The combined effects of Level and
Strength are:

High/Strong- These individual require relatively little validation of their self

concept. Self concept motivation is relatively low.
High/Weak- Individual believe that they are very good at something, but they
are not secure in this belief. Therefore, they have a strong motivation to
validate this competency, therefore self concept motivation is high.
Low/Strong- These individuals have a strong belief in their lack of ability. This
manifests in low motivation to enhance self perception because they believe
there is little that they can do to improve their competencies. Therefore, self
concept motivation is low.
Low/Weak- Individuals of this type are characterized by low self efficacy
(belief in their competency). However, this belief is not strong and they can
be motivated to demonstrate that they can develop certain skills and
competencies. Self concept motivation can be high

Questions to ask when taking an Self Concept approach to motivational

analysis

How do your employees define their identities?

What Competencies, Traits, & Values are central to their work identities?
Are the employee more inner (Self Concept Internal) or other (Self Concept
External) directed?
What self concept type are the employees (high/strong; high/weak;
low/strong; low/weak)?
How can the work situation be structured so that the self concepts are these
employees are validated/affirmed through high performance (ERB) and
continued long term membership?
SOURCES OF MOTIVATION THEORY

This theory was developed in an attempt to integrate the many dispositional,

need, and content theories into a single work motivation model (Leonard,
Beauvais, & Scholl, 1995). To see how this model is related to many of these
theories see Sources of Motivation Models. After examining many of the
content based approaches to motivation (those theories that attempt to
answer the question: What motivates membership and performance of
people at work?), we determined that there are five fundamental sources of
motivation. While most individuals are affected by all sources, each individual
has a dominant source of motivation that is the prime focus of his or her
behavior. The five sources are:

Intrinsic Process Motivation

Individuals primarily motivated by intrinsic process engage in activities which

they consider enjoyable of fun. It is the performance of the task itself, rather
than outcomes or results of the task that provide satisfaction. These
individuals are often diverted from tasks that are relevant to goal attainment
in order to pursue tasks which are intrinsically more enjoyable. Thus, as long
as team tasks are enjoyable, these individuals will be motivated to continue
working effectively in the context of the team. Since they are relatively
indifferent to task and social feedback, such feedback will not serve to

motivate continued performance on the part of the intrinsically motivated

person.

Instrumental Motivation

Instrumental rewards are a motivating source when individuals believe that

the behaviors they engage in will lead to certain outcomes such as pay,
praise, etc. Rooted in exchange theory, the basic assumption is that
individuals and organizations constitute an exchange relationship.
Expectancy and equity theories are currently accepted models of motivation
based on exchange relationships. Primary sources of instrumental motivation
in work organizations are pay, benefits and promotion/advancement.

External Self Concept-Based Motivation

Self concept motivation is externally based when the individual is primarily

other-directed. In this case, the ideal self is derived by adopting the role
expectations of reference groups. The individual attempts to meet the
expectations of others by behaving in ways that will elicit social feedback
consistent with self perceptions. When positive task feedback is obtained, the
individual finds it necessary to communicate these results to members of the
reference or peer group. The individual behaves in ways which satisfy
reference group members, first to gain acceptance, and after achieving that,
to gain worth and status. These three needs, for acceptance, worth, and
status, are similar to McClelland's (1961) need for affiliation and need for
power. The individual continually strives to earn the acceptance and status of
reference group members. This status orientation usually leads to an ordinal
standard of self evaluation, in that it is important for the individual to be first,
best, or other indicators of superiority over others.

Internal Self Concept-Based Motivation

Self concept motivation will be internally based when the individual is

primarily inner-directed. Internal self concept motivation takes the form of the
individual setting internal standards that become the basis for the ideal self.
The individual tends to use fixed rather than ordinal standards of self

measurement as he/she attempts to first, reinforce perceptions of

competency, and later achieve higher levels of competency. This need for
achieving higher levels of competency is similar to what McClelland (1961)
refers to as a high need for achievement and Bandura (1986)identifies as
personal standards. The motivating force for individuals who are inner-driven
and motivated by their self concept is task feedback. It is important to these
individual that their efforts are vital in achieving outcomes and that their
ideas and actions are instrumental in performing a job well. It is not as
important that others provide reinforcing feedback as is true for otherdirected individuals.

Goal Internalization

Behavior is motivated by goal internalization when the individual adopts

attitudes and behaviors because their content is congruent with their value
system. The individual believes in the cause, and as such is willing to work
towards the goals of an organization supporting this cause. Primary to this
source is the individual's desire to benefit others independent from the effect
of these efforts in securing increases pay (instrumental), recognition (self
concept external), or achievement (self concept internal)

Questions to ask when taking a Sources of Motivation approach to

motivational analysis

What is the dominant source of motivation for your group of employees?

How is good performance (ERB) and long term membership related to each of
the five sources?
COGNITIVE APPROACHES

Cognitive Approach theories focus on the influence of individual choice and

decision-making in explaining variances in employee behavior. The cognitive
approach is based on the following set of assumptions:

Individual behavior can best be explained as a decision process.

Motivation is goal directed, that is, individual motivation can best be

explained in terms of an individual's attempt to achieve certain personal
goals.
Individuals make rational choices among alternative actions/behaviors based
on the perceived consequences of each of these behaviors, their relationship
to goal attainment, and/or their relationship to need fulfillment.
As the situation varies the individual's amount and direction of motivation
changes in response to the changing perceived consequences of each
behavioral alternative.
Expectancy Theory

Expectancy Theory is the most often cited in most often used of the cognitive
theories (Porter & Lawler, 1968). Its basic purpose is to explain how people
make choices among behavioral alternatives. For example, how does one
choose between two competing job offers, or between spending the night
studying for an exam in the morning were going out with friends? It uses the
concept of Motivational Force (MF). It posits that individuals develop a
motivational force for each behavioral alternative under consideration. The
alternative with the highest motivational force is the behavior that the
individual chooses to exhibit. Motivational Force (MF) is a function of two
cognitions and one value. The three components that are combined by the
individual to arrive at a Motivational Force calculation are:

Expectancy. The belief that one's effort to lead to desire performance (Effort
Performance). This is a cognitive component of an attitude. It is a
probabilistic estimate by the individual of what will happen if he or she
increases or decreases the amount of effort put into the job.

Instrumentality. The belief that high-performance lead to increased rewards

(Performance Rewards). This component of expectancy theory is what
makes motivation a contingent concept, that is, or motivation to exist in
individual has to see some differential outcome associated with exhibiting a
behavior or not exhibiting behavior. The rewards do not have to be tangible,
such as pay and/or promotion, what can simply be differences and how one
feels by either exhibiting Adequate Role Behavior (ARB) for extra role
behavior (ERB).

Valence. Valence represents an individual's preference for each of the

potential outcomes. For example, the value when places on increased pay vs.
time off from the job represents differences in valance for each of these
outcomes. Valances are a function of individual's values.

According To Expectancy Theory:

Motivational Force (MF) = Expectancy * Instrumentality * Valance.

What this model attempts to depict by this multiplicative relationship is that if

any one of the components is zero, then motivational force will be zero and
there will be of the motivation to perform a particular behavior or aspect of
performance. For example, if either of the following is true about an
upcoming exam, the motivational force to study for the exam will be zero,
and you will be very unlikely to study for the exam:

Low Expectancy- You believe that no matter how hard to study, you will not
be able to increase your performance on the exam.

Low Instrumentality- You believe that no matter how well you do on the exam,
you will still get a "C" in the course.

Low Valence- You do not care about your grade in the course.

Both expectancy and instrumentality are cognitions, and as such are subject
to change depending on a person's experience. It is also very important to
note that these are perceptions by the individual of what he or she believes
will happen, and what will actually happen. For example, you might believe
that you can get an "A" in this course without participating in Class
Discussion (which is not true). However it is you belief (Instrumentality) that
will determine your behavior and not what will actually happen.

Somebody might start out highly motivated because he believes that his

effort and Extra Role Behavior (ERB) will lead to high performance rating
(Expectancy), a high performance rating will lead to increase pay and a
promotion (Instrumentality), any values both pay and promotion (Valence).
However, it after working very hard he gets a low evaluation, his expectancy
is likely to decline. Likewise, it despite getting excellent performance ratings
he gets the same pay raise has those with minimally acceptable ratings, is
instrumentality perception is likely to decline. Either case is likely to lead to a
decrease in motivational force to exhibit ERB.

Questions to ask when taking an Expectancy Theory approach to motivational

analysis

If the answer to any of these questions is "No," there is a potential

motivational problem

Are there intrinsic and/or extrinsic outcomes associated with good

performance that our value to the individuals (Valence)?
Do individuals believe they have the skills required to perform successfully
(Expectancy)?
Are performance goals set at a level that is achievable by these individuals
(Expectancy)?
Do individuals have control over performance outcomes, or are there other
variables that have a strong influence over reforms that are out of control of
these individuals (Expectancy)?
Do individuals believe that good performance will actually affect valued
outcomes (Instrumentality)?
Do individuals trust the organization and its managers (Instrumentality)?
Do individuals have control over the distribution of rewards and the
relationship to performance (Instrumentality)?
DECISIONAL BALANCE

Like Expectancy Theory, this approach to motivational analyses uses a

decision making framework to explain individual behavior. This theory posits
that individuals develop a balance sheet approach to choosing among

behavioral alternatives and in doing so, they evaluate the Pros and Cons
associated with a behavior. Pros and cons are evaluated with respect to four
different expected outcomes. These outcome categories are very similar to
the sources of motivation. These categories are (consistency with Sources of
Motivation indicated in parentheses):

Instrumental Gains for Self (Instrumental)

Instrumental Gains of Others (Goal Internalization)
Approval from Others (Self Concept External)
Self Approval (Self Concept Internal)
Questions to ask when taking a Decisional Balance approach to motivational
analysis

What do employees see as the pros associated with good performance (ERB)
and continued membership?
What do employees see as the cons associated with good performance (ERB)
and continued membership?
What can be done to increase the perceived pros for good performance (ERB)
and continues membership?
What can be done to eliminate or reduce the perceived cons for good
performance (ERB) and continues membership?
GOAL SETTING THEORY

Goal Setting Theory holds that individual develop a set of conscious goals
that are the primate focus of their behavior. Individuals make choices among
behavioral alternatives based on the belief that these behaviors will be
instrumental in achieving these goals. Goal setting theory posits that certain
perceived characteristics of individual goals affect the individual's motivation
to achieve them. Furthermore, when goals have these attributes, they tend to
lead to higher levels of performance. These goal attributes are:

Goal Specificity is the degree to which a goal is stated in clear and specific
terms. Highly specific goals have four characteristics:

Content- What is the focus of the goal (e.g., improved quality, increased
speed, reduced wastes, etc.)
Measure/Indicator- How is achievement of the goal assessed? What metric is
used to determine success (e.g., return rate, days, grades, etc.)?
Level- What level of performance is required for success? (e.g., reduce the
number of rejected parts to 5% of total pats produced)
Time- When is the goal expected to be met?
Goal Difficulty refers to how hard the goal is to achieve. In general, difficult
goals lead to higher levels of performance than easy or moderate goals,
assuming the goal is not too difficult to achieve.
Goal Acceptance is the degree to which employees agree with the goal and
are willing to attempt to achieve it.
Goal Commitment is the degree to which goal attainment personally benefits
an employee (either in terms of extrinsic rewards, recognition, or validation of
personal standards)
Questions to ask when taking a Goal Setting approach to motivational
analysis

Do employees have performance goals? Do they know what they are?

Are employees goals related to securing, maintaining, and enhancing
competitive advantage?
Are goals specific, sufficiently difficult, accepted and relevant to employees?
How can goals be made more specific, sufficiently difficult, accepted and
relevant to employees?
CONTROL THEORY

In its basic form, control theory presents a framework for analyzing work
motivation and organizational problems solving (Klein, 1989). It allows us to
think of behavior and decision making as a cybernetic system, whereby an
individual develops expectations, plans and executes actions, receives
environmental feedback, compares feedback to expectations and adjusts
behavior accordingly. Control theory also presents a useful framework for
thinking about behavioral change. Here are the basic tenets of control theory:

Control theory asserts that behavior can be viewed as a feedback loop

consisting of four elements

Elements in a control system. The best way to think about control theory is to
envision the simple cybernetic control system that heats & cools your room.
This system has a number of elements:

Referent Standard- A goal or standard for evaluating the results of behavior.

In the heating system, this element is the temperature at which the
thermostat is set.
Sensor- Monitoring element. In the heating system, this element is the
thermostat devise.
Comparator- The element that compares the sensor reading to the referent
standard.
Effector- The element that is capable to bringing about a change in sensor
reading. In the heating system, this element is the furnace or A/C unit.
Heating/cooling example: The referent standard is set to 70. An input is
received by the sensor (room temperature is 65). The comparator compares
the senor reading or 65 with the referent standard of 70 and signals the
effector (furnace) of the discrepancy and to turn on. When the room
temperature reaching 70, sensor notes this, the comparator determines
there is no longer a discrepancy and signal the effector to turn off.

Human Control System: Assume that you are taking an advanced

programming course. You decide you want to get an A in this course (referent
standard), you spend 2 hours on the first program (effector: time and effort).
You get back your first program with a grade of 82 (sensor). You calculate that
you will not get an A with 82 level work (comparator) and increase the
amount of time and effort you spend on the second program (effector).

While the human behavioral control system is far more complex and flexible
than its mechanical counterpart, control theory provides some insight into the
stability and change of behavior.

THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH

The behavioral approach is based on the following set of assumptions:

Individual behavior is a function of stimulus - response reactions. It is not

important to understand what goes on inside the head of the individual.
Behavior is a function of its consequences. Behaviors that are followed by
positive reinforcers (consequences) have a strong likelihood of being
repeated. Likewise, behavior that is followed by unpleasant consequences is
less likely to be repeated.
Individual motivation can be changed and behavior modified by changing
reinforcement schedules, that is, the consequences of exhibited behavior.
The behavioral approach is based largely on what is termed operant
conditioning, which is learning that takes place when a person recognizes the
relationship between behavior and its consequences.
Behavioral Theories

Reinforcement/Learning Theory is dominant behavioral theory. It is based on

two fundamental concepts: Types of Reinforcement and Reinforcement
Schedules.

Types of Reinforcement. There or four basic types of reinforcement. Two of

these types of reinforcement act to encourage desired behavior (positive
reinforcement and native reinforcement) while the other two act to reduce
the probability of existing behavioral patterns (punishment and extinction). It
is important to note that reinforcement can either be socially or naturally
applied. Social application means that another individual is attempting to
modify your behavior by controlling the type of reinforcement and reinforce
the schedule. Natural reinforcement occurs when conditions in the
environment reinforce the behavior without human intervention. Also, many
textbooks refer to increasing the likelihood of desired behavior. What type of
behavior is desired is a function of who is evaluating this behavior. What may
be desired behavior for your boss, maybe undesired behavior from the
perspective of your co-workers and friends.

Positive Reinforcement increases the probability that an exhibited behavior

will occur again in the future by following this behavior with a positive
reinforcer (consequence that is desirable to the individual). Positive
reinforcers may include bonuses, promotions, public recognition, verbal
praise, physical pleasure, etc.
Negative Reinforcement also increases the likelihood that a given behavior
will be exhibited again. Negative reinforcement occurs when an undesirable
consequence is removed as result of the behavior. For example, suppose
you're feeling stressed out over an upcoming exam. If spending time studying
for the exam removes the stress, the studying behavior will be reinforced.
Likewise, if going out drinking removes the stressful feeling, then that
behavior will be reinforced.
Punishment has the effect of decreasing the likelihood of exhibited behaviors
by following these behaviors with undesirable consequence. It is important to
understand that punishment does not increase behavior and does not
generate potential for Extra Role Behavior, but it's only capable of eliminating
behavior that is undesirable from the point of view of the individual doing the
reinforcing. From a management perspective, one might be successful in
eliminating certain undesirable behaviors, but punishment alone, we have
little control over what you behaviors might replace these undesirable
behaviors.
Extinction reduces the likelihood that a given behavior will occur by
eliminating any positive reinforcement that is motivating that behavior.
According to operant conditioning principles, for a behavioral pattern to be
maintained, it must be continually reinforced. Removing the source of
reinforcement will eliminate behavioral pattern.
Reinforcement Schedules described the pattern of reinforcement that is
applied to a given behavioral pattern. There are five basic reinforcement
schedules:

Continuous Reinforcement- A behavior is reinforced every time that it occurs

Fixed Interval Reinforcement- A behavior is reinforced based on a fixed time
based schedule
Variable Interval Reinforcement- The period of time between instances in
which the behaviors reinforced, varies
Fixed Ratio Reinforcement- Behavior is reinforced every nth time the behavior

is exhibited, where n is a constant number of instances.

Variable Ratio Reinforcement- Behavior is reinforced every nth time the
behavior is exhibited, where n is a variable number of instances.
Social Learning Theory differs from reinforcement theory in that it recognizes
the role of vicarious learning in developing individual patterns of behavior. It
recognizes that individuals may develop associations between behaviors and
outcomes by observing the effects of behaviors exhibited by others. In other
words, it argues that you do not have to be ridiculed when you speak out in
class to learn that incorrect answers are followed by undesirable
consequences, but you can learn this by watching your friend get ridiculed.
Social learning theory attempts to bridge the gap between pure behavioral
theories and cognitive theories of motivation. It recognizes that while pure
reinforcement schedules account for some of our behavior patterns, much of
what we do is based on observation of the behavior of others.

Questions to ask when taking a Behavior approach to motivational analysis

What specific desired behaviors are not being exhibited by your employees?
What positive consequences follow these behaviors when they are exhibited?
Do your employees value these consequences?
If no positive consequences are closely associated with desire behavior, what
positive reinforcers can be added?
What specific undesired behaviors are being exhibited by employees?
What were the positive reinforcers of this undesired behavior?
Can these positive reinforcers be removed?
Can negative consequences be associated with these undesired behaviors?
THE AFFECTIVE APPROACH

The affective approach is based on the following set of assumptions:

Individual behavior can best be explained by an individual's reaction to his or

her affective or emotional state.

Individuals seek to achieve a positive affective state and avoid a negative
affective state.
Behavior is often an irrational response to an emotional reaction. An
irrational response is defined as the behavior response in which the
individual does not consider the likely consequences of his or her actions
(which one would do given a cognitive approach).
Affective Theories

Affective Motivation Theory- There are a number of ways in which our

emotions, or our affective state, are involved in the motivation of behavior.
Remember that motivation is the force that energizes, directs, and sustains
behavior. How are emotions involved in these three forces?

Basic Premises

Individuals exist in, and move among, one of three Affective States:
Positive Affective State- The individual is experiencing positive feelings, such
as relaxation, excitement, pleasure, or joy.
Neutral Affective State- The individual is experiencing little or no feelings at
the present time.
Negative Affective State- The individual is experiencing negative feelings and
emotions such as emotional pain, anxiety, guilt, frustration, boredom, or
anger.
Individuals develop emotional memories, called somatic markers, associated
with people, organizations, events, and objects which are part of their
experiences. For example, individuals who consistently find themselves in a
negative affect the state (e.g., anxiety) when taking exams, would most likely
develop a negative somatic marker associated with exam taking. These
somatic markers form the basis of the affective attitude component
associated with attitude objects.
Postulates of Affective Motivation Theory- From an affective perspective, what
energies, directs and sustains behavior? (Note: most theorist belief that
behavior is result of a complex combination of, or conflict between, cognitive

and affective processes. Neither process alone, or in its pure state, explains
behavior; except for Mr. Spock, Commander Data, & Professor Hickox)

Energizing Behavior. Behavior is energized when individuals experience a

negative affect the state (negative reinforcement). They are most likely to
change behavior while in a negative affective state in order to eliminate
these feelings. For example, individuals feeling guilty are likely to behave in
ways that eliminates this guilt; individuals experiencing boredom or likely to
change to a more interesting or exciting activity (such as starting a fight with
a sibling). When the negative affect its state is extremely strong, there is
considerable pressure to relieve it. In this case, the individual may respond in
a totally reactive or impulsive manner. This is referred to as emotional
hijacking or amygdala hijacking. For example, an individual listening to
repeated personal attacks on his character by his boss at a meeting, may
abruptly stand up and leave, or start shouting at the boss.

Directing Behavior. From a cognitive perspective, individuals choose among

alternative actions through a process of deriving the logical consequences of
alternative actions and comparing alternatives against a set of criteria
unencumbered by passion (see: Expectancy Theory). On the other hand, we
all know that we often use "gut feelings" in making choices. When we make
decisions on the feelings associated with each of our alternatives, we are
using an affective choice process. In the pure affective process, we rank order
alternatives on the basis of the somatic marker associated with each
alternative: ranking the alternative of the most positive somatic marker first
and so on. In many cases our choice process involves visualization of
ourselves enacting each of the alternatives. This visualization process
enhances our ability to invoke the somatic marker (emotional response) of
each alternative. The specific visualization (which is based on our past
experiences) has a direct impact on the type of emotional response evoked.
For example, if I am considering whether or not to go skiing, it depends on
what visualization comes to mind while I am making my choice. If my
visualization is focused on getting up extremely early, a long drive, and the
slushy conditions I experienced on my last trip to Stratton Mountain, this
particular visualization is likely to revoke a negative semantic marker. On the
other hand if I am focused on a perfect day, on a perfectly groomed
mountain, with no cares in the world, a positive somatic marker is likely to be
evoked.
In the case of emotional hijacking, the chosen behavior is the result of
automatic connection between stimulus and response. Frustration Instigated

Behavior is one form of emotional hijacking whereby individual feels pressure

to act in response in one of four characteristic manners: (a) aggression, (b)
resignation, (c) regression, or (d) fixation.

Sustaining Behavior. Positive reinforcement stabilizes a particular behavioral

pattern. When we are experiencing a positive affect the state, we tend to
continue what we're doing. For example, if we're having fun at a party, we
often stay longer than expected, despite the fact that we have a test early
the next day.

Emotional Intelligence/Competency

Goleman (1995) is generally credited with developing the term and concept
of emotional intelligence. The Emotional Intelligence Model deals with how
individuals respond to felt emotions with behavioral responses. For example,
a very excited person may scream out an exclamation of joy, an angry person
may storm out of a meeting, or a frustrated person may pound a desk. While
he did not present a specific model, a basic model using his precepts looks
like this:

Trigger
Situation or context

Emotional Response Specific feeling evoked by the trigger

Behavioral Response Actual behavior exhibited by the individual. This may

be no change in behavior

AM

EMOTIONAL COMPETENCIES

Emotional Intelligence Skills refer to individual skills and competencies that

allow people to deal with their own emotions (Individual Level) and the
emotions of others (Interpersonal Level).

The Individual Level

This approach deals with how an individuals experience situations and how
they monitor/control/regulate their responses.

Awareness/Managing Emotions. The ability to control and affect ones

emotional state; limit the effects of social feedback on your emotions, and in
general, block the effect of triggers on your emotional state.

Understanding one's own emotions

Understanding the causes of one's feelings
Becoming aware of one's "hot" buttons
Developing frustration tolerance
Strengthening one's self concept, and reducing one's dependence on external
validation
Interpretation of meaning- learning how to better interpret the meaning of
the actions of others in terms of your own self concept.
Becoming able to produce positive affective states in oneself through
visioning and other techniques.
Development of positive outlook (optimism)
Motivation. The ability to control the behavioral effects of negative emotions
(e.g., anger, fear, anxiety) and perform in a positive way even when

emotional state is negative. Individuals high in this skill are likely to react to
negative (disconfirming feedback) by attempting to diagnosis the causes of
low performance and actually increase their effort directed at improving
performance. Their counterparts with low skill development in this area are
likely to quit at the first sign of failure or invalidation.

Self Control
Self Motivation- The ability to perform despite lack of "passion."
Self Regulation
The Interpersonal Level

This approach deals with the way in which individuals influence the emotions
and behavior of others. These skills are often referred to as interpersonal or
social skills

EMPATHY. The ability to understand and affect the emotional states of others.

The ability to "read" the emotions and emotional states of others.

The ability to determine the situations/triggers that cause various emotional
states in others.
The ability to evoke positive and negative emotions states in others. This
often involves understanding the self concept and identity of others to avoid
negative affect by invalidation (offending) and to evoke positive affect by
affirmation (positive reinforcement).
Conflict/Negotiation skills- The ability to advocate your positions/interests
without invalidating the positions/interests of other parties
INFLUENCE- The ability to influence the behavior of others; motivating them
in low emotional states; calming them in aggravated emotional states.

Conflict resolution techniques- The ability to develop win/win solutions to

conflicts.

Relationship Building- The ability to develop trust and build high quality
relationships with others
Motivation- The ability to energize and the direct the behavior of others
despite low emotional states Control- The ability to moderate the behavioral
responses of others to aggravated emotional states through such techniques
as "active listening."
INTEGRATION & CONFLICT OF APPROACHES

As you probably figured out by now, no one approach by itself explains the
complexity of human behavior. Each approach is valid to some degree and is
invalid in explaining some aspects of behavior. There are two ways of looking
at the integration of the various approaches. The conflict paradigm examines
how different motivation forces conflict with one another creating
intrapersonal conflict, that is, conflict within the individual. The integration
paradigm looks at how various approaches combine and complement each
other in providing a more complete explanation and prediction of individual
behavior. Here are a few ways in which each of the paradigms can be applied.

Conflict Approaches assume that individuals process information in various

ways simultaneously. Sometimes the results of these multiple processes lead
to different assessments and decisions as to how to behave. The two most
often studied types of conflict result from the following:

Cognitive versus Dispositional. This is the case in which the individual is

confronted with conflict between his or her disposition (Traits, values, needs,
etc.) and the perceived requirements from the situation. Resultant behavior
(that is, how this conflict is resolved) is a function of the strength of the
disposition and the strength of the situation.

Cognitive versus Affective. This type of interpersonal conflict has often been
referred to as the Want vs. Should conflict (Bazerman, Tenbrunsel, & WadeBenzoni, 1998), whereby individuals face conflict between their immediate
affective state and their expectation of the future consequences of their
behavior. Employees sometimes must choose between jobs they want versus
jobs they think they should take. You often must choose between wanting to
go to a party and studying when you believe that you should study for an
exam. To some degree, this type of conflict is affected by the individual's

emotional intelligence and his or her ability to control the behavioral

response to emotions. This conflict has been posed as a conflict between your
two selves with the Should Self representing the more rational, cognitive,
thoughtful, and cool headed and the Want Self representing you irrational,
affective, impulsive, and hot headed side. Researchers have found that the
following generalizations can be made about how individuals resolve this type
of intrapersonal conflict.

The Want Self has the greatest influence at the moment of the decision, while
the Should Self is more influential before and after the decision is made.
Often long before individuals are required to act, they base their decisions
(intended actions) on what they believe they should do. As the event
approaches, the Want Self takes over and the individual behaves more in line
with the desires of the Want Self. You know that you should go home next
weekend to help your parents and you tell them that you will go. As the
weekend approaches, you change your mind and decide to stay with your
friends at school.
When considering one behavioral option at a time, the Want Self generally
prevails. When considering multiple behavioral options simultaneously, the
Should Self tends to have the most influence.
The more an individual's behavior will be public and he or she feels they need
to justify that behavior, the more the Should Self influences the decision
process.
Integrative or Complementary Approaches examine the way in which
individuals' dispositions affect their cognitive processes, their emotions
influence their cognitive processes, and how affective and behavioral
processes are combined. Here are a few ways in which various motivational
approaches can be looked at a combination to form a better total picture of
individual motivation.

Cognitive & Dispositional

Big 5 and Expectancy Theory- According to the Big 5 personality theory,

individuals vary in their predispositions towards optimism and pessimism.
This has a direct impact on an individual's assessment of Expectancies and
Instrumentalities in developing a motivational force for a particular action.
Optimists a more likely to use the best case scenario in assessing
expectancies and instrumentality leading to higher estimates of these

cognitions and thus a higher motivational force to act. Pessimists are more
likely to use the worst-case scenario, thus leading to a low motivational
force to act.

