Professional Documents
Culture Documents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT OPERATIONS LAB MANUAL ........................................................................................................................................1
TABLE OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................................................................3
TABLE OF TABLES .....................................................................................................................................................................3
CALIBRATION OF THE ROTAMETER FLOW STAND .......................................................................................................4
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
PROCEDURE ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
DATA REQUIRED ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
EVALUATION ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
THE STUDY OF LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW .......................................................................................................8
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
THEORY .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
PROCEDURE ...............................................................................................................................................................................................10
PART 1. DETERMINATION OF FLOW TYPE IN RELATION TO REYNOLDS NUMBER............................................... 10
PART 2. VELOCITY DISTILLATIONS ............................................................................................................................................. 11
DATA REQUIRED ......................................................................................................................................................................................11
EVALUATION .............................................................................................................................................................................................11
FRICTION LOSSES IN PIPE FITTINGS ............................................................................................................................... 13
INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................................................................................13
THEORY ........................................................................................................................................................................................................14
DATA REQUIRED ......................................................................................................................................................................................15
EVALUATION .............................................................................................................................................................................................15
THE ORIFICE METER.............................................................................................................................................................. 16
THEORY ........................................................................................................................................................................................................16
DATA REQUIRED ......................................................................................................................................................................................20
EVALUATION .............................................................................................................................................................................................21
FLUID FRICTION LOSSES ...................................................................................................................................................... 22
THEORY ........................................................................................................................................................................................................22
DATA REQUIRED ......................................................................................................................................................................................23
EVALUATION AND DISCUSSION........................................................................................................................................................24
EFFLUX TIME FOR TANK AND PIPE .................................................................................................................................. 25
INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................................................................................25
THEORY ........................................................................................................................................................................................................25
DATA REQUIRED ......................................................................................................................................................................................29
EVALUATION .............................................................................................................................................................................................29
TABLE OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1. ROTAMETER APPARATUS........................................................................................................................................7
FIGURE 2. THE REYNOLDS FLOW STUDY APPARATUS ..................................................................................................................8
FIGURE 3. TWO SECTIONS OF PIPE JOINED BY A COUPLING.........................................................................................................14
FIGURE 4. DIAGRAM OF ORIFICE METER .................................................................................................................................17
FIGURE 5. DIAGRAM OF ORIFICE METER AT TAP 2 ....................................................................................................................19
FIGURE 6. A DIAGRAM OF THE TANK OF WATER AND AN EFFLUX PIPE...........................................................................................25
TABLE OF TABLES
TABLE 1. APPARATUS MEASUREMENT ERRORS .........................................................................................................................5
TABLE 2. RAW DATA TABLE ...................................................................................................................................................6
TABLE 3. REYNOLDS VALUE REGIONS ...................................................................................................................................12
TABLE 4. FLOW CONDITIONS .........................................................................................................................................27
PROCEDURE
The procedure listed below is for the use of rotameter 3. The same concept can be applied to any
other rotameter.
Start-up Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Operating Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Adjust inlet globe valve (G1) until rotameter three at desired flow percentage
Place empty bucket near outlet hose
Start timer and place hose inside bucket simultaneously
Fill bucket roughly halfway for flow percentages equal to or below 60; fill to top for the rest
Pull hose away from bucket and stop timer simultaneously (jot down time)
Turn inlet globe valve (G1) off
Weight bucket (jot down weight)
Reset stop watch, drain bucket
Return to step 1
Shut-down Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Measurement Device
Scale
Rotameters
Stopwatch
Error
0.01 kg or 0.05 lbs
0.5% flow
0.005 seconds (Reading error: 0.5 seconds)
DATA REQUIRED
1) Obtain time(seconds)
2) Obtain mass of bucket(lb.)
3) Obtain mass of water(lb.)
An example of how the results should be recorded is represented in the table below.
TABLE 2. RAW DATA TABLE
Flow [%]
( 1)
85
20
45
30
75
65
20
85
30
45
75
Time [s]
( 0.5)
Weight [lb]
( 0.05)
Bucket
Weight [lb]
Final
Weight [lb]
Observations
Note: It is important to make sure that the flow percentages are randomized. This is a common
practice in data collection.
EVALUATION
1) Plot the data and create regression fits.
2) Compare plots of identical rotameter regression fits
3) Determine best fit line for each rotameter
Note: When performing a linear regression analysis for raw and correct, students should use excel
and IBM SPSS statistics.
