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ElectricalComponents

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navigationlighting

OperationWhenthedoublepoleswitchisclosedthenavigationlightisilluminated.
Currentintherelaycircuitcausestherelaycoiltoenergisesocontact'a',maybe
attractedto'b'.Alowvoltagelamponlyisneededfortheindicatinglamp,sothereisa
smallvoltagedropacrossthatpartofthecircuit.Iftheindicatinglampfailsthecircuit
iscompletedthroughtheresistanceC,sothenavigationlightdoesnotfail.
Ifthenavigationlightfails,orifafuseblowsthecurrentinthecircuitceasesandthe
relaydeenergises.Contact'a'springsbacktocontact'b'andthebuzzercircuitis
completed.
Incaseoffailureofshipsmains,thedoublepoleswitchmaybeswitchedoverto
emergencysupply.

Requirements
Circuitsuppliedfromdistributionboardprovidedforthatpurposewhichiseasily
accessibletotheofficerofthewatch.
Mustbeconnecteddirectlyorthroughatransformertothemainoremergency
switchboard.Noswitchesinbetween.
Provisiononthebridgetotransferlightstoalternativesourceofsupply.
Eachnavigationlightmustbecontrolledandprotectedatbothpolesbyaswitch
andfuse,orcircuitbreaker,mountedONthedistributionboard.
Eachprovidedwithautomaticindicationofextinctionoflightbyauraland/or
visualindication.
Thevisualdevicemustbesoconnectedthatitsfailuredoesnotextinguishthe
navigationlightcircuit

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Typesoffluorescentlights
Dischargelamps
Coldcathodetypeonlyusedfordecorativelighting
Hotcathode
a,Highpressurefluorescent
(i)Mercuryvapourtypes)Usedmainlyforstreetlighting
(ii)Sodiumtype,)butsometimesusedfordecklighting
b,LowpressureHotCathodeFluorescenttypedischargeLamp

PrincipleAlengthofglasstubingcontainsasmallamountofmercuryvapourand
argongas,ataverylowpressure(106atmospheres).Aheaterelementformingan
electrodeissituatedateachendofthetube.Theseelectrodesmaybecoatedwithan
oxidetoimprovethermionicemission.Theinteriorofthetubeiscoatedwith
fluorescentpowder(aPhosphorcoating)
IfasuitablevoltageisappliedbetweenthetwoelectrodesaDISCHARGEstrikes
betweenthemandthemainsvoltageisthensufficienttomaintainthedischarge.This
occursinlowpressuresothatthelampwillrunatacomparativelylowtemperature
andsowillnoteffectthefluorescentcoating.Theelectronsfromtheelectrodecollide
withthemercuryatoms.Thisdislodgesanelectronfromtheatommakingthemercury
atomapositivelychargedION.Asthedislodgedelectronreturnstotheinfluenceof
theION(i.e.theelectronchangesfromoneenergyleveltoanother)acertainamount
ofelectromagneticradiation(i.e.aphoton)isgivenoffintheformofUltraviolet
light.Theseraysactivatethefluorescentcoatingandtheluminoussurfaceprovidesa
glarefreeefficientlight.
OperationWithswitchstartcircuitstostartadischargeacrossthetubealarge
VoltageImpulseisrequired.
Thismaybeobtainedbythefollowingmethods
Glowtypeswitchandchoke
Thermaltypeswitchandchoke

Therearealsomethodsusingstarterlesscircuits,referredtoasrapidstartorinstant
start,.whereadropinpotentialbetweentheelectrodeandanearthstripissufficient
toionisethegasadjacenttotheelectrodeandthisionisationthenspreadsacrossthe
wholetube.
C1Radiosuppresser
C2Powerfactorcorrection

Glowtypeswitchstartercircuit
Whenthecontrolswitchisclosedthecontactsonthebimetalstripswhichareopen
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formtheelectrodesofasmalldischargelamp.Themainsvoltageissufficienttocause
aglowdischargeinthestarterwhichwarmsthebimetalstrips.Thestripsbenduntil
contactingandalargecurrentflowsthroughtheelectrodesofthemaintube,forming
anelectrodecloudaroundtheircathodes(thermionicemission)
Shortlythebimetalstripscoolsufficientlytobreakcontact,Thissuddenreductionin
currentflowcausesalargee.m.ftobegeneratedinthechoke(typicallyfourtofive
timesmains)
Thevoltagesurgeacrossthetubeissufficienttoionisethegas,reducingthe
resistancetoelectronflowandallowingthedischargetooccurandbesustainedbythe
mainsvoltage.
Operationmaystilloccurifthemainsvoltageisreduced,howeverthetubeisunlikely
tostarthencethistypeoflightisnotusedforemergencylighting
Thechokehasasecondpurposeotherthanprovidingthestartvoltage.Itmaintainsa
constantcorrectpotentialdifferenceacrossthetubewhenthemainsisanalternating
current..Ifad.cisusedthenaballastresistor(whichmaybeanincandescentlight)
mustbeused
AdvantagesanddisadvantagesofFluorescentlighting