Valance and Values- An important element in Expectancy Theory is the

valance of expected outcomes an individual uses for assessing motivational
force. An individual's values are the major determinant of what outcomes
have high valence.
Valance and Sources of Motivation- Another way to look at valance in
Expectancy Theory is to use an individual's dominant source of motivation as
the determining of outcome balance.
Expectancy and Self Concept- Another important element in Expectancy
Theory is the expectancy, that is the perception that one's effort to lead to
desired performance. An individual's self-concept, specifically his or her selfefficacy, will be a major determinant of this expectancy belief.
Goal Setting and Self Concept- Goal achievement is an important form of task
feedback that the individual uses to affirm and validate his or her
competencies. The degree to which we accept, internalize, and are motivated
to achieve goals is largely a function of how accomplishment of these goals
can be used to validate our competencies and sense of worth.
Cognitive & Affective

Influence of emotion on beliefs- As rational decision makers, we attempt to

objective assessing expectancies and instrumentalities. However, there is
often a strong, and sometimes unknown, effect of our emotions in
determining these cognitive beliefs.
Valance as an emotional variable- While instrumental values can be
determined through a logical and cognitive process, there is no rational way
to determine which fundamental outcomes have more value (terminal
values). For example, the choice as to which is more important; our careers
or our families, is fundamentally an emotional one rather than a rational one.
This is to say that terminal values are essentially emotional in nature.
Behavioral & Affective

Negative reinforcement and affective motivation. From an affective

motivation perspective, new behavior is initiated as result of individuals being

in a negative affective state. From a behavioral perspective negative

reinforcement is operative when individual engages in a behavior in order to
remove a negative reinforcer. Much of what we view as positive reinforcers
and negative reinforcers can better be explained in terms of affective states.
Continuance of Behavior- One of the reasons why we engage in behavior
longer than we expected (e.g., stay too long at a party) is that while engaging
this behavior will remain in a very positive affective state which acts to
reinforce the continuance of behavior.
Dispositional & Affective/Cognitive

In resolving the want versus should conflict (affective vs. cognitive), an

individual's cognitive style has a strong impact on how the individual
responds in terms feeling vs. thinking. Thinking Types tend to resolve this
conflict more in terms of the rational of cognitive deliberations while Feeling
Types are more prone to rely on the affectively based choice processes.
Many people experience a Negative Emotional State (anxiety, tension,
uneasiness) when they feel forced with the situation to act in manner that is
in conflict with their dispositions. In other words, they are acting out of
character or against their preferences in a strong situation. For example, a
strong Perceiving Type forced to follow a confining structure or a strong
Judging Type found in a class without any structure are likely to experience
negative emotion. In some cases, this might lead to a strong behavioral
response or emotional hijacking.
Another very prominent emotional trigger is the invalidating behavior of an
important referent. Most individuals feel anger, resentment, or
disappointment when confronted with invalidation. In fact, many believe
(including myself) that most anger is induced by some form of invalidation.
Differences in the strength of one's self concept have a strong influence on
how an individual perceives the behavior of another (as to whether it is
invalidating or not) and the degree to which invalidation causes a negative
emotional reaction. Finally, an individual's emotion intelligence (self control)
influences the degree to which he or she responds behaviorally to the
emotional reaction.
MOTIVATIONAL INDUCEMENT SYSTEMS

Motivational Inducement Systems are the tools that a manager uses to create
a motivating work environment. They represent what employees view as the
work situation. These inducement systems were introduced in Module 1,

but I will repeat their definition here for increased emphasis. Each of these
inducing systems will be covered in detail in future modules.

The Reward Inducement System includes the pay and benefits structure of
the organization. The level of pay has a major influence on the employee
membership decision among other patterns and behavior. Motivation to
exhibit high levels of Extra Role Behavior (ERB) is often tied to the design of
the compensation system. The compensation programs such as commissions,
incentive pay, merit pay, profit sharing, and gainsharing all have a potential
impact on employee performance motivation.

The Managerial Inducement System is composed of the leadership styles

used by the employees' managers. The way that these managers make
decisions, provide feedback, assign work, and recognize performance
combine to provide a critical element of the employees work environment.
Changes in this inducement system designed to increase employee
motivation involve changing the leadership style of supervisors and
managers. This inducement system is covered in detail in

The Task Inducement System involves the design of the employee's job and
role requirements. How much responsibility and autonomy the employee is
given are functions of the design of the employee's job. Additional factors
such as the significance of tasks performed and the relationship to the
success of the organization as well as the degree to which the employee can
see the results of his or her work are also important job design
considerations. Taken as a whole, these job design factors comprise a major
component of the employee's work environment. Motivational improvement
programs such as job rotation, job enlargement, job enrichment, and the
development of work teams are task systems approves to increasing
employee work motivation. This inducement system is covered in detail in

The Social Inducement System is formed by the group dynamics of the

employee's workgroup and organization. Peer expectations and feedback
often have a direct bearing on how the employee behaves in the
organizational setting as individuals attempt to gain acceptance, affirmation
of worth, and status from their peers. This system of group dynamics is often
referred to the culture of the workgroup or organization. Changing
organizational or workgroup culture is the motivational approach taken with

respect to this inducement system.

MOTIVATIONAL TYPES

Another way of looking at motivation is from the perspective of intrinsic and

extrinsic motivation. From this perspective, there are three fundamental
types of motivation based on the degree to which the task or activity itself is
enjoyable/pleasurable and the perceived outcomes from engaging in the task.
For the purposes of explanation, I will use the following shortcuts in
describing tasks (These are my terms and you will not find reference to them
anywhere in the management literature, but I find them helpful):

Green Tasks are tasks or activities we find physically and/or emotionally

pleasurable or enjoyable. In other words, the individual is having fun purely
from engaging in these behaviors. Tasks may be perceived as green to
individuals because while they engaging in these tasks, their social identities
are being validated as they are engaged in the activity. In other words, they
are received affirming task or social feedback as they are performing, as
opposed to receiving this feedback at the conclusion of the activity. Another
way of looking at Green Tasks is that they are tasks in which the individual is
in a Positive Affective State while engaging in these tasks. What is a green
task for some might not be for others. For example, while I might find skiing
to be a green task, some of you might find it stressful and cold and not find
any enjoyment in the activity. For the later, it is a red task

Yellow Tasks are activities that are neutral in terms of physical and emotional
pleasure. While the individual does not find these tests enjoyable, he or she is
not uncomfortable, bored, or stressed while engaging in these activities. The
individual is in a Neural Affective State when engaged in these activities.

Red Tasks are those activities and behaviors that you find distasteful in some
way. You might be physically uncomfortable while engaging in these tasks, or
engaging in these activities by result in some form of emotional discomfort
( Negative Affective State) such as stress/anxiety, boredom, anger,
frustration, etc.

The Three Types Of Motivation Can Be Described As Follows:

Type I Motivation. Extrinsic Motivation- In pure extrinsic motivation the task is

either yellow or red, that is, the task is providing no direct source of
motivation. Individuals engage in these neutral or distasteful tasks because
they expect some form of extrinsic reward (e.g., pay, promotion, time off, a
good grade, etc.) as a result of performance of this activity. In Type I
motivation, engagement in the task can be viewed as a cost with the
expected extrinsic reward being the benefit. For Type I motivation to occur,
individuals must perceive that the rewards are greater than the cost.
Therefore, the more emotionally or physically unpleasing the task is, the
greater the extrinsic reward must be to motivate individuals to perform these
tasks.

Type II Motivation. Intrinsic Outcome Motivation- Like Type I motivation, in

Type II motivation the task is either yellow or red. Individuals engage in these
tasks because they believe that performance, or achieving some desired
outcome, will result in some form of intrinsic satisfaction. This might take the
form of self-concept external motivation, self-concept internal motivation, or
goal identification. When individuals believe that doing these yellow or red
activities will lead to external validation, self-concept external motivation is
involved. Self-concept internal motivation is involved when individuals
perform undesirable activities to validate their own perceptions of
competency or values. Individuals performing these types of activities
because they believe these activities will eventually benefit others are
motivated by goal internalization. Whatever the type of intrinsic outcome and
how satisfying this outcome might be, performance of the activities or tasks
still represent a cost to the individual which must be overcome by the
expected intrinsic satisfaction derived from external validation, internal
validation, or seeing others benefit from these activates. When the expected
intrinsic satisfaction does not materialize, Type II motivation declines.

Type III Motivation. Intrinsic Process Motivation- Activities motivated through

Type III motivation are green tasks. These activities are often engaged in
regardless of the outcome or expected results. Motivation to engage in these
tasks is solely based on the expectation of continued enjoyment or pleasure.

DIAGNOSING MOTIVATIONAL PROBLEMS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Previously, I presented a model of Behavioral Problem Solving. In this model,

a couple of important points were made. These points are:

It is important to identify performance problems in terms of actual employee

behavior, free from attribution of causes. Elimination of the Behavioral Gap
should be the focus of behavioral problem solving process.
The first step in behavioral diagnosis is the performance of the first level
diagnosis. In this step, you determine which of the four fundamental causes
of less than desirable performance is the cause of the
performance/behavioral gap. These four causes are:
Ability and skills
Role perceptions and expectations
Lack of required resources
Insufficient effort/low motivation
When it is determined that low motivation is a contributing factor to the
behavioral gap, you should move into a motivational analysis. At this point,
you will use any of the motivational theories covered in this module that you
find appropriate. Here are two diagnostic models that you might find helpful:
Motivational diagnosis using Expectancy Theory and the Sources of
Motivation Model
Motivational diagnosis using Expectancy Theory and the Inducement Systems
Model
CHANGING BEHAVIORAL PATTERNS OF INDIVIDUALS WITHIN ORGANIZATIONS

The final behavioral model I want to present in this module attempts to

explain how and why individuals change their behavioral patterns. The
concept of behavioral change assumes that individuals are relatively
consistent in the way they behave. In other words, they exhibit Cross
Situational Behavioral Consistency. The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) of
behavioral change (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1994) argues that individuals go
through a number of stages in moving from one behavioral pattern to
another. When managers wish to bring about behavior change in their
employees, is important to understand in which stage of change they find

their employees. Different change processes are required to move individuals

out of each stage and into the next.

The five change stages are:

Precontemplation is the stage at which there is no intention to change

behavior in the foreseeable future. Many individuals in this stage are unaware
of problems or that there is a need for change.
Contemplation is the stage in which individuals have identified a problem. In
this stage, they are deciding whether or not there is a need to take action to
correct the problem. Do the pro & cons of change outweigh the pro & cons of
maintaining present behavioral pattern?
Preparation is a stage entered into once the individual decides there is a need
to take some action. Specific plans of action are developed in this stage as
the individual chooses among alternative potential solutions.
Action is the stage in which individuals put their plans into action and change
their behavioral patterns.
Maintenance is the stage in which people work to prevent relapse and
consolidate the gains attained during action.

[1.1]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Psychological_theories_and_models
[1.2] http://www.uri.edu/research/lrc/scholl/webnotes/Motivation_Sources.htm
[1.3] http://www.uri.edu/research/lrc/scholl/webnotes/Motivation.htm

POSITION & STATUS

[2.1] Status and Role
The term has two sociological uses:

1.
R. Linton (1936) defined status simply as a position in a social system,
such as child or parent. Status refers to what a person is, whereas the closely

linked notion of role refers to the behaviour expected of people in a status.

2.
Status is also used as a synonym for honor or prestige, when social
status denotes the relative position of a person on a publicly recognized scale
or hierarchy of social worth. (See 'Social Stratification').

It is the first meaning of the term status, status as position, which we are
going to refer to in the following paragraphs. Status as honour or prestige is a
part of the study of social stratification.

A status is simply a rank or position that one holds in a group. One occupies
the status of son or daughter, playmate, pupil, radical, militant and so on.
Eventually one occupies the statuses of husband, mother bread-winner,
cricket fan, and so on, one has as many statuses as there are groups of which
one is a member. For analytical purposes, statuses are divided into two basic
types:

Ascribed - those which are fixed for an individual at birth. Ascribed statuses
that exist in all societies include those based upon sex, age, race ethnic
group and family background.

Similarly, power, prestige, privileges, and obligations always are differentially

distributed in societies by the age of the participants. This has often been
said about the youth culture in the U.S. because of the high value Americans
attach to being young. Pre-modern China, by contrast, attached the highest
value to old age and required extreme subordination of children. The
perquisites and obligations accompany age change over the individual's
lifetime, but the individual proceeds inexorably through these changes with
no freedom of choice.

As the discussion implies, the number and rigidity of ascribed statuses vary
from one society to another. Those societies in which many statuses are
rigidly prescribed and relatively unchangeable are called caste societies, or at
least, caste like. Among major nations, India is a caste society. In addition to
the ascribed statuses already discussed, occupation and the choice of
marriage partners in traditional India are strongly circumscribed by accident

of birth. Such ascribed statuses stand in contrast to achieved statuses.

Achieved - those which the individual acquires during his or her lifetime as a
result of the exercise of knowledge, ability, skill and/or perseverance.
Occupation provides an example of status that may be either ascribed or
achieved, and which serves to differentiate caste-like societies from modern
ones. Societies vary in both the number of statuses that are ascribed and
achieved and in the rigidity with which such definitions are held. Both
ascribed and achieved statuses exist in all societies. However, an
understanding of a specific society requires that the interplay among these
be fully understood. For Weber class is a creation of the market situation.
Class operates in society independently of any valuations. As Weber did not
believe in the economic phenomena determining human ideals, he
distinguishes status situation from class situation.

According to Linton, status is associated with distinctive beliefs about the

expectations of those having status, as for example, the status of children.
Other common bases for status are age, sex, birth, genealogy and other
biological constitutional characteristics. However, status, according to Linton,
is only a phenomenon, not the intrinsic characteristic of man but of social
organization. What matters is not what you really are, but what people
believe you to be. At times, some confuse the two terms, status and role.
Status defines who a person is, as for example, he is a child or a Negro, or a
doctor; whereas, role defines what such a person is expected to do, as for
example, he is too young to work, he should care about parents etc.

A common method of identifying the statuses in a social system is to discover

the list of status-designators, as for example, kinship status typically begins
with a list of kin terms and their usage. One other characteristic feature of
status, as understood today, is that any person can have more than one
status. Generally, no status in any social situation encompasses one person.
Also, it has to be kept in mind those statuses and persons are not only
distinct concepts but also at distinct levels of analysis. Besides, in sociology it
is status, rather than person, which is more useful as a tool of analysis.

Why we should treat these two terms as separate can be argued on various
grounds. First, two persons having quite different characters may possess
similar observable conduct if they have the same status, as for example, very
acquisitive and very altruistic doctors may behave in much the same way.
Secondly, two persons having the same character, very often, have different

observable conduct because of having two different statuses. Thirdly, even

two persons having similar characters but having two different statuses show
very often different observable conduct, as for example, a docile son and a
kind father.

Thus, in society, which in reality is a social system where interaction occurs

between actors, status but not person in important. If we treat person as the
unit of such a system we must discover a basic personality structure which is
an impossible task. On the other hand, it is easy to comprehend status
although it is an abstract concept. Status is the most elementary component
of the social system which is equally abstract.

Interaction between two actors occurs not as persons but as two having
statuses. A social position is always defined in relation to a counter position,
as for example, a doctor to a patient, to a nurse, and to the hospital
administrator. In other words, the basic unit of analysis for social system is
not status itself but the relation of two statuses. The first writer to do
considerable work in this field was Merton in 1957. According to him, there
are three aspects of status. To illustrate, Mr. Pandey is a doctor must have
social relations with nurses, patients, other doctors, hospital administrators,
and so on, that is, a role set. If Mr. Pandey is also a husband, a father, a
member of Hare-Krishna cult and a municipal councilor, it is a status set. And
the process, by which Mr. Pandey became a doctor, required that he first be a
medical student, then an intern and then a resident, that is, a status
sequence.

Since what is known as status is related to other statuses, the interaction of

statuses is a very crucial one. Stable interaction systems depend on the
emergence of normative expectations. Once it emerges, such expectations
are not created anew every time. Two new actors encounter each other. The
idea underlying this statement is that every actor is sensitive to the attitudes
others will have towards him. Every actor, therefore, tends to feel tense and
upset if he is unable to define the social situation in such a way that the
behaviour of the other is predictable.

A more dynamic feature of this series of social interactions is the idea that
each action implies a status and each status action. Therein each actor
reveals how he defines a situation by the way he behaves, and thus provides

other actors with cues to their own statuses in the situation.

Although the interaction of statuses is normally satisfactory, at times,

confusion might arise because of status ambiguity. If, however, an actor has
more than one status, the attitudes of any two statuses may be either
compatible or incompatible with their demands on the person. If two statuses
that are activated in the same situation are incompatible it would be difficult
for each status occupant to know how to interact with the other, because it
will be difficult for him to know which status is the basis of their interaction.
Such ambiguities are a source of strain and discomfort and people either get
out of such situations or wish that they be changed.

The term social role is borrowed by social scientists originally from the Greek
Drama. The word person comes from the Latin word persona, which originally
meant a mask. Greek actors wore masks when they performed in their
drama. This leads us directly to the definition of the concept of social role. A
social role is a set of social norms that govern a person's behaviour in a group
and determine his relationships with other group members. Put somewhat
differently a role is the expected pattern of behavior associated with a given
social status. Status and role are reciprocal aspects of the same
phenomenon. Status, or position, is the static aspect that fixes the
individual's position in a group; role is the dynamic behavioral aspect that
defines how the person who occupies the status should behave in different
situations.

Individuals in a society behave according to certain standard patterns of

behaviour or roles. These standard patterns of behaviour are determined by
the social position or the status which the individual occupies in society
because it is these social positions which lay down norms by indicating which
individual should observe which norms. In other words, status refers to a
collection of norms; and each society classifies its members into a more or
less elaborate system of statuses. Each of the statuses involves a role, set of
behaviour or action-patterns that people belonging to a given status are
expected to perform. One plays as many roles as he has statuses. A given
man may both concurrently and sequentially enact the roles of husband,
father bread-winner, and football fan and so on. Social roles may be linked to
blue-prints for behaviour that are handed to the individual, hypothetically,
when he becomes a member of a group. As such these constitute the group's
expectations concerning how one would behave. Thus, whereas the status of
a person tells us what he is, his role will tell us what he does as a member of

a status group.

Despite this fundamental difference between the two, statuses and roles are
very closely interlinked. There are no roles without statuses and no statuses
without roles. Indeed, there are some exceptions. Though all statuses imply
some role or roles, it is not always possible to infer people's statuses from
what they do, as for example, two persons, who bear the title of knighthood
and thus holding same social positions, might be performing completely
different roles. Also, many statuses are wholly or partly defined with
reference to roles which their occupants are expected to perform. Example
policemen, poets, etc.

The importance of role was recognized from 1936 when Linton presented the
first systematic statement identifying role as a segment of culture. He also
held the view that role was related to social status. Much work has been done
after Linton in the form of experimental study. Many studies have shown that
lack of clarity and consensus in role conceptions is a contributory factor in
reducing organizational effectiveness and morale.

Since the concept is being extensively used, some differences appear in its
usage. Some writers treat role and actual behavior of an individual to be one
and the same. Most of the writers treat role as expected behavior and role
behavior as an enactment. Another interpretation is that role is a specific
behavior or conditioned response. Finally, some treat role as a part to be
learnt and played.

Despite these differences, all sociologists agree to the following

characteristics of role. It is believed that when roles are stabilized, the role
structure persists regardless of changes in the actors. In some families when
the parents become disorganized and become childish, a child suddenly
blossoms into responsibility and helps to supply the family leadership. As the
roles get stabilized, an individual adopts a given role; and if he fails to fulfill
the role expectation, he will be regarded as a violator of the terms of
interaction.

The above functioning of the role is determined, to some extent, by the

organizational setting which supplies both direction and constraint to the

working of the as for said processes. If the role structure is incorporated in an

organizational setting, the latter's goals tend to become the crucial criteria
for role differentiation, legitimacy of expectation, and judgments of adequacy.

Secondly, depending on the level of integration with the organizational

setting, roles get linked with statuses in the organization.

Thirdly, depending on the extent to which the roles are incorporated with an
organizational setting, each tends to develop a pattern of adaptation to
incorporate other roles. A teacher in a public school must incorporate within
his role pattern, his role adaptations to pupils, parents, other teachers and
the principal. Merton describes several mechanisms that are employed to
minimize conflict in the role-set.

Fourthly, when roles are incorporated with the organisational setting they
persist as tradition and formalization. Finally, the place of role is determined
by society itself; for, society is based on accommodation among many
organizations. Society introduces multiple organisational references for roles,
and multiplies roles for the actor. A view from society's perspective shows
that roles in different contexts tend to become merged. One example is our
tendency to speak of male and female roles of heroic and unheroic roles while
seeking meaning and order in simple human interactions. Viewed from the
perspective of society, differentiation of roles gets linked with social values. If
the societies and the individuals' assigned roles are consistent with each
other the roles tend to get merged with social values. A glaring example is
our tendency to use age, sex and occupation as qualifying criteria for the
allocation of other roles.

In the end we have to say that it is actor who faces the strain; for, the
dynamic hinges on his management of the several roles in his repertoire. This
may come about through failure of role cues, gross lack of consensus and so
forth. This situation results in an individual adopting his own repertoire of role
relationship as a framework for his own behaviour, and as a perspective for
the interpretation of the behaviour of others. When the individual forms a
self-conception by selective identification of certain roles as his own to be
held in his repertoire, the individual is said to develop a sense of personal
prestige, which is likely to be reflected in his bearing, his self-assurance and
other aspects of his interpersonal relations.

In general, the concept of role is crucial in all sociological analyses which

attempt to link the functioning of the social orders with the characteristics
and behaviour of the individuals who belong to that order. A study of roles
provides a comprehensive pattern of social behaviour and attitudes. It
constitutes a strategy for coping with a recurrent type of situation. It is
socially identified as an entity. It can be played recognizably by different
individuals, and it supplies a major basis for identifying and placing persons
in a society.

[2.1] http://www.sociologyguide.com/basic-concepts/Status-and-Role.php
[2.2] http://www.sparknotes.com/sociology/society-and-culture/section4.rhtml

Second Dimension - Personality, Position & Status

PERSONALITY

Personality is Long-term consistency in that persons way of being

that is, consistency in their particular ways of perceiving, thinking, acting and
reacting as a person.

-Outline of Personalities
- Flaws/Weakness
- Self-Esteem
- Big Five Personality Traits
- The 16 MBTI Types
- Emotional Intelligence

[3.1]
ANALYSTS

INTJ PERSONALITY (THE ARCHITECT)

Its lonely at the top, and being one of the rarest and most strategically
capable personality types, INTJs know this all too well. INTJs form just two
percent of the population, and women of this personality type are especially
rare, forming just 0.8% of the population it is often a challenge for them to
find like-minded individuals who are able to keep up with their relentless
intellectualism and chess-like maneuvering. People with the INTJ personality
type are imaginative yet decisive, ambitious yet private, amazingly curious,
but they do not squander their energy.

Nothing Can Stop the Right Attitude From Achieving Its Goal

INTJ personalityWith a natural thirst for knowledge that shows itself early in
life, INTJs are often given the title of bookworm as children. While this may
be intended as an insult by their peers, they more than likely identify with it
and are even proud of it, greatly enjoying their broad and deep body of
knowledge. INTJs enjoy sharing what they know as well, confident in their
mastery of their chosen subjects, but owing to their Intuitive (N) and Judging
(J) traits, they prefer to design and execute a brilliant plan within their field
rather than share opinions on uninteresting distractions like gossip.

You are not entitled to your opinion. You are entitled to your informed
opinion. No one is entitled to be ignorant.
Harlan Ellison
A paradox to most observers, INTJs are able to live by glaring contradictions
that nonetheless make perfect sense at least from a purely rational
perspective. For example, INTJs are simultaneously the most starry-eyed
idealists and the bitterest of cynics, a seemingly impossible conflict. But this
is because INTJ types tend to believe that with effort, intelligence and
consideration, nothing is impossible, while at the same time they believe that
people are too lazy, short-sighted or self-serving to actually achieve those

fantastic results. Yet that cynical view of reality is unlikely to stop an

interested INTJ from achieving a result they believe to be relevant.

In Matters Of Principle, Stand Like a Rock

INTJs radiate self-confidence and an aura of mystery, and their insightful

observations, original ideas and formidable logic enable them to push change
through with sheer willpower and force of personality. At times it will seem
that INTJs are bent on deconstructing and rebuilding every idea and system
they come into contact with, employing a sense of perfectionism and even
morality to this work. Anyone who doesnt have the talent to keep up with
INTJs processes, or worse yet, doesnt see the point of them, is likely to
immediately and permanently lose their respect.

Rules, limitations and traditions are anathema to the INTJ personality type
everything should be open to questioning and reevaluation, and if they see a
way, INTJs will often act unilaterally to enact their technically superior,
sometimes insensitive, and almost always unorthodox methods and ideas.
This isnt to be misunderstood as impulsiveness INTJs will strive to remain
rational no matter how attractive the end goal may be, and every idea,
whether generated internally or soaked in from the outside world, must pass
the ruthless and ever-present Is this going to work? filter. This mechanism
is applied at all times, to all things and all people, and this is often where INTJ
personality types run into trouble.

One Reflects More When Traveling Alone

INTJs are brilliant and confident in bodies of knowledge they have taken the
time to understand, but unfortunately the social contract is unlikely to be one
of those subjects. White lies and small talk are hard enough as it is for a type
that craves truth and depth, but INTJs may go so far as to see many social
conventions as downright stupid. Ironically, it is often best for them to remain
where they are comfortable out of the spotlight where the natural
confidence prevalent in INTJs as they work with the familiar can serve as its
own beacon, attracting people, romantically or otherwise, of similar
temperament and interests.

INTJs are defined by their tendency to move through life as though it were a
giant chess board, pieces constantly shifting with consideration and
intelligence, always assessing new tactics, strategies and contingency plans,
constantly outmaneuvering their peers in order to maintain control of a
situation while maximizing their freedom to move about. This isnt meant to
suggest that INTJs act without conscience, but to many Feeling (F) types,
INTJs distaste for acting on emotion can make it seem that way, and it
explains why many fictional villains (and misunderstood heroes) are modeled
on this personality type.

Famous INTJs

Vladimir Putin Paul Krugman Rudy Giuliani Donald Rumsfeld Colin Powell
Samantha Power Lance Armstrong Richard Gere Arnold Schwarzenegger
Thomas Jefferson John F. Kennedy Woodrow Wilson Augustus Caesar Hannibal
Fictional INTJs

Walter White (Heisenberg) from Breaking Bad Gandalf the Grey from
The Lord of the Rings Katniss Everdeen from The Hunger Games Hannibal
and Clarice Starling from Silence of the Lambs Professor Moriarty,
Sherlock Holmes enemy Gregory House from House M.D.

INTP PERSONALITY (THE LOGICIAN)

Learn from yesterday, live for today, hope for tomorrow. The important thing
is not to stop questioning.
Albert Einstein
The INTP personality type is fairly rare, making up only three percent of the
population, which is definitely a good thing for them, as there's nothing
they'd be more unhappy about than being "common". INTPs pride themselves
on their inventiveness and creativity, their unique perspective and vigorous
intellect. Usually known as the philosopher, the architect, or the dreamy
professor, INTPs have been responsible for many scientific discoveries

throughout history.

The Unexamined Life Is Not Worth Living

INTPs are known for their brilliant theories and unrelenting logic in fact, they
are considered the most logically precise of all the personality types.
They love patterns, and spotting discrepancies between statements could
almost be described as a hobby, making it a bad idea to lie to an INTP. This
makes it ironic that INTPs' word should always be taken with a grain of salt
it's not that they are dishonest, but people with the INTP personality type
tend to share thoughts that are not fully developed, using others as a
sounding board for ideas and theories in a debate against themselves rather
than as actual conversation partners.

