COMPUTER TROUBLESHOOTING SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

There is no such thing as effective troubleshooting if safety has not been met. The
effectiveness of the troubleshooting comes only if there are no injuries, tool and
equipment failure due to mishandling, peripheral malfunction due to
misdiagnoses and mishandling and other things that marks the big 7-letter word FAILURE . So what should you do to be able to do "Effective Troubleshooting" ?
Follow the three most important things below to find out how and what to learn!
#1 What you wear might save you!
Yes you did not read it wrong. What you wear really matters specially if we are
dealing with safety. In big companies, overall uniforms, laboratory gowns and
technicians' gown are required to be worn in their work areas. As freelance
technicians, we don't strictly follow company protocols but at least we must
ensure safety through using proper clothing.
What is appropriate for every computer technician to wear are clothings that
won't catch fire fast like cotton. Nylon clothes should be avoided. One must also
wear clothes with shorter sleeves to keep the connectors and other things in the
system unit from clinging to your clothing. Buttoned shirts and clothing with
dangling laces or similar should not be worn during computer troubleshooting.
Please don't use very loose clothes like the hip hop crews wear, rings, necklaces,
dangling earrings, bracelets, and similar objects as well.
#2 Electro-Static Discharge is not your bestfriend
ESD is a form of electricity that can wreck havoc to your computer peripherals or
its components. How do you get ESD's? Just everywhere, upon walking when you
rub your shoe against a carpet, or combing your hair or just anything you rub
against or touch. To be able to avoid damaging your computer system unit, you
must discharge the ESD by using the ESD Wrist Strap while working with your
computer.
But what if you don't have any ESD Wrist Strap? Don't worry before opening up
your unplugged computer system, touch any unpainted portions of the system
COMTECH

Page 1 of 55 Pages

unit for a few seconds. This can significantly dissipate the ESD that you have in
your body. Also consider using Anti-Static Mat while working your your computer
to ensure safety against Static Electricity. But again, grounding yourself to the
computer's chassis is enough to drain off the ESD's.
Since ESD's can damage computer peripherals and components, it is best to store
your removed components and peripherals in Anti-Static Bags.
#3 Working Safely with Electricity
Whether your home outlet is 110 or 220 volts Alternating Current (AC), it can
potentially kill you. But before working safely with the insides of your computer,
let us be familiar first with the outsides of the computer.
In powerlines, the electricity that flows through the lines are not perfectly stable.
The voltage may rise and fall and this action of the unstable voltage is called
a voltage spike. Though most devices can operate even with voltage spikes, your
computer cannot endure this spikes. What your computer eats is a stable supply
of electrical current. The Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) does this job. It
regulates or flattens out the AC flow of electricity to be fed to your computer.
After the AVR, your computer receives the regulated 110 or 220 V AC electricity
into your Power Supply Unit (PSU) and converts it into Direct Current (DC) like 12,
5, and 3.3 V respectively.
So we have in mind that the electricity we get from the outlet is 110 or 220 V,
unregulated and as it passes though the AVR it is still 110 or 220 V but the spikes
are now removed - and still dangerous. As the electricity from the AVR is received
by the PSU, it is converted to DC and is now less dangerous. In other words if you
are working with your computer, turn off your system unit and unplug the power
cord from the AVR. If you might say that the DC current of the motherboard is
small and can not cause you harm, consider that the components of your
computer are sensitive to electrical shortages.

COMTECH

Page 2 of 55 Pages

COMPUTER SAFETY DO AND NO LIST

Do's
- Wear anti-ESD Wrist Strap and if there is none, drain off the ESD by touching
the unpainted part of your system unit. ESD's are known to destroy discrete
devices like your RAM, BIOS, Chipsets and other components of your
motherboard. So take this precaution seriously.
- Wear proper clothing. Use cotton and short-sleeved clothes during work. If ever
the computer your working on catches fire, cotton most likely better resist
burning than nylon clothes.
- Turn off the system unit and unplug the power cord from the AVR every time
you will be working with your computer. Keep in mind that there is a constant 5
volts DC electricity even if your computer is turned off with cords unplugged and
AVR not turned off.
- Keep screws together. If some screws unintentionally goes on the motherboard,
that will be disastrous! Short circuit will likely be a big possibility if screws or other
similar small metallic objects are misplaced. It is best to keep a small canister to
contain the screws or just put the screws back where they were taken.
- Clean your tools and equipment before and after use. Take care of your tools
because they will also take good care of you. Tools and equipment in good
condition lessens accident.
- Clean your system unit before fixing it.
- Fix your computer if it is broken. Yes, don't assume that the computer is broken
lest you're sure it really is. You might add up or make the problem yourself rather
than to fix it.
- Backup files and drivers before anything else. Files costs millions of dollars to
other clients. Our main concern before everything else is our clients' files. Fixing
the hardware part of the computer is just next to saving and retrieving the files
that the computer may contain. So always prepare a large backup media for your
clients.
COMTECH