Advantages
Greaterefficacy,about5timesthelumensperwattoftungstenfilament
Longerlightsource,tungstenoriginatingfromarelativelysmallarea
About5timesthelifeoffilament(5000Hrsapprox.)
Disadvantages
Initialcost
Powerlossind.cplantduetoballastresistor
Stroboscopiceffect,twomaybeplacein90ooutofphase

Cables
General
OnTankersallcablesmustbeeitherleadalloysheathedandarmoured,mineral
insulatedcoppersheathed(theendsmustbesheathedtopreventmoisturebeing
absorbedbythehygroscopicinsulationmaterial)ornonmineralimpervioussheathed
andwirebraidedsolongastheyarelaidinapipe(thecsaofthewiremustbeless
than30%ofpipebore.
Glandsfittedtobulkheadsmustallowforexpansionandbeweathertight,watertight
bulkheadsshouldonlybepenetratedbyasuitablegland.
Cablesshouldbelaidawayfromhotsurfaces
Allinstallationsmustbeflameproof
Metalcasingshouldbeadequatelyrustprotectedandearthed.PVCconduitmustnot
beusedinfridgespacesorondeckunlessspeciallyapprovedasliabletobreakdownin
cold.Cablesheathing,unlessgalvanised,shouldhavearustpreventativecoating.The
cableshouldnotbelaidbehindinsulation.
Insulatingmaterial
PolyvinylChloride(P.V.C)
ButylRubber
EthylenePropyleneRubber(E.P.R)
Polythene
CrosslinkedPolythene(X.L.P.E)
SiliconeRubber
Mineralinsulation

Flametestofinsulation
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Astandard4ftlengthofcableisheldverticalandisburntbyaflameofknown
strength
Iftheflametravelsthefulllengththecableisgradedasflameextending,(
notincommonuse.
Iftheflameisextinguishedbeforeitreachesthetopend,itisclassifiedas
Flameretardant,
,Ifacableisgradedasflameretardantitmustbeabletoresisttheflame,
andalsoaftercoolingbeabletowithstandana.cvoltageoftwicetherated
voltageforoneminute.

RelaysandSolenoids
Thewirecoiloftheelectromagnet,withoutitscoreofmagneticmaterialiscalledthe
solenoid.Ifthissolenoidisprovidedwithamovablesoftironcoreandcurrentflows
throughtheturnsofthecoil,themagneticfieldtendstopulltheplungerintothe
centreofthecoil.Accordinglythecoilwithitsmovingcentreiscalledthesolenoid.
Theplungercanbeusedtooperateagreatmanymechanicalapplications.Aspringis
oftenfittedabovetheplungertopositivelyreturnittoitsstartpositiononcethe
currentisturnedoff.Theplungermayalsobeusedviaannonmagneticextensionbe
usedasapusher,aspringagainreturningittothestartposition.
Eitheradirectoralternatingcurrentmaybeusedtoenergisethesolenoid,sinceeither
typewillproducethemagneticfieldaroundthecoil.Thereisoneprecautionhowever.
Thecoreoftheelectromagnetfindsitselfinthemagneticfieldofthecoil.Ifasteady
directcurrentflowsthroughthecoil,nocurrentwillbeinducedinthecoresinceboth
thecoreandfieldarestationary.Butifanalternatingcurrentflowsthroughthecoil,
thechangingmagneticfieldwillcauseacurrenttobeinducedinthecore.Thisis
calledtheeddycurrent.
Theeddycurrentisundesirableontwocounts.Theflowofcurrentthroughthecore
representsapowerloss,whichmustcomefromthesource.Alsotheflowofcurrent
maycausethecoretogetquitehot.Toreducetheeddycurrent,thecoreisnotbuilt
solidbutismadeupofmanythickslices,calledlaminations.Eachlaminationis
insulatedfromitsneighbourbyacoatofvarnishorsimilarmaterial.Thisoffers
considerableresistance,andasaresult,theeddycurrentsarecutdown.Insolenoids
operatingonalternatingcurrent,theplungerisbuiltupoflaminations.
Analternatingcurrentcoilwillofferagreaterresistancetocurrentflowthanadirect
currentcoilofsameohmresistanceduetoitsinductivereactance.Hence,ifacoil
designedtobeoperatedbyanalternatingcurrentisconnectedtoasourceofdirect
currentatthesamevoltage,theflowofcurrentmaybegreatenoughtoburnoutthe
windings.
Onverycommonapplicationofanelectromagnetisintheoperationofanelectric
switch.Inthisformitisknownasanelectromagneticrelay.
Thesensitivityandcurrentdrawofarelayisdeterminedbythewirewoundonthe
core.Thisisdeterminedbysizeandthereforebreakingcapacityofthecontacts.
Therelaycoilmaybeenergisedbyeitherdirectoralternatingcurrent.Wheredirect
currentisemployed,therearenospecialproblems.Alternatingcurrentmaybe
employedsincethepolaritydoesnoteffecttheattractionofthearmature.However,
therapidalternationsofthemagneticfieldcausethearmaturetovibrate,or'chatter'.
Sincethecontactsarecontrolledbythearmature,thecontrolledcircuittoo,willbe
affected..
Onemethodofremedyingthefaultistorectifythealternatingcurrentbeforeapplying
ittotherelay.Smallsemiconductordiodesareemployed.Anothermethodisto
connectafairlylargecapacitoracrossthecoil.Framesarelaminatedtopreventeddy
currentlosses.