INTP personalityThis may make them appear unreliable, but in reality no one
is more enthusiastic and capable of spotting a problem, drilling through the
endless factors and details that encompass the issue and developing a
unique and viable solution than INTPs just don't expect punctual progress
reports. People who share the INTP personality type aren't interested in
practical, day-to-day activities and maintenance, but when they find an
environment where their creative genius and potential can be expressed,
there is no limit to the time and energy INTPs will expend in developing an
insightful and unbiased solution.

Wisdom Begins in Wonder

They may appear to drift about in an unending daydream, but INTPs' thought
process is unceasing, and their minds buzz with ideas from the moment they
wake up. This constant thinking can have the effect of making them look
pensive and detached, as they are often conducting full-fledged debates in
their own heads, but really INTPs are quite relaxed and friendly when they are
with people they know, or who share their interests. However, this can be
replaced by overwhelming shyness when INTP personalities are among
unfamiliar faces, and friendly banter can quickly become combative if they
believe their logical conclusions or theories are being criticized.

When INTPs are particularly excited, the conversation can border on

incoherence as they try to explain the daisy-chain of logical conclusions that
led to the formation of their latest idea. Oftentimes, INTPs will opt to simply
move on from a topic before it's ever understood what they were trying to
say, rather than try to lay things out in plain terms.

The reverse can also be true when people explain their thought processes to
INTPs in terms of subjectivity and feeling. Imagine an immensely complicated
clockwork, taking in every fact and idea possible, processing them with a
heavy dose of creative reasoning and returning the most logically sound
results available this is how the INTP mind works, and this type has little
tolerance for an emotional monkey-wrench jamming their machines.

Let Those Who Would Move the World First Move Themselves

Further, with Thinking (T) as one of their governing traits, INTPs are unlikely
to understand emotional complaints at all, and their friends won't find a
bedrock of emotional support in them. People with the INTP personality type
would much rather make a series of logical suggestions for how to resolve the
underlying issue, a perspective that is not always welcomed by their Feeling
(F) companions. This will likely extend to most social conventions and goals
as well, like planning dinners and getting married, as INTPs are far more
concerned with originality and efficient results.

The one thing that really holds INTPs back is their restless and pervasive fear
of failure. INTP personalities are so prone to reassessing their own thoughts
and theories, worrying that they've missed some critical piece of the puzzle,
that they can stagnate, lost in an intangible world where their thoughts are
never truly applied. Overcoming this self-doubt stands as the greatest
challenge INTPs are likely to face, but the intellectual gifts big and small
bestowed on the world when they do makes it worth the fight.
Famous INTPs
Socrates Rene Descartes Blaise Pascal Isaac Newton Carl Jung Albert Einstein
James Madison Dwight D. Eisenhower Gerald Ford

ENTJ PERSONALITY (THE COMMANDER)

Your time is limited, so don't waste it living someone else's life. Don't be
trapped by dogma which is living with the results of other people's
thinking. Don't let the noise of others' opinions drown out your own inner
voice. And most important, have the courage to follow your heart and
intuition. They somehow already know what you truly want to become.
Everything else is secondary.
Steve Jobs
ENTJs are natural-born leaders. People with this personality type embody the
gifts of charisma and confidence, and project authority in a way that draws
crowds together behind a common goal. But unlike their Feeling (F)
counterpart, ENTJs are characterized by an often ruthless level of rationality,
using their drive, determination and sharp minds to achieve whatever end
they've set for themselves. Perhaps it is best that they make up only three
percent of the population, lest they overwhelm the more timid and sensitive
personality types that make up much of the rest of the world but we have
ENTJs to thank for many of the businesses and institutions we take for
granted every day.

Happiness Lies in the Joy of Achievement

ENTJ personalityIf there's anything ENTJs love, it's a good challenge, big or
small, and they firmly believe that given enough time and resources, they
can achieve any goal. This quality makes people with the ENTJ personality
type brilliant entrepreneurs, and their ability to think strategically and hold a
long-term focus while executing each step of their plans with determination
and precision makes them powerful business leaders. This determination is
often a self-fulfilling prophecy, as ENTJs push their goals through with sheer
willpower where others might give up and move on, and their Extroverted (E)
nature means they are likely to push everyone else right along with them,
achieving spectacular results in the process.

At the negotiating table, be it in a corporate environment or buying a car,

ENTJs are dominant, relentless, and unforgiving. This isn't because they are
coldhearted or vicious per se it's more that ENTJ personalities genuinely
enjoy the challenge, the battle of wits, the repartee that comes from this
environment, and if the other side can't keep up, that's no reason for ENTJs to
fold on their own core tenet of ultimate victory.

The underlying thought running through the ENTJ mind might be something
like "I don't care if you call me an insensitive b*****d, as long as I remain an
efficient b*****d".
If there's anyone ENTJs respect, it's someone who is able to stand up to them
intellectually, who is able to act with a precision and quality equal to their
own. ENTJ personalities have a particular skill in recognizing the talents of
others, and this helps in both their team-building efforts (since no one, no
matter how brilliant, can do everything alone), and to keep ENTJs from
displaying too much arrogance and condescension. However, they also have
a particular skill in calling out others' failures with a chilling degree of
insensitivity, and this is where ENTJs really start to run into trouble.

Cultivating the Science of Human Relationships

Emotional expression isn't the strong suit of any Analyst (NT) type, but
because of their Extroverted (E) nature, ENTJs' distance from their emotions
is especially public, and felt directly by a much broader swath of people.
Especially in a professional environment, ENTJs will simply crush the
sensitivities of those they view as inefficient, incompetent or lazy. To people
with the ENTJ personality type, emotional displays are displays of weakness,
and it's easy to make enemies with this approach ENTJs will do well to
remember that they absolutely depend on having a functioning team, not just
to achieve their goals, but for their validation and feedback as well,
something ENTJs are, curiously, very sensitive to.

ENTJs are true powerhouses, and they cultivate an image of being larger than
life and often enough they are. They need to remember though, that their
stature comes not just from their own actions, but from the actions of the
team that props them up, and that it's important to recognize the
contributions, talents and needs, especially from an emotional perspective, of
their support network. Even if they have to adopt a "fake it til you make it"
mentality, if ENTJs are able to combine an emotionally healthy focus
alongside their many strengths, they will be rewarded with deep, satisfying
relationships and all the challenging victories they can handle.
Famous ENTJs
Steve Jobs Franklin D. Roosevelt Richard M. Nixon Harrison Ford Steve Martin

Whoopi Goldberg Margaret Thatcher Al Gore Jim Carrey

ENTP PERSONALITY (THE DEBATER)

Follow the path of the unsafe, independent thinker. Expose your ideas to the
dangers of controversy. Speak your mind and fear less the label of 'crack-pot'
than the stigma of conformity. And on issues that seem important to you,
stand up and be counted at any cost.
Thomas J. Watson
The ENTP personality type is the ultimate devil's advocate, thriving on the
process of shredding arguments and beliefs and letting the ribbons drift in the
wind for all to see. Unlike their more determined Judging (J) counterparts,
ENTPs don't do this because they are trying to achieve some deeper purpose
or strategic goal, but for the simple reason that it's fun. No one loves the
process of mental sparring more than ENTPs, as it gives them a chance to
exercise their effortlessly quick wit, broad accumulated knowledge base, and
capacity for connecting disparate ideas to prove their points.

An odd juxtaposition arises with ENTPs, as they are uncompromisingly

honest, but will argue tirelessly for something they don't actually believe in,
stepping into another's shoes to argue a truth from another perspective.
ENTP personalityPlaying the devil's advocate helps people with the ENTP
personality type to not only develop a better sense of others' reasoning, but a
better understanding of opposing ideas since ENTPs are the ones arguing
them.

This tactic shouldn't be confused with the sort of mutual understanding

Diplomats (NF) seek ENTPs, like all Analyst (NT) personality types, are on a
constant quest for knowledge, and what better way to gain it than to attack
and defend an idea, from every angle, from every side?

There Are no Rules Here We're Trying to Accomplish Something!

Taking a certain pleasure in being the underdog, ENTPs enjoy the mental

exercise found in questioning the prevailing mode of thought, making them

irreplaceable in reworking existing systems or shaking things up and pushing
them in clever new directions. However, they'll be miserable managing the
day-to-day mechanics of actually implementing their suggestions. ENTP
personalities love to brainstorm and think big, but they will avoid getting
caught doing the "grunt work" at all costs. ENTPs only make up about three
percent of the population, which is just right, as it lets them create original
ideas, then step back to let more numerous and fastidious personalities
handle the logistics of implementation and maintenance.

ENTPs' capacity for debate can be a vexing one while often appreciated
when it's called for, it can fall painfully flat when they step on others' toes by
say, openly questioning their boss in a meeting, or picking apart everything
their significant other says. This is further complicated by ENTPs' unyielding
honesty, as this type doesn't mince words and cares little about being seen
as sensitive or compassionate. Likeminded types get along well enough with
people with the ENTP personality type, but more sensitive types, and society
in general, are often conflict-averse, preferring feelings, comfort, and even
white lies over unpleasant truths and hard rationality.

This frustrates ENTPs, and they find that their quarrelsome fun burns many
bridges, oftentimes inadvertently, as they plow through others' thresholds for
having their beliefs questioned and their feelings brushed aside. Treating
others as they'd be treated, ENTPs have little tolerance for being coddled,
and dislike when people beat around the bush, especially when asking a
favor. ENTP personalities find themselves respected for their vision,
confidence, knowledge, and keen sense of humor, but often struggle to utilize
these qualities as the basis for deeper friendships and romantic relationships.

Opportunity Is Missed Because It Looks Like Hard Work

ENTPs have a longer road than most in harnessing their natural abilities
their intellectual independence and free-form vision are tremendously
valuable when they're in charge, or at least have the ear of someone who is,
but getting there can take a level of follow-through that ENTPs struggle with.

Once they've secured such a position, ENTPs need to remember that for their

ideas to come to fruition, they will always depend on others to assemble the
pieces if they've spent more time "winning" arguments than they have
building consensus, many ENTPs will find they simply don't have the support
necessary to be successful. Playing devil's advocate so well, people with this
personality type may find that the most complex and rewarding intellectual
challenge is to understand a more sentimental perspective, and to argue
consideration and compromise alongside logic and progress.
Famous ENTPs
John Adams James A. Garfield Rutherford B. Hayes Theodore Roosevelt
Thomas Edison George Carlin "Weird Al" Yankovic Alfred Hitchcock Tom Hanks
David Spade Cline Dion Alexander the Great
Fictional ENTPs
"The Joker" from Batman series "Jack Sparrow" from Pirates of the Caribbean
"Tyler Durden" from Fight Club "Clyde Shelton" from Law Abiding Citizen

DIPLOMATS

INFJ PERSONALITY (THE ADVOCATE)

The INFJ personality type is very rare, making up less than one percent of the
population, but they nonetheless leave their mark on the world. As Diplomats
(NF), they have an inborn sense of idealism and morality, but what sets them
apart is the accompanying Judging (J) trait INFJs are not idle dreamers, but
people capable of taking concrete steps to realize their goals and make a
lasting positive impact.

INFJs tend to see helping others as their purpose in life, but while people with
this personality type can be found engaging rescue efforts and doing charity
work, their real passion is to get to the heart of the issue so that people need
not be rescued at all.
Help Me Help You

INFJ personalityINFJs indeed share a very unique combination of traits: though

soft-spoken, they have very strong opinions and will fight tirelessly for an idea

they believe in. They are decisive and strong-willed, but will rarely use that
energy for personal gain INFJs will act with creativity, imagination,
conviction and sensitivity not to create advantage, but to create balance.
Egalitarianism and karma are very attractive ideas to INFJs, and they tend to
believe that nothing would help the world so much as using love and
compassion to soften the hearts of tyrants.

Every man must decide whether he will walk in the light of creative altruism
or in the darkness of destructive selfishness.
Martin Luther King
INFJs find it easy to make connections with others, and have a talent for
warm, sensitive language, speaking in human terms, rather than with pure
logic and fact. It makes sense that their friends and colleagues will come to
think of them as quiet Extroverted types, but they would all do well to
remember that INFJs need time alone to decompress and recharge, and to not
become too alarmed when they suddenly withdraw. INFJs take great care of
others feelings, and they expect the favor to be returned sometimes that
means giving them the space they need for a few days.

Live to Fight Another Day

Really though, it is most important for INFJs to remember to take care of

themselves. The passion of their convictions is perfectly capable of carrying
them past their breaking point and if their zeal gets out of hand, they can find
themselves exhausted, unhealthy and stressed. This becomes especially
apparent when INFJs find themselves up against conflict and criticism their
sensitivity forces them to do everything they can to evade these seemingly
personal attacks, but when the circumstances are unavoidable, they can fight
back in highly irrational, unhelpful ways.

To INFJs, the world is a place full of inequity but it doesnt have to be. No
other personality type is better suited to create a movement to right a wrong,
no matter how big or small. INFJs just need to remember that while theyre
busy taking care of the world, they need to take care of themselves, too.
Famous INFJs
Martin Luther King Nelson Mandela Mother Teresa Nicole Kidman Jimmy

Carter Mel Gibson Goethe James Wilson from House M.D.

INFP PERSONALITY (THE MEDIATOR)

INFP personalities are true idealists, always looking for the hint of good in
even the worst of people and events, searching for ways to make things
better. While they may be perceived as calm, reserved, or even shy, INFPs
have an inner flame and passion that can truly shine. Comprising just 4% of
the population, the risk of feeling misunderstood is unfortunately high for the
INFP personality type but when they find like-minded people to spend their
time with, the harmony they feel will be a fountain of joy and inspiration.

INFP personalityBeing a part of the Diplomat (NF) personality group, INFPs are
guided by their principles, rather than by logic (Analysts), excitement
(Explorers), or practicality (Sentinels). When deciding how to move forward,
they will look to honor, beauty, morality and virtue INFPs are led by the
purity of their intent, not rewards and punishments. People who share the
INFP personality type are proud of this quality, and rightly so, but not
everyone understands the drive behind these feelings, and it can lead to
isolation.

All that is gold does not glitter; not all those who wander are lost; the old that
is strong does not wither; deep roots are not reached by the frost.
J. R. R. Tolkien
We Know What We Are, but Know Not What We May Be

At their best, these qualities enable INFPs to communicate deeply with

others, easily speaking in metaphors and parables, and understanding and
creating symbols to share their ideas. The strength of this intuitive
communication style lends itself well to creative works, and it comes as no
surprise that many famous INFPs are poets, writers and actors.
Understanding themselves and their place in the world is important to INFPs,
and they explore these ideas by projecting themselves into their work.

INFPs have a talent for self-expression, revealing their beauty and their
secrets through metaphors and fictional characters.
INFPs ability with language doesnt stop with their native tongue, either as
with most people who share the Diplomat personality types, they are
considered gifted when it comes to learning a second (or third!) language.
Their gift for communication also lends itself well to INFPs desire for
harmony, a recurring theme with Diplomats, and helps them to move forward
as they find their calling.

Listen to Many People, but Talk to Few

Unlike their Extraverted cousins though, INFPs will focus their attention on
just a few people, a single worthy cause spread too thinly, theyll run out of
energy, and even become dejected and overwhelmed by all the bad in the
world that they cant fix. This is a sad sight for INFPs friends, who will come
to depend on their rosy outlook.

If they are not careful, INFPs can lose themselves in their quest for good and
neglect the day-to-day upkeep that life demands. INFPs often drift into deep
thought, enjoying contemplating the hypothetical and the philosophical more
than any other personality type. Left unchecked, INFPs may start to lose
touch, withdrawing into "hermit mode", and it can take a great deal of energy
from their friends or partner to bring them back to the real world.

Luckily, like the flowers in spring, INFPs affection, creativity, altruism and
idealism will always come back, rewarding them and those they love perhaps
not with logic and utility, but with a world view that inspires compassion,
kindness and beauty wherever they go.
Famous INFPs
William Shakespeare J.R.R. Tolkien Bjrk Johnny Depp Julia Roberts Lisa
Kudrow Tom Hiddleston Homer Virgil
Fictional INFPs
Frodo Baggins from The Lord of the Rings Anne of Green Gables Fox
Mulder from X-Files Deanna Troi from Star Trek Wesley Crusher from Star
Trek

ENFJ PERSONALITY (THE PROTAGONIST)

Everything you do right now ripples outward and affects everyone. Your
posture can shine your heart or transmit anxiety. Your breath can radiate love
or muddy the room in depression. Your glance can awaken joy. Your words can
inspire freedom. Your every act can open hearts and minds.
David Deida
ENFJs are natural-born leaders, full of passion and charisma. Forming around
two percent of the population, they are oftentimes our politicians, our
coaches and our teachers, reaching out and inspiring others to achieve and to
do good in the world. With a natural confidence that begets influence, ENFJs
take a great deal of pride and joy in guiding others to work together to
improve themselves and their community.

Firm Believers in the People

ENFJ personalityPeople are drawn to strong personalities, and ENFJs radiate

authenticity, concern and altruism, unafraid to stand up and speak when they
feel something needs to be said. They find it natural and easy to
communicate with others, especially in person, and their Intuitive (N) trait
helps people with the ENFJ personality type to reach every mind, be it
through facts and logic or raw emotion. ENFJs easily see people's motivations
and seemingly disconnected events, and are able to bring these ideas
together and communicate them as a common goal with an eloquence that is
nothing short of mesmerizing.

The interest ENFJs have in others is genuine, almost to a fault when they
believe in someone, they can become too involved in the other person's
problems, place too much trust in them. Luckily, this trust tends to be a selffulfilling prophesy, as ENFJs' altruism and authenticity inspire those they care
about to become better themselves. But if they aren't careful, they can
overextend their optimism, sometimes pushing others further than they're
ready or willing to go.

ENFJs are vulnerable to another snare as well: they have a tremendous

capacity for reflecting on and analyzing their own feelings, but if they get too

caught up in another person's plight, they can develop a sort of emotional

hypochondria, seeing other people's problems in themselves, trying to fix
something in themselves that isn't wrong. If they get to a point where they
are held back by limitations someone else is experiencing, it can hinder
ENFJs' ability to see past the dilemma and be of any help at all. When this
happens, it's important for ENFJs to pull back and use that self-reflection to
distinguish between what they really feel, and what is a separate issue that
needs to be looked at from another perspective.

...The Struggle Ought Not to Deter Us From the Support of a Cause We

Believe to Be Just

ENFJs are genuine, caring people who talk the talk and walk the walk, and
nothing makes them happier than leading the charge, uniting and motivating
their team with infectious enthusiasm.
People with the ENFJ personality type are passionate altruists, sometimes
even to a fault, and they are unlikely to be afraid to take the slings and
arrows while standing up for the people and ideas they believe in. It is no
wonder that many famous ENFJs are US Presidents this personality type
wants to lead the way to a brighter future, whether it's by leading a nation to
prosperity, or leading their little league softball team to a hard-fought victory.
Famous ENFJs
Barack Obama Abraham Lincoln Ronald Reagan Oprah Winfrey William Cullen
Bryant Abraham Maslow Sean Connery Ben Affleck Francois Mitterrand
Tommy Lee Jones Michael Jordan Matthew McConaughey John Cusack
Daenerys from Game of Thrones
ENFP PERSONALITY (THE CAMPAIGNER)

It doesn't interest me what you do for a living. I want to know what you ache
for and if you dare to dream of meeting your heart's longing. It doesn't
interest me how old you are. I want to know if you will risk looking like a fool
for love for your dreams for the adventure of being alive.
Oriah Mountain Dreamer
The ENFP personality is a true free spirit. They are often the life of the party,
but unlike Explorers, they are less interested in the sheer excitement and
pleasure of the moment than they are in enjoying the social and emotional

connections they make with others. Charming, independent, energetic and

compassionate, the 7% of the population that they comprise can certainly be
felt in any crowd.

You Can Change the World With Just an Idea

ENFP personalityMore than just sociable people-pleasers though, ENFPs, like

all their Diplomat cousins, are shaped by their Intuitive (N) quality, allowing
them to read between the lines with curiosity and energy. They tend to see
life as a big, complex puzzle where everything is connected but unlike
Analysts, who tend to see that puzzle as a series of systemic machinations,
ENFPs see it through a prism of emotion, compassion and mysticism, and are
always looking for a deeper meaning.

ENFPs are fiercely independent, and much more than stability and security,
they crave creativity and freedom.
Many other types are likely to find these qualities irresistible, and if they've
found a cause that sparks their imagination, ENFPs will bring an energy that
oftentimes thrusts them into the spotlight, held up by their peers as a leader
and a guru but this isn't always where independence-loving ENFPs want to
be. Worse still if they find themselves beset by the administrative tasks and
routine maintenance that can accompany a leadership position. ENFPs' selfesteem is dependent on their ability to come up with original solutions, and
they need to know that they have the freedom to be innovative they can
quickly lose patience or become dejected if they get trapped in a boring role.

Don't Lose That 'Little Spark of Madness'

Luckily, ENFPs know how to relax, and they are perfectly capable of switching
from a passionate, driven idealist in the workplace to that imaginative and
enthusiastic free spirit on the dance floor, often with a suddenness that can
surprise even their closest friends. Being in the mix also gives them a chance
to connect emotionally with others, giving them cherished insight into what
motivates their friends and colleagues. They believe that everyone should
take the time to recognize and express their feelings, and their empathy and
sociability make that a natural conversation topic.

The ENFP personality type needs to be careful, however if they rely too
much on their intuition, assume or anticipate too much about a friend's
motivations, they can misread the signals and frustrate plans that a more
straightforward approach would have made simple. This kind of social stress
is the bugbear that keeps harmony-focused Diplomats awake at night. ENFPs
are very emotional and sensitive, and when they step on someone's toes,
they both feel it.

ENFPs will spend a lot of time exploring social relationships, feelings and
ideas before they find something that really rings true. But when they finally
do find their place in the world, their imagination, empathy and courage are
likely to produce incredible results.
Famous ENFPs
Robert Downey, Jr. Carol Burnett Meg Ryan Robin Williams Sandra Bullock
Alicia Silverstone Andy Rooney Franz Joseph Haydn

SENTINALS

ISTJ PERSONALITY (THE LOGISTICIAN)

My observation is that whenever one person is found adequate to the

discharge of a duty... it is worse executed by two persons, and scarcely done
at all if three or more are employed therein.
George Washington
The ISTJ personality type is thought to be the most abundant, making up
around 13% of the population. Their defining characteristics of integrity,
practical logic and tireless dedication to duty make ISTJs a vital core to many
families, as well as organizations that uphold traditions, rules and standards,
such as law offices, regulatory bodies and military. People with the ISTJ
personality type enjoy taking responsibility for their actions, and take pride in
the work they do when working towards a goal, ISTJs hold back none of their
time and energy completing each relevant task with accuracy and patience.

ISTJs don't make many assumptions, preferring instead to analyze their

surroundings, check their facts and arrive at practical courses of action. ISTJ
personalities are no-nonsense, and when they've made a decision, they will
relay the facts necessary to achieve their goal, expecting others to grasp the
situation immediately and take action. ISTJs have little tolerance for
indecisiveness, but lose patience even more quickly if their chosen course is
challenged with impractical theories, especially if they ignore key details if
challenges becomes time-consuming debates, ISTJs can become noticeably
angry as deadlines tick nearer.

Associate With Those of Good Quality if You Esteem Your Reputation...

ISTJ personalityWhen ISTJs say they are going to get something done, they do
it, meeting their obligations no matter the personal cost, and they are baffled
by people who don't hold their own word in the same respect. Combining
laziness and dishonesty is the quickest way to get on ISTJs' bad side.
Consequently, people with the ISTJ personality type often prefer to work
alone, or at least have their authority clearly established by hierarchy, where
they can set and achieve their goals without debate or worry over other's
reliability.

ISTJs have sharp, fact-based minds, and prefer autonomy and self-sufficiency
to reliance on someone or something. Dependency on others is often seen by
ISTJs as a weakness, and their passion for duty, dependability and impeccable
personal integrity forbid falling into such a trap.

This sense of personal integrity is core to ISTJs, and goes beyond their own
minds ISTJ personalities adhere to established rules and guidelines
regardless of cost, reporting their own mistakes and telling the truth even
when the consequences for doing so could be disastrous. To ISTJs, honesty is
far more important than emotional considerations, and their blunt approach
leaves others with the false impression that ISTJs are cold, or even robotic.
People with this type may struggle to express emotion or affection outwardly,
but the suggestion that they don't feel, or worse have no personality at all, is
deeply hurtful.

...For It Is Better to Be Alone Than in Bad Company

ISTJs' dedication is an excellent quality, allowing them to accomplish much,

but it is also a core weakness that less scrupulous individuals take advantage
of. ISTJs seek stability and security, considering it their duty to maintain a
smooth operation, and they may find that their coworkers and significant
others shift their responsibilities onto them, knowing that they will always
take up the slack. ISTJs tend to keep their opinions to themselves and let the
facts do the talking, but it can be a long time before observable evidence
tells the whole story.

ISTJs need to remember to take care of themselves their stubborn

dedication to stability and efficiency can compromise those goals in the long
term as others lean ever-harder on them, creating an emotional strain that
can go unexpressed for years, only finally coming out after it's too late to fix.
If they can find coworkers and spouses who genuinely appreciate and
complement their qualities, who enjoy the brightness, clarity and
dependability that they offer, ISTJs will find that their stabilizing role is a
tremendously satisfying one, knowing that they are part of a system that
works.
Famous ISTJs
George Washington Andrew Johnson Benjamin Harrison Herbert Hoover
George H.W. Bush Angela Merkel Natalie Portman Hermione Granger from
Harry Potter series Adrian Monk from Monk Dana Scully from X-Files
ISFJ PERSONALITY (THE DEFENDER)

Love only grows by sharing. You can only have more for yourself by giving it
away to others.
Brian Tracy
The ISFJ personality type is quite unique, as many of their qualities defy the
definition of their individual traits. Though possessing the Feeling (F) trait,
ISFJs have excellent analytical abilities; though Introverted (I), they have welldeveloped people skills and robust social relationships; and though they are a
Judging (J) type, ISFJs are often receptive to change and new ideas. As with so
many things, people with the ISFJ personality type are more than the sum of
their parts, and it is the way they use these strengths that defines who they
are.

ISFJs are true altruists, meeting kindness with kindness-in-excess and

engaging the work and people they believe in with enthusiasm and
generosity.
ISFJ personalityThere's hardly a better type to make up such a large
proportion of the population, nearly 13%. Combining the best of tradition and
the desire to do good, ISFJs are found in lines of work with a sense of history
behind them, such as medicine, academics and charitable social work.

ISFJ personalities (especially Turbulent ones) are often meticulous to the point
of perfectionism, and though they procrastinate, they can always be relied on
to get the job done on time. ISFJs take their responsibilities personally,
consistently going above and beyond, doing everything they can to exceed
expectations and delight others, at work and at home.

We Must Be Seen to Be Believed

The challenge for ISFJs is ensuring that what they do is noticed. They have a
tendency to underplay their accomplishments, and while their kindness is
often respected, more cynical and selfish people are likely to take advantage
of ISFJs' dedication and humbleness by pushing work onto them and then
taking the credit. ISFJs need to know when to say no and stand up for
themselves if they are to maintain their confidence and enthusiasm.

Naturally social, an odd quality for Introverts, ISFJs utilize excellent memories
not to retain data and trivia, but to remember people, and details about their
lives. When it comes to gift-giving, ISFJs have no equal, using their
imagination and natural sensitivity to express their generosity in ways that
touch the hearts of their recipients. While this is certainly true of their
coworkers, whom people with the ISFJ personality type often consider their
personal friends, it is in family that their expressions of affection fully bloom.