Page 3 of 55 Pages

- Have a documentation on each computer being fixed. A documentation will be

your personal troubleshooting database. This will be a handy future
troubleshooting reference. Your documentation will also serve as your guide as
you go on with your troubleshooting.
- Do make use of the comfort of time in computer troubleshooting. Do not be in
a hurry when fixing a computer. If you can't finish the fix on that day, let the day
pass and fix it by the morning. Mistakes occur because of distraction and of the
lack of concentration. So slow down cowboy and fix that computer slow and
accurate.
No's!
- Forgetting everything with the Do's and leaving the brain on the bed while
working. Just remember all those Computer Safety Do's and I assure you, you'll
never have to remember the No's.
STEPS FOR A SAFE AND SUCCESSFUL SYSTEM UNIT ASSEMBLY AND
DISASSEMBLY
You might think that disassembly and assembly of the system unit is easy. Yes it
is provided that you have done it correct and safely. The first thing that every
computer technician should keep in mind is SAFETY. You must think that
electrocution and nasty cuts are the most common injuries a computer technician
might have and we need to avoid it by following simple safety procedures.
To disassemble and assemble a computer is integral as being a Computer
Hardware Servicing Technician.
Aside from electrocution, we must also think that the computer that we are about
to disassemble requires care. Safety of the equipment must also be considered.
Not only thinking of the computer's safety but also to that of your tools. Your
tools are your best friends and you need to take good care of them so they in
return can make your job easy and fast. Example, if you just leave your software
installer anywhere then accidentally falls to the ground and accumulates
scratches? Do you think you can still use the installer again?
Another thing to consider safety is on environment. As computer technicians, we
COMTECH

Page 4 of 55 Pages

must be responsible to take our part to take care of the environment. What
things does computer technicians do that might have ill effects on the
environment? Printer inks, cut wires, PCB's, in general electronic wastes. And
these electronic wastes are the hardest type of waste to recycle. So be
responsible as a computer servicing technician. So listed below is the checklist for
a safe and successful disassembly and assembly of the computer.
Steps to a Safe and Successful Disassembly and Assembly of a System Unit
To Disassemble
1. Prepare all your tools.
a. Long Philip Screw Driver
b. Rubber Eraser
c. Soft Wide Bristle Brush
d. Paper and Pen for documentation
2. Before opening the system case, be sure to turn off the system unit. Turn off
and unplug the AVR from the wall socket as well. After that, unplug all the cables
connecting to the back of the system unit. After clearing all the connected cables,
put the system unit on an empty working table.
3. Touch the unpainted part of your system unit with your bare hands to remove
the ESD of your body. This is an important part before opening your system case.
You might destroy your RAM, Chipsets and other components of your
motherboard.
4. Remove the screws of the side cover opposite to the side where the ports are.
By most system cases, if you are facing the back of the system unit the right side
cover is to be removed. Return the screws back to the screw holes to avoid losing
them.
5. Once the side cover is removed, turn your system side down where the opened
side of the system unit should be facing upward where you can comfortably look
down on the inside of your system case.
6. We are now ready to remove the components inside of the computer. The first
COMTECH

Page 5 of 55 Pages

thing we need to do is remove the power supply. To be able to remove the power
supply, remove first the molex connectors (the white plastic connector at the tip
of the wires of the power supply) or the motherboard power connector, drive
power connectors, the floppy drive power connector, the sata power connectors
and the four pin 12-volt motherboard connector. With all power connectosr are
removed from the motherboard and drives, the power supply is now ok to be
removed as well. Always have the removed components placed in a remote and
safe place away from where you are performing computer disassembly.
7. With the power supply removed, the data cable should be removed next. This
includes IDE, SATA, and floppy drive cables. Secure the removed data cables.
8. Next to remove are the RAM, Video Card and other card peripheral
components. Again have them secured in a safe place and put the screws back.
Clean the connector edges of the card peripherals by rubbing the gold colored
edge moderately with a rubber eraser then brushing off the shredding. Do not
attempt to clean the edge by blowing or brushing it off with your fingers. Our
body is acidic and you might only cause the edges to tarnish faster.
9. Remove all drives. This will include your hard drive, cd/dvd drives, and the
floppy drive.
10. Since all peripherals where removed, the next thing to do is to remove the
front panel connectors. This will include the USB, Front Panel (FP) and Audio
header. If you are not sure of which connector is being match to, write down or
document the connections and orientation of the connectors before removing
them from the headers. Remember that not all motherboards have the same
header configuration so be careful and watchful while documenting.
11. After removing the header connectors, we are now ready to remove the
motherboard. To remove the motherboard, locate first all the screws and lightly
unscrew all screws alternately. With this technique, we are reducing the risk of
warping or bending our motherboard. It may not have a large impact on the
bending of the motherboard but still it does have even a little. Upon lightly
loosening all screws, remove all screws then. Remove the motherboard by
carefully and lightly pulling it away from the I/O shield. Why? because we need to
free the ports that are fitted from the holes in the I/O shield. After freeing the
COMTECH

