H63SSD

Solid State Devices

Dr. Mumtaj Begam
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Room: DB24

Extn. 3488
Email: Mumtaj.Begam@nottingham.edu.my

Prerequisites
An understanding of the physics of semiconductor materials
A good understanding of p-n junctions
Understanding of the nature of signals in information transfer
Basic understanding of calculus and differential equations
Co-requisites: None

Teaching

- Lecture 2hrs
Thursday: 11:00 -13:00 @ F1A09

- Tutorial 1hr (Example sheet discussion)

Monday: 15:00 -16:00 @ F1A10

Method of Assessment

Assessments:
1% Written Exam Paper (2 hours - 3 compulsory
questions)

Student Evaluation (Feedback)

Student evaluation of teaching (SET)
Evidence from student evaluation of teaching is required for all
professors, readers, senior lecturers, lecturers, teaching fellows and
other University of Nottingham staff with responsibilities for teaching
who have either a full-time or part-time (50% or more) contract with the
University.
All teaching staff are to be evaluated by students for the purposes of
appraisal.

Student evaluation of module (SEM)

SEM is required to gather feedback from students on modules for
curriculum development.
SEM should be implemented as part of a school's 'Course Review'
strategy.

Aims and Objectives of the module

To introduce students to the internal operation of
commonly
used
electronic
and
optoelectronic
semiconductor devices
To illustrate how the device design and performance
relates to the underlying materials and physical
processes
To illustrate how the demands of the targeted application
affect the device design

Module Contents
Develop a detailed understanding of the internal operating
mechanisms of semiconductor electronic and opto-electronic
devices
Focus on devices based on pn junctions (e.g. diodes, bipolar
junction transistors) and devices based on MOS capacitors (e.g.
memory cells, CCD detectors, MOSFETs)
Consider how the targeted application for a device impacts upon its
design. (For example, signal-mixing diodes, power diodes, lightemitting diodes and solar cells are all based upon the pn diode, but
provide very different functionality)
Discuss the characteristics required of these devices in relation to
their incorporation into appropriate electronic systems

Learning Outcomes
By the end of the module, students should be able to:

demonstrate a good understanding of the operating principles and

underlying physical processes used in electronic and optoelectronic
semiconductor devices

relate the performance limitations of semiconductor devices to the

underlying physical processes and materials properties

demonstrate an appreciation of how the performance requirements

of different applications influences the device design

Modern semiconductor Devices and

Applications
Diodes

- Power rectification, signal mixers

Photodetectors

- Telecommunications, Optical sensors/switches

Solar cells

- Power generation (space/remote applications)

LEDs

- Indicators, Displays

Laser diodes

- Telecommunications, CD players, Surgery,

printers/displays

MOS capacitor

- Dynamic Random Access memories (DRAMS)

CCDs

- Imaging, Detectors

FETs

- VLSI, CCD arrays

Bipolar Transistors

- Power electronics, Electronics

Thyristors

- Power electronics
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Approach

Explore two of the most important structures pn junction diodes and

MOS capacitors
Develop an understanding of the devices based on pn junctions (eg.
LED/lasers and photodetector/solar cells)
Develop an understanding of devices based on MOS capacitors (e.g.
CCD arrays and MOSFETs)

10

What does solid-state mean in relation

to electronics?

Solid-state gets its name from the path

that electrical signals take through solid
pieces of semi-conductor material

Prior to the use of solid-state devices,

such as the common transistor, electricity
passed through the various elements
inside of a heated vacuum tube

Solid-state devices, such as a transistor,

use conductors to control the flow of
signals through a circuit

Solid-state electronic devices are part of

our everyday lives

The transistor, invented in 1947 by Bell

Labs, was the first solid-state device to
come into commercial use in the 1960s

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Basic information

To understand why solid-state devices function as they do, we will have to

examine closely the composition and nature of semiconductors. This entails
theory that is fundamental to the study of solid-state devices.

Rather than beginning with theory, let's first become reacquainted with some
of the basic information you studied earlier in the previous module.

The UNIVERSE consists of two main parts-matter and energy.

MATTER is anything that occupies space and has weight. Rocks, water,
and air are examples of matter.

Matter may be found in any one of three states: solid, liquid and
gaseous.

It can also be composed of either an element or a combination of

elements.