If I Can Protect You, I Will

ISFJ personalities are a wonderful group, rarely sitting idle while a worthy
cause remains unfinished. ISFJs' ability to connect with others on an intimate
level is unrivaled among Introverts, and the joy they experience in using
those connections to maintain a supportive, happy family is a gift for
everyone involved. They may never be truly comfortable in the spotlight, and
may feel guilty taking due credit for team efforts, but if they can ensure that
their efforts are recognized, ISFJs are likely to feel a level of satisfaction in
what they do that many other personality types can only dream of.
Queen Elizabeth II Robert E. Lee Queen Mary I Halle Berry Samwise
Gamgee from The Lord of the Rings Dr Watson, Sherlock Holmes' partner

ESTJ PERSONALITY (THE EXECUTIVE)

Good order is the foundation of all things.

Edmund Burke
ESTJs are representatives of tradition and order, utilizing their understanding
of what is right, wrong and socially acceptable to bring families and
communities together. Embracing the values of honesty, dedication and
dignity, people with the ESTJ personality type are valued for their clear advice
and guidance, and they happily lead the way on difficult paths. Taking pride
in bringing people together, ESTJs often take on roles as community
organizers, working hard to bring everyone together in celebration of
cherished local events, or in defense of the traditional values that hold
families and communities together.

Anyone Worth Their Salt Sticks Up for What They Believe Is Right...

ESTJ personalityDemand for such leadership is high in democratic societies,

and forming no less than 11% of the population, it's no wonder that many of
America's presidents have been ESTJs. Strong believers in the rule of law and
authority that must be earned, ESTJ personalities lead by example,
demonstrating dedication and purposeful honesty, and an utter rejection of
laziness and cheating, especially in work. If anyone declares hard, manual
work to be an excellent way to build character, it is ESTJs.

ESTJs are aware of their surroundings and live in a world of clear, verifiable
facts the surety of their knowledge means that even against heavy
resistance, they stick to their principles and push an unclouded vision of what
is and is not acceptable. Their opinions aren't just empty talk either, as ESTJs
are more than willing to dive into the most challenging projects, improving
action plans and sorting details along the way, making even the most
complicated tasks seem easy and approachable.

However, ESTJs don't work alone, and they expect their reliability and work
ethic to be reciprocated people with this personality type meet their
promises, and if partners or subordinates jeopardize them through
incompetence or laziness, or worse still, dishonesty, they do not hesitate to
show their wrath. This can earn them a reputation for inflexibility, a trait
shared by all Sentinels (SJ), but it's not because ESTJs are arbitrarily stubborn,
but because they truly believe that these values are what make society work.

...But Still Better Are Those Who Acknowledge When They Are in Error

ESTJs are classic images of the model citizen: they help their neighbors,
uphold the law, and try to make sure that everyone participates in the
communities and organizations they hold so dear.
The main challenge for ESTJs is to recognize that not everyone follows the
same path or contributes in the same way. A true leader recognizes the
strength of the individual, as well as that of the group, and helps bring those
individuals' ideas to the table. That way, ESTJs really do have all the facts,
and are able to lead the charge in directions that work for everyone.
Famous ESTJs

James Monroe Andrew Jackson William Henry Harrison Franklin Pierce Grover
Cleveland George W. Bush Lyndon B. Johnson John D. Rockefeller Sonia
Sotomayor Alec Baldwin Judge Judy Nancy Grace Boromir from The Lord of
the Rings
ESFJ PERSONALITY (THE CONSUL)

Encourage, lift and strengthen one another. For the positive energy spread to

one will be felt by us all.

Deborah Day
People who share the ESFJ personality type are, for lack of a better word,
popular which makes sense, given that it is also a very common personality
type, making up twelve percent of the population. In high school, ESFJs are
the cheerleaders and the quarterbacks, setting the tone, taking the spotlight
and leading their teams forward to victory and fame. Later in life, ESFJs
continue to enjoy supporting their friends and loved ones, organizing social
gatherings and doing their best to make sure everyone is happy.

At their hearts, ESFJ personalities are social creatures, and thrive on staying
up to date with what their friends are doing.
ESFJ personalityDiscussing scientific theories or debating European politics
isn't likely to capture ESFJs' interest for too long. ESFJs are more concerned
with fashion and their appearance, their social status and the standings of
other people. Practical matters and gossip are their bread and butter, but
ESFJs do their best to use their powers for good.

Respecting the Wisdom of Leadership

ESFJs are altruists, and they take seriously their responsibility to help and to
do the right thing. Unlike their Diplomat (NF) relatives however, people with
the ESFJ personality type will base their moral compass on established
traditions and laws, upholding authority and rules, rather than drawing their
morality from philosophy or mysticism. It's important for ESFJs to remember
though, that people come from many backgrounds and perspectives, and
what may seem right to them isn't always an absolute truth.

ESFJs love to be of service, enjoying any role that allows them to participate
in a meaningful way, so long as they know that they are valued and
appreciated. This is especially apparent at home, and ESFJs make loyal and
devoted partners and parents. ESFJ personalities respect hierarchy, and do
their best to position themselves with some authority, at home and at work,
which allows them to keep things clear, stable and organized for everyone.

Play Dates Aren't Just for the Kids!

Supportive and outgoing, ESFJs can always be spotted at a party they're the
ones finding time to chat and laugh with everyone! But their devotion goes
further than just breezing through because they have to. ESFJs truly enjoy
hearing about their friends' relationships and activities, remembering little
details and always standing ready to talk things out with warmth and
sensitivity. If things aren't going right, or there's tension in the room, ESFJs
pick up on it and to try to restore harmony and stability to the group.

Being pretty conflict-averse, ESFJs spend a lot of their energy establishing

social order, and prefer plans and organized events to open-ended activities
or spontaneous get-togethers. People with this personality type put a lot of
effort into the activities they've arranged, and it's easy for ESFJs' feelings to
be hurt if their ideas are rejected, or if people just aren't interested. Again, it's
important for ESFJs to remember that everyone is coming from a different
place, and that disinterest isn't a comment about them or the activity they've
organized it's just not their thing.

Coming to terms with their sensitivity is ESFJs' biggest challenge people are
going to disagree and they're going to criticize, and while it hurts, it's just a
part of life. The best thing for ESFJs to do is to do what they do best: be a role
model, take care of what they have the power to take care of, and enjoy that
so many people do appreciate the efforts they make.
Famous ESFJs

Bill Clinton William McKinley Jennifer Garner Tyra Banks Danny Glover Nancy
Kerrigan Sally Field Dean Winchester from Supernatural Monica from
Friends
THE EXPLORERS
ISTP PERSONALITY (THE VIRTUOSO)

I wanted to live the life, a different life. I didn't want to go to the same place
every day and see the same people and do the same job. I wanted interesting
challenges.

Harrison Ford
ISTPs love to explore with their hands and their eyes, touching and examining
the world around them with cool rationalism and spirited curiosity. People
with this personality type are natural Makers, moving from project to project,
building the useful and the superfluous for the fun of it, and learning from
their environment as they go. Often mechanics and engineers, ISTPs find no
greater joy than in getting their hands dirty pulling things apart and putting
them back together, just a little bit better than they were before.

ISTP personalityISTPs explore ideas through creating, troubleshooting, trial

and error and first-hand experience. They enjoy having other people take an
interest in their projects and sometimes don't even mind them getting into
their space. Of course, that's on the condition that those people don't
interfere with ISTPs' principles and freedom, and they'll need to be open to
ISTPs returning the interest in kind.

ISTPs enjoy lending a hand and sharing their experience, especially with the
people they care about, and it's a shame they're so uncommon, making up
only about five percent of the population. ISTP women are especially rare,
and the typical gender roles that society tends to expect can be a poor fit
they'll often be seen as tomboys from a young age.

Dare to Differ

While their mechanical tendencies can make them appear simple at a glance,
ISTPs are actually quite enigmatic. Friendly but very private, calm but
suddenly spontaneous, extremely curious but unable to stay focused on
formal studies, ISTP personalities can be a challenge to predict, even by their
friends and loved ones. ISTPs can seem very loyal and steady for a while, but
they tend to build up a store of impulsive energy that explodes without
warning, taking their interests in bold new directions.

Rather than some sort of vision quest though, ISTPs are merely exploring the
viability of a new interest when they make these seismic shifts.
ISTPs' decisions stem from a sense of practical realism, and at their heart is a
strong sense of direct fairness, a "do unto others" attitude, which really helps

to explain many of ISTPs' puzzling traits. Instead of being overly cautious

though, avoiding stepping on toes in order to avoid having their toes stepped
on, ISTPs are likely to go too far, accepting likewise retaliation, good or bad,
as fair play.

The biggest issue ISTPs are likely to face is that they often act too soon,
taking for granted their permissive nature and assuming that others are the
same. They'll be the first to tell an insensitive joke, get overly involved in
someone else's project, roughhouse and play around, or suddenly change
their plans because something more interesting came up.

Nothing Is as Boring as Everyone Agreeing With You

ISTPs will come to learn that many other personality types have much more
firmly drawn lines on rules and acceptable behavior than they do they don't
want to hear an insensitive joke, and certainly wouldn't tell one back, and
they wouldn't want to engage in horseplay, even with a willing party. If a
situation is already emotionally charged, violating these boundaries can
backfire tremendously.

ISTPs have a particular difficulty in predicting emotions, but this is just a

natural extension of their fairness, given how difficult it is to gauge ISTPs'
emotions and motivations. However, their tendency to explore their
relationships through their actions rather than through empathy can lead to
some very frustrating situations. People with the ISTP personality type
struggle with boundaries and guidelines, preferring the freedom to move
about and color outside the lines if they need to.

Finding an environment where they can work with good friends who
understand their style and unpredictability, combining their creativity, sense
of humor and hands-on approach to build practical solutions and things, will
give ISTPs many happy years of building useful boxes and admiring them
from the outside.
Famous ISTPs

Clint Eastwood Milla Jovovich Frank Zappa Zachary Taylor Tom Cruise
Michael Westen from Burn Notice Jack Bauer from 24 Indiana Jones
from Indiana Jones series John McClane from Die Hard series Angus
MacGyver from MacGyver
ISFP PERSONALITY (THE ADVENTURER)

I change during the course of a day. I wake and I'm one person, and when I go
to sleep I know for certain I'm somebody else.
Bob Dylan
ISFP personality types are true artists, but not necessarily in the typical sense
where they're out painting happy little trees. Often enough though, they are
perfectly capable of this. Rather, it's that they use aesthetics, design and
even their choices and actions to push the limits of social convention. ISFPs
enjoy upsetting traditional expectations with experiments in beauty and
behavior chances are, they've expressed more than once the phrase "Don't
box me in!"

Happy to Be Who They Are

ISFP personalityISFPs live in a colorful, sensual world, inspired by connections

with people and ideas. ISFP personalities take joy in reinterpreting these
connections, reinventing and experimenting with both themselves and new
perspectives. No other type explores and experiments in this way more. This
creates a sense of spontaneity, making ISFPs seem unpredictable, even to
their close friends and loved ones.

Despite all this, ISFPs are definitely Introverts (I), surprising their friends
further when they step out of the spotlight to be by themselves to recharge.
Just because they are alone though, doesn't mean people with the ISFP
personality type sit idle they take this time for introspection, assessing their
principles. Rather than dwelling on the past or the future, ISFPs think about
who they are. They return from their cloister, transformed.

ISFPs live to find ways to push their passions. Riskier behaviors like gambling
and extreme sports are more common with this personality type than with

others. Fortunately their attunement to the moment and their environment

allows them to do better than most. ISFPs also enjoy connecting with others,
and have a certain irresistible charm.

ISFPs always know just the compliment to soften a heart that's getting ready
to call their risks irresponsible or reckless.
However, if a criticism does get through, it can end poorly. Some ISFPs can
handle kindly phrased commentary, valuing it as another perspective to help
push their passions in new directions. But if the comments are more biting
and less mature, ISFP personalities can lose their tempers in spectacular
fashion.

ISFPs are sensitive to others' feelings and value harmony. When faced with
criticism, it can be a challenge for people with this type to step away from the
moment long enough to not get caught up in the heat of the moment. But
living in the moment goes both ways, and once the heightened emotions of
an argument cool, ISFPs can usually call the past the past and move on as
though it never occurred.

Meaning Is in Every Expression of Life

The biggest challenge facing ISFPs is planning for the future. Finding
constructive ideals to base their goals on and working out goals that create
positive principles is no small task. Unlike Sentinel types, ISFPs don't plan
their futures in terms of assets and retirement. Rather, they plan actions and
behaviors as contributions to a sense of identity, building a portfolio of
experiences, not stocks.

If these goals and principles are noble, ISFPs can act with amazing charity
and selflessness but it can also happen that people with the ISFP
personality type establish a more self-centered identity, acting with
selfishness, manipulation and egoism. It's important for ISFPs to remember to
actively become the person they want to be. Developing and maintaining a
new habit may not come naturally, but taking the time each day to
understand their motivations allows ISFPs to use their strengths to pursue
whatever they've come to love.

Famous ISFPs

Bob Dylan Paul McCartney Michael Jackson Kevin Costner Britney Spears John
Travolta Elizabeth Taylor Christopher Reeve Donald Trump Marie Antoinette
Ulysses S. Grant Millard Fillmore Warren G. Harding
ESTP PERSONALITY (THE ENTREPRENEUR)

Life is either a daring adventure or nothing at all.

Helen Keller
ESTP personality types always have an impact on their immediate
surroundings the best way to spot them at a party is to look for the whirling
eddy of people flitting about them as they move from group to group.
Laughing and entertaining with a blunt and earthy humor, ESTP personalities
love to be the center of attention. If an audience member is asked to come on
stage, ESTPs volunteer or volunteer a shy friend.

Theory, abstract concepts and plodding discussions about global issues and
their implications don't keep ESTPs interested for long. ESTPs keep their
conversation energetic, with a good dose of intelligence, but they like to talk
about what is or better yet, to just go out and do it. ESTPs leap before they
look, fixing their mistakes as they go, rather than sitting idle, preparing
contingencies and escape clauses.

Never Confuse Movement With Action

ESTP personalityESTPs are the likeliest personality type to make a lifestyle of

risky behavior. They live in the moment and dive into the action they are
the eye of the storm. People with the ESTP personality type enjoy drama,
passion, and pleasure, not for emotional thrills, but because it's so
stimulating to their logical minds. They are forced to make critical decisions
based on factual, immediate reality in a process of rapid-fire rational stimulus
response.

This makes school and other highly organized environments a challenge for

ESTPs. It certainly isn't because they aren't smart, and they can do well, but
the regimented, lecturing approach of formal education is just so far from the
hands-on learning that ESTPs enjoy. It takes a great deal of maturity to see
this process as a necessary means to an end, something that creates more
exciting opportunities.

Also challenging is that to ESTPs, it makes more sense to use their own moral
compass than someone else's. Rules were made to be broken. This is a
sentiment few high school instructors or corporate supervisors are likely to
share, and can earn ESTP personalities a certain reputation. But if they
minimize the trouble-making, harness their energy, and focus through the
boring stuff, ESTPs are a force to be reckoned with.

Most People Don't Listen Well Enough

With perhaps the most perceptive, unfiltered view of any type, ESTPs have a
unique skill in noticing small changes. Whether a shift in facial expression, a
new clothing style, or a broken habit, people with this personality type pick
up on hidden thoughts and motives where most types would be lucky to pick
up anything specific at all. ESTPs use these observations immediately, calling
out the change and asking questions, often with little regard for sensitivity.
ESTPs should remember that not everyone wants their secrets and decisions
broadcast.

Sometimes ESTPs' instantaneous observation and action is just what's

required, as in some corporate environments, and especially in emergencies.
If ESTPs aren't careful though, they may get too caught in the moment, take
things too far, and run roughshod over more sensitive people, or forget to
take care of their own health and safety. Making up only four percent of the
population, there are just enough ESTPs out there to keep things spicy and
competitive, and not so many as to cause a systemic risk.

ESTPs are full of passion and energy, complimented by a rational, if

sometimes distracted, mind. Inspiring, convincing and colorful, they are
natural group leaders, pulling everyone along the path less traveled, bringing
life and excitement everywhere they go. Putting these qualities to a

constructive and rewarding end is ESTPs' true challenge.

Famous ESTPs

Ernest Hemingway Jack Nicholson Eddie Murphy Madonna Bruce Willis

Michael J. Fox James Buchanan
ESFP PERSONALITY (THE ENTERTAINER)

I'm selfish, impatient and a little insecure. I make mistakes, I am out of

control and at times hard to handle. But if you can't handle me at my worst,
then you surely don't deserve me at my best.
Marilyn Monroe
If anyone is to be found spontaneously breaking into song and dance, it is the
ESFP personality type. ESFPs get caught up in the excitement of the moment,
and want everyone else to feel that way, too. No other personality type is as
generous with their time and energy as ESFPs when it comes to encouraging
others, and no other personality type does it with such irresistible style.

We Are All of Us Stars...

ESFP personalityBorn entertainers, ESFPs love the spotlight, but all the
world's a stage. Many famous people with the ESFP personality type are
indeed actors, but they love putting on a show for their friends too, chatting
with a unique and earthy wit, soaking up attention and making every outing
feel a bit like a party. Utterly social, ESFPs enjoy the simplest things, and
there's no greater joy for them than just having fun with a good group of
friends.

It's not just talk either ESFPs have the strongest aesthetic sense of any
personality type. From grooming and outfits to a well-appointed home, ESFP
personalities have an eye for fashion. Knowing what's attractive the moment
they see it, ESFPs aren't afraid to change their surroundings to reflect their
personal style. ESFPs are naturally curious, exploring new designs and styles
with ease.

Though it may not always seem like it, ESFPs know that it's not all about
them they are observant, and very sensitive to others' emotions. People
with this personality type are often the first to help someone talk out a
challenging problem, happily providing emotional support and practical
advice. However, if the problem is about them, ESFPs are more likely to avoid
a conflict altogether than to address it head-on. ESFPs usually love a little
drama and passion, but not so much when they are the focus of the criticisms
it can bring.

...And We Deserve to Twinkle

The biggest challenge ESFPs face is that they are often so focused on
immediate pleasures that they neglect the duties and responsibilities that
make those luxuries possible. Complex analysis, repetitive tasks, and
matching statistics to real consequences are not easy activities for ESFPs.
They'd rather rely on luck or opportunity, or simply ask for help from their
extensive circle of friends. It is important for ESFPs to challenge themselves
to keep track of long-term things like their retirement plans or sugar intake
there won't always be someone else around who can help to keep an eye on
these things.

ESFPs recognize value and quality, which on its own is a fine trait. In
combination with their tendency to be poor planners though, this can cause
them to live beyond their means, and credit cards are especially dangerous.
More focused on leaping at opportunities than in planning out long-term
goals, ESFPs may find that their inattentiveness has made some activities
unaffordable.

There's nothing that makes ESFPs feel quite as unhappy as realizing that they
are boxed in by circumstance, unable to join their friends.
ESFPs are welcome wherever there's a need for laughter, playfulness, and a
volunteer to try something new and fun and there's no greater joy for ESFP
personalities than to bring everyone else along for the ride. ESFPs can chat
for hours, sometimes about anything but the topic they meant to talk about,
and share their loved ones' emotions through good times and bad. If they can
just remember to keep their ducks in a row, they'll always be ready to dive
into all the new and exciting things the world has to offer, friends in tow.

Famous ESFPs

Marilyn Monroe Eva Gabor Leonardo DiCaprio Steve Irwin Jamie Oliver Kyle
Petty Kathy Lee Gifford Arsenio Hall

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE PERSONALITIES

ANALYST

INTJ STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

INTJ Strengths

Quick, Imaginative and Strategic Mind INTJs pride themselves on their

minds, taking every opportunity to improve their knowledge, and this shows
in the strength and flexibility of their strategic thinking. Insatiably curious and
always up for an intellectual challenge, INTJs can see things from many
perspectives. INTJs use their creativity and imagination not so much for
artistry, but for planning contingencies and courses of action for all possible
scenarios.
High Self-Confidence INTJs trust their rationalism above all else, so when
they come to a conclusion, they have no reason to doubt their findings. This
creates an honest, direct style of communication that isn't held back by
perceived social roles or expectations. When INTJs are right, they're right, and
no amount of politicking or hand-holding is going to change that fact
whether it's correcting a person, a process, or themselves, they'd have it no
other way.
Independent and Decisive This creativity, logic and confidence come
together to form individuals who stand on their own and take responsibility
for their own actions. Authority figures do not impress INTJs, nor do social
conventions or tradition, and no matter how popular something is, if they
have a better idea, INTJs will stand against anyone they have to in a bid to
have it changed. Either an idea is the most rational or it's wrong, and INTJs

will apply this to their arguments as well as their own behavior, staying calm
and detached from these sometimes emotionally charged conflicts. INTJs will
only be swayed by those who follow suit.
Hard-working and determined If something piques their interest, INTJs can
be astonishingly dedicated to their work, putting in long hours and intense
effort to see an idea through. INTJs are incredibly efficient, and if tasks meet
the criteria of furthering a goal, they will find a way to consolidate and
accomplish those tasks. However, this drive for efficiency can also lead to a
sort of elaborate laziness, wherein INTJs find ways to bypass seeming
redundancies which don't seem to require a great deal of thought this can
be risky, as sometimes double-checking one's work is the standard for a
reason.
Open-minded All this rationalism leads to a very intellectually receptive
personality type, as INTJs stay open to new ideas, supported by logic, even if
(and sometimes especially if) they prove INTJs' previous conceptions wrong.
When presented with unfamiliar territory, such as alternate lifestyles, INTJs
tend to apply their receptiveness and independence, and aversion to rules
and traditions, to these new ideas as well, resulting in fairly liberal social
senses.
Jacks-of-all-Trades INTJs' open-mindedness, determination, independence,
confidence and strategic abilities create individuals who are capable of doing
anything they set their minds to. Excelling at analyzing anything life throws
their way, INTJs are able to reverse-engineer the underlying methodology of
most any system and apply the concepts that are exposed wherever needed.
INTJs tend to have their pick of professions, from IT architects to political
masterminds.
INTJ Weaknesses

Arrogant INTJs are perfectly capable of carrying their confidence too far,
falsely believing that they've resolved all the pertinent issues of a matter and
closing themselves off to the opinions of those they believe to be
intellectually inferior. Combined with their irreverence for social conventions,
INTJs can be brutally insensitive in making their opinions of others all too
clear.
Judgmental INTJs tend to have complete confidence in their thought
process, because rational arguments are almost by definition correct at
least in theory. In practice, emotional considerations and history are hugely
influential, and a weak point for INTJs is that they brand these factors and
those who embrace them as illogical, dismissing them and considering their

proponents to be stuck in some baser mode of thought, making it all but

impossible to be heard.
Overly analytical A recurring theme with INTJs is their analytical prowess,
but this strength can fall painfully short where logic doesn't rule such as
with human relationships. When their critical minds and sometimes neurotic
level of perfectionism (often the case with Turbulent INTJs) are applied to
other people, all but the steadiest of friends will likely need to make some
distance, too often permanently.
Loathe highly structured environments Blindly following precedents and
rules without understanding them is distasteful to INTJs, and they disdain
even more authority figures who blindly uphold those laws and rules without
understanding their intent. Anyone who prefers the status quo for its own
sake, or who values stability and safety over self-determination, is likely to
clash with INTJ personality types. Whether it's the law of the land or simple
social convention, this aversion applies equally, often making life more
difficult than it needs to be.
Clueless in romance This antipathy to rules and tendency to over-analyze
and be judgmental, even arrogant, all adds up to a personality type that is
often clueless in dating. Having a new relationship last long enough for INTJs
to apply the full force of their analysis on their potential partner's thought
processes and behaviors can be challenging. Trying harder in the ways that
INTJs know best can only make things worse, and it's unfortunately common
for them to simply give up the search. Ironically, this is when they're at their
best, and most likely to attract a partner.

INTP STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

INTP Strengths

Great Analysts and Abstract Thinkers People with the INTP personality type
view the world as a big, complex machine, and recognize that as with any
machine, all parts are interrelated. INTPs excel in analyzing these
connections, seeing how seemingly unrelated factors tie in with each other in
ways that bewilder most other personality types.
Imaginative and Original These connections are the product of an
unrelenting imagination INTPs' ideas may seem counter-intuitive at a
glance, and may never even see the light of day, but they will always prove

remarkable innovations.
Open-Minded INTPs couldn't make these connections if they thought they
knew it all they are highly receptive to alternate theories, so long as they're
supported by logic and facts. In more subjective matters like social norms and
traditions, INTPs are usually fairly liberal, with a "none of my business" sort of
attitude peoples' ideas are what matter.
Enthusiastic When a new idea piques their interest, INTPs can be very
enthusiastic they are a reserved personality type, but if another person
shares an interest, they can be downright excited about discussing it. More
likely though, the only outward evidence of this enthusiasm will be INTPs'
silent pacing or their staring into the distance.
Objective INTPs' analysis, creativity and open-mindedness aren't the tools of
some quest for ideology or emotional validation. Rather, it's as though people
with the INTP personality type are a conduit for the truths around them, so far
as they can be expressed, and they are proud of this role as theoretical
mediator.
Honest and Straightforward To know one thing and say another would be
terribly disingenuous INTPs don't often go around intentionally hurting
feelings, but they believe that the truth is the most important factor, and
they expect that to be appreciated and reciprocated.
INTP Weaknesses

Very Private and Withdrawn While INTPs' intellectualism yields many

insights into their surroundings, their surroundings are ironically considered
an intrusion on their thoughts. This is especially true with people INTPs are
quite shy in social settings. More complicated situations such as parties
exacerbate this, but even close friends struggle to get into INTPs' hearts and
minds.
Insensitive Oftentimes INTP personalities get so caught up in their logic that
they forget any kind of emotional consideration they dismiss subjectivity as
irrational and tradition as an attempt to bar much-needed progress. Purely
emotional situations are often utterly puzzling to INTPs, and their lack of
timely sympathy can easily offend.
Absent-minded When INTPs' interest is captured, their absence goes beyond
social matters to include the rest of the physical world. INTPs become
forgetful, missing even the obvious if it's unrelated to their current
infatuation, and they can even forget their own health, skipping meals and
sleep as they muse.

Condescending Attempts at connecting with others are often worse than

INTPs' withdrawal. People with the INTP personality type take pride in their
knowledge and rationale, and enjoy sharing their ideas, but in trying to
explain how they got from A to B to Z, they can get frustrated, sometimes
simplifying things to the point of insult as they struggle to gauge their
conversation partners' perspective. The ultimate insult comes as INTPs give
up with a dismissive "never mind".
Loathe Rules and Guidelines These social struggles are partly a product of
INTPs' desire to bypass the rules, of social conduct and otherwise. While this
attitude helps INTPs' strength of unconventional creativity, it also causes
them to reinvent the wheel constantly and to shun security in favor of
autonomy in ways that can compromise both.
Second-Guess Themselves INTPs remain so open to new information that
they often never commit to a decision at all. This applies to their own skills as
well INTP personalities know that as they practice, they improve, and any
work they do is second-best to what they could do. Unable to settle for this,
INTPs sometimes delay their output indefinitely with constant revisions,
sometimes even quitting before they ever begin.

ENTJ STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

ENTJ Strengths

Efficient ENTJs see inefficiency not just as a problem in its own right, but as
something that pulls time and energy away from all their future goals, an
elaborate sabotage consisting of irrationality and laziness. People with the
ENTJ personality type will root out such behavior wherever they go.
Energetic Rather than finding this process taxing ENTJs are energized by it,
genuinely enjoying leading their teams forward as they implement their plans
and goals.
Self-Confident ENTJs couldn't do this if they were plagued by self-doubt
they trust their abilities, make known their opinions, and believe in their
capacities as leaders.
Strong-Willed Nor do they give up when the going gets tough ENTJ
personalities strive to achieve their goals, but really nothing is quite as
satisfying to them as rising to the challenge of each obstacle in their run to

the finish line.