Page 6 of 55 Pages

motherboard ports from the I/O shield holes, lift up the motherboard and put it
on the safe place.
12. Clean the system unit chassis with your brush, also clean your motherboard
and the rest of the peripherals being removed.
To Assemble
1. Provided that all peripherals are clean and ready. We are now going to
assemble your computer. In assembling back your computer, what we have done
during disassembling is just doing the reverse order to assemble it. Since the
motherboard was last to be removed, it should then be the first to put back.
Remove the retaining screws from the standoff screws of the motherboard and
let the motherboard seat on it with the ports facing out towards the I/O shield.
Lightly push the motherboard to set its ports to the holes of the I/O shield. Put
the retaining screws on the motherboard screw holes but do not tighten it yet.
Now be careful in doing this one and if this is your first time doing it, it is best if
you lend a hand for assistance. Lightly push the motherboard towards to I/O
shield and lightly tighten the motherboard retaining screws alternately until all
screws are tight enough but not too tight. This is to ensure that your ports are
protruding correctly out of the I/O shield.
2. Once the motherboard is secured, put back the FP, Audio, and USB header
connectors as you will be using your documentation for reference.
3. Put back the drives to the correct drive bays.
4. Connect back the RAM, Video Card and other card peripherals to its proper slot
inserting it properly and some cards will require screws to be secured.
5. The data cables (IDE, SATA, floppy cable) should be connected to its proper
headers and drives. Remember the proper configuration of the placement of the
cables specially if you are dealing with the IDE cables.
6. After the data cables are properly connected, put back the power supply and
secure it with the screws you removed earlier. After securing the PSU to the
chassis, connect the power connectors to the drives and the motherboard.
COMTECH

Page 7 of 55 Pages

7. Once all peripherals are connected properly, have a final inspection by visually
checking for loose connection or improper connection. Once the system unit
connections are thoroughly checked and verified, connect the keyboard; the
monitor, and the power connector then power up the computer. This initial
powering up of the computer while the side cover is open ensures us that
everything is ok before putting back the side cover. In case something goes
wrong, we can accessibly correct the problem right away. If everything is fine
shutdown the computer, unplugged the AVR and remove the cables connected to
the back of your computer. Put the side cover back.
8. Put the assembled computer back to its place and connect the rest of the
cables and connectors. Power it up and see if there are unusual effects of your
disassembling/assembling procedure done earlier.
Remember SAFETY. Do not neglect it. Neglect can cause catastrophic effects.

DISASSEMBLE A COMPUTER - EASY AND DETAILED PROCEDURE

To disassemble a computer may be a very daunting task to anyone - at least to
people with no or little knowledge or experience. Does this mean it includes you?
Probably not, you found our blog and you will be learning how to do things right
and easy. Yes! By reading and following the detailed instructions that we will be
providing, you will be able to disassemble a computer correctly and easily.
Before we begin, allow yourself to ponder with these questions.
Is it necessary to disassemble my computer?
Am I sure I can get things right?
Will I be able to put this thing back in one piece again?
By answering the questions above, you will be able to evaluate yourself whether
you are confident enough to do it (or whether your way or based on other
reference like this blog)? If you aren't sure enough, just read on and learn before
doing any actual application.

COMTECH

Page 8 of 55 Pages

Here are some things you need to consider before you begin to disassemble
your computer
1. Safety - Safety should be a priority specially that you are dealing with
electricity, precious data, and expensive computer parts to handle. Find out more
about computer troubleshooting safety here.
2. Tools - Though are are many tools a computer technician should have, we can
however do the job well with fewer tools. A long philip screwdriver, a wide bristle
brush, and a rubber eraser. This are the basic tools need to disassemble a
computer.
3. Notes - What's a note for? If you are to disassemble a computer and unsure of
which things is first to remove and how it is positioned, sometimes you get
disoriented of the proper procedure and end up having the computer dumped in
a bin. Note taking is essential so that it will serve as your personal guide. Believe it
or not, I have been working as a computer technician for more than five years
now and still maintains a notepad.
All are now set for the procedure. Again think safety, have the appropriate tools,
and have a notebook alongside to take down important notes. Let's begin to to
disassemble your computer or system unit.
1. Find a suitable insulated table (or wooden table) to begin with your work.
2. To avoid any accidental electrocution, be sure to unplug your computer from
the AVR. And then remove the other connectors at the back panel or back side of
your computer (where you can see some wires going to your mouse, keyboard,
and others) leaving the computer or system unit totally detached. At this
moment, you won't be needing any tool for the removal of the components.
3. We are now ready to remove the side covers. At the back side of your
computer you should see some screws locking the covers, but which side cover
should we remove? Can you see where the ports are located? If they are located
on the left side, then you need to remove the right side cover and vice versa. Use
your Philip screwdriver to do this.

