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Imaginary
Boundary
Control
Volume
(a nozzle)
A control volume can be fixed in size and shape or possess moving boundaries (e.g. shock
absorber).
A Few Definitions:
steady: implies no change with time; the opposite of transient
uniform: implies no change with location
It is very important that you learn the significance of these definitions!
mi
me
m CV
(4.1.1)
ENGS205--Introductory Thermodynamics
page 39
.
V = V av A
(4.1.3)
Thus, the mass flow and volume flow rates are related by: m = V
(4.1.4)
QW
E in
Total energy of
mass entering CV
E out
Total energy of
mass leaving CV
E CV
Net change in
in energy of CV
If no mass enters or leaves the control volume, the second and third terms drop out and the
above equation becomes the first law for closed systems.
Flow Work:
Unlike closed systems, control volumes involve mass flow across their boundaries, and some
work is required to push the mass into or out of the control volume. This is known as flow work, or flow
energy. The work done in pushing the fluid across the boundary (i.e. flow work) is:
(4.1.6)
ENGS205--Introductory Thermodynamics
page 39
The fluid entering or leaving a control volume possesses an additional form of energy--the flow
energy Pv ! Then the total energy of a flowing fluid on a unit-mass basis (denoted ) becomes:
= Pv + e = Pv + u + ke + pe
(4.1.8)
But the combination Pv+u has been previously defined as the enthalpy h. So the above relation reduces
to:
(4.1.9)
Note!
By using the enthalpy instead of the internal energy to represent the energy of a
flowing fluid, you do not need to be concerned about the flow work!
Conservation of Mass:
During a steady-flow process, the total amount of mass contained within a control volume does
not change with time. The conservation of mass principle for steady-flow systems requires that the
total amount of mass entering a control volume equal the total amount leaving it (e.g. see figure below).
CV
m
m
m
3 = 1+ 2
ENGS205--Introductory Thermodynamics
page 39
The conservation of mass principle for a general steady-flow system with multiple inlets and exits
can be expressed in the rate form as:
.
mi
.
me
(4.2.1)
Conservation of Energy:
It was pointed out earlier that system properties remain constant for the duration of a
steady-state process. In order for the total energy of an open system undergoing a steady-state process
to remain constant, the amount of energy entering a control volume in all forms (heat, work, mass
transfer) must be equal to the amount of energy leaving it. By this line of reasoning, the conservation
of energy principle for a general steady-flow system with multiple inlets and exits can be
mathematically stated as:
.
.
Q W
.
me
.
mi
(4.2.2)
Total energy transported
into CV with mass per
unit time
where is the tot al energy of the flowing fluid, including the flow work, per unit mass. Eq. (4.2.2) can
also be expressed as:
(4.2.3)
.
Dividing Eq. (4.2.3) by m gives the first law relation for control volumes on a unit-mass basis, or ...
q w = h e +
V 2e
2g c
gz e
gc
hi +
V 2i
2g c
gz i
gc
(4.2.4)
ENGS205--Introductory Thermodynamics
page 39
Nozzle
Diffuser
The relative importance of the terms appearing in the energy equation for nozzles and
diffusers is as follows:
Q 0: The rate of heat transfer between the fluid flowing through a nozzle or a diffuser and
the surroundings is usually very small. This is mainly due to the fluid's having high velocities and thus not
spending enough time in the device for any significant heat transfer to take place. Therefore, in the
absence of heat transfer data, the flow through nozzles and diffusers may be assumed to be adiabatic.
W = 0: The work term for nozzles and diffusers is zero since these devices basically are
properly shaped ducts and they involve no shaft or electrical work.
KE 0 : Nozzles and diffusers usually involve large changes in velocity. Therefore, kinetic
energy changes must be accounted for in analyzing the flow through these devices.
PE 0 : The fluid usually experiences little or no change in elevation and therefore the
potential energy term can be neglected.
Q 0: The heat transfer in these devices is generally small relative to the shaft work, unless
there is intentional cooling.
W 0: All of these devices involve rotating shafts crossing their boundaries, and therefore the
.
work term is important. For turbines, W represents the power output; for pumps and compressors, it
represents the power input.
ENGS205--Introductory Thermodynamics
page 39
Turbine
Compressor
Shaft (-)
Work
Shaft
Work (+)
KE 0 : The velocities involved with these devices, with the exception of turbines, are
usually too low to cause any significant change in kinetic energy. In turbines, this change in kinetic
energy is usually very small relative to the change in enthalpy, and is often disregarded.
PE
Throttling Valves:
Throttling valves are any kind of flow-restricting devices that cause a significant pressure drop
in the fluid. Unlike turbines, throttling valves produce a pressure drop without any kind of work. The
pressure drop in the fluid is often accompanied by a large drop in temperature, and for that reason
throttling devices are commonly used in refrigeration and air-conditioning applications. An adjustable
throttling valve is shown below.
The relative magnitudes of the energy equation terms is discussed below ...
The conservation of energy equation for a throttling valve readily reduces to:
he
hi
(4.3.1)
... and for this reason, throttling valves are sometimes called isenthalpic devices.