Overloadcircuitbreakerisavariationonarelay.

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Transformers
AbigadvantageofA.C.transmissionistheabilitytoeasilychangevoltagebymeans
ofatransformer.Astherearenomovingpartsmaintenanceisverylowandefficiency
veryhigh(typically98%).
Atransformerconsistsoftwoinsulatedcoilswoundseparatelyoveraclosedmagnetic
field,usuallyiron,oflowreluctance.AnalternatingsupplyE1actsacrossacoilcalled
theprimary,avoltageisinducedinthesecondarycoilE2.

Detailsofasmalltransformerthecoreisbuiltupofstampedlaminatedsheetsof
siliconironabout0.35mmthickinsulatedfromoneanotherbyathinlayerofpaper
orvarnish.Thepurposeoflaminatingthecoreistoreducethelossduetoeddy
currentsinducedbythealternatingmagneticflux.Theverticalportionsoftheyoke
arecalledthe'limbs'andthehorizontalportionsarecalledthe'yokes'
Shelltype

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Autotransformer

Autotransformersareusedin
Startingmotors
Inpowerfactorcorrectionswithcapacitance's.
Incorporatedinportableappliancessuchasradios.
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Transformerlosses
IronlossesAsthemagneticfieldsweepsacrosstheconductingmaterialavoltageis
inducedwhichsetsupacurrentwithinit.Whenthiscurrent,theEDDYCURRENT,
flowstheresistancewithinthematerialcausesheattobeproduced.Thematerial
doesnothavetobemagneticfortheeddycurrentstobesetupbutmustbea
conductor.
Ifthematerialismagneticthemagneticfieldaroundthecoilmagnetizesthatmaterial
andrearrangesitsmolecules.Eachtimethemagneticfieldreversethemoleculesare
rearranged.AstheresultofmolecularfrictioncalledHYSTERESISLOSSthis
rearrangementproducesheat
Eddycurrentslossesreducedbylaminatingmaterial
Hysteresislossreducedbyusingsoftironorannealedsteel.
CopperlossesThesearetheI2Rlossesinthecopperwiresoftheprimaryand
secondarycoils.Increaseintemperatureofthesecoilswillincreasetheirresistance.
Ironlossesareconstant,butcopperlossesareproportionaltothesquareofthe
current.
Vs/VpapproxequalsNs/NpapproxequalsIp/Is
Efficiency=Outputpower/Inputpower
=Outputpower/OutputpowerIronlosses+Copperlosses
=VsIsCosf/VsIsCosf+Ironlosses+Ip2Rp+Is2Rs
Maximumefficiencyoccurswhenironlossesandcopperlossesareequal.Thelosses
inatransformerforagivenfrequencyarelargelydeterminedbythevalueofthe
workingfluxdensityinthewindings.Withasmalltransformeritispossibletowork
withfairlyhighdensitiesinboththeironandthecopperwithoutexceedingthe
maximumtemperaturesoaircoolingissatisfactory.Howeverinlargertransformers
eitherthefluxdensityorthecurrentdensitymustbereducedorsomemethodof
coolingused.Thisisnormallyachievedbyimmersingthetransformerininsulatingoil
inachamberwithcoolingfinsortubes.

Instrumenttransformers
ItisusualinA.C.installationstofittheammetertothesecondarycircuitofacurrent
transformer.Thisavoidsheavycurrentconnectionstothemeterandallowsan
ammeterswitchtobefittedtoreadthecurrentineachphase.Thesamecurrent
transformercanbeusedforthewattmeterandthereversepowerrelay.Voltage
transformersarealsonormallyprovidedforusewithvoltmeters,wattmeters,
synchroscopesandreversepowerrelays.
SafetyThesecondarycircuitofacurrenttransformermustneverbeopenedorleft
openunderload.Thelargevoltageinduced(duetohighfluxdensityproducedinthe
corewithno'back'ampereturnsfromthesecondarycoil)willcausethetransformer
tooverheat.Thesecondarycircuitmustbesuchthatshortcircuitconditionswillnot
causedamage.
Intheeventofbreakdownofinsulationbetweenprimaryandsecondarywindingsitis
arequirementthatoneendofthesecondarywindingofthecurrenttransformerand
thevoltagetransformerandthemetalcasesoftheinstrumentsshallbeearthed.

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Theprincipleofthecurrenttransformeristhattheprimarywindingcarriesthefull
loadcurrentandassuchismadeoflargediameterlowresistancewire.The
secondarywindingstepsupthesmallvoltdropthatoccursoverthelengthofthe
primarywire

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