An ELEMENT is a substance that cannot be reduced to a simpler form by

chemical means. Iron, gold, silver, copper, and oxygen are all good
examples of elements
12

Basic information

A COMPOUND is a chemical combination of two or more elements.

Water, table salt, ethyl alcohol, and ammonia are all examples of
compounds.

A MOLECULE is the smallest part of a compound that has all the

characteristics of the compound. Each molecule contains some of
the atoms of each of the elements forming the compound.

The ATOM is the smallest particle into which an element can be

broken down and still retain all its original properties. An atom is
made up of electrons, protons, and neutrons. The number and
arrangement of these particles determine the kind of element.

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Basic information

An ELECTRON carries a small negative charge of electricity.

The PROTON carries a positive charge of electricity that is equal

and opposite to the charge of the electron. However, the mass of
the proton is approximately 1,837 times that of the electron.

The NEUTRON is a neutral particle in that it has no electrical

charge. The mass of the neutron is approximately equal to that of
the proton.

14

Basic information

An ELECTRON'S ENERGY LEVEL is the amount of energy

required by an electron to stay in orbit.

Just by the electron's motion alone, it has kinetic energy.

The electron's position in reference to the nucleus gives it potential

energy.

An energy balance keeps the electron in orbit and as it gains or

loses energy, it assumes an orbit further from or closer to the
center of the atom.

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Basic information

CHEMICAL REACTIVITY OF AN ATOM:

The chemical activity of an atom is determined by the number of

electrons in its valence shell.

When the valence shell is complete, the atom is stable and shows
little tendency to combine with other atoms to form solids.

Only atoms that possess eight valence electrons have a complete

outer shell.

These atoms are referred to as inert or inactive atoms.

However, if the valence shell of an atom lacks the required number

of electrons to complete the shell, then the activity of the atom
increases.

16

Basic information

SHELLS and SUBSHELLS

Shells and Subshells are the orbits of the electrons in an atom.

Each shell can contain a maximum number of electrons, which can

be determined by the formula 2n2.

Shells are lettered K through Q, starting with K, which is the

closest to the nucleus.

The shell can also be split into four subshells labeled s, p, d, and f,
which can contain 2, 6, 10, and 14 electrons, respectively. (see
Figure)

17

Basic information

VALENCE is the ability of an atom to combine with other atoms.

This shell is referred to as the VALENCE SHELL.

The valence of an atom is determined by the number of electrons

in the atom's outermost shell. The electrons in the outermost shell
are called VALENCE ELECTRONS.

IONIZATION is the process by which an atom loses or gains

electrons.

An atom that loses some of its electrons in the process becomes

positively charged and is called a POSITIVE ION.

An atom that has an excess number of electrons is negatively

charged and is called a NEGATIVE ION.

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What is a SOLID?

The collection of densely packed atoms is called a SOLID. In other

words, isolated atoms are brought together to form a solid.

The volume density of atoms in a solid matrix contains ~ 1022 atoms/cm3

as per the following simple relation:

Density = No. of atoms in the unit cell/ volume of crystal

The volume density of atoms represents the order of magnitude of

density for most materials.

However, the actual density is a function of the crystal (solid) type and
crystal structure since the packing density number of atoms per unit
cell depends on crystal structure.

According to band theory of solids, the solids can be classified on the

basis of their resistivity () as metals (conductors), semiconductors and
insulators.
19

Crystalline and amorphous

Broadly speaking, these solids (conductor, semiconductor and

insulators) can fall into one of two categories: those which possess
long-range-order in the disposition of their atoms, and those which
do not.

The first type of material is known as a crystal (single crystal or

polycrystalline), while the second is termed an amorphous
material.

Single crystal structure Polycrystalline structure

Amorphous structure

20

Atomic structure of Silicon

21

Energy band theory

Metals are good conductors of electricity - have "free electrons" that can move
easily between atoms, and electricity involves the flow of electrons.
In silicon crystals all of the outer electrons are involved in perfect covalent bonds,
so they can't move around. A pure silicon crystal is nearly an insulator -- very little
electricity will flow through it.
The interaction between the electrostatic field of the atoms splits each energy level
into two (Pauli Exclusion Principle).
Many atoms are brought together, the split energy levels form essentially
continuous bands of energies.