A fine filament of dye was injected into the center of the streams of fluid as it flows out of the
storage tank. Reynolds found out that for a low or laminar flow condition the filament of dye
remained unchanged as it flowed through the tube. However, as the flow rate was increased the dye
filament began to show a wavy pattern and if the flow rate increased into the turbulent region the
dye filament tended to break up and the dye was dispersed into the flowing fluid. The point at
which the dye begins to disperse into the fluid is sometimes referred to as the critical velocity. Prior
to this velocity being reached, the viscous forces in the fluid will dampen out any type of
disturbances in the flow. However, above the critical velocity the forces of inertia are increased and
disturbances in the flow will not be dampened out and will cause the dispersion of the dye filament.
Thus, the Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter which is the ratio of the inertia forces to
the dampening forces (forces of viscosity). The Reynolds number is expressed as:
=
Where:
8
THE STUDY OF LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW | Unit Operations Lab Manual
THEORY
This laboratory experiment will be divided into two sections. The first of which will be to use an
apparatus similar to that of Reynolds to determine the ranges of laminar and turbulent flow as well
as the transition region between them.
The second part of the experiment will concern the velocity profiles that exist in the pipe at the
various types of flow patterns. Although there are many shapes of velocity distribution possible,
only the linear cases will be discussed here.
Linear Velocity Equation:
=
Where a and b are constants.
Boundary Conditions:
B.C. # 1:
r=0 ,
r=R ,
B.C. #2:
THE STUDY OF LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW | Unit Operations Lab Manual
=
Volume Flow Rate:
0 0
Volume:
2
(
0 0
2
2 3
|
2
2 ( ) 2
|
2
3
2
0
= 2 3 ( ) 2
Special Cases of Linear Flow:
1) Plus Flow:
=
2
2 ( ) 2
3
= 2
2) No Flow Along Pipe Wall:
= 0
2
2 ( 0) 2
3
1
volume = 3 vmax R2
PROCEDURE
PART 1. DETERMINATION OF FLOW TYPE IN RELATION TO REYNOLDS NUMBER
In order for the students to see the basic differences between laminar and turbulent flow the first
step is to set a very slow water flow rate of water through the glass tube. Open the valve that
controls the flow of the dye solution (a very dilute solution of potassium permanganate in water)
until a fine filament is noticeable in the fluid flow. The water flow rate should be checked to make
certain that is well into the laminar region.
10
THE STUDY OF LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW | Unit Operations Lab Manual
From now on, this type of flow will be designated as level 0 flow. The next step is to greatly increase
the water flow and dye flow proportionally until the flow rate is well into the turbulent region. This
type of flow will be designated as equal to level 1 flow. From now on it will be up to the student to
record the flow type of laminar as 0, turbulent as 1, the types of flow between these two levels will
be given fractional values between 0 and 1.
DATA REQUIRED
For the water flow:
a)
b)
c)
d)
EVALUATION
1) Calculate the Reynolds number from the Reynolds equation on page 5 for each flow rate
used and plot this result versus the type of flow found (from level 0 to 1). The
boundaries of the transition region should be marked off and compared with published
levels of of 2,000 and 4,000.
2) From the experimental velocity data calculate the estimated volume flow rates of the
water.
Compare these estimated values to the actual measured volume flow rate, and comment on
which formula gives the closest to actual rates for the following regions of Reynolds
numbers:
11
THE STUDY OF LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW | Unit Operations Lab Manual
12
750
750
1500
1500
2100
2100
4000
4000
6000
6000
And above
THE STUDY OF LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW | Unit Operations Lab Manual
P1
+ g Z1 +
c
1 2 1
v
2gc
P2
+ g Z2 +
c
2 2 2
v
+Hf
2gc
Where represents the losses due to friction in the pipe, these friction losses can be calculated for
laminar flow by the use of Hagen-Poiseville Relation for circular tubes. This relation can be written
as follows:
=
32
2
The subscript s is used to indicate that this equation only calculates friction losses, where the fluid
comes in contact with the pipe walls. As can be seen from this relationship it only takes into
consideration the Length (L) and diameter (D) of the pipe. However, in most real cases there will be
fittings such as couplings or unions and valves. Thus it will be the purpose of this laboratory
experiment to examine the effect of fittings and valves on the pressure drop across a section of pipe.
13
THEORY
Although there are several means of calculating or expressing the pressure drop across fittings or
valves, this laboratory will consider only the equivalent resistance in pipe diameters ( ). It has
been found that if the equivalent length is expressed as a length of pipe in feet divided by the
internal diameter of the pipe also in feet, it is almost independent of the size of the pipe or fitting in
the laminar flow regions.
Let us consider two sections of pipe (A&B) joined by a coupling, ( C ).