Strategic Thinkers ENTJs exemplify the difference between moment-tomoment crisis management and navigating the challenges and steps of a
bigger plan, and are known for examining every angle of a problem and not
just resolving momentary issues, but moving the whole project forward with
their solutions.
Charismatic and Inspiring These qualities combine to create individuals who
are able to inspire and invigorate others, who people actually want to be their
leaders, and this in turn helps ENTJs to accomplish their often ambitious goals
that could never be finished alone.
ENTJ Weaknesses

Stubborn and Dominant Sometimes all this confidence and willpower can go
too far, and ENTJs are all too capable of digging in their heels, trying to win
every single debate and pushing their vision, and theirs alone.
Intolerant "It's my way or the highway" People with the ENTJ personality
type are notoriously unsupportive of any idea that distracts from their
primary goals, and even more so of ideas based on emotional considerations.
ENTJs won't hesitate a second to make that fact clear to those around them.
Impatient Some people need more time to think than others, an intolerable
delay to quick-thinking ENTJs. They may misinterpret contemplation as
stupidity or disinterest in their haste, a terrible mistake for a leader to make.
Arrogant ENTJ personalities respect quick thoughts and firm convictions,
their own qualities, and look down on those who don't match up. This
relationship is a challenge for most other personality types who are perhaps
not timid in their own right, but will seem so beside overbearing ENTJs.
Poor Handling of Emotions All this bluster, alongside the assumed
supremacy of rationalism, makes ENTJs distant from their own emotional
expression and sometimes downright scornful of others'. People with this
personality type often trample others' feelings, inadvertently hurting their
partners and friends, especially in emotionally charged situations.
Cold and Ruthless Their obsession with efficiency and unwavering belief in
the merits of rationalism, especially professionally, makes ENTJs incredibly
insensitive in pursuing their goals, dismissing personal circumstances,
sensitivities, and preferences as irrational and irrelevant.

ENTP STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

ENTP Strengths

Knowledgeable ENTPs rarely pass up a good opportunity to learn something

new, especially abstract concepts. This information isn't usually absorbed for
any planned purpose as with dedicated studying, people with the ENTP
personality type just find it fascinating.
Quick Thinkers ENTPs have tremendously flexible minds, and are able to
shift from idea to idea without effort, drawing on their accumulated
knowledge to prove their points, or their opponents', as they see fit.
Original Having little attachment to tradition, ENTP personalities are able to
discard existing systems and methods and pull together disparate ideas from
their extensive knowledge base, with a little raw creativity to hold them
together, to formulate bold new ideas. If presented with chronic, systemic
problems and given rein to solve them, ENTPs respond with unabashed glee.
Excellent Brainstormers Nothing is quite as enjoyable to ENTPs as analyzing
problems from every angle to find the best solutions. Combining their
knowledge and originality to splay out every aspect of the subject at hand,
rejecting without remorse options that don't work and presenting ever more
possibilities, ENTPs are irreplaceable in brainstorming sessions.
Charismatic People with the ENTP personality type have a way with words
and wit that others find intriguing. Their confidence, quick thought and ability
to connect disparate ideas in novel ways create a style of communication
that is charming, even entertaining, and informative at the same time.
Energetic When given a chance to combine these traits to examine an
interesting problem, ENTPs can be truly impressive in their enthusiasm and
energy, having no qualms with putting in long days and nights to find a
solution.
ENTP Weaknesses

Very Argumentative If there's anything ENTPs enjoy, it's the mental exercise
of debating an idea, and nothing is sacred. More consensus-oriented
personality types rarely appreciate the vigor with which ENTP personalities
tear down their beliefs and methods, leading to a great deal of tension.

Insensitive Being so rational, ENTPs often misjudge others feelings and push
their debates well past others' tolerance levels. People with this personality
type don't really consider emotional points to be valid in such debates either,
which magnifies the issue tremendously.
Intolerant Unless people are able to back up their ideas in a round of mental
sparring, ENTPs are likely to dismiss not just the ideas but the people
themselves. Either a suggestion can stand up to rational scrutiny or it's not
worth bothering with.
Can Find It Difficult to Focus The same flexibility that allows ENTPs to come
up with such original plans and ideas makes them readapt perfectly good
ones far too often, or to even drop them entirely as the initial excitement
wanes and newer thoughts come along. Boredom comes too easily for ENTPs,
and fresh thoughts are the solution, though not always a helpful one.
Dislike Practical Matters ENTPs are interested in what could be malleable
concepts like ideas and plans that can be adapted and debated. When it
comes to hard details and day-to-day execution where creative flair isn't just
unnecessary but actually counter-productive, ENTP personalities lose interest,
often with the consequence of their plans never seeing the light of day.

THE DIPLOMATS

INFJ STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

INFJ Strengths

Creative Combining a vivid imagination with a strong sense of compassion,

INFJs use their creativity to resolve not technical challenges, but human ones.
People with the INFJ personality type enjoy finding the perfect solution for
someone they care about, and this strength makes them excellent counselors
and advisors.
Insightful Seeing through dishonesty and disingenuous motives, INFJs step
past manipulation and sales tactics and into a more honest discussion. INFJs
see how people and events are connected, and are able to use that insight to
get to the heart of the matter.
Inspiring and Convincing Speaking in human terms, not technical, INFJs

have a fluid, inspirational writing style that appeals to the inner idealist in
their audience. INFJs can even be astonishingly good orators, speaking with
warmth and passion, if they are proud of what they are speaking for.
Decisive Their creativity, insight and inspiration are able to have a real
impact on the world, as INFJs are able to follow through on their ideas with
conviction, willpower, and the planning necessary to see complex projects
through to the end. INFJs dont just see the way things ought to be, they act
on those insights.
Determined and Passionate When INFJs come to believe that something is
important, they pursue that goal with a conviction and energy that can catch
even their friends and loved ones off guard. INFJs will rock the boat if they
have to, something not everyone likes to see, but their passion for their
chosen cause is an inseparable part of their personality.
Altruistic These strengths are used for good. INFJs have strong beliefs and
take the actions that they do not because they are trying to advance
themselves, but because they are trying to advance an idea that they truly
believe will make the world a better place.
INFJ Weaknesses

Sensitive When someone challenges or criticizes INFJs principles or values,

they are likely to receive an alarmingly strong response. People with the INFJ
personality type are highly vulnerable to criticism and conflict, and
questioning their motives is the quickest way to their bad side.
Extremely Private INFJs tend to present themselves as the culmination of an
idea. This is partly because they believe in this idea, but also because INFJs
are extremely private when it comes to their personal lives, using this image
to keep themselves from having to truly open up, even to close friends.
Trusting a new friend can be even more challenging for INFJs.
Perfectionistic INFJs are all but defined by their pursuit of ideals. While this
is a wonderful quality in many ways, an ideal situation is not always possible
in politics, in business, in romance and INFJs too often drop or ignore
healthy and productive situations and relationships, always believing there
might be a better option down the road.
Always Need to Have a Cause INFJs get so caught up in the passion of their
pursuits that any of the cumbersome administrative or maintenance work
that comes between them and the ideal they see on the horizon is deeply
unwelcome. INFJs like to know that they are taking concrete steps towards
their goals, and if routine tasks feel like they are getting in the way, or worse

yet, there is no goal at all, they will feel restless and disappointed.
Can Burn Out Easily Their passion, poor patience for routine maintenance,
tendency to present themselves as an ideal, and extreme privacy tend to
leave INFJs with few options for letting off steam. People with this personality
type are likely to exhaust themselves in short order if they dont find a way to
balance their ideals with the realities of day-to-day living.

INFP STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

INFP Strengths

Idealistic INFPs' friends and loved ones will come to admire and depend on
them for their optimism. Their unshaken belief that all people are inherently
good, perhaps simply misunderstood, lends itself to an incredibly resilient
attitude in the face of hardship.
Seek and Value Harmony People with the INFP personality type have no
interest in having power over others, and don't much care for domineering
attitudes at all. They prefer a more democratic approach, and work hard to
ensure that every voice and perspective is heard.
Open-Minded and Flexible A live-and-let-live attitude comes naturally to
INFPs, and they dislike being constrained by rules. INFPs give the benefit of
the doubt too, and so long as their principles and ideas are not being
challenged, they'll support others' right to do what they think is right.
Very Creative INFPs combine their intuitive nature with their openmindedness to allow them to see things from unconventional perspectives.
Being able to connect many far-flung dots into a single theme, it's no wonder
that many INFPs are celebrated poets and authors.
Passionate and Energetic When something captures INFPs' imagination and
speaks to their beliefs, they go all in, dedicating their time, energy, thoughts
and emotions to the project. Their shyness keeps them from the podium, but
they are the first to lend a helping hand where it's needed.
Dedicated and Hard-Working While others focusing on the challenges of the
moment may give up when the going gets tough, INFPs (especially Assertive
ones) have the benefit of their far-reaching vision to help them through.
Knowing that what they are doing is meaningful gives people with this
personality type a sense of purpose and even courage when it comes to

accomplishing something they believe in.

INFP Weaknesses

Too Idealistic INFPs often take their idealism too far, setting themselves up
for disappointment as, again and again, evil things happen in the world. This
is true on a personal level too, as INFPs may not just idealize their partners,
but idolize them, forgetting that no one is perfect.
Too Altruistic INFPs sometimes see themselves as selfish, but only because
they want to give so much more than they are able to. This becomes a selffulfilling prophecy, as they try to push themselves to commit to a chosen
cause or person, forgetting to take care of the needs of others in their lives,
and especially themselves.
Impractical When something captures INFPs' imagination, they can neglect
practical matters like day-to-day maintenance and simple pleasures.
Sometimes people with the INFP personality type will take this asceticism so
far as to neglect eating and drinking as they pursue their passion or cause.
Dislike Dealing With Data INFPs are often so focused on the big picture that
they forget the forest is made of individual trees. INFPs are in tune with
emotions and morality, and when the facts and data contradict their ideals, it
can be a real challenge for them.
Take Things Personally INFPs often take challenges and criticisms
personally, rather than as inspiration to reassess their positions. Avoiding
conflict as much as possible, INFPs will put a great deal of time and energy
into trying to align their principles and the criticisms into a middle ground
that satisfies everybody.
Difficult to Get to Know INFPs are private, reserved and self-conscious. This
makes them notoriously difficult to really get to know, and their need for
these qualities contributes to the guilt they often feel for not giving more of
themselves to those they care about.

ENFJ STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

ENFJ Strengths

Tolerant ENFJs are true team players, and they recognize that that means
listening to other peoples' opinions, even when they contradict their own.
They admit they don't have all the answers, and are often receptive to
dissent, so long as it remains constructive.
Reliable The one thing that galls ENFJs the most is the idea of letting down a
person or cause they believe in. If it's possible, ENFJs can always be counted
on to see it through.
Charismatic Charm and popularity are qualities ENFJs have in spades. They
instinctively know how to capture an audience, and pick up on mood and
motivation in ways that allow them to communicate with reason, emotion,
passion, restraint whatever the situation calls for. Talented imitators, ENFJs
are able to shift their tone and manner to reflect the needs of the audience,
while still maintaining their own voice.
Altruistic Uniting these qualities is ENFJs' unyielding desire to do good in
and for their communities, be it in their own home or the global stage. Warm
and selfless, ENFJs genuinely believe that if they can just bring people
together, they can do a world of good.
Natural Leaders More than seeking authority themselves, ENFJs often end
up in leadership roles at the request of others, cheered on by the many
admirers of their strong personality and positive vision.
ENFJ Weaknesses

Overly Idealistic People with the ENFJ personality type can be caught off
guard as they find that, through circumstance or nature, or simple
misunderstanding, people fight against them and defy the principles they've
adopted, however well-intentioned they may be. They are more likely to feel
pity for this opposition than anger, and can earn a reputation of navet.
Too Selfless ENFJs can bury themselves in their hopeful promises, feeling
others' problems as their own and striving hard to meet their word. If they
aren't careful, they can spread themselves too thin, and be left unable to help
anyone.
Too Sensitive While receptive to criticism, seeing it as a tool for leading a
better team, it's easy for ENFJs to take it a little too much to heart. Their
sensitivity to others means that ENFJs sometimes feel problems that aren't
their own and try to fix things they can't fix, worrying if they are doing
enough.
Fluctuating Self-Esteem ENFJs define their self-esteem by whether they are

able to live up to their ideals, and sometimes ask for criticism more out of
insecurity than out of confidence, always wondering what they could do
better. If they fail to meet a goal or to help someone they said they'd help,
their self-confidence will undoubtedly plummet.
Struggle to Make Tough Decisions If caught between a rock and a hard
place, ENFJs can be stricken with paralysis, imagining all the consequences of
their actions, especially if those consequences are humanitarian.

ENFP STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

ENFP Strengths

Curious When it comes to new ideas, ENFPs aren't interested in brooding

they want to go out and experience things, and don't hesitate to step out of
their comfort zones to do so. ENFPs are imaginative and open-minded, seeing
all things as part of a big, mysterious puzzle called life.
Observant ENFPs believe that there are no irrelevant actions, that every
shift in sentiment, every move and every idea is part of something bigger. To
satisfy their curiosity, ENFPs try to notice all of these things, and to never
miss a moment.
Energetic and Enthusiastic As they observe, forming new connections and
ideas, ENFPs won't hold their tongues they're excited about their findings,
and share them with anyone who'll listen. This infectious enthusiasm has the
dual benefit of giving ENFPs a chance to make more social connections, and
of giving them a new source of information and experience, as they fit their
new friends' opinions into their existing ideas.
Excellent Communicators It's a good thing that ENFPs have such strong
people skills, or they'd never express these ideas. ENFPs enjoy both small talk
and deep, meaningful conversations, which are just two sides of the same
coin for them, and are adept at steering conversations towards their desired
subjects in ways that feel completely natural and unforced.
Know How to Relax It's not all nature of the cosmos discussions with
ENFPs people with this personality type know that sometimes, nothing is as
important as simply having fun and experiencing life's joys. That Intuitive
trait lets ENFPs know that it's time to shake things up, and these wild bursts
of enthusiastic energy can surprise even their closest friends.

Very Popular and Friendly All this adaptability and spontaneity comes
together to form a person who is approachable, interesting and exciting, with
a cooperative and altruistic spirit and friendly, empathetic disposition. ENFPs
get along with pretty much everyone, and their circles of friends stretch far
and wide.
ENFP Weaknesses

Poor Practical Skills When it comes to conceiving ideas and starting

projects, especially involving other people, ENFPs have exceptional talent.
Unfortunately their skill with upkeep, administration, and follow-through on
those projects struggles. Without more hands-on people to help push day-today things along, ENFPs' ideas are likely to remain just that ideas.
Find it Difficult to Focus ENFPs are natural explorers of interpersonal
connections and philosophy, but this backfires when what needs to be done is
that TPS report sitting right in front of them. It's hard for ENFPs to maintain
interest as tasks drift towards routine, administrative matters, and away from
broader concepts.
Overthink Things ENFPs don't take things at face value they look for
underlying motives in even the simplest things. It's not uncommon for ENFPs
to lose a bit of sleep asking themselves why someone did what they did, what
it might mean, and what to do about it.
Get Stressed Easily All this overthinking isn't just for their own benefit
ENFPs, especially Turbulent ones, are very sensitive, and care deeply about
others' feelings. A consequence of their popularity is that others often look to
them for guidance and help, which takes time, and it's easy to see why ENFPs
sometimes get overwhelmed, especially when they can't say yes to every
request.
Highly Emotional While emotional expression is healthy and natural, with
ENFPs even viewing it as a core part of their identity, it can come out strongly
enough to cause problems for this personality type. Particularly when under
stress, criticism or conflict, ENFPs can experience emotional bursts that are
counter-productive at best.
Independent to a Fault ENFPs loathe being micromanaged and restrained by
heavy-handed rules they want to be seen as highly independent masters of
their own fates, even possessors of an altruistic wisdom that goes beyond
draconian law. The challenge for ENFPs is that they live in a world of checks
and balances, a pill they are not happy to swallow.

THE SENTINELS

ISTJ STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

ISTJ Strengths

Honest and Direct Integrity is the heart of the ISTJ personality type.
Emotional manipulation, mind games and reassuring lies all run counter to
ISTJs' preference for managing the reality of the situations they encounter
with plain and simple honesty.
Strong-willed and Dutiful ISTJs embody that integrity in their actions too,
working hard and staying focused on their goals. Patient and determined,
people with the ISTJ personality type meet their obligations, period.
Very Responsible ISTJs' word is a promise, and a promise means everything.
ISTJs would rather run themselves into the ground with extra days and lost
sleep than fail to deliver the results they said they would. Loyalty is a strong
sentiment for ISTJ personalities, and they fulfill their duties to the people and
organizations they've committed themselves to.
Calm and Practical None of their promises would mean much if ISTJs lost
their tempers and broke down at every sign of hardship they keep their feet
on the ground and make clear, rational decisions. Peoples' preferences are a
factor to consider in this process, and ISTJs work to make the best use of
individual qualities, but these decisions are made with effectiveness in mind
more so than empathy. The same applies to criticisms, for others and
themselves.
Create and Enforce Order The primary goal of any ISTJ is to be effective in
what they've chosen to do, and they believe that this is accomplished best
when everyone involved knows exactly what is going on and why. Unclear
guidelines and people who break established rules undermine this effort, and
are rarely tolerated by ISTJs. Structure and rules foster dependability; chaos
creates unforeseen setbacks and missed deadlines.
Jacks-of-all-trades Much like Analysts (NT), ISTJs are proud repositories of
knowledge, though the emphasis is more on facts and statistics than
concepts and underlying principles. This allows ISTJs to apply themselves to a
variety of situations, picking up and applying new data and grasping the
details of challenging situations as a matter of course.

ISTJ Weaknesses

Stubborn The facts are the facts, and ISTJs tend to resist any new idea that
isn't supported by them. This factual decision-making process also makes it
difficult for people with the ISTJ personality type to accept that they were
wrong about something but anyone can miss a detail, even them.
Insensitive While not intentionally harsh, ISTJs are often hurt more sensitive
types' feelings by the simple mantra that honesty is the best policy. ISTJ
personalities may take emotions into consideration, but really only so far as
to determine the most effective way to say what needs to be said.
Always by the Book ISTJs believe that things work best with clearly defined
rules, but this makes them reluctant to bend those rules or try new things,
even when the downside is minimal. Truly unstructured environments leave
ISTJs all but paralyzed.
Judgmental Opinions are opinions and facts are facts, and ISTJs are unlikely
to respect people who disagree with those facts, or especially those who
remain willfully ignorant of them.
Often Unreasonably Blame Themselves All this can combine to make ISTJs
believe they are the only ones who can see projects through reliably. As they
load themselves with extra work and responsibilities, turning away good
intentions and helpful ideas, ISTJs sooner or later hit a tipping point where
they simply can't deliver. Since they've heaped the responsibility on
themselves, ISTJs then believe the responsibility for failure is theirs alone to
bear.

ISFJ STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

ISFJ Strengths

Supportive ISFJs are the universal helpers, sharing their knowledge,

experience, time and energy with anyone who needs it, and all the more so
with friends and family. People with this personality type strive for win-win
situations, choosing empathy over judgment whenever possible.
Reliable and Patient Rather than offering sporadic, excited rushes that leave
things half finished, ISFJs are meticulous and careful, taking a steady

approach and bending with the needs of the situation just enough to
accomplish their end goals. ISFJs not only ensure that things are done to the
highest standard, but often go well beyond what is required.
Imaginative and Observant ISFJs are very imaginative, and use this quality
as an accessory to empathy, observing others' emotional states and seeing
things from their perspective. With their feet firmly planted on the ground, it
is a very practical imagination, though they do find things quite fascinating
and inspiring.
Enthusiastic When the goal is right, ISFJs take all this support, reliability and
imagination and apply it to something they believe will make a difference in
people's lives whether fighting poverty with a global initiative or simply
making a customer's day.
Loyal and Hard-Working Given a little time, this enthusiasm grows into
loyalty ISFJ personalities often form an emotional attachment to the ideas
and organizations they've dedicated themselves to. Anything short of
meeting their obligations with good, hard work fails their own expectations.
Good Practical Skills The best part is, ISFJs have the practical sense to
actually do something with all this altruism. If mundane, routine tasks are
what need to be done, ISFJs can see the beauty and harmony that they
create, because they know that it helps them to care for their friends, family,
and anyone else who needs it.
ISFJ Weaknesses

Humble and Shy The meek shall inherit the earth, but it's a long road if they
receive no recognition at all. This is possibly ISFJs' biggest challenge, as they
are so concerned with others' feelings that they refuse to make their thoughts
known, or to take any duly earned credit for their contributions. ISFJs'
standards for themselves are also so high that, knowing they could have
done some minor aspect of a task better, they often downplay their
successes entirely.
Take Things Too Personally ISFJs have trouble separating personal and
impersonal situations any situation is still an interaction between two
people, after all and any negativity from conflict or criticism can carry over
from their professional to their personal lives, and back again.
Repress Their Feelings People with the ISFJ personality type are private and
very sensitive, internalizing their feelings a great deal. Much in the way that
ISFJs protect others' feelings, they must protect their own, and this lack of
healthy emotional expression can lead to a lot of stress and frustration.

Overload Themselves Their strong senses of duty and perfectionism

combine with this aversion to emotional conflict to create a situation where it
is far too easy for ISFJs to overload themselves or to be overloaded by
others as they struggle silently to meet everyone's expectations, especially
their own.
Reluctant to Change These challenges can be particularly hard to address
since ISFJ personalities value traditions and history highly in their decisions. A
situation sometimes needs to reach a breaking point before ISFJs are
persuaded by circumstance, or the strong personality of a loved one, to alter
course.
Too Altruistic This is all compounded and reinforced by ISFJs' otherwise
wonderful quality of altruism. Being such warm, good-natured people, ISFJs
are willing to let things slide, to believe that things will get better soon, to not
burden others by accepting their offers of help, while their troubles mount
unassisted.

ESTJ STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

ESTJ Strengths

Dedicated Seeing things to completion borders on an ethical obligation for

ESTJs. Tasks aren't simply abandoned because they've become difficult or
boring people with the ESTJ personality type take them up when they are
the right thing to do, and they will be finished so long as they remain the
right thing to do.
Strong-willed A strong will makes this dedication possible, and ESTJs don't
give up their beliefs because of simple opposition. ESTJs defend their ideas
and principles relentlessly, and must be proven clearly and conclusively
wrong for their stance to budge.
Direct and Honest ESTJs trust facts far more than abstract ideas or opinions.
Straightforward statements and information are king, and ESTJ personalities
return the honesty (whether it's wanted or not).
Loyal, Patient and Reliable ESTJs work to exemplify truthfulness and
reliability, considering stability and security very important. When ESTJs say
they'll do something, they keep their word, making them very responsible
members of their families, companies and communities.

Enjoy Creating Order Chaos makes things unpredictable, and unpredictable

things can't be trusted when they are needed most with this in mind, ESTJs
strive to create order and security in their environments by establishing rules,
structures and clear roles.
Excellent Organizers This commitment to truth and clear standards makes
ESTJs capable and confident leaders. People with this personality type have
no problem distributing tasks and responsibilities to others fairly and
objectively, making them excellent administrators.
ESTJ Weaknesses

Inflexible and Stubborn The problem with being so fixated on what works is
that ESTJs too often dismiss what might work better. Everything is opinion
until proven, and ESTJ personalities are reluctant to trust an opinion long
enough for it to have that chance.
Uncomfortable with Unconventional Situations ESTJs are strong adherents to
tradition and when suddenly forced to try unvetted solutions, they become
uncomfortable and stressed. New ideas suggest that their methods weren't
good enough, and abandoning what has always worked before in favor of
something that may yet fail risks their image of reliability.
Judgmental ESTJs have strong convictions about what is right, wrong, and
socially acceptable. ESTJs' compulsion to create order often extends to all
things and everyone, ignoring the possibility that there are two right ways to
get things done. ESTJs do not hesitate to let these "deviants" know what they
think, considering it their duty to set things right.
Too Focused on Social Status ESTJs take pride in the respect of their friends,
colleagues and community and while difficult to admit, are very concerned
with public opinion. ESTJs (especially Turbulent ones) can get so caught up in
meeting others' expectations that they fail to address their own needs.
Difficult to Relax This need for respect fosters a need to maintain their
dignity, which can make it difficult to cut loose and relax for risk of looking
the fool, even in good fun.
Difficulty Expressing Emotion This is all evidence of ESTJs' greatest
weakness: expressing emotions and feeling empathy. People with the ESTJ
personality type get so caught up in the facts and most effective methods
that they forget to think of what makes others happy, or of their sensitivity. A
detour can be breathtakingly beautiful, a joy for the family, but ESTJs may
only see the consequence of arriving at their destination an hour late, hurting
their loved ones by rejecting the notion too harshly.

ESFJ STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

ESFJ Strengths

Strong Practical Skills ESFJs are excellent managers of day-to-day tasks and
routine maintenance, enjoying making sure that those who are close to them
are well cared for.
Strong Sense of Duty People with the ESFJ personality type have a strong
sense of responsibility and strive to meet their obligations, though this may
sometimes be more from a sense of social expectations than intrinsic drive.
Very Loyal Valuing stability and security very highly, ESFJs are eager to
preserve the status quo, which makes them extremely loyal and trustworthy
partners and employees. ESFJs are true pillars of any groups they belong to
whether it is their family or a community club, people with this personality
type can always be relied upon.
Sensitive and Warm Helping to ensure that stability, ESFJ personalities seek
harmony and care deeply about other people's feelings, being careful not to
offend or hurt anybody. ESFJs are strong team players, and win-win situations
are the stuff smiles are made of.
Good at Connecting with Others These qualities come together to make
ESFJs social, comfortable and well-liked. ESFJ personalities have a strong need
to "belong", and have no problem with small talk or following social cues in
order to help them take an active role in their communities.
ESFJ Weaknesses

Worried about Their Social Status These Strengths are related to a chief
Weakness: ESFJs' preoccupation with social status and influence, which
affects many decisions they make, potentially limiting their creativity and
open-mindedness.
Inflexible ESFJs place a lot of importance on what is socially acceptable, and
can be very cautious, even critical of anything unconventional or outside the
mainstream. People with this personality type may also sometimes push their
own beliefs too hard in an effort to establish them as mainstream.

Reluctant to Innovate or Improvise Just as they can be critical of others'

"unusual" behavior, ESFJs may also be unwilling to step out of their own
comfort zones, usually for fear of being (or just appearing) different.
Vulnerable to Criticism It can be especially challenging to change these
tendencies because ESFJs are so conflict-averse. ESFJ personalities can
become very defensive and hurt if someone, especially a person close to
them, criticizes their habits, beliefs or traditions.
Often Too Needy ESFJs need to hear and see a great deal of appreciation. If
their efforts go unnoticed, people with the ESFJ personality type may start
fishing for compliments, in an attempt to get reassurance of how much they
are valued.
Too Selfless The other side of this is that ESFJs sometimes try to establish
their value with doting attention, something that can quickly overwhelm
those who don't need it, making it ultimately unwelcome. Furthermore, ESFJs
often neglect their own needs in the process.

EXPLORERS

ISTP STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

ISTP Strengths

Optimistic and Energetic ISTPs are usually up to their elbows in some

project or other. Cheerful and good-natured, people with the ISTP personality
type (especially Assertive ones) rarely get stressed out, preferring to go with
the flow.
Creative and Practical ISTPs are very imaginative when it comes to practical
things, mechanics, and crafts. Novel ideas come easily, and they love using
their hands to put them into action.
Spontaneous and Rational Combining spontaneity with logic, ISTPs can
switch mindsets to fit new situations with little effort, making them flexible
and versatile individuals.
Know How to Prioritize This flexibility comes with some unpredictability, but
ISTP personalities are able to store their spontaneity for a rainy day, releasing

their energy just when it's needed most.