COMTECH

Page 9 of 55 Pages

4. Once the correct side cover is removed, lay down the computer on the table so
that you will be seeing the insides from above. In this manner, it will be a lot
easier to remove the components.
5. You may now begin to remove the computer's components. Here is a short list
of which components should be first removed.
1. Power Supply Unit (PSU) - remove the molex connector or power cablings (with
red,yellow,black,orange wires) from the board and drives. When you remove the connectors,
try to swivel it along its length.
2. Data Cables (IDE and SATA) - carefully remove these cables by swiveling it. Removing all cables
clears the space for us to work things easier.
3. Card Peripherals - this should include removing the RAMs, Video Card, Modems, Sound Cards,
and other card peripherals. Be sure to remove them properly
4. Drives - DVD,Blue Ray, and hard disk drives should be removed after the card peripherals. Be
sure to put back the screws back to the drives upon removing it
5. Front Panel Connectors - since every motherboard has its own configuration, we need to take
down notes of the proper orientation of the pins. But if you memorize it, the better. Asus and
intel board are almost having the same front panel pin configuration. Other boards like ECS and
IBM boards have the same pin configuration as the latter. This is where we will be taking notes,
draw the pin configuration if possible.
6. Motherboard - be very careful in removing the motherboard, avoid scratching any surface on
the motherboard as there are many surface mounted components soldered on it. And after
removing the motherboard, put it in an area where there is insulation on its bottom or best, put
it in a anti-static bag.

7. Processor (CPU) - removing the processor requires a bit of technical skill

6. After all the components are taken apart, clean them with the brush that
you have. Dust will accumulate heat and can destroy your computer's
components.
7. Do not forget to clean the connector edges of your peripheral cards. The
connector edges are those shiny gold-colored edges of your RAM, Video card,
and other similar components. Use an eraser to do the cleaning but if you have
a flux cleaning agent, that should do the job better. Using an eraser, just lightly
COMTECH

Page 10 of 55 Pages

scrub on the connector edges and then brush off the shredding. Remember to
always clean the computer every time you take it apart.
This is how a computer should be disassembled. Again safety,proper tools, and
note taking is your arsenal. Drop your fear, start learning and to disassemble a
computer is just one of the many things you have to learn in troubleshooting
computers. If you have any question about computer disassembly, please do
not hesitate to comment and I will help you out in no time.
BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO TROUBLESHOOTING COMPUTER HARDWARE
If you are trying to learn how to fix computers and don't know where to start, this
is the right place for you. When learning how to fix or troubleshoot computers,
one must have a trusted guide and clear instructions to follow.Computer
hardware servicing is not that hard as you may be thinking and not as easy as
some people claim. A step by step approach of teaching should favor the student
and that is what this Beginner's Guide to Troubleshooting Computer Hardware is
promoting for you to learn computer hardware servicing fast, easy, and free.
Before we proceed with our tutorial, let us first assess things that you currently
learn about computers and yourself.
1. Are you familiar and practicing occupational health and safety (OHS) when
working with computers?
2. Do you know how to operate a computer?
3. Are you afraid of electricity?
4. Do you have the passion to learn on how to fix computers?
5. Have you ever tried tinkering or opening an electronic device?
6. Are you resourceful enough?
7. Do you have patience?
Asking these questions to yourself gives you a hint of what a computer hardware
service technician's attributes are. If ever you say no for any of the questions
above, it is ok. Read on and you will know why I am saying it really is ok.
Safety Is A Priority
Working with computers may seem harmless. You can't be sure though because
COMTECH