22

Energy band theory

Energy arrangement

At the distance between atoms

equilibrium interatomic spacing (Si:
5.43 )
The Band splits into two bands,
separated by forbidden gap (band
gap),
upper band : conduction band
(completely empty of electrons
at 0K)
lower band: valence band (fully
occupy by electrons at 0K)

atom

atom in a solid

Note: With such a small gap, the

presence of a small percentage of a
doping material can increase
conductivity dramatically.
23

Energy band theory

10-8

Metals

10-4

100

104

Semiconductors

108

1012

1016

1020

( -cm)

Insulators

24

Insulator, conductor & semiconductor

Empty c.b

Insulator, Eg = 7 eV
No conduction is possible even under the
influence of an electric field.
Ex: Diamond, Glass, SiO2, Al2O3, etc.

Energy gap

Conductor, no energy gap

Conduction band & valence band very close
to one another & may even overlap; high
conductivities
Ex: Copper, aluminum, silver, etc.

v.b

Partly filled c.b

Semiconductor, Eg ~ 1.1 eV (narrow gap)

Conductivities lie in between insulators and
conductors.
At zero degree temp. - behaves as an
insulator.
Sensitive to temperature, illumination,
magnetic field and impurity atoms.
Ex: Si, Ge and GaAs
Compound semiconductor:
III-V compounds: GaAs and InP
II-VI compounds: CdS and ZnSe

v.b. filled up with electrons

Bottom of conduction band

Ec
Eg= Ec-Ev
Ev
Top of valence band

25

Semiconductors Electrical properties

Semiconductors partially conduct electricity

Their conductivity can be controlled by introducing dopant impurities

Their conductivity can be changed by more than 8 orders of magnitude from

semi-insulating to semi-metallic

How does conduction occur in a semiconductor?

How do dopant impurities change the conductivity?
The valence and conduction bands are responsible for most of the
interesting electrical and optical properties of a semiconductor
material.

26

Intrinsic semiconductors

Silicon and germanium, are the most frequently used semiconductors

Both are quite similar in their structure and chemical behavior

Silicon has 14 electrons. The four electrons that orbit the nucleus in the
outermost, or "valence," energy level are given to, accepted from, or
shared with other atoms

The sharing of valence electrons between two or more atoms produces a

COVALENT BOND between the atoms

27

Intrinsic semiconductors
There are no energy levels in the band gap in a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor.
Physically, Eg corresponds to the energy needed to remove a valence electron
from its orbit to turn it into a conduction electron (leaving a hole behind, a hole
is the vacancy created by moving an electron from VB to CB).
At T = 0 K, the valence band (VB) is completely full and the conduction band
(CB) is completely empty.
No conduction in conduction band (i.e., no electron)
No conduction in valence band.
Hence no net current
At T > 0 K, increases, electrons jump from VB to CB to form electron-hole
pairs.

Thermal generation of an electron-hole pair

A hole is a fictitious, positively charged particle created in the
valence band by the removal of an electron.
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Then the number of holes in the valence band or the number of electrons
in the conduction band is given by

Where Nc and Nv are the effective density of states in the conduction

and valence bands.
Conductivity for an intrinsic semiconductor is given by

where
represent the mobility of electrons and holes
respectively.

n varies with temperature and different for different semiconductors.

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Extrinsic semiconductor
Injecting a foreign atom into an intrinsic semiconductor.

Foreign atom injected is called dopant or impurity.

The process is called doping and the dopants are elements from gp.
III (B, Al, In, Ga) and V(As, P, Sb).

The impurity-added semiconductors are known as doped

semiconductors.
These semiconductors have unequal concentration of
electrons and holes - called extrinsic semiconductors.
Almost all semiconductor devices employ extrinsic
semiconductors.Why???

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N-type semiconductors
If a group IV (see Figure below) semiconductor (eg. Si), is
doped with a group V element such as P ( which has five
electrons), the spare electron occupies an energy level just
below the CB.

Si+
4

Si+
4

Si+
4

Si+
4

As
+5

Si+
4

Si+
4

Si+
4

Si+
4

Conduction
electron

P has 5 valence electrons

Four electrons make covalent bonds with Si
atoms.
Fifth electron bound to P atom by weak
electrostatic forces
31

N-type semiconductors
We normally assume that at room temperature all of these spare
electrons pick up enough energy (Only a small thermal energy (kT/q at
290K = 0.025eV) to be excited to the CB, producing Nd conduction
electrons/m3, i.e., to a good approximation,
. (In an n-type
semiconductor,
). This process leaves behind positively charged
donor atoms. That is,

Since impurity atoms donates one free electron - called donor atom or
donor.
The electron concentration will be more than the intrinsic carrier
concentration (ni) and becomes higher than the hole concentration.
The semiconductor is called n-type semiconductor.
Here, electrons are the majority, termed majority carriers whereas the
holes are the minority - termed minority carriers.