The pressure drop ( ) could be calculated by use of the Bernoulli Equation and the HagenPoiseville Relation if the length was known. But since there is a coupling in the pipe, the length
may not be equal to the physical length of the system ( + ). Thus, if the friction drop across
the coupling could be specified as a length of pipe then the equation for the friction drop for the
system could be used and the equivalent length of the system would then be specified as:
= + +
The easiest means to determine the value of is by experimentation. First, determine for a long
length of pipe (L) the pressure drop ( ) in inches of water. Then measure the pressure drop
across the pipe fitting (P) in inches. Assume that the fitting of interest will fit the same diagram
that was presented for the coupling. The value measure includes a length of pipe before and
after the fitting. Thus it will be required to find the pressure drop for just the fitting ( ). This ca
be calculated by:
= + ( + )
14
Where:
= Pressure drop for just the fitting (inches of water)
= Pressure drop for fitting and connecting pipes (A&B) in (inches of water)
= Length of connecting pipe A (ft.)
= Length of connecting pipe B (ft.,)
= Pressure drop for long length of pipe of the same diameter and material as that of the
connecting pipes, measured at the same flow conditions as .
L=Length of long pipe over which was measured.
The value calculated is of little use in this particular form, thus it must be changed to a more
useful form. As was mentioned earlier the equivalent resistance in pipe diameters is the form that
will be used for this laboratory. Thus the equivalent resistance in pipe diameters ( ) can be
calculated as follows:
= (
1
)( )
Where:
=Actual internal diameter of the pipe (ft.)
In actual use, find the particular value for for each type of fitting in a system and the number of
each type of fitting. Then the equivalent length of pipe for all the fitting equals the sum of the
number of each type of fitting times its factor times the actual internal diameter (ft.) of the pipe.
DATA REQUIRED
1) Determine , , , for each type of fitting.
2) For the reference pipe, determine L, , .
EVALUATION
1) Determine for each type of fitting and mounting.
2) Compare values determined experimentally with those published.
3) Compare values for the threaded and sweat fitted pipe fitting.
15
THEORY
A diagram of an orifice meter is given as follows:
16
Mass Balance:
1 = 2 =
=
Where:
W=mass flow rate
=density
=bulk velocity
A=cross sectional area
Mechanical Energy Balance (Bernoulli Equation):
=
2 2 1 2 2 1 1
+
+ 2 +
+ 2
22
21
Where:
= bulk velocity
P=pressure of fluid
=friction loss factor
=density
3
The coefficient is used to correct for the assumption that:
2 =
If there is no work done by the fluid on the system and the pressure taps are on the same level, then
2 2 1 2 2 1 1
=
+
+ 2 +
+ 2
22
21
2
Reduces to:
=
2 2 1 2 2 1 1
+
+ 2
22
21
2 1
1
2 1
( + ) +
2 2 1
Solving for and converting it into the equation for mass flow rate by:
=
Yields
1
2( 2
)
=
1
1
2 1 +
In order to simplify this equation there will be three assumptions made.
1) The fluid fraction effect is negligible and thus =0.
2) The velocity profile at tap 1 is flat, thus has the value of unity(1 =1).
3) The velocity profile at tap 2 has the following configuration
18
Where:
= cross- sectional area of orifice hole
=cross-sectional area of pipe
The velocity outside the plug flow is assumed to be equal to zero.
3
3
[3 ( ) ] + [3 ( ) ]
2 ( 2 1)
2
1
2
To account for the errors made in the assumptions, an orifice coefficient ( C ) is used, and to correct
for the discrepancy between the pound-force units of pressure and the pound-mass units of density
the gravitational factor is added. Thus the equation in final form is written as:
2
2
1
2
Where:
W=mass flow rate (lb./sec)
C=orifice coefficient
A=area of pipe ( 2 )
=density (lb./ 3 )
P = pressure drop (lb/ 2 )
=area of orifice ( 2 )
As can be seen, C is a function of the location of taps, roughness of pipe, flow rate, etc. Thus it is
necessary to determine the actual value of C for each orifice instillation experimentally. The overall
orifice coefficient ( ) is just the combination of all of the fixed valves in the denominator of the
final equation and the coefficient C.
It is given as:
= 2
=
2
21
And is dimensionless.
DATA REQUIRED
1) Calibration of orifice meter: actual mass flow rate and meter reading.
2) Determine the overall orifice coefficient ( ), orifice, P, W, Temperature.
20
EVALUATION
1) Calibration curve for orifice meter in gal/min flow.
2) Evaluate , .
Note:
=
= 2
Or
Log W = log N + 0.5 log P
Graph on a log-log plot, flow rate(W) vs. pressure drop(P) and compare the slope value to 0.5 and
the intercept valve to 2 . Use the average of for this calculation.
21
THEORY
For our experiment we will consider friction losses in syphon tubes of various diameters and
lengths. We will begin our analysis of our system by applying the law of conservation of energy to
the flow of an incompressible fluid in a circular tube. The law results in the Bernoulli Equation. For
our case we will use the equation in the form corrected for the fluid friction.