Great in a Crisis With all this hands-on creativity and spontaneity, it's no
wonder that ISTPs are naturals in crisis situations. People with this personality
type usually enjoy a little physical risk, and they aren't afraid to get their
hands dirty when the situation calls for it.
Relaxed Through all this, ISTPs are able to stay quite relaxed. They live in
the moment and go with the flow, refusing to worry too much about the
future.
ISTP Weaknesses

Stubborn As easily as ISTPs go with the flow, they can also ignore it entirely,
and usually move in another direction with little apology or sensitivity. If
someone tries to change ISTPs' habits, lifestyle or ideas through criticism,
they can become quite blunt in their irritation.
Insensitive ISTPs use logic, and even when they try to meet others halfway
with empathy and emotional sensitivity, it rarely seems to quite come out
right, if anything is even said at all.
Private and Reserved ISTP personalities are notoriously difficult to get to
know. They are true introverts, keeping their personal matters to themselves,
and often just prefer silence to small talk.
Easily Bored ISTPs enjoy novelty, which makes them excellent tinkerers, but
much less reliable when it comes to focusing on things long-term. Once
something is understood, ISTPs tend to simply move on to something new
and more interesting.
Dislike Commitment Long-term commitments are particularly onerous for
ISTPs. They prefer to take things day-by-day, and the feeling of being locked
into something for a long time is downright oppressive. This can be a
particular challenge in ISTPs' romantic relationships.
Risky Behavior This stubbornness, difficulty with others' emotions, focus on
the moment, and easy boredom can lead to unnecessary and unhelpful
boundary-pushing, just for fun. ISTPs have been known to escalate conflict
and danger just to see where it goes, something that can have disastrous
consequences for everyone around if they lose control of the situation.

ISFP STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

ISFP Strengths

Charming People with the ISFP personality type are relaxed and warm, and
their live and let live attitude naturally makes them likable and popular.
Sensitive to Others ISFPs easily relate to others' emotions, helping them to
establish harmony and good will, and minimize conflict.
Imaginative Being so aware of others' emotions, ISFP personalities use
creativity and insight to craft bold ideas that speak to people's hearts. While
it's hard to explain this quality on a resume, this vivid imagination and
exploratory spirit help ISFPs in unexpected ways.
Passionate Beneath ISFPs' quiet shyness beats an intensely feeling heart.
When people with this personality type are caught up in something exciting
and interesting, they can leave everything else in the dust.
Curious Ideas are well and good, but ISFPs need to see and explore for
themselves whether their ideas ring true. Work revolving around the sciences
may seem a poor match for their traits, but a boldly artistic and humanistic
vision is often exactly what research needs to move forward if ISFPs are
given the freedom they need to do so.
Artistic ISFPs are able to show their creativity in tangible ways and with
stunning beauty. Whether writing a song, painting an emotion, or presenting
a statistic in a graph, ISFPs have a way of visualizing things that resonates
with their audience.
ISFP Weaknesses

Fiercely Independent Freedom of expression is often ISFPs' top priority.

Anything that interferes with that, like traditions and hard rules, creates a
sense of oppression for ISFP personalities. This can make more rigidly
structured academics and work a challenge.
Unpredictable ISFPs' dislike long-term commitments and plans. The
tendency to actively avoid planning for the future can cause strain in ISFPs'
romantic relationships and financial hardship later in life.
Easily Stressed ISFPs live in the present, full of emotion. When situations get
out of control, people with this personality type (especially Turbulent ones)
can shut down, losing their characteristic charm and creativity in favor of

gnashing teeth.
Overly Competitive ISFPs can escalate small things into intense
competitions, turning down long-term success in their search for glory in the
moment, and are unhappy when they lose.
Fluctuating Self-Esteem It's demanded that skills be quantified, but that's
hard to do with ISFPs' strengths of sensitivity and artistry. ISFPs' efforts are
often dismissed, a hurtful and damaging blow, especially early in life. ISFPs
can start to believe the naysayers without strong support.

ESTP STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

ESTP Strengths

Bold People with the ESTP personality type are full of life and energy. There
is no greater joy for ESTPs than pushing boundaries and discovering and
using new things and ideas.
Rational and Practical ESTPs love knowledge and philosophy, but not for
their own sake. What's fun for ESTP personalities is finding ideas that are
actionable and drilling into the details so they can put them to use. If a
discussion is completely arbitrary, there are better uses for ESTPs' time.
Original Combining their boldness and practicality, ESTPs love to
experiment with new ideas and solutions. They put things together in ways
no one else would think to.
Perceptive This originality is helped by ESTPs' ability to notice when things
change and when they need to change! Small shifts in habits and
appearances stick out to ESTPs, and they use these observations to help
create connections with others.
Direct This perceptive skill isn't used for mind games ESTPs prefer to
communicate clearly, with direct and factual questions and answers. Things
are what they are.
Sociable All these qualities pull together to make a natural group leader in
ESTPs. This isn't something that they actively seek people with this
personality type just have a knack for making excellent use of social
interactions and networking opportunities.

ESTP Weaknesses

Insensitive Feelings and emotions come second to facts and "reality" for
ESTPs. Emotionally charged situations are awkward, uncomfortable affairs,
and ESTPs' blunt honesty doesn't help here. These personalities often have a
lot of trouble acknowledging and expressing their own feelings as well.
Impatient ESTPs move at their own pace to keep themselves excited.
Slowing down because someone else "doesn't get it" or having to stay
focused on a single detail for too long is extremely challenging for ESTPs.
Risk-prone This impatience can lead ESTPs to push into uncharted territory
without thinking of the long-term consequences. ESTP personalities
sometimes intentionally combat boredom with extra risk.
Unstructured ESTPs see an opportunity to fix a problem, to advance, to
have fun and seize the moment, often ignoring rules and social
expectations in the process. This may get things done, but it can create
unexpected social fallout.
May Miss the Bigger Picture Living in the moment can cause ESTPs to miss
the forest for the trees. People with this personality type love to solve
problems here and now, perhaps too much. All parts of a project can be
perfect, but the project will still fail if those parts do not fit together.
Defiant ESTPs won't be boxed in. Repetition, hardline rules, sitting quietly
while they are lectured at this isn't how ESTPs live their lives. They are
action-oriented and hands-on. Environments like school and much entry-level
work can be so tedious that they're intolerable, requiring extraordinary effort
from ESTPs to stay focused long enough to get to freer positions.

ESFP STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

ESFP Strengths

Bold ESFPs aren't known for holding back. Wanting to experience everything
there is to experience, people with the ESFP personality type don't mind
stepping out of their comfort zones when no one else is willing.
Original Traditions and expectations are secondary to ESFPs, if a

consideration at all. ESFP personalities love to experiment with new styles,

and constantly find new ways to stick out in the crowd.
Aesthetics and Showmanship Not stopping at mere outfits, ESFPs inject
artistic creativity into their words and actions, too. Every day is a
performance, and ESFPs love to put on a show.
Practical To ESFPs, the world is meant to be felt and experienced. Truth is
stranger than fiction, and ESFPs prefer to see and do than to wax
philosophical about "what-ifs".
Observant With all this focus on the here and now, on doing and acting, it
makes sense that ESFPs are naturals when it comes to noticing real, tangible
things and changes.
Excellent People Skills More so than things though, ESFPs love to pay
attention to people. They are talkative, witty, and almost never run out of
things to discuss. For people with this personality type, happiness and
satisfaction stem from the time they spend with the people they enjoy being
with.
ESFP Weaknesses

Sensitive ESFPs (especially Turbulent ones) are strongly emotional, and very
vulnerable to criticism they can feel like they've been backed into a corner,
sometimes reacting badly. This is probably ESFPs' greatest weakness,
because it makes it so hard to address any other weaknesses brought to
light.
Conflict-Averse ESFPs sometimes ignore and avoid conflict entirely. They
tend to say and do what's needed to get out of such situations, then move on
to something more fun.
Easily Bored Without constant excitement, ESFPs find ways to create it
themselves. Risky behavior, self-indulgence, and the pleasures of the
moment over long-term plans are all things ESFPs get into a little too often.
Poor Long-Term Planners In fact, ESFP personalities rarely make detailed
plans for the future. To them, things come as they come, and they rarely
bother with taking the time to lay out steps and consequences, with the
belief that they could change at any moment even with things that can be
planned.
Unfocused Anything that requires long-term dedication and focus is a
particular challenge for ESFPs. In academics, dense, unchanging subjects like

Classic Literature are much more difficult than more dynamic, relatable
subjects like psychology. The trick for ESFPs is to find day-to-day joy in
broader goals, and to tough it out with those tedious things that must be
done.

[3.2] Types
High

Pyramid of Maslow.
People with a healthy level of self-esteem:

Firmly believe in certain values and principles, and are ready to defend them
even when finding opposition, feeling secure enough to modify them in light
of experience.
Are able to act according to what they think to be the best choice, trusting
their own judgment, and not feeling guilty when others do not like their
choice.
Do not lose time worrying excessively about what happened in the past, nor
about what could happen in the future. They learn from the past and plan for
the future, but live in the present intensely.
Fully trust in their capacity to solve problems, not hesitating after failures and
difficulties. They ask others for help when they need it.
Consider themselves equal in dignity to others, rather than inferior or
superior, while accepting differences in certain talents, personal prestige or
financial standing.
Understand how they are an interesting and valuable person for others, at
least for those with whom they have a friendship.
Resist manipulation, collaborate with others only if it seems appropriate and
convenient.
Admit and accept different internal feelings and drives, either positive or
negative, revealing those drives to others only when they choose.
Are able to enjoy a great variety of activities.

Are sensitive to feelings and needs of others; respect generally accepted

social rules, and claim no right or desire to prosper at others' expense.
Can work toward finding solutions and voice discontent without belittling
themselves or others when challenges arise.
Secure vs. defensive[edit]
A person can have a high self-esteem and hold it confidently where they do
not need reassurance from others to maintain their positive self view,
whereas others with defensive, high self-esteem may still report positive selfevaluations on the Rosenberg Scale, as all high self-esteem individuals do;
however, their positive self-views are fragile and vulnerable to criticism.
Defensive high self-esteem individuals internalize subconscious self-doubts
and insecurities, causing them to react very negatively to any criticism they
may receive. There is a need for constant positive feedback from others for
these individuals to maintain their feelings of self-worth. The necessity of
repeated praise can be associated with boastful, arrogant behavior or
sometimes even aggressive and hostile feelings toward anyone who
questions the individual's self-worth, an example of threatened egotism.

Implicit, explicit, narcissism and threatened egotism

Implicit self-esteem refers to a person's disposition to evaluate themselves
positively or negatively in a spontaneous, automatic, or unconscious manner.
It contrasts with explicit self-esteem, which entails more conscious and
reflective self-evaluation. Both explicit self-esteem and implicit self-esteem
are subtypes of self-esteem proper.

Narcissism is a disposition people may have that represents an excessive

love for one's self. It is characterized by an inflated view of self-worth.
Individuals who score high on Narcissism measures, Robert Raskin's 40 Item
True or False Test, would likely select true to such statements as "If I ruled the
world, it would be a much better place." There is only a moderate correlation
between narcissism and self-esteem; that is to say that an individual can
have high self-esteem but low narcissism or can be a conceited, obnoxious
person and score high self-esteem and high narcissism.

Threatened egotism is characterized as a response to criticism that threatens

the ego of narcissists; they often react in a hostile and aggressive manner.

Low
Low self-esteem can result from various factors, including genetic factors,
physical appearance or weight, mental health issues, socioeconomic status,
peer pressure or bullying.

Children growing up in a misogynistic environment can suffer low selfesteem, but more research is needed.

A person with low self-esteem may show some of the following

characteristics:

Heavy self-criticism and dissatisfaction.

Hypersensitivity to criticism with resentment against critics and feelings of
being attacked.
Chronic indecision and an exaggerated fear of mistakes.
Excessive will to please and unwillingness to displease any petitioner.
Perfectionism, which can lead to frustration when perfection is not achieved.
Neurotic guilt, dwelling on or exaggerating the magnitude of past mistakes.
Floating hostility and general defensiveness and irritability without any
proximate cause.
Pessimism and a general negative outlook.
Envy, invidiousness, or general resentment.
Sees temporary setbacks as permanent, intolerable conditions.
Individuals with low self-esteem tend to be critical of themselves. Some
depend on the approval and praise of others when evaluating self-worth.
Others may measure their likability in terms of successes: others will accept
them if they succeed but will not if they fail.

The three states

This classification proposed by Martin Ross distinguishes three states of selfesteem compared to the "feats" (triumphs, honors, virtues) and the "antifeats" (defeats, embarrassment, shame, etc.) of the individuals.

Shattered
The individual does not regard themselves as valuable or lovable. They may
be overwhelmed by defeat, or shame, or see themselves as such, and they
name their "anti-feat". For example, if they consider that being over a certain
age is an anti-feat, they define themselves with the name of their anti-feat,
and say, "I am old". They pity themselves. They insult themselves. They feel
sorry. They may become paralyzed by their sadness.

Vulnerable
The individual has a positive self-image. However, their self-esteem is also
vulnerable to the perceived risk of an imminent anti-feat (such as defeat,
embarrassment, shame, discredit), consequently they are often nervous and
regularly use defense mechanisms. A typical protection mechanism of those
with a Vulnerable Self-Esteem may consist in avoiding decision-making.
Although such individuals may outwardly exhibit great self-confidence, the
underlying reality may be just the opposite: the apparent self-confidence is
indicative of their heightened fear of anti-feats and the fragility of their selfesteem. They may also try to blame others to protect their self-image from
situations which would threaten it. They may employ defense mechanisms,
including attempting to lose at games and other competitions in order to
protect their self-image by publicly dissociating themselves from a 'need to
win', and asserting an independence from social acceptance which they may
deeply desire. In this deep fear of being unaccepted by an individuals peers,
they make poor life choices by making risky choices.

Strong
People with strong self-esteem have a positive self-image and enough
strength so that anti-feats do not subdue their self-esteem. They have less
fear of failure. These individuals appear humble, cheerful, and this shows a
certain strength not to boast about feats and not to be afraid of anti-feats.
They are capable of fighting with all their might to achieve their goals
because, if things go wrong, their self-esteem will not be affected. They can
acknowledge their own mistakes precisely because their self-image is strong,
and this acknowledgment will not impair or affect their self-image. They live

with less fear of losing social prestige, and with more happiness and general
well-being. However, no type of self-esteem is indestructible, and due to
certain situations or circumstances in life, one can fall from this level into any
other state of self-esteem.

Contingent vs. non-contingent

A distinction is made between contingent (or conditional) and non-contingent
(or unconditional) self-esteem.

Contingent self-esteem is derived from external sources, such as (a) what

others say, (b) one's success or failure, (c) one's competence, or (d)
relationship-contingent self-esteem.

Therefore, contingent self-esteem is marked by instability, unreliability, and

vulnerability. Persons lacking a non-contingent self-esteem are "predisposed
to an incessant pursuit of self-value." However, because the pursuit of
contingent self-esteem is based on receiving approval, it is doomed to fail. No
one receives constant approval and disapproval often evokes depression.
Furthermore, fear of disapproval inhibits activities in which failure is possible.

"The courage to be is the courage to accept oneself, in spite of being

unacceptable. . . . This is the Pauline-Lutheran doctrine of 'justification by
faith.'" Paul Tillich
Non-contingent self-esteem is described as true, stable, and solid. It springs
from a belief that one is "acceptable period, acceptable before life itself,
ontologically acceptable". Belief that one is "ontologically acceptable" is to
believe that one's acceptability is "the way things be without contingency". In
this belief, as expounded by theologian Paul Tillich, acceptability is not based
on a person's virtue. It is an acceptance given "in spite of our guilt, not
because we have no guilt".

Psychiatrist Thomas A Harris drew on theologian Paul Tillich for his classic I'm
OK You're OK that addresses non-contingent self-esteem. Harris translated
Tillich's "acceptable" by the vernacular "OK", a term that means "acceptable".
The Christian message, said Harris, is not "YOU CAN BE OK, IF", It is "YOU ARE
ACCEPTED, unconditionally".

A secure non-contingent self-esteem springs from the belief that one is

ontologically acceptable and accepted.

[3.3] What is personality?

- what is personality? -

Same But Different

In some ways we are all the same. We all have the same human nature. We
share a common humanity. We all have human bodies and human minds, we
all have human thoughts and human feelings.

Yet in other ways we are all completely different and unique. No two people
are truly alike. No two people can ever have the same experience of life, the
same perspective, the same mind.

Even identical twins are unique in this respect: twin number 1 will always be
twin number 1 and will never know what it is actually like to be twin number
2, to experience life and see the world through number 2s eyes. [1]

Twins

Somewhere between these two our common humanity and our unique
individuality lies personality.

Personality is about our different ways of being human. How we are all
variations on the same themes. How the human nature we all share
manifests in different styles of thinking, feeling and acting.

Personality Defined
Personality can be defined in different ways, depending on whether we focus
on the individual or on people in general.

If we focus on people in general, then we can define personality as noticable

psychological differences between individuals. Just as people differ physically
in terms of appearance and build, people also differ psychologically in terms
of mental and behavioural characteristics.

If we focus on an individual, we can define their personality as Long-term

consistency in that persons way of being that is, consistency in their
particular ways of perceiving, thinking, acting and reacting as a person.

To some extent, individuals generally do tend to operate in a similar way day

after day, year after year. Were not talking about specific actions being
repeated again and again, like compulsive hand-washing, but about overall
patterns, tendencies, inclinations. Someone who has tended to be quiet and
reserved up to now will probably still tend to be quiet and reserved tomorrow.

It is this general predictability in individuals thought patterns, behaviour

patterns and emotional patterns which defines personality. Or to put it
another way:

Your personality style is your organizing principle. It propels you on your life
path. It represents the orderly arrangement of all your attributes, thoughts,
feelings, attitudes, behaviors, and coping mechanisms. It is the distinctive
pattern of your psychological functioningthe way you think, feel, and
behavethat makes you definitely you. [2]

Talking About Personality

Four Types?

In ancient times it was thought that all people could be divided into just four
personality types sanguine, choleric, melancholic and phlegmatic. This was
supposedly something to do with the dominant fluids in their bodies (blood,
yellow bile, black bile or phlegm). This idea was briefly revived in Renaissance
Europe and there are some modern versions of it around today [3].

183pxQuinta_Essentia_(Thurneisse)_illustration_Alchemic_approach_to_four_humors
_in_relation_to_the_four_elements_and_zodiacal_signs

Despite the universal appeal of this approach, trying to fit all the worlds
people with their amazing range of differences into so few boxes is not easy.
For example, sanguine people are supposedly extroverted, creative,
sensitive, compassionate, thoughtful, tardy, forgetful and sarcastic. But in
fact there is no evidence that these characteristics go together at all. You can
certainly be creative without being extroverted. You can certainly be
compassionate without being sarcastic. So what does sanguine really mean,
if anything?

Dividing people up into a few types may be a nice and simple way of looking
at the world, but in reality it doesnt get us very far.

An alternative approach used by modern psychologists is to simply focus on

the words we use to describe each others personalities. This is called the
lexical approach.

Five Factors?
When we describe someones personality, we use words which characterise
whatever makes that person distinctive to us. This is partly because we tend
to notice peoples most outstanding characteristics (as opposed to ways in
which they are just average). For instance, just as we might describe
someone as very tall or totally bald based on their physical attributes, we
might also describe them as very shy or totally domineering based on their
personality.

We also want to remember what it is that distinguishes one person from

another being very tall and totally bald is an unusual and distinctive
combination, as is being very shy and totally domineering. We remember,
and talk about, the things that stand out the most.

So when we look at the words most often used to describe human

personality, we find that they describe the extremes rather than the
averages. (Similarly, there is no word in the dictionary to describe people of
average height, only people who are distinctly above or below average in
height: tall v. short.) Also, these extremes can be organised into pairs of
opposites shy v. outgoing, impulsive v. cautious, dominant v. submissive,
and so on.

Moreover, when you take all the personality-describing words in a dictionary

and analyse how people use them, you find they can be separated into a
certain number of sets or clusters. The words in one cluster all have a b-r-oa-d-l-y similar meaning, but mean something different from the words in
other clusters. And what psychologists have found again and again is that
there are just five clusters. In other words, there are just five sets of words
(including their opposites) which contain pretty much all of the words we
might use to describe personality.

The Big Five

These are known as the Big Five. We could simply call them Factor 1, Factor
2 and so on, but they have been labelled as follows:

EXTROVERSION the tendency to be outgoing, energetic and sociable

OPENNESS the tendency to enjoy variety, novelty, challenge and
intellectual stimulation
NEUROTICISM the tendency to experience unpleasant emotions

AGREEABLENESS the tendency to be friendly, compassionate and

cooperative
CONSCIENTIOUSNESS the tendency to show self-discipline and self-control
Each of these five factors is actually a sort of mega pair of opposites:
extroversion v. introversion, openness v. closedness, neuroticism v. emotional
stability, agreeableness v. hostility, conscientiousness v. spontaneity. For
example, we find that there is one whole set of words which describe either
aspects of extroversion (outgoing, energetic) or its opposite, introversion
(shy, withdrawn).

Its as if everything we have to say about personality falls under one of these
headings. This is one of the most robust findings to come out of decades of
research into human personality. [4]

So in contrast to the types approach, many psychologists now understand

personality as how we all vary on these five dimensions or five factors. Its
not that the world is divided into (say) sanguines and cholerics and so on.
Rather, we are all variations on the same five themes, and these variations
define our personality traits. We each have our own scores on the same five
scales. An introvert, for example, is simply someone who scores low on the
extroversion scale.

The H Factor
The five factors are not etched in stone, however. Many studies suggest that
we can include a sixth factor, called Honesty/Humility (or the H factor). This is
essentially a dimension of character maturity, ranging from high selfishness
to high integrity. [5] Adding this H factor to the other five gives us a six-factor
model that is more popularly known as the HEXACO model.

Multiple Facets
A problem with the five or six factors is that they dont really account for
personality. They just organise the words that people use to talk about

personality into a few big clusters.

In addition, the number of clusters or factors we find depends entirely on

how strict or how loose we are with our statistics. To get down to five factors
we have to accept fairly loose connections between words. This means that,
for example, we get lots of surprisingly different traits lumped together under
extroversion (such as dominant, outgoing and passionate), which is kind of
reminiscent of having lots of different things attributed to the sanguine type.

We could, however, be more strict with the factor analysis and look for tight
clusters between words which are strongly connected. When researchers do
this, they can identify around 20-30 factors, or facets.

Some researchers see each of the Big Five as a sort of general super-trait,
each one covering a number of specific sub-traits or facets that are narrower
in scope:

Neuroticism:
Irritability
Insecurity
Emotionality
Extraversion:
Sociability
Unrestraint
Assertiveness
Activity-Adventurousness
Openness:
Intellect
Imagination-Creativity
Perceptiveness

Agreeableness:
Warmth-Affection
Gentleness
Generosity
Modesty-Humility
Conscientiousness:
Orderliness
Decisiveness-Consistency
Reliability
Industriousness
Different researchers have identified different facets, but generally they
describe 3 to 5 facets associated with big factor. This seems to give a much
richer description.

So how many personality traits are there?

The answer is how many do you want?

Its all about whatever is convenient for any given discussion.

If you want to divide people into two types (say, extravert versus introvert),
then you can.

If you want to describe how people vary in broad brush-strokes, then you can
use the Big 5 (or 6) factors.

If you want a more high resolution picture of individual differences, then

you can use 20-30 facets or more.

Personality Disorder!
Funnily enough, despite widespread confirmation of the Big Five (or six), there
is still no agreed psychological understanding of personality. This is because
psychologists have yet to agree on their understanding of human nature.
Different psychologists hold fundamental beliefs that are diametrically
opposed.

Many students who choose to study psychology are disappointed to find that
this is the case. They begin their degree course hoping to come out of it with
a systematic understanding of what makes people tick based on good
science. Instead, they just learn how to weigh up many competing theories
and conflicting schools of thought.

Nature versus nurture

One conflict thrown at every topic in psychology is the nature versus
nurture debate. Whether were trying to explain intelligence, sexuality,
emotionality, or personality, we soon run into a fundamental argument
between those who believe it all boils down to our nature and those who
maintain its really more to do with how we are nurtured

Nature refers to our biological characteristics, how we are wired at birth due
to genetics; our anatomy, physiology, brain structure, neurochemistry,
hormones, instincts, and so on.
Nurture refers to our acquired characteristics, how we are shaped by external
factors; our early upbringing, childhood experiences, parental expectations,
peer pressure, social status, and so on.
Generally, the research suggests that the answer isnt either/or but a bit of
both. Nevertheless, psychology itself is still divided evolved into a bunch of
competing sub-disciplines, each giving priority to their pet theory of nature or
nurture.

And so, with regard to human personality

Psychodynamic psychology its all to do with our unconscious conflicts and

repressed memories from childhood.
Behaviouristic psychology its all to do with how our behaviour is shaped
(conditioned) by our different histories of reward and punishment.
Social psychology its all to do with how our values and expectations are
shaped by our surrounding society, culture, and the groups we belong to.
Evolutionary psychology its all to do with our genes and instincts, which
were shaped by 1 or 2 million years of natural selection long before the
earliest civilisation arose.
Each of these schools of thought emphasises the importance of one source of
influence. But as they narrow their focus onto a single source, they lose sight
of the relevance of others. And psychology becomes more fragmented rather
than integrated.

Free Will versus Determinism

One thing that many psychologists do agree on is that our personality and
personal development are determined by forces beyond our control. In other
words we are, for better or worse, nothing but the products of our genetics,
our upbringing, or unconscious forces, or environmental conditioning. Its all
out of our control.

But here we have another basic conflict within psychology:

Is everything we think, feel and do determined by forces beyond our control,

or do we have at least some free will to choose our own way in life?
Can we improve ourselves of our own volition, or are we doomed to remain
hapless products of our nature and nurture?
(And if we really are incapable of changing or fixing ourselves
psychologically, how is that we can be fixed by other human beings known as
psychiatrists?)

Free will is a profound issue. Some psychologists believe in it but many

perhaps the majority do not. This has a dramatic effect on how different
psychologists study human behaviour and personality, how they interpret

research findings, and what they believe it is possible for human beings to
achieve.

Those who emphasis the role of free will include:

Humanistic psychologists, who focus on the individuals use of free will in

shaping their own personal development.
Positive psychologists, who focus on enhancing the entire human experience,
rather than just just repairing psychological damage.
Transpersonal psychologists, who focus on exceptional human experiences
which suggest the role of spiritual factors in human life.
Humanistic psychologists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow have
emphasised that personality development is at least partly the result of our
conscious choices in life. And if people want to change their own
personalities, their conscious intention to do so is important. (It is this
perspective that has given birth to the hugely popular self-help and personal
growth movements.)

Saying that we have free will doesnt mean saying that we are not
constrained by the forces of nature and nurture. Of course we are. But there
is no need to pit free will against determinism when both can be true.

Temperament and Character

Its not all fragmentation and conflict. Recently, some psychologists have
come to see personality as both externally determined and internally driven.
Or to put it another way:

Personality = Temperament + Character

where

Temperament refers to those traits that are determined by our nature and
nurture harm avoidance, reward dependence, novelty seeking, and
perseverance. Even at birth, we can see these individual variations on the
human theme. Some infants, for example, are naturally timid (avoiding all
harm) while others are naturally bold.
Character refers to how we develop as individuals, how we learn to deal with
life since we were born self-directedness, cooperativeness, and selftranscendence.
It has been said that temperament is something we share with other animals,
while character is, perhaps, uniquely human. Character is also the sum of our
choices, for better or worse our virtues and vices. A person of good
character, for example, has high integrity; a person of bad character does
not. It helps to be a good judge of character.
The Self-Transcendence aspect of character refers to the drive some people
have to search for something beyond their individual existence the
spiritual dimension. (See also Maslows Hierarchy of Human Motivation,
where Self-Transcendence is viewed as the highest drive the top of the
pyramid.) The temperament and character model is the only major model of
personality to include this aspect, though it appears to be central to our wellbeing [6].