Page 11 of 55 Pages

even if you are just sitting and browsing the web with your computer, radiation is
already softly cooking you. Your monitor emits small amounts of radiation
tolerable by own body but radiation is still radiation. Wonder why your eyes gets
tired and sores a little when using computers for some prolonged usage of your
computer. Safety must be observed.
Now how about if your are to fix a computer? Accidents may happen like
electrocution, cuts, dropping and damaging the tools and equipment, blowing or
frying the motherboard and other peripherals if safety is disregarded. To make
things short, computer safety must be followed.
I Know You Can Operate A Computer
This might be a silly statement but what I am trying to imply is different. Of course
I know you can operate a computer that is why you are reading this article. But
sometimes, what we think we already know isn't enough. Keyboard shortcuts,
using process names to open programs, use of batch files and the command
prompt, tweaking using the registry editor, and so many things are some of the
operation that you should be familiar. And I am not saying that you must know
everything about operating the computer first before learning how to fix it, you
must somehow "learn" by process. Learn more computer terms by reading
ebooks. We will soon be providing ebook downloads soon or just email me to ask
for a copy.
Fear Not For Electricity Is Your Friend
During my years as a freelance computer hardware serviceman, I often see
students having On-the-Job Trainings (OJT)in computer shops just standing by the
corner and watching seasoned computer technicians doing something. And when
a seasoned technician asks for assistance from the trainee, it is evident that the
trainee shows hesitation with plugging into sockets and molex power connectors.
It is not good to hesitate in doing things because uncertainty surely leads to
disaster.
Fear of electrocution is common among newbies. I could remember during my
college days when my Building Wiring and Electricity instructor tried to have us
touched a 220 live wire just to let us feel electricity. I never touched when he said
so but when we were asked to do our practical examination by building a twoway switch on a large dashboard, I accidentally touched a bare live wire! A shock
COMTECH

Page 12 of 55 Pages

was sent up to my armpit and I was so careful about electricity ever since.
You can't fix a computer without electricity, just be very careful in using it.
Be Passionate About Fixing Or Troubleshooting a Computer
It's just like having a girlfriend. If you are not dedicated and passionate with her,
you will be throwing stones at each other by the morning! You see if you love
what you are doing, you can do things right and makes you genuinely happy. If
you feel that troubleshooting computers is not the thing for you, then quit. Do
other stuff that you feel you love to do and you surely will be good and happy
with it.
Be passionate to troubleshoot and learn computer hardware servicing. You can
only be a good computer hardware technician if you are passionate on what you
are doing. Doing things right with eagerness to improve is the key to be a
successful learner.
Tinkering And Being Curious About The Insides Of An Electronic Device
If you love to open electronic devices or just anything you are curious at, is a good
sign that you are an eager learner. It also shows that you have interest in the
inner workings of a machine and wants to analyse how a thing works. In
troubleshooting computer hardware, it is important that you can analyse how the
parts are positioned or being attached to. Computer hardware servicing may
seem difficult, very technical, and boring but it is actually easy, handy, and
exciting!
Be Resourceful, Not Everything You Got Is Enough
Learning really takes time. You just can't just click any links from the web and
expect to learn something. Sometimes you must choose those which are worth
knowing and reading. Sometimes clicking some links in a site brings you to good
pages and will take away your blues trying to learn.
So be resourceful, don't just get stuck with few resources. Research and don't be
afraid to learn. Experience will also bring more knowledge. Try to apply what you
have learned and you will surely thank yourself.
Be Patient At All Times
Patience has something to do with time. In troubleshooting computer problems,
COMTECH

Page 13 of 55 Pages

there will be times when you can't fix the machine right away. You need to give
yourself a time to regroup and think of a better solution.
Have you thought of these things? If you think you have or able to develop the
attributes discussed above, then you already becoming a good computer
technician in the process. Learning is a process, it takes enormous effort and time.
So let me give you a draft on what things you should be learning to become full
fledged computer hardware servicing technician.
What You Should Learn About Computer Hardware Servicing
1. Occupational Health and Safety Procedure
2. Basic Computer Operation
3. Understanding Binaries and Logic Gates
4. Introduction To Computers - Components of the IT System
5. The System Unit - Hardware Component Functions and Description
- Motherboard
- Central Processing Unit
- Random Access Memory, Read Only Memories, and Basic Input/Output System
(BIOS)
- Storage
- Operating Systems, Tools, and Utilities - Installation
- Networking
- Troubleshooting Techniques
TROUBLESHOOTING PROCEDURE
Before testing the system unit, we must first ask few questions to the owner of
the system unit to give us some clues on what and when's regarding the
computer problem encountered. Remember that first hand information about the
computer problem encountered by the owner or user is the most nearreliable source of idea on what really is the problem of his or her computer. But
be warned, I have had said near-reliable because most users being asked lies on
the details fearing that the blame is on them. You must ask them in low tone, soft,
non-vindictive, and non-agitating manner. The details they give might be useful
for your approach introubleshooting.
After gathering the information provided by the user, you must verify it by
COMTECH

Page 14 of 55 Pages

checking and testing the system unit. Be sure to physically check

the peripherals first before testing. Try to see if there are missing, blown, or
poorly attached cables and peripheral cards. Then after a thorough check, test the
system unit and do a detailed observation.