ENGS205--Introductory Thermodynamics
page 39
Mixing Chambers:
In engineering applications, mixing two streams of fluids is not a rare occurrence. The section
where the mixing process takes place is commonly referred to as a mixing chamber.
Mixing
Chamber
PE
Heat Exchangers:
Heat exchangers are devices where two moving fluid streams exchange heat without mixing.
Heat exchangers are used widely in industries, and they come in numerous designs. The simplest form
of a heat exchanger is a double-tube (shown below) or tube-and-shell heat exchanger. It's composed of
two concentric pipes of different diameters (i.e., a pipe within a pipe). One fluid flow in the inner pipe, and
the other in the annular space between the pipes. Heat is transferred through the wall separating the two
fluids.
Fluid B
Fluid A
Q 0: This must be absolutely true! Otherwise, the heat exchanger you're analyzing doesn't
exchange heat!
ENGS205--Introductory Thermodynamics
page 39
PE
Q 0: Under normal operating conditions, the amount of heat gained or lost by the fluid can
be very significant, particularly if the pipe or duct is long and not insulated.
W 0: If the control volume involves a heating section (electric wires, a fan, or a pump (shaft),
the work interaction should be considered.
KE
PE 0 : Potential energy consideration are important when a fluid is pump through great
elevation changes.
Important point!
The steady-flow relations developed in the previous sections are not applicable to
these processes!
When an unsteady-flow process is analyzed, it is important to keep track of the mass and energy
contents of the control volume as well as the energy interactions across the boundary. Some familiar
unsteady flow processes are the charging of rigid vessels from supply lines, discharging a fluid from a
pressure vessel, inflating tires or balloons, and even cooking with an ordinary pressure cooker. Unlike
steady-flow processes, unsteady-flow processes start and end over a finite time period t. Another
difference between steady and unsteady-flow processes is that steady-flow systems are fixed in space, in
size, and in shape. Unsteady -flow systems, however, are not. They are usually stationary, but involve
moving boundaries (boundary work!)
Conservation of Mass:
Unlike the case of steady-flow processes, the amount of mass within the control volume does
change with time during an unsteady-flow process. The degree of change depends on the amount of
mass entering and leaving the control volume during the process. The conservation of mass
principle for unsteady-flow processes is mathematically stated as ...
ENGS205--Introductory Thermodynamics
page 39
mi
Total mass entering
CV during t
me
m CV
(4.4.1)
If all the terms in Eq. (4.4.1) are divided by t and taking the limit as t
0 gives ..
(4.4.2)
where dmCV / dt is the time rate of change of mass contained within the control volume.
Conservation of Energy:
Unlike the steady-flow process, the energy content of a control volume changes with time during
an unsteady-flow process. The degree of change depends on the amount of energy transfer across the
system boundaries as heat and work as well as on the amount of energy transported into and out of the
control volume by mass during the process. That is, we have to keep track of the energy flowing into and
out of the control volume for the duration of the unsteady process t. The conservation of energy
principle for a control volume undergoing an unsteady process for a time interval t is
QW
E CV
(4.4.3)
Net change in energy
of CV during t
If all the terms in Eq. (4.4.3) are divided by t and taking the limit as t
0 gives ...
(4.4.4)
.
.
where i and e are the rates at which energy is transported with mass into and out of the control
volume respectively, and dECV / dt is the time rate of change of energy within the control volume.
In Eq. (4.4.3), the heat and work terms (Q and W) can be determined by external measurements.
The total energy of the control volume at the beginning and end states of the process (E1 and E 2 ) can be
easily determined by measuring the relevant properties of the substance at these two states. The total
energy transported into or out of the control volume (i , e), however, is not as easy to determine since
the properties of the mass at each inlet or exit may be changing with time as well as over the
cross-section. Thus, the only way to determine the energy transport through an opening as a result of
mass flow is to consider sufficiently small differential masses m that have uniform properties and add to
their total energies.
Total mass, m
divided up into
numerous
differential masses,
m
ENGS205--Introductory Thermodynamics
page 39
The total energy of a flowing fluid of mass m is m. Then the total energy transported by mass through
an inlet or exit (i , e) is obtained by integrating. At an inlet, for example, it becomes ...
(4.4.5)
or, in the rate form ...
(4.4.6)
The energy equation for unsteady-processes in control volumes becomes:
(4.4.7)
... and ...
(4.4.8)
Uniform-Flow Processes:
A uniform-flow process is a simplified unsteady-flow process involving the following idealizations:
At any instant during the process, the state of the control volume is uniform (the same
throughout spatially). Therefore, the state of the mass exiting the control volume at any instant is the
same as the state of the mass in the control volume at that instant.
The fluid properties may differ from one inlet or exit to another, but the fluid flow at an inlet or
exit is uniform and steady.
Under these idealizations, Eq. (4.4.7) becomes ...
(4.4.9)
where u1 and u2 are the initial and final specific internal energies of the system.
ENGS205--Introductory Thermodynamics
page 39