32

P-type semiconductors
If Si is doped with a group III dopant such as B, an acceptor level is
created just above the VB.
This level can accept electrons from the VB, leaving behind holes.
That is,

for p-type SCs, so

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P-type semiconductors
At 0K the hole remains bound to the impurity atom but breaks away
from it at higher temperature and wanders freely in the crystal. An
impurity atom that contributes a hole is called an acceptor because it
accepts a bound electron from the covalent bond.
These atoms ionize at room temperature, contributing one hole per
impurity atom.
The crystal has an excess of holes - called p-type semiconductor.
If the crystal is doped with both donor and acceptor, neither electrons
nor holes will be produced - process known as compensation.
If donors exceed acceptor - n-type vice versa for p-type.
If electron and hole concentrations are the same - fully compensated.
Properties different from intrinsic.

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E-k diagram
Electron-Hole product:

At equilibrium, n x p = ni2
where ni depends on temperature.
Probability Function:
The probability of a level at energy E being occupied by
an electron is given by the Fermi function:

where EF is the Fermi Energy (or Fermi Level) and is the

energy at which the probability of occupation is 0.5.
Similarly, the probability of a state at E being occupied by a
hole is [1- f(E)].
35

E-k diagram
Each electron state in the valence and conduction bands has an energy
and a momentum associated with it. Sometimes, it is useful to represent
these bands as an energy-vs-momentum plot (E vs k) plot of the
energy states which make up the bands.

36

Direct band gap semiconductors

In a direct band gap semiconductor (e.g:
GaAs, InP, CdS etc), the top of the valence
band and the bottom of the conduction band
occur at the same value of momentum.

Direct transition:

A photon of energy h =Eg

can excite an electron from
the top of valence band
directly into a state at the
bottom of the conduction
band.
If electron from c.b. decays
to v.b., radiation (photons)
will be emitted*.

photons

*Application as
lasers & LED
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Indirect band gap semiconductors

Indirect transition:
The valence band maximum and the lowest conduction band minimum are at different
values of k. Direct transition of the electron from VB to CB by a photon of energy Eg is
not possible.
Because a photon has a very small momentum whereas the transition involves a
change in momentum. The transition can occur indirectly by cooperation of a lattice
phonon (vibrational modes) which can supply the required momentum.

CB
a

VB

This is called an indirect semiconductor. In the above case, most of the CB

electrons are near a and most of the holes are near a, so a a transitions do
happen. But they are phonon transitions, not PHOTON transitions. So silicon is
not suitable for LEDs, for instance.

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The difference between the two is most important in optical devices

Some semiconducting elements and compounds at 300 K

39

DBGS and IBGS

Indirect
semiconductor in which bottom of the conduction
band
band does not occur at effective momentum k=0,
gap
i.e. is shifted with respect to the top of the valence
semico
band which occurs at k=0; energy released during
nductor
electron recombination with a hole is converted
primarily into phonon; e.g. Si, Ge, GaP.
direct
semiconductor in which the bottom of the conduction
band
band and the top of the valence band occur at the
gap
momentum k=0;in the case of d.b.s. energy released
semico
during band-to-band electron recombination with a
nductor
hole is converted primarily into radiation (radiant
recombination); wavelength of emitted radiation is
determined by the energy gap of semiconductor;
examples of d.b.s. GaAs, InP, etc.
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Text Books and Reference Books

Text Books:

1. Solid State Electronic Devices (6th edition), Ben G.

Streetman & Sanjay Kumar Banerjee, Pearson
Prentice Hall, 2006. ISBN: 0132017202

2. Semiconductor Devices, S.M. Sze, Wiley InterScience, ISBN: 0471056618.

Reference Books:

1. Semiconductor Physics and devices (2nd edition),

Donald A. Neamen, McGraw-Hill.

2. Semiconductor device fundamentals, Robert F.

Pierret, Addison Wesley
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