SAFETY PROCEDURES
There are certain procedures you should follow when you are installing items in
your system. Below is information to avoid damage to your system or/and
yourself.
Before entering the computer, move computer off the carpet (for static
purposes). If your not able to then try not to move on the carpet to keep
the static from building.
Disconnect all cables including power cord. I can't stress this enough.
Remove the power cord, monitor, keyboard, mouse, phone line, network
cable, speakers, printer, scanner, USB cables, cable modem, DSL modem
and anything else that is connected. (it should look similar to the picture
below)

With everything disconnected, push the power button for 5 seconds. (with
power cord disconnected). The computer can store power even with the
power cord disconnected. Pushing the power button drains that power
(only if the power cord is disconnected). VERY IMPORTANT!!!
Touch something metal on the case of the system to release any static build
up in your body.
Computers are the best dust collectors. Do not blow on the dust with your
breath. Your breath has moisture and electronics hate moisture.
If you want to clean the inside of the system of dust, use compressed air
that is designed for electronics.
While using the compressed air, do not hold down the button. Not only will
the can get cold, moisture will also form. Use quick short bursts.
When handling parts, do not touch the bronze teeth. Hold the parts on the
edges if at all possible.
If you are troubleshooting noise issue, some people will stick a pencil or
other objects in the fan to stop the fan from turning to see if the noise goes
away. DON'T DO THAT! The fan might shatter the pencil, cause a fire, cause
electrical shock or short.
If you disconnect the cable that goes to the processor fan to check for
noise, do not leave system on for long with it disconnected.
COMTECH

Page 15 of 55 Pages

Be careful while inside system, the system has sharp edges.

Never put your hands inside system when the system is either plugged in or
turned on.
Some computer desks have a compartment that you can put your
computer in. Make sure that compartment is well ventilated. If it is not
ventilated, it can fry the system. If it is not well ventilated, you can drill
holes in the desk to give it ventilation, or you can install a small fan in the
desk that will circulate air.
Do not connect or disconnect cables while the system or device is turned on.
(unless it is USB. USB can be disconnected or connected while system is on).
Equipment can be damaged by this.

Keep these important tips in mind as you work inside your computer:
Remember to Flip the Switch
Always, always, always remember to turn the power off before servicing anything.
This should always be your first step. Do not even open the computer case unless
the power is turned off. Many computers have a number of lights inside that
serve certain functions so check to see that no lights are on. If any are still on then
the power is probably not completely off.
Many power supply units have a switch on the back, killing power to the device
and ultimately the rest of your PC. If your PSU has one, be sure to turn it to the off
position.
Unplug for Extra Safety
As a second precaution, it is wise to unplug the computer from the wall or power
strip. If there was any doubt as to whether the computer was off before, it's
settled now.
Avoid Smoke and Smells
See smoke coming from the power supply or inside the case or smell a burning or
solder scent? If so:
1. Stop what you're doing immediately.
2. Unplug the computer from the wall.
3. Allow the PC to cool or discharge unplugged for at least 5 minutes.
Finally, if you know which device was generating the smoke or smell, remove and
replace it as soon as you can. Don't try to repair a device that's been damaged to
this extent, especially if it's a power supply.
COMTECH

Page 16 of 55 Pages

Remove Hand Jewelry

An easy way to get electrocuted is to work around a high voltage device like a
power supply with metal rings, watches, or bracelets on. Remove anything
conductive from your hands before working inside your computer, especially if
you're doing something like testing your power supply.
Avoid Capacitors
Capacitors are miniature electronic components contained in many of the parts
inside a PC. Capacitors can store electric charge for a short while after the power
is turned off so it's a wise decision to wait a few minutes after pulling the plug
before working on your PC.
Never Service the Non-Serviceable
When you come across labels that say "No serviceable components inside" don't
take it as a challenge or even a suggestion. This is a serious statement.
Some parts of a computer are just not meant to be repaired, even by most
professional computer repair persons. You will usually see this warning on power
supply units but you may also see them on monitors, hard drives, optical drives
and other dangerous or highly sensitive components.
Help your computer live longer, perform better, and avoid debilitating crashes.