A Transpersonal Perspective
I have been interested in personality for as long as I can remember. What
makes people tick? In what ways am I different from other people? Are we all
the same under the skin? These questions have always intrigued me. This is
one of the reasons why I became a psychologist.

But in addition to the psychological viewpoint, I also hold a more spiritual

view of human nature a trans-personal view of the personal self. From this
perspective, personality is a vehicle through which our essential self, our
innermost being, operates in the world, particularly in social interactions.

Ive learned that to really understand ourselves we need a kind of bi-focal

vision to view ourselves at two levels. I generally refer to these as essence
and personality.

Personality is who we are, or at least who we seem to be, as unique

individuals in everyday life. Its how we express ourselves to others and how
we perceive ourselves as a result. Some of us are more extravert than others.
Some of us are more neurotic than others. Its all relative.
Essence is what we are at the level of ultimate reality, beyond all the relative
stuff of ordinary life.* Essence is our true nature, our innermost being, our
deepest truth. Essence is synonymous with spirit or soul. It is the life force,
the Tao, pure being, pure potential emerging and evolving through
consciousness. All essence is one, but there is a specific instance of essence
that is you and another instance that is me.
Psychologists generally view the self in terms of brain, mind and personality,
but generally overlook spirituality and so neglect the essence of who we are.

Mystics view the self in terms of divine essence, the spirit or soul, but
generally overlook the psychology of personality in ordinary life.

But combining these two levels personality and spirituality, the personal
and the transpersonal, the psychological and the mystical gives a fuller
and richer picture of who we are.

*We can directly experience our essential self. It happens in moments of selfrealisation, also known as satori, gnosis, enlightenment. The best way I know
of to have such an experience is the process known as an Enlightenment
Intensive.

So What is Personality?
Bottom line: It depends upon your perspective on human nature.

If you believe in a mechanical universe in which people are merely puppets

driven by their genes, their brains, and their environments, then the
personality is simply temperament, forged by various genetic, biological, and
environmental forces of nature and nurture.

If you believe that people can forge themselves to some extent, then

personality is more to do with character: a set of strengths and virtues, as

well as weaknesses and vices, that each individual develops through life, and
sometimes struggles to get to grips with.

If you believe that the universe is a self-creating consciousness, exploring and

expressing itself through the myriad forms of humanity and other creatures,
then personality is an individually-tailored vehicle for such exploration.

[3.4] It is important to be aware that the personality tests used in the

recruitment and selection process are the intellectual property of the
companies that produce them. As a result, they may use different
terminology to describe the aspects of personality that they set out to
measure. This usually for reasons of copyright and to differentiate themselves
in a market in which there are a large number of products that do more or
less the same thing in more or less the same way.

To avoid any bias and to steer clear of any copyright issues, we will use the
definitions placed in the public domain by the noted psychologist Dr. John A.
Johnson of Pennsylvania State University.

The personality traits used in the 5 factor model are Extraversion,

Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism and Openness to experience.

It is important to ignore the positive or negative associations that these

words have in everyday language. For example, Agreeableness is obviously
advantageous for achieving and maintaining popularity. Agreeable people are
better liked than disagreeable people. On the other hand, agreeableness is
not useful in situations that require tough or totally objective decisions.

Disagreeable people can make excellent scientists, critics, or soldiers.

Remember, none of the five traits is in themselves positive or negative, they
are simply characteristics that individuals exhibit to a greater or lesser
extent.

Each of these 5 personality traits describes, relative to other people, the

frequency or intensity of a person's feelings, thoughts, or behaviors.
Everyone possesses all 5 of these traits to a greater or lesser degree. For
example, two individuals could be described as agreeable (agreeable people
value getting along with others). But there could be significant variation in
the degree to which they are both agreeable. In other words, all 5 personality
traits exist on a continuum (see diagram) rather than as attributes that a
person does or does not have.
Extraversion
Extraversion is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world.
Extraverts enjoy being with people, are full of energy, and often experience
positive emotions. They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented, individuals
who are likely to say "Yes!" or "Let's go!" to opportunities for excitement. In
groups they like to talk, assert themselves, and draw attention to themselves.

Introverts lack the exuberance, energy, and activity levels of extraverts. They
tend to be quiet, low-key, deliberate, and disengaged from the social world.
Their lack of social involvement should not be interpreted as shyness or
depression; the introvert simply needs less stimulation than an extravert and
prefers to be alone. The independence and reserve of the introvert is
sometimes mistaken as unfriendliness or arrogance. In reality, an introvert
who scores high on the agreeableness dimension will not seek others out but
will be quite pleasant when approached.

Agreeableness
Agreeableness reflects individual differences in concern with cooperation and
social harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others. They
are therefore considerate, friendly, generous, helpful, and willing to
compromise their interests with others'. Agreeable people also have an
optimistic view of human nature. They believe people are basically honest,
decent, and trustworthy.

Disagreeable individuals place self-interest above getting along with others.

They are generally unconcerned with others' well-being, and therefore are
unlikely to extend themselves for other people. Sometimes their skepticism
about others' motives causes them to be suspicious, unfriendly, and
uncooperative.

Agreeableness is obviously advantageous for attaining and maintaining

popularity. Agreeable people are better liked than disagreeable people. On
the other hand, agreeableness is not useful in situations that require tough or
absolute objective decisions. Disagreeable people can make excellent
scientists, critics, or soldiers.

Conscientiousness
Conscientiousness concerns the way in which we control, regulate, and direct
our impulses. Impulses are not inherently bad; occasionally time constraints
require a snap decision, and acting on our first impulse can be an effective
response. Also, in times of play rather than work, acting spontaneously and
impulsively can be fun. Impulsive individuals can be seen by others as
colorful, fun-to-be-with, and zany.

Nonetheless, acting on impulse can lead to trouble in a number of ways.

Some impulses are antisocial. Uncontrolled antisocial acts not only harm
other members of society, but also can result in retribution toward the
perpetrator of such impulsive acts. Another problem with impulsive acts is
that they often produce immediate rewards but undesirable, long-term
consequences. Examples include excessive socializing that leads to being
fired from one's job, hurling an insult that causes the breakup of an important
relationship, or using pleasure-inducing drugs that eventually destroy one's
health.

Impulsive behavior, even when not seriously destructive, diminishes a

person's effectiveness in significant ways. Acting impulsively disallows
contemplating alternative courses of action, some of which would have been
wiser than the impulsive choice. Impulsivity also sidetracks people during
projects that require organized sequences of steps or stages.
Accomplishments of an impulsive person are therefore small, scattered, and
inconsistent.

A hallmark of intelligence, what potentially separates human beings from

earlier life forms, is the ability to think about future consequences before
acting on an impulse. Intelligent activity involves contemplation of long-range
goals, organizing and planning routes to these goals, and persisting toward

one's goals in the face of short-lived impulses to the contrary. The idea that
intelligence involves impulse control is nicely captured by the term prudence,
an alternative label for the Conscientiousness domain. Prudent means both
wise and cautious. Persons who score high on the Conscientiousness scale
are, in fact, perceived by others as intelligent.

The benefits of high conscientiousness are obvious. Conscientious individuals

avoid trouble and achieve high levels of success through purposeful planning
and persistence. They are also positively regarded by others as intelligent
and reliable. On the negative side, they can be compulsive perfectionists and
workaholics. Furthermore, extremely conscientious individuals might be
regarded as stuffy and boring. Unconscientious people may be criticized for
their unreliability, lack of ambition, and failure to stay within the lines, but
they will experience many short-lived pleasures and they will never be called
stuffy.

Neuroticism
Freud originally used the term neurosis to describe a condition marked by
mental distress, emotional suffering, and an inability to cope effectively with
the normal demands of life. He suggested that everyone shows some signs of
neurosis, but that we differ in our degree of suffering and our specific
symptoms of distress. Today neuroticism refers to the tendency to experience
negative feelings.

Those who score high on Neuroticism may experience primarily one specific
negative feeling such as anxiety, anger, or depression, but are likely to
experience several of these emotions. People high in neuroticism are
emotionally reactive. They respond emotionally to events that would not
affect most people, and their reactions tend to be more intense than normal.
They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor
frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional reactions tend to
persist for unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in a
bad mood. These problems in emotional regulation can diminish a neurotic's
ability to think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress.

At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in neuroticism are
less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm,
emotionally stable, and free from persistent negative feelings. Freedom from
negative feelings does not mean that low scorers experience a lot of positive
feelings; frequency of positive emotions is a component of the Extraversion
domain.

Openness to experience.
Openness to Experience describes a dimension of cognitive style that
distinguishes imaginative, creative people from down-to-earth, conventional
people. Open people are intellectually curious, appreciative of art, and
sensitive to beauty. They tend to be, compared to closed people, more aware
of their feelings. They tend to think and act in individualistic and
nonconforming ways. Intellectuals typically score high on Openness to
Experience; consequently, this factor has also been called Culture or Intellect.
Nonetheless, Intellect is probably best regarded as one aspect of openness to
experience. Scores on Openness to Experience are only modestly related to
years of education and scores on standard intelligent tests.

Another characteristic of the open cognitive style is a facility for thinking in

symbols and abstractions far removed from concrete experience. Depending
on the individual's specific intellectual abilities, this symbolic cognition may
take the form of mathematical, logical, or geometric thinking, artistic and
metaphorical use of language, music composition or performance, or one of
the many visual or performing arts. People with low scores on openness to
experience tend to have narrow, common interests. They prefer the plain,
straightforward, and obvious over the complex, ambiguous, and subtle. They
may regard the arts and sciences with suspicion, regarding these endeavors
as abstruse or of no practical use. Closed people prefer familiarity over
novelty; they are conservative and resistant to change.

Openness is often presented as healthier or more mature by psychologists,

who are often themselves open to experience. However, open and closed
styles of thinking are useful in different environments. The intellectual style of
the open person may serve a professor well, but research has shown that
closed thinking is related to superior job performance in police work, sales,
and a number of service occupations.

Subordinate Personality Traits or Facets

Each of the big 5 personality traits is made up of 6 facets or sub traits. These
can be assessed independently of the trait that they belong to.

Extraversion Facets
Friendliness. Friendly people genuinely like other people and openly
demonstrate positive feelings toward others. They make friends quickly and it
is easy for them to form close, intimate relationships. Low scorers on
Friendliness are not necessarily cold and hostile, but they do not reach out to
others and are perceived as distant and reserved.
Gregariousness. Gregarious people find the company of others pleasantly
stimulating and rewarding. They enjoy the excitement of crowds. Low scorers
tend to feel overwhelmed by, and therefore actively avoid, large crowds. They
do not necessarily dislike being with people sometimes, but their need for
privacy and time to themselves is much greater than for individuals who
score high on this scale.
Assertiveness. High scorers Assertiveness like to speak out, take charge, and
direct the activities of others. They tend to be leaders in groups. Low scorers
tend not to talk much and let others control the activities of groups.
Activity Level. Active individuals lead fast-paced, busy lives. They move about
quickly, energetically, and vigorously, and they are involved in many
activities. People who score low on this scale follow a slower and more
leisurely, relaxed pace.
Excitement-Seeking. High scorers on this scale are easily bored without high
levels of stimulation. They love bright lights and hustle and bustle. They are
likely to take risks and seek thrills. Low scorers are overwhelmed by noise
and commotion and are adverse to thrill-seeking.

Cheerfulness. This scale measures positive mood and feelings, not negative
emotions (which are a part of the Neuroticism domain). Persons who score
high on this scale typically experience a range of positive feelings, including
happiness, enthusiasm, optimism, and joy. Low scorers are not as prone to
such energetic, high spirits.
Agreeableness Facets
Trust. A person with high trust assumes that most people are fair, honest, and
have good intentions. Persons low in trust may see others as selfish, devious,
and potentially dangerous.
Morality. High scorers on this scale see no need for pretence or manipulation
when dealing with others and are therefore candid, frank, and sincere. Low
scorers believe that a certain amount of deception in social relationships is
necessary. People find it relatively easy to relate to the straightforward highscorers on this scale. They generally find it more difficult to relate to the lowscorers on this scale. It should be made clear that low scorers are not
unprincipled or immoral; they are simply more guarded and less willing to
openly reveal the whole truth.
Altruism. Altruistic people find helping other people genuinely rewarding.
Consequently, they are generally willing to assist those who are in need.
Altruistic people find that doing things for others is a form of self-fulfilment
rather than self-sacrifice. Low scorers on this scale do not particularly like
helping those in need. Requests for help feel like an imposition rather than an
opportunity for self-fulfilment.
Cooperation. Individuals who score high on this scale dislike confrontations.
They are perfectly willing to compromise or to deny their own needs in order
to get along with others. Those who score low on this scale are more likely to
intimidate others to get their way.
Modesty. High scorers on this scale do not like to claim that they are better
than other people. In some cases this attitude may derive from low selfconfidence or self-esteem. Nonetheless, some people with high self-esteem
find immodesty unseemly. Those who are willing to describe themselves as
superior tend to be seen as disagreeably arrogant by other people.
Sympathy. People who score high on this scale are tender-hearted and
compassionate. They feel the pain of others vicariously and are easily moved
to pity. Low scorers are not affected strongly by human suffering. They pride
themselves on making objective judgments based on reason. They are more
concerned with truth and impartial justice than with mercy.
Conscientiousness Facets
Self-Efficacy. Self-Efficacy describes confidence in one's ability to accomplish
things. High scorers believe they have the intelligence (common sense),
drive, and self-control necessary for achieving success. Low scorers do not
feel effective, and may have a sense that they are not in control of their lives.

Orderliness. Persons with high scores on orderliness are well-organized. They

like to live according to routines and schedules. They keep lists and make
plans. Low scorers tend to be disorganized and scattered.
Dutifulness. This scale reflects the strength of a person's sense of duty and
obligation. Those who score high on this scale have a strong sense of moral
obligation. Low scorers find contracts, rules, and regulations overly confining.
They are likely to be seen as unreliable or even irresponsible.
Achievement-Striving. Individuals who score high on this scale strive hard to
achieve excellence. Their drive to be recognized as successful keeps them on
track toward their lofty goals. They often have a strong sense of direction in
life, but extremely high scores may be too single-minded and obsessed with
their work. Low scorers are content to get by with a minimal amount of work,
and might be seen by others as lazy.
Self-Discipline. Self-discipline-what many people call will-power-refers to the
ability to persist at difficult or unpleasant tasks until they are completed.
People who possess high self-discipline are able to overcome reluctance to
begin tasks and stay on track despite distractions. Those with low selfdiscipline procrastinate and show poor follow-through, often failing to
complete tasks-even tasks they want very much to complete.
Cautiousness. Cautiousness describes the disposition to think through
possibilities before acting. High scorers on the Cautiousness scale take their
time when making decisions. Low scorers often say or do first thing that
comes to mind without deliberating alternatives and the probable
consequences of those alternatives.

Neuroticism Facets
Anxiety. The "fight-or-flight" system of the brain of anxious individuals is too
easily and too often engaged. Therefore, people who are high in anxiety often
feel like something dangerous is about to happen. They may be afraid of
specific situations or be just generally fearful. They feel tense, jittery, and
nervous. Persons low in Anxiety are generally calm and fearless.
Anger. Persons who score high in Anger feel enraged when things do not go
their way. They are sensitive about being treated fairly and feel resentful and
bitter when they feel they are being cheated. This scale measures the
tendency to feel angry; whether or not the person expresses annoyance and
hostility depends on the individual's level on Agreeableness. Low scorers do
not get angry often or easily.
Depression. This scale measures the tendency to feel sad, dejected, and
discouraged. High scorers lack energy and have difficult initiating activities.
Low scorers tend to be free from these depressive feelings.
Self-Consciousness. Self-conscious individuals are sensitive about what others
think of them. Their concern about rejection and ridicule cause them to feel

shy and uncomfortable abound others. They are easily embarrassed and
often feel ashamed. Their fears that others will criticize or make fun of them
are exaggerated and unrealistic, but their awkwardness and discomfort may
make these fears a self-fulfilling prophecy. Low scorers, in contrast, do not
suffer from the mistaken impression that everyone is watching and judging
them. They do not feel nervous in social situations.
Immoderation. Immoderate individuals feel strong cravings and urges that
they have difficulty resisting. They tend to be oriented toward short-term
pleasures and rewards rather than long- term consequences. Low scorers do
not experience strong, irresistible cravings and consequently do not find
themselves tempted to overindulge.
Vulnerability. High scorers on Vulnerability experience panic, confusion, and
helplessness when under pressure or stress. Low scorers feel more poised,
confident, and clear-thinking when stressed.
Openness Facets
imagination. To imaginative individuals, the real world is often too plain and
ordinary. High scorers on this scale use fantasy as a way of creating a richer,
more interesting world. Low scorers are on this scale are more oriented to
facts than fantasy.
Artistic Interests. High scorers on this scale love beauty, both in art and in
nature. They become easily involved and absorbed in artistic and natural
events. They are not necessarily artistically trained or talented, although
many will be. The defining features of this scale are interest in, and
appreciation of natural and artificial beauty. Low scorers lack aesthetic
sensitivity and interest in the arts.
Emotionality. Persons high on Emotionality have good access to and
awareness of their own feelings. Low scorers are less aware of their feelings
and tend not to express their emotions openly.
Adventurousness. High scorers on adventurousness are eager to try new
activities, travel to foreign lands, and experience different things. They find
familiarity and routine boring, and will take a new route home just because it
is different. Low scorers tend to feel uncomfortable with change and prefer
familiar routines.
Intellect. Intellect and artistic interests are the two most important, central
aspects of openness to experience. High scorers on Intellect love to play with
ideas. They are open-minded to new and unusual ideas, and like to debate
intellectual issues. They enjoy riddles, puzzles, and brain teasers. Low scorers
on Intellect prefer dealing with people or things rather than ideas. They
regard intellectual exercises as a waste of time. Intellect should not be
equated with intelligence. Intellect is an intellectual style, not an intellectual
ability, although high scorers on Intellect score slightly higher than lowIntellect individuals on standardized intelligence tests.
Liberalism. Psychological liberalism refers to a readiness to challenge

authority, convention, and traditional values. In its most extreme form,

psychological liberalism can even represent outright hostility toward rules,
sympathy for law-breakers, and love of ambiguity, chaos, and disorder.
Psychological conservatives prefer the security and stability brought by
conformity to tradition. Psychological liberalism and conservatism are not
identical to political affiliation, but certainly incline individuals toward certain
political parties.
It is possible, although unusual, to score high in one or more facets of a
personality trait and low in other facets of the same trait. For example, you
could score highly in Imagination, Artistic Interests, Emotionality and
Adventurousness, but score low in Intellect and Liberalism.

[3.6] Overview of Emotional Intelligence

The systematic study of emotional intelligence is often dated to the early

1990s, when scientific articles suggested that there existed an unrecognized
but important human mental ability to reason about emotions and to use
emotions to enhance thought.

Journalistic accounts of emotional intelligence in books and magazines of the

mid-1990s explained the concept to an interested public -- but not without
introducing some crucial inaccuracies. Moreover, much has been learned
about emotional intelligence since those early writings.

So what is emotional intelligence really? This area of the site describes

emotional intelligence and a key model of the concept. To learn more, click on
the associated topics (the narrative will appear beneath the menu).
The Four Branch Model of Emotional Intelligence

The four branch model of emotional intelligence describes four areas of

capacities or skills that collectively describe many of areas of emotional
intelligence (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). More specifically, this model defines
emotional intelligence as involving the abilities to:

accurately perceive emotions in oneself and others

use emotions to facilitate thinking

understand emotional meanings, and

manage emotions

Background

By the late 1980's, psychologists, evolutionary biologists, psychiatrists,

computer scientists, and others, had identified a number of human capacities
involved in identifying and understanding emotions. These human capacities
-- involving emotional information processing -- had been examined in scores
of research articles.

One means of organizing the many research contributions was to divide them
into different areas according to the nature of the abilities they examined. In
1990, Salovey and I proposed that these abilities made up a unitary
emotional intelligence. We further suggested that emotional intelligence (and
the research that pertained to it) could be divided into three broad areas (and
further sub-areas), as shown in Figure 1 of this article. After further reviews,
we saw the need to add an additional area. The full four-branch model was
published in 1997 in Figure 1.1 of this book chapter.

What Are the Four Branches?

1. PERCEIVING EMOTION. The initial, most basic, area has to do with the
nonverbal reception and expression of emotion. Evolutionary biologists and
psychologists have pointed out that emotional expression evolved in animal
species as a form of crucial social communication. Facial expressions such as
happiness, sadness, anger, and fear, were universally recognizable in human
beings. Emotions researchers, evolutionary biologists, specialists in nonverbal
behavior, and others, have made tremendous inroads into understanding how
human beings recognize and express emotions. The capacity to accurately

perceive emotions in the face or voice of others provides a crucial starting

point for more advanced understanding of emotions.

2. USING EMOTIONS TO FACILITATE THOUGHT. The second area appeared

every bit as basic as the first. This was the capacity of the emotions to enter
into and guide the cognitive system and promote thinking. For example,
cognitive scientists pointed out that emotions prioritize thinking. In other
words: something we respond to emotionally, is something that grabs our
attention. Having a good system of emotional input, therefore, should helped
direct thinking toward matters that are truly important. As a second example,
a number of researchers have suggested that emotions are important for
certain kinds of creativity to emerge. For example, both mood swings, and
positive moods, have been implicated in the capacity to carry out creative
thought.

3. UNDERSTANDING EMOTIONS. Emotions convey information: Happiness

usually indicates a desire to join with other people; anger indicates a desire
to attack or harm others; fear indicates a desire to escape, and so forth. Each
emotion conveys its own pattern of possible messages, and actions
associated with those messages. A message of anger, for example, may
mean that the individual feels treated unfairly. The anger, in turn, might be
associated with specific sets of possible actions: peacemaking, attacking,
retribution and revenge-seeking, or withdrawal to seek calmness.
Understanding emotional messages and the actions associated with them is
one important aspect of this area of skill.

Once a person can identify such messages and potential actions, the capacity
to reason with and about those emotional messages and actions becomes of
importance as well. Fully understanding emotions, in other words, involves
the comprehension of the meaning of emotions, coupled with the capacity to
reason about those meanings. It is central to this group of emotionally
intelligent skills.

(For a more advanced discussion of emotional information, see the section,

"Similarities and Differences Between Emotional and Cognitive Information"
in this article).

4. MANAGING EMOTIONS. Finally, emotions often can be managed. A person

needs to understand emotions convey information. To the extent that it is
under voluntary control, a person may want to remain open to emotional
signals so long as they are not too painful, and block out those that are
overwhelming. In between, within the person's emotional comfort zone, it
becomes possible to regulate and manage one's own and others' emotions so
as to promote one's own and others' personal and social goals. The means
and methods for emotional self-regulation has become a topic of increasing
research in this decade.

Other Comments on the Four Branch Model

The term, "branch," came into use in reference to the figures that presented
the precursor and present models. Figures in both papers (1990 & 1997)
contained lines that branched off from a central point. So, the term "branch"
conveys no specific scientific meaning; calling the model a "four-area model"
would have worked as well.

The branches are arranged from the areas most specifically related to the
emotions-area (perceiving emotions) to the areas most general to personality
(managing emotions).

Within each branch, skills can be identified that are early-developing (e.g., in
childhood), and skills that await greater maturity.

This four-branch model represents what today has become called the ability
model of emotional intelligence.

Relation of the Models to the Popularizations

The first formal model of emotional intelligence -- the 1990 model -- was the
one Daniel Goleman relied on in his popularization of the field -- although his
representation of the model was quite a bit broader and more expansive than
our original (Goleman, 1995, p. 43).

Dr. Goleman's book is a lively, entertaining journalistic account that covers

many interesting studies. His enlargement of our model, however, had the
unfortunate effect, of suggesting to some that nearly every human style or
capacity that was not IQ itself was a part of emotional intelligence. These
included motives, social skills, all forms of self-regulation, and warmth,
among many other attributes. The problem with this idea is that those
different psychological qualities are separate and independent from one
another -- both conceptually and empirically (e.g., they do not correlate).
Moreover, most of them have little to do directly and specifically either with
emotion or intelligence. Lumping them together created considerable
conceptual confusion. Today, such models are called "mixed models," as they

mix many attributes unrelated to emotion, intelligence, or emotional

intelligence, in with the emotional intelligence concept.
Who Is Emotionally Intelligent -- And Does It Matter?

A Description of the High EI Individual

Generally speaking, emotional intelligence improves an individual's social

effectiveness. The higher the emotional intelligence, the better the social
relations. In a recent review, my colleagues and I described the emotionally
intelligent person in these terms:

The high EI individual, most centrally, can better perceive emotions, use
them in thought, understand their meanings, and manage emotions, than
others. Solving emotional problems likely requires less cognitive effort for this
individual. The person also tends to be somewhat higher in verbal, social, and
other intelligences, particularly if the individual scored higher in the
understanding emotions portion of EI. The individual tends to be more open
and agreeable than others. The high EI person is drawn to occupations
involving social interactions such as teaching and counseling more so than to
occupations involving clerical or administrative tasks.

The high EI individual, relative to others, is less apt to engage in problem

behaviors, and avoids self-destructive, negative behaviors such as smoking,
excessive drinking, drug abuse, or violent episodes with others. The high EI
person is more likely to have possessions of sentimental attachment around
the home and to have more positive social interactions, particularly if the
individual scored highly on emotional management. Such individuals may
also be more adept at describing motivational goals, aims, and missions.
(Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004, p. 210)

Note that the specific kind of boost that emotional intelligence gives the
individual will be subtle, and as a consequence, require some effort to
identify. It will not be exhibited in all social circumstances.

Nonetheless, EI Is Important

Some of us accomplish certain tasks with great ease and sophistication;

others of us simply can't do those tasks. This is the case with most challenges
we face in life. Some of us are great chess players while others of us have
trouble just figuring out how the pieces move. Some of us are fabulous
conversationalists, while others of us have trouble just saying hello.

Now, the world could do without the game of chess, and the world could do
without fabulous conversationalists, but it would be a poorer place for it.

Emotional intelligence is an intelligence having to do with discerning and

understanding emotional information. Emotional information is all around us.
Emotions communicate basic feeling states from one individual to another -they signal urgent messages such as "let's get together" or "I am hurting" or
"I'm going to hurt you."

What ability tests of emotional intelligence tell us is that only some people
can pick up and understand and appreciate the more subtle versions of those
messages. That is, only the high EI individual understands the full richness
and complexities of these communications.

Emotional information is crucial. It is one of the primary forms of information

that human beings process. That doesn't mean that everybody has to process
it well. But it does mean that it is circulating around us, and certain people
who can pick up on it can perform certain tasks very well that others cannot
perform.

We all need emotional intelligence to help us through our emotionally

demanding days. Even if we are not emotionally intelligent ourselves, we may
rely on those higher in emotional intelligence to guide us.

But guide us to what? What is it that people high in emotional intelligence

can see that so many others are blind to? The key to this lies in what those
high in emotional intelligence are particularly good at doing themselves.

They're particularly good at establishing positive social relationships with

others, and avoiding conflicts, fights, and other social altercations. They're
particularly good at understanding psychologically healthy living and avoiding
such problems as drugs and drug abuse. It seems likely that such individuals,
by providing coaching advice to others, and by directly involving themselves
in certain situations, assist other individuals and groups of people to live
together with greater harmony and satisfaction.