1
21
2
22
+ 1 +
= + 2 +
+
2 1
2 2
Where:
P = absolute pressure (lb. / 2 )
V=average linear velocity ft. /sec
=density of fluid lb. / 3
=Newtons law conversion factor 32.174
22
(1 2 ) =
+
2 2
22
22
(1 2 )
2 2
is composed of various friction losses i.e., contraction losses , losses in the bend and loss
due to the friction in the tube .
= + +
=
2 2
2
4 2
2
L= length of tube
D= inside diameter of tube
F= fanning friction factor
=resistance due to 180 return bend. Assume this loss to be equivalent to the loss in a straight
tube equal to 50 tube diameters in length.
We can now rewrite the equation:
=
2 2 4( + 50) 2
+
2
2
2
22
22
4( + 50)
(1 2 )
=
( +
)
2 2 2
41 2 2
2
= 1
From equation 5 we can calculate the friction loss in a straight tube ( + 50)1 ft. long.
16
=Reynolds number
f=0.00140 + 0.125 0.32
DATA REQUIRED
23
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
41 2 2
2
5. Make a plot of friction factor vs. Reynolds number for all runs.
6. What is the transition range of for each plot in 5? Does that diameter of the tubing have
any effect on this transition range?
7. Do the plots in 5 agree within experimental accuracy with the plots found in the literature
and texts? If not, why?
24
THEORY
A diagram of the system for analysis is given as follows:
2
Where:
25
EFFLUX TIME FOR TANK AND PIPE | Unit Operations Lab Manual
2
=
+
2
The term is the friction losses and is composed of the following terms:
Constriction losses =
2
2
4 2
2
26
= 2
EFFLUX TIME FOR TANK AND PIPE | Unit Operations Lab Manual
Becomes:
=
2
2 4 2
+
+
2
2
2
2 1
4
[ + +
]
2
As the tank is allowed to drain the fluid head (h) decreases as a result, the velocity and the Reynolds
number in the pipe decreases accordingly; thus, the general flow regions can be expressed as:
TABLE 4. FLOW CONDITIONS
Laminar
Turbulent
=1.05 to 1.1
=0.40 to 0.55
=0.5
=0.88 to 0.97
2
2
(3 +
) where B = 3
2
2
(1.6 +
) where B = 1.6
Since it is assumed a non-compressible flow system, then a velocity balance on the system leaders
to:
= (
Where:
, equal the cross sectional areas of the pipe and tank respectively in 2
A general expression for equation =
2 1
[
2
+ +
4
] can be
written as:
2
4
+ =
( +
)
2
The problem that now arises is that the friction factor (f) is a function of the Reynolds number. If
the Reynolds does not change greatly from h + L to L then it may be considered to be a constant and
not as a function of dh. For the turbulent flow situation, the chart in McCabe and Smith, Unit
Operations for chemical engineers indicates that this is the case for f as a function of . However,
for the laminar flow situation, if the change in the Reynolds Number is small then the
27
EFFLUX TIME FOR TANK AND PIPE | Unit Operations Lab Manual
approximation that f=16/ can be made. Considering just the turbulent flow case, the equation
() can be rearranged and written as:
=
0
4 1 2
+
2 1 +
4 1
+
[1 + 2 + ]
16
16
=
+ =(
4
2
)
(
)
to give:
2 1
64 2
) ( ) ( + 2
)(
)
The value of B for laminar flow is 3.0, for most all situations that will be encountered in this
64
experiment the term 2 will be quite large in comparison to B. Thus it can be justified to drop the
2 1
64
2
)
(
) ,
2
1 64
)( )( 2 )(
)
2
1 64 2
= ( ) ( ) ( 2 )
2 1 +
0
28
32
1 +
(
)
2
2 +
EFFLUX TIME FOR TANK AND PIPE | Unit Operations Lab Manual
The average Reynolds number for any test run can be calculated by:
=
2 (1 2 )
Where:
d= diameter of tank (ft.)
D= diameter of pipe (ft.)
T=time (sec)
DATA REQUIRED
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
EVALUATION
1) For the turbulent systems:
a) Compare the average f value determined experimentally by
=
4
1
2 [1
Reynolds Number.
b) Comment on the assumptions made in the derivation of
= +
4
1
2 [1
+ 2 + ].
32
+
(1 +) with
2
2
16
and other
32
+
(1 +).
2
2
the
3) How do the diameter and length interact with each other as factors that affect the efflux
time? Are they additive or non-additive?
4) Whats the effect of pipe length on efflux time? Can you theoretically justify this?
5) Whats the effect of pipe diameter on efflux time? Can you theoretically justify this?
29
EFFLUX TIME FOR TANK AND PIPE | Unit Operations Lab Manual