INTRODUCTION TO PC COMPONENTS
Here you will learn computer hardware tutorials introduction, basic pc
components, networking devices, ram, vga, monitor and printer etc. Computer
hardware is the physical part of the computer including the digital circuits inside
the computer as opposed to the software that carry out the computing
instructions. The hardware of a computer is unlikely to change frequently unless
due to the crash or for upgrading them. The devices that is capable of storing,
executing system instructions and controlling other logical outputs.
Hardware comprises all of the physical part of the computer such as Monitor,
CPU, motherboard, ram, CD-Rom, printer, scanner, hard disk, flash drive (AKA pen
drive), processor, pci buses, floppy disk, power supply, VGA card, sound card,
network interface card, peripherals, joystick, mouse, keyboard, foot pedal,
computer fan, camera, headset and others.
On the other hard software is a logical part of a computer and is used to carry out
the instructions, storing, executing and developing other software programs. A

COMTECH

Page 17 of 55 Pages

typical PC consists of a case or chassis in the desktop or tower case and these
components.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Your PC (Personal Computer) is a system, consisting of many components. Some
of those components, like Windows XP, and all your other programs, are
software. The stuff you can actually see and touch is hardware.
Hardware
The hardware are the parts of computer itself including the Central Processing
Unit (CPU) and related microchips and micro-circuitry, keyboards, monitors,case
and drives (hard, CD, DVD, floppy, optical, tape, etc...). Other extra parts called
peripheral components or devices include mouse, printers, modems,scanners,
digital cameras and cards (sound, colour, video) etc...
The devices which are Necessary to assemble a computer
Motherboard
Modem and/or Network Card
Processor
Floppy Drive
Memory
CD-Rom
Hard Drive
Keyboard and Mouse
Video Card (if motherboard didn't
Case And Power Supply
come with it)
Monitor
Sound Card (if motherboard didn't
come with it)

CHAPTER 2: PROCESSOR

The Central Processing Unit, Which is often referred to as the Processor is the
brain of the computer. The chip that performs the majority of calculations and
COMTECH

Page 18 of 55 Pages

instructions needed to make your computer run. Without this chip, no other
function of the PC is possible. The processor is attached to the motherboard
(Processor slot).
The speed of the CPU
The computer's speed or clock rate is integral to its overall design. The computers
clock rate is the frequency at which it can execute a set of instructions. Computer
clock rates are measured in Megahertz (million of clock ticks per second).
There are two types of speeds that should be considered when evaluating the
system performance:
Internal clock speed Is the speed at which the processor can obtain information
within itself, like with internal cache and registers. (Pentium III 800 MHz. the 800
MHz is the internal clock speed)
External clock speed Is the speed at which the CPU communicates with
components outside itself.
Some commercially available processors
Pentium I-IV
Duron
Celeron
Cyrix C3
Athlon
Itanium (64 bit)

Opteron (64 bit)

How to Choose a CPU

When you are choosing one CPU always consider your computing needs when
selecting a CPU. If you want to do simple word processing or general computer
tasks, go for the budget or low end processors. If you are more into gaming or do
CPU intensive work like video editing, go for a mid-range or high-end processor.

CHAPTER 3: MOTHERBOARD
Chapter 3.1: Motherboard
The motherboard is the main circuit board inside your PC. Every components at
some point communicates through the motherboard, either by directly plugging
into it or by communicating through one of the motherboards ports. The
motherboard is one big communication highway. Its purpose inside your PC is to
COMTECH

Page 19 of 55 Pages

provide a platform for all the other components and peripherals to talk to each
other.

Motherboard

MOTHERBOARD COMPONENTS
The motherboard holds all the major logic components of the computer. Here we
are going to see with no particular order, some of those major motherboard
componets and their function in a computer or to be more precise in your
computer.
A core 2 Duo Intel Processor
CPU- Central Processing Unit
It is also known as the microprocessor or the processor. It is the
brain of the computer, and it is responsible for fetching,
decoding and executing program instructions as well as
performing mathematical and logical calculations.

COMTECH

Page 20 of 55 Pages

The processor chip is identified by the processor type and the manufacturer; and
this information is usually inscribed on the processor chip e.g. Intel 386, Advanced
Micro Devices (AMD) 386, Cyrix 486, Pentium MMX, (old processor types) Intel
Core 2Duo e.t.c.
If the processor chip is not on the motherboard, you can identify the processor
socket as socket 1 to Socket 8, LGA 775 e.t.c. This can help you identify the
processor that fits in the socket. For example a 486DX processor fits into Socket 3.
Memory Modules
Main Memory / Random Access Memory (RAM)
Random access memory or RAM most commonly refers to
computer chips that temporarily store dynamic data when
you are working with your computer to enhance the
computer performance. In other words, it is the working
place of your computer where active programs and data are loaded so that any
time time the processor requres them, it doesn't have to fetch them from the
hard disk which will take a longer access time.
Random access memory is volatile memory, meaning it loses its contents once
power is turned off. This is different from non-volatile memory such as hard disks
and flash memory, which do not require a power source to retain data. When a
computer shuts down properly, all data located in random access memory is
returned back to permanent storage on the hard drive or flash drive. At the next
boot-up, RAM begins to fill with programs automatically loaded at startup, and
with files opened by the user a process called booting.
BIOS Chip
BIOS- Basic Input Output System
BIOS is a term that stands for basic
input/output system, which consists of lowlevel software that controls the system
hardware and acts as an interface between the
operating system and the hardware. Most
people know the term BIOS by another name
device drivers, or just drivers. In other words, the BIOS is drivers, meaning all of
them. BIOS is essentially the link between hardware and software in a system.
All motherboards include a small block of Read Only Memory (ROM) which is
separate from the main system memory used for loading and running software.
COMTECH