So, perhaps even more important than scoring high on an emotional

intelligence test, is knowing one's level at this group of skills. Discovering
one's level means that you can know whether and how much to be self-reliant
in emotional areas, and when to seek others' help in reading the emotional
information that is going on around oneself. Whether one is high or low in
emotional intelligence, is perhaps not as important as knowing that emotional
information exists and that some people can understand it. Knowing just that,
one can use emotional information, by finding those who are able to
understand it and reason with it.

This is the information age. All of us are dependent on information and using
it wisely. The advent of the ability model of emotional intelligence enriches
our knowledge of the information surrounding us -- it tells us emotional
information is there and that some people can see it and use it. The model
encourages all of us to use emotional information wisely -- whether through
our own direct understanding, or through the assistance of those who do
understand.

[3.7] "All learning has an emotional base."

-- Plato

The ability to express and control our own emotions is important, but so is
our ability to understand, interpret, and respond to the emotions of others.
Imagine a world where you couldn't understand when a friend was feeling sad
or when a co-worker was angry. Psychologists refer to this ability as
emotional intelligence, and some experts even suggest that it can be more
important than IQ.

Learn more about exactly what emotional intelligence is, how it works, and
how it is measured.

What is Emotional Intelligence?

Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to perceive, control and

evaluate emotions. Some researchers suggest that emotional intelligence can
be learned and strengthened, while others claim it is an inborn characteristic.

Since 1990, Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer have been the leading
researchers on emotional intelligence. In their influential article "Emotional
Intelligence," they defined emotional intelligence as, "the subset of social
intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings
and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to
guide one's thinking and actions" (1990).

The Four Branches of Emotional Intelligence

Salovey and Mayer proposed a model that identified four different factors of
emotional intelligence: the perception of emotion, the ability reason using
emotions, the ability to understand emotion and the ability to manage
emotions.

Perceiving Emotions: The first step in understanding emotions is to accurately

perceive them. In many cases, this might involve understanding nonverbal
signals such as body language and facial expressions.
Reasoning With Emotions: The next step involves using emotions to promote
thinking and cognitive activity. Emotions help prioritize what we pay attention
and react to; we respond emotionally to things that garner our attention.
Understanding Emotions: The emotions that we perceive can carry a wide
variety of meanings. If someone is expressing angry emotions, the observer
must interpret the cause of their anger and what it might mean. For example,
if your boss is acting angry, it might mean that he is dissatisfied with your

work; or it could be because he got a speeding ticket on his way to work that
morning or that he's been fighting with his wife.
Managing Emotions: The ability to manage emotions effectively is a key part
of emotional intelligence. Regulating emotions, responding appropriately and
responding to the emotions of others are all important aspect of emotional
management.
According to Salovey and Mayer, the four branches of their model are,
"arranged from more basic psychological processes to higher, more
psychologically integrated processes. For example, the lowest level branch
concerns the (relatively) simple abilities of perceiving and expressing
emotion. In contrast, the highest level branch concerns the conscious,
reflective regulation of emotion" (1997).

[3.1] http://www.16personalities.com/intp-strengths-and-weaknesses
[3.2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-esteem#Types
[3.3] http://personalityspirituality.net/articles/what-is-personality/
[3.4] http://www.psychometric-success.com/personality-tests/personalitytests-big-5-aspects.htm
[3.5] http://www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personality-type/mbti-basics/the16-mbti-types.htm
[3.6] http://www.unh.edu/emotional_intelligence/ei%20What%20is%20EI/ei
%20what%20is%20home.htm
[3.7]
http://psychology.about.com/od/personalitydevelopment/a/emotionalintell.ht
m

POSITION & STATUS

[4.1] Status and Role

The term has two sociological uses:

1.

R. Linton (1936) defined status simply as a position in a social system,

such as child or parent. Status refers to what a person is, whereas the closely
linked notion of role refers to the behaviour expected of people in a status.

2.
Status is also used as a synonym for honor or prestige, when social
status denotes the relative position of a person on a publicly recognized scale
or hierarchy of social worth. (See 'Social Stratification').

It is the first meaning of the term status, status as position, which we are
going to refer to in the following paragraphs. Status as honour or prestige is a
part of the study of social stratification.

A status is simply a rank or position that one holds in a group. One occupies
the status of son or daughter, playmate, pupil, radical, militant and so on.
Eventually one occupies the statuses of husband, mother bread-winner,
cricket fan, and so on, one has as many statuses as there are groups of which
one is a member. For analytical purposes, statuses are divided into two basic
types:
- fixed for an individual at birth. Ascribed statuses that exist in all societies
include those based upon sex, age, race ethnic group and family background.

Similarly, power, prestige, privileges, and obligations always are differentially

distributed in societies by the age of the participants. This has often been
said about the youth culture in the U.S. because of the high value Americans
attach to being young. Pre-modern China, by contrast, attached the highest
value to old age and required extreme subordination of children. The
perquisites and obligations accompany age change over the individual's
lifetime, but the individual proceeds inexorably through these changes with
no freedom of choice.

As the discussion implies, the number and rigidity of ascribed statuses vary
from one society to another. Those societies in which many statuses are
rigidly prescribed and relatively unchangeable are called caste societies, or at
least, caste like. Among major nations, India is a caste society. In addition to
the ascribed statuses already discussed, occupation and the choice of
marriage partners in traditional India are strongly circumscribed by accident
of birth. Such ascribed statuses stand in contrast to achieved statuses.

- Achieved statuses are those which the individual acquires during his or her
lifetime as a result of the exercise of knowledge, ability, skill and/or
perseverance. Occupation provides an example of status that may be either
ascribed or achieved, and which serves to differentiate caste-like societies
from modern ones. Societies vary in both the number of statuses that are
ascribed and achieved and in the rigidity with which such definitions are held.
Both ascribed and achieved statuses exist in all societies. However, an
understanding of a specific society requires that the interplay among these
be fully understood. For Weber class is a creation of the market situation.
Class operates in society independently of any valuations. As Weber did not
believe in the economic phenomena determining human ideals, he
distinguishes status situation from class situation.

According to Linton, status is associated with distinctive beliefs about the

expectations of those having status, as for example, the status of children.
Other common bases for status are age, sex, birth, genealogy and other
biological constitutional characteristics. However, status, according to Linton,
is only a phenomenon, not the intrinsic characteristic of man but of social
organization. What matters is not what you really are, but what people
believe you to be. At times, some confuse the two terms, status and role.
Status defines who a person is, as for example, he is a child or a Negro, or a
doctor; whereas, role defines what such a person is expected to do, as for
example, he is too young to work, he should care about parents etc.

A common method of identifying the statuses in a social system is to discover

the list of status-designators, as for example, kinship status typically begins
with a list of kin terms and their usage. One other characteristic feature of
status, as understood today, is that any person can have more than one
status. Generally, no status in any social situation encompasses one person.
Also, it has to be kept in mind those statuses and persons are not only
distinct concepts but also at distinct levels of analysis. Besides, in sociology it
is status, rather than person, which is more useful as a tool of analysis.

Why we should treat these two terms as separate can be argued on various
grounds. First, two persons having quite different characters may possess
similar observable conduct if they have the same status, as for example, very
acquisitive and very altruistic doctors may behave in much the same way.
Secondly, two persons having the same character, very often, have different

observable conduct because of having two different statuses. Thirdly, even

two persons having similar characters but having two different statuses show
very often different observable conduct, as for example, a docile son and a
kind father.

Thus, in society, which in reality is a social system where interaction occurs

between actors, status but not person in important. If we treat person as the
unit of such a system we must discover a basic personality structure which is
an impossible task. On the other hand, it is easy to comprehend status
although it is an abstract concept. Status is the most elementary component
of the social system which is equally abstract.

Interaction between two actors occurs not as persons but as two having
statuses. A social position is always defined in relation to a counter position,
as for example, a doctor to a patient, to a nurse, and to the hospital
administrator. In other words, the basic unit of analysis for social system is
not status itself but the relation of two statuses. The first writer to do
considerable work in this field was Merton in 1957. According to him, there
are three aspects of status. To illustrate, Mr. Pandey is a doctor must have
social relations with nurses, patients, other doctors, hospital administrators,
and so on, that is, a role set. If Mr. Pandey is also a husband, a father, a
member of Hare-Krishna cult and a municipal councilor, it is a status set. And
the process, by which Mr. Pandey became a doctor, required that he first be a
medical student, then an intern and then a resident, that is, a status
sequence.

Since what is known as status is related to other statuses, the interaction of

statuses is a very crucial one. Stable interaction systems depend on the
emergence of normative expectations. Once it emerges, such expectations
are not created anew every time. Two new actors encounter each other. The
idea underlying this statement is that every actor is sensitive to the attitudes
others will have towards him. Every actor, therefore, tends to feel tense and
upset if he is unable to define the social situation in such a way that the
behaviour of the other is predictable.

A more dynamic feature of this series of social interactions is the idea that
each action implies a status and each status action. Therein each actor
reveals how he defines a situation by the way he behaves, and thus provides

other actors with cues to their own statuses in the situation.

Although the interaction of statuses is normally satisfactory, at times,

confusion might arise because of status ambiguity. If, however, an actor has
more than one status, the attitudes of any two statuses may be either
compatible or incompatible with their demands on the person. If two statuses
that are activated in the same situation are incompatible it would be difficult
for each status occupant to know how to interact with the other, because it
will be difficult for him to know which status is the basis of their interaction.
Such ambiguities are a source of strain and discomfort and people either get
out of such situations or wish that they be changed.

The term social role is borrowed by social scientists originally from the Greek
Drama. The word person comes from the Latin word persona, which originally
meant a mask. Greek actors wore masks when they performed in their
drama. This leads us directly to the definition of the concept of social role. A
social role is a set of social norms that govern a person's behaviour in a group
and determine his relationships with other group members. Put somewhat
differently a role is the expected pattern of behavior associated with a given
social status. Status and role are reciprocal aspects of the same
phenomenon. Status, or position, is the static aspect that fixes the
individual's position in a group; role is the dynamic behavioral aspect that
defines how the person who occupies the status should behave in different
situations.

Individuals in a society behave according to certain standard patterns of

behaviour or roles. These standard patterns of behaviour are determined by
the social position or the status which the individual occupies in society
because it is these social positions which lay down norms by indicating which
individual should observe which norms. In other words, status refers to a
collection of norms; and each society classifies its members into a more or
less elaborate system of statuses. Each of the statuses involves a role, set of
behaviour or action-patterns that people belonging to a given status are
expected to perform. One plays as many roles as he has statuses. A given
man may both concurrently and sequentially enact the roles of husband,
father bread-winner, and football fan and so on. Social roles may be linked to
blue-prints for behaviour that are handed to the individual, hypothetically,
when he becomes a member of a group. As such these constitute the group's
expectations concerning how one would behave. Thus, whereas the status of
a person tells us what he is, his role will tell us what he does as a member of

a status group.

Despite this fundamental difference between the two, statuses and roles are
very closely interlinked. There are no roles without statuses and no statuses
without roles. Indeed, there are some exceptions. Though all statuses imply
some role or roles, it is not always possible to infer people's statuses from
what they do, as for example, two persons, who bear the title of knighthood
and thus holding same social positions, might be performing completely
different roles. Also, many statuses are wholly or partly defined with
reference to roles which their occupants are expected to perform. Example
policemen, poets, etc.

The importance of role was recognized from 1936 when Linton presented the
first systematic statement identifying role as a segment of culture. He also
held the view that role was related to social status. Much work has been done
after Linton in the form of experimental study. Many studies have shown that
lack of clarity and consensus in role conceptions is a contributory factor in
reducing organizational effectiveness and morale.

Since the concept is being extensively used, some differences appear in its
usage. Some writers treat role and actual behavior of an individual to be one
and the same. Most of the writers treat role as expected behavior and role
behavior as an enactment. Another interpretation is that role is a specific
behavior or conditioned response. Finally, some treat role as a part to be
learnt and played.

Despite these differences, all sociologists agree to the following

characteristics of role. It is believed that when roles are stabilized, the role
structure persists regardless of changes in the actors. In some families when
the parents become disorganized and become childish, a child suddenly
blossoms into responsibility and helps to supply the family leadership. As the
roles get stabilized, an individual adopts a given role; and if he fails to fulfill
the role expectation, he will be regarded as a violator of the terms of
interaction.

The above functioning of the role is determined, to some extent, by the

organizational setting which supplies both direction and constraint to the

working of the as for said processes. If the role structure is incorporated in an

organizational setting, the latter's goals tend to become the crucial criteria
for role differentiation, legitimacy of expectation, and judgments of adequacy.

Secondly, depending on the level of integration with the organizational

setting, roles get linked with statuses in the organization.

Thirdly, depending on the extent to which the roles are incorporated with an
organizational setting, each tends to develop a pattern of adaptation to
incorporate other roles. A teacher in a public school must incorporate within
his role pattern, his role adaptations to pupils, parents, other teachers and
the principal. Merton describes several mechanisms that are employed to
minimize conflict in the role-set.

Fourthly, when roles are incorporated with the organisational setting they
persist as tradition and formalization. Finally, the place of role is determined
by society itself; for, society is based on accommodation among many
organizations. Society introduces multiple organisational references for roles,
and multiplies roles for the actor. A view from society's perspective shows
that roles in different contexts tend to become merged. One example is our
tendency to speak of male and female roles of heroic and unheroic roles while
seeking meaning and order in simple human interactions. Viewed from the
perspective of society, differentiation of roles gets linked with social values. If
the societies and the individuals' assigned roles are consistent with each
other the roles tend to get merged with social values. A glaring example is
our tendency to use age, sex and occupation as qualifying criteria for the
allocation of other roles.

In the end we have to say that it is actor who faces the strain; for, the
dynamic hinges on his management of the several roles in his repertoire. This
may come about through failure of role cues, gross lack of consensus and so
forth. This situation results in an individual adopting his own repertoire of role
relationship as a framework for his own behaviour, and as a perspective for
the interpretation of the behaviour of others. When the individual forms a
self-conception by selective identification of certain roles as his own to be
held in his repertoire, the individual is said to develop a sense of personal
prestige, which is likely to be reflected in his bearing, his self-assurance and
other aspects of his interpersonal relations.

In general, the concept of role is crucial in all sociological analyses which

attempt to link the functioning of the social orders with the characteristics
and behaviour of the individuals who belong to that order. A study of roles
provides a comprehensive pattern of social behaviour and attitudes. It
constitutes a strategy for coping with a recurrent type of situation. It is
socially identified as an entity. It can be played recognizably by different
individuals, and it supplies a major basis for identifying and placing persons
in a society.

[4.1] http://www.sociologyguide.com/basic-concepts/Status-and-Role.php

Third Dimension - 3000 Realms

[5.1]
Nichiren's practice of chanting 'Nam-myoho-renge-kyo' with faith in our
inherent Buddha nature actualizes the principles of ichinen sanzen in the life
of the practitioner. More than enabling one to see things from a different
perspective, Nichiren's teaching emphasizes our ability to positively
transform the world for the benefit of oneself and others.

Each person's life contains infinite potential; this is the core belief of Nichiren
Buddhism. While it may be easy to accept this in a theoretical sense, in
reality we tend to impose limits on our possibilities. To a large extent we
define our lives in terms of these perceived or unconscious limitations--I am
able to do this but not that. We can exist quite comfortably within our own
self-imposed limits, but when we come up against a problem or challenge and
we feel we lack the ability or the spiritual resources to overcome it, we suffer.
We feel overwhelmed or helpless, afraid.

Buddhist practice enables us to draw on inexhaustible inner reserves of

courage, hope and resilience to surmount challenges and expand our lives
and to help others do the same. "Buddhahood" describes this dynamic,
compassionate life condition, and a Buddha is someone who has firmly
established this condition as their predominant reality. Most people, however,
are unaware of this possibility or how to actualize it.

The renowned sixth-century Buddhist scholar T'ien-t'ai (538-97) developed a

meditative practice to enable people to perceive the boundless extent of their
lives at each moment. He also developed a theoretical system to describe
this reality. He called this "three thousand realms in a single moment of life"
(Jpn. ichinen sanzen). Ichinen sanzen demonstrates that the entire
phenomenal world exists in a single moment of life.

The number three thousand is arrived at through the following calculation: 10

worlds or potential conditions of life, which are each mutually inclusive (10 x
10) x 10 factors x 3 realms of existence.

Ten Worlds

The Ten Worlds are, in ascending order of desirability: Hell, Hunger, Animality,
Anger, Humanity, Heaven (or Rapture), Learning, Realization, Bodhisattva and
Buddhahood. These are distinct but fluid life states that every person
experiences. They describe all the possible conditions of life, and at any
moment we are in one or other of these "worlds." Hell is the world of selfabsorbed misery; Hunger is a condition of craving; in the world of Animality
one either fawns on others or seeks to dominate them depending on whether
one perceives them as more or less powerful than oneself; Anger is the world
of competitiveness and jealousy masked by the pretense of virtuousness;
Humanity is a state of rational calm; Heaven is the world of desires fulfilled;
Learning is the joy of expanding one's knowledge; Realization includes the
absorbed world of creative pursuit; Bodhisattva is the devoted spirit of
service to others; and Buddhahood is the most creative and wholly positive
potentiality. Each of these worlds contains the potential for the other nine,
meaning that you can bring out your Buddhahood while also living your life as
an ordinary human being.

While the Ten Worlds describe differences among people and phenomena, the

Ten Factors describe elements common to all things. The first three are (1)
appearance (what can be seen), (2) nature (inherent disposition, which
cannot be seen) and (3) entity (the essence of life that permeates and
integrates appearance and nature). The next six factors explain how our lives
interact with others and with the environment surrounding us. (4) Power is
potential energy and (5) influence is when that inherent energy is activated.
(6) Internal cause, (7) relation, (8) latent effect and (9) manifest effect
describe the mechanisms of cause and effect--the law of causality to which all
things are subject: internal causes latent within one's life (positive, negative
or neutral), through relation with various conditions, produce manifest effects
as well as latent effects which become manifest in time.

Causality

To offer a simple analogy, internal cause could be compared to sediment at

the bottom of a glass of water, and relation to a spoon that stirs the water.
The effect is the clouding of the water. Without the internal cause of the
sediment, no amount of stirring will produce cloudy water. A remark or
incident may cause one person to fly into a rage or sink into a sense of deep
injury, while for another person the same external stimulus might produce no
effect.

The 10th factor, consistency from beginning to end, means that the Ten
Factors are consistent for each of the Ten Worlds. That is, the world of Hell
has the appearance, nature, essence, manifest effect, etc., of Hell, all of
which are different for the other worlds.

The Three Realms are (1) the realm of the five components, (2) the realm of
living beings and (3) the realm of the environment. These could be thought of
simply as, from the standpoint of a human being, the person, society and the
environment.

T'ien-t'ai derived ichinen sanzen from principles elucidated in the Lotus Sutra,
the Buddhist scripture that is the foundation of Nichiren Buddhism as
practiced by SGI members. Nichiren (1222-82) described ichinen sanzen as
"the heart and core of the teachings put forward by the Buddha in the course
of his lifetime." It is the essential principle of Nichiren Buddhism.

This framework is in effect a kind of map of our relationship to the world. It

shows us that life is not fixed but fluid, and that our perception of things can
shift from moment to moment. For someone in a depressive state of hell, the
world appears constricted, dark and hopeless. Problems are overwhelming
and tortuous. Past, present and future seem bleak. Yet, some minor shift in
our perception, a ray of hope, an encouraging word or response can instantly
transform everything.

When our perspective changes, the world itself appears different. When we
believe in the potential for change in each moment, when we start to have
faith in our Buddhahood, the meaning that we discover in our surroundings
changes.

While this may sound simple enough, changing our fundamental perspective
can be very difficult. T'ien-t'ai developed a profound but notoriously difficult
meditation practice around the theory of ichinen sanzen to enable people to
perceive their Buddhahood. Six hundred years later, on the basis of T'ient'ai's theory and the principles of the Lotus Sutra, Nichiren developed a
simple and effective practice that can be carried out by anyone in any
circumstances.

Nichiren's practice of chanting "Nam-myoho-renge-kyo" with faith in our

inherent Buddha nature actualizes the principles of ichinen sanzen in the life
of the practitioner. More than enabling one to see things from a different
perspective, Nichiren's teaching emphasizes our ability to positively
transform the world for the benefit of oneself and others.

Nichiren expresses the reality of ichinen sanzen in the following terms: "Life
at each moment encompasses the body and mind and the self and
environment of all sentient beings in the Ten Worlds as well as all insentient
beings in the three thousand realms, including plants, sky, earth, and even
the minutest particles of dust. Life at each moment permeates the entire
realm of phenomena and is revealed in all phenomena."

Because of the deep interrelationship of our life and all phenomena at each

moment, a change in our inner life exerts an influence on all things and
brings about a change in our environment or circumstances, ultimately
transforming the world itself. As SGI President Daisaku Ikeda writes, "The
power of belief, the power of thought, will move reality in the direction of
what we believe and conceive of it." Our strong resolve or prayer permeates
the entire phenomenal world, its influence manifesting more strongly as we
take action.

The practice developed by Nichiren and carried out within the SGI encourages
people to make ceaseless efforts to manifest the limitless potential of their
own life, to confront and overcome the obstacles to happiness both within
themselves and in society and thereby, beginning where they are now, to
make the world a better place.

[5.2] The doctrine of The Three Thousand Realms In One Mind forms the
essence of the Makashikan, a twenty-section work in which Tien-tai Chin-i of
China systematized various teachings included in the Lotus Sutra developed.
Nichiren, regarded Chin-i's doctrine of The Three Thousand Realms In One
Mind as the essence of the Buddha's teachings.

Nichiren was a Buddhist monk who lived during the Kamakura period (1185
1333) in Japan. Nichiren taught devotion to the Lotus Sutra, entitled MyhRenge-Ky in Japanese, as the exclusive means to attain enlightenment and
the chanting of Namu-Myh-Renge-Ky as the essential practice of the
teaching. Various schools with diverging interpretations of Nichiren's
teachings comprise Nichiren Buddhism.

In class we discussed this very important doctrine and I will attempt to

explain it here. Please leave comments correcting what I have

misunderstood or omitted.

Our mind continuously cycles between different mental states. This is easy
to see. We attend the christening of a newborn and you feel love for the child
and the family. Following the service you drop you car keys and bending over
bang your head on the car - now your in pain and irritated at yourself; you
pull out of the parking lot and get side-swiped by a stranger swerving all over
the place - now your mad; the other driver grins at you, flips you off and
speeds away - now your incensed and want revenge; you recklessly chase
after him and hit a pedestrian - now your in your own private hell. This
example is a bit extreme but points out how we move continuously without
notice through these various mental states.

The the six mental states and four spiritual states taught in Buddhism are:
Hell - as defined by a mind consumed by anger.
Hungry Spirits - as defined by a mind dominated by greed associated with the
uncontrolled and unsatisfied desire for things.
Animal - as defined by a mind that acts on instinct alone without wisdom,
precaution or reservation and unconcerned by the consequences of its
actions.
Demons - as defined by a mind that is self-centered in everything.
Human Beings - as defined by a mind that is aware of and operates above the
four lower mental states.
Heaven - as defined by a mind filled with the temporary joy to be found
though the senses in experiencing the things in the world. This joy is
opposed to the unchanging joy gained through the Buddha's enlightenment.
Shravakas - one who has learned by way of the Dharma
Pratyekabuddhas - one who follows the way.
Bodhisattvas - one who practices the way for the sake of others.
Buddhas - one who has become awakened.
Buddhism teaches that we each have a great cause, which is to become
enlightened. Because we are born with a Buddha nature, ie., we are, 1.
unawakened, 2. capable of mercy, 3. capable of compassion and 4. capable

of joy, and we are human so we are pre-wired to find the meaning in our
lives, and so we are endowed with both the characteristics and curiosity to
advance spiritually. The great cause is never played out in a single lifetime,
instead it is subject to our interaction with our karma. I have spoke earlier of
karma as a force controlled by the accumulation of all our deeds in all our
lifetimes. The purpose of karma is to help you to become enlightened. If you
are an angry person, karma will present situations that exercise your anger so
that you can understand your anger and move beyond it. Having mastered
your anger it no longer has control over you, freeing you to advance (be
reborn) into a higher state.

Regardless of which state we are 'born into', there exists the potential for us
to experience the other states of mind. I say 'born into' because most of us
live predominately (ie., consistently) in a single state of mind. If you are a
murderer, you were likely born into the state of Hell, and although you are
still capable of experiencing any of the other nine states of mind, you mental
state is dominated by anger.

We can envision our current existence as bounded within ring with 10 spheres
attached to it, each sphere representing a state of mind. Lets say if you were
born into a state Hell, the sphere representing Hell is much bigger than the
other nine spheres. Assume the sizes of the spheres are proportional to the
amount of time spent in the corresponding mental state, but for the sake of
this example one sphere within the ring will always be the largest.

Buddhism teaches that life is permeated by a mechanism of cause-actionreaction that is directly influenced by our mental state - our attitude. The
doctrine of the Ten Suchnesses, states that all things (subjects) can be
defined by its: (1) Scope (including appearance), (2) Nature, and (3) Essence.
Its (4) Power and (5) Function define the subjects potency and purpose in
conducting Lifes activities. The next four characteristics define the causes
and effects that connects the subjects past, present and future: (6) Latent
Causes, (7) External Causes, (8) Potential Effects and (9) Manifest Effects.
The last characteristic, (10) Order, keeps everything working with one
another in a consistent manner assuring the continuity of existence.

Lets assume that your karma influences the causes, conditions and effects
you experience. Also, if your are murderer, your karma in this lifetime will

share similarities with all the other murderers, so lets put all the murderers in
your ring.

Now lets stack nine rings on top of yours, each with a different dominant
sphere, with the top five rings starting with the ring for Human Beings, then
Shravakas, Pratyekabuddhas, Bodhisattvas and lastly Buddhas, and divide all
sentient beings into their respective rings.

In the doctrine of "Nothing has and Ego", Buddhism teaches that nothing
exists in and of itself. Humans are actually a frail species and can't exist
without food and air. Similarly vegetation needs water and sunlight to exist.
And so on and so on, we see that everything has a dependent nature. The
notion of being an individual is a mental construct of the 'Self' which make us
feel independent from the rest. Some natural conclusions from this concept
is that hurting or destroying other people or things in turn hurts or destroys
you because we are all interdependent. Additionally we are all
interconnected because we all are made from the same stuff of life - atoms.
For these reasons, Buddhism teaches that the ego you experience is false,
and that the true reality is that all of life is a unified shared experience and
there is no ego.

In our tower of ten rings we see all people interconnected and affecting each
other, working out their own karmic hindrances and moving through the
various mental state of existence, and through rebirth moving amongst the
rings. For most of the time, with the exception of those spiritually mature
beings, we carry out our life with ourselves as the center of focus. Every
action is calculated to derive either a benefit, or minimum harm to us, only in
selected cases do we act as a collective.

In the doctrine of "The Three Thousand Realms In One Mind", it states three
perspectives where we think and act as a collective, putting aside our
individual goals; the environment, the nation, and the world. Now given that
this work was developed a very long time ago, these three categories may
seem reasonable, but they do not translate well to modern day. Nevertheless
we finally arrive at the source for the rather mystic title of the doctrine. The
number three thousand comes from ten mental states times ten suchnesses
times ten human/spiritual realms times three worldly perspectives. If we
consider that in each moment of time this complex drama plays out and that

because we are all interconnected it can be said that we share a common

consciousness or one mind.

[5.3] N/A

[5.4] N/A

[5.1] http://www.sgi.org/buddhism/buddhist-concepts/three-thousand-realmsin-a-single-moment-of-life.html
[5.2] http://mindyourbuddha.blogspot.com/2011/04/three-thousand-realmsin-one-mind.html
[5.3] http://www.nichirenlibrary.org/en/wnd-2/Content/180
[5.4] http://www.nichirenlibrary.org/en/wnd-2/Content/178