Page 21 of 55 Pages

On PCs, the BIOS contains all the code required to control the keyboard, display
screen, disk drives, serial communications, and a number of miscellaneous
functions.
The system BIOS is a ROM chip on the motherboard used by the computer during
the startup routine (boot process) to check out the system and prepare to run the
hardware. The BIOS is stored on a ROM chip because ROM retains information
even when no power is being supplied to the computer.
CMOS Battery
CMOS-Complimentary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor
Motherboards also include a small separate
block of memory made from CMOS RAM chips
which is kept alive by a battery (known as a
CMOS battery) even when the PCs power is
off. This prevents reconfiguration when the PC is powered on.
CMOS devices require very little power to operate.
The CMOS RAM is used to store basic Information about the PCs configuration
e.g.
Floppy disk and hard disk drive types
CPU
RAM size
Date and time
Serial and parallel port information
Plug and Play information
Power Saving settings
The Other Important data kept in CMOS memory is the time and date, which is
updated by a Real Time Clock (RTC).
L2 Cache on an old Motherboard
Cache Memory
It is a small block of high-speed memory
(RAM) that enhances PC performance by preloading information from the (relatively slow)
main memory and passing it to the processor
on demand.
Most CPUS have an internal cache (in-built in
COMTECH

Page 22 of 55 Pages

the processor) which is referred to as Level-I cache memory or primary cache

memory. This can be supplemented by external cache memory fitted on the
motherboard. This is the Level-2 Cache memory or secondary cache. Some CPUs
have both L1 and L2 cache built-in and designate the separate cache chip as Level
3 (L3) cache.
PCI Slots
Expansion Buses
An input/output pathway from the CPU to
peripheral devices typically made up of a
series of slots on the motherboard. Expansion
boards (cards) plug into the bus. PCI is the
common expansion bus in a PC and other
hardware platforms. Buses carry signals, such
as data; memory addresses, power and control signals from component to
component.
Expansion buses enhance the PCs capabilities by allowing users to add missing
features in their computers in form of adapter cards that are slotted in expansion
slots.
The different types of buses include PCI, ISA, and EISA expansion bus.
Chipset
A chipset is a group of small circuits that coordinate the flow of data to and from
key components of a PC. This includes the CPU itself, the main memory, the
secondary cache and any devices situated on the buses. The chipset also controls
data flow to and from hard disks, and other devices connected to the IDE
channels. A computer has got two main chipsets: The NorthBridge (also called the memory controller) is in charge of
controlling transfers between the processor and the RAM, which is way it is
located physically near the processor. It is sometimes called the GMCH, for
Graphic and Memory Controller Hub.
The SouthBridge (also called the input/output controller or expansion
controller) handles communications between peripheral devices. It is also
called the ICH (I/O Controller Hub). The tem bridge is generally used to
designate a component which connects two buses.
Chipset manufacturers include SIS, VIA, ALI, OPTI e.t.c.
Interesting hubs

COMTECH

Page 23 of 55 Pages

Motherboard Form Factors

The motherboard form factor describes its general shape, the type of case
and power supply it can use, and its physical organization (layout of the
motherboard). It is what we are going to have a look at in this hub.
Computer Bus Architecture Types
A bus is a common pathway through which information is connected from
one component to another. This pathway is used for communication and
can be established between two or more computer components.
DDR1, DDR2, DDR3: Navigating The RAM Maze
Choosing the proper DDR-type for your PC is critical. The wrong choice can
drastically bottleneck your system. Here is a full guide to picking the right
DDR for your CPU.

Cpu Clock
The clock synchronizes the operation of all parts of the PC and provides the basic
timing signal for the CPU. Using a quartz crystal, the CPU clock breathes life into
the microprocessor by feeding it a constant flow of pulses.
For example, a 200 MHz CPU receives 200 million pulses per second from the
clock. A 2 GHz CPU gets two billion pulses per second. Similarly, in a
communications device, a clock may be used to synchronize the data pulses
between sender and receiver.
A "real-time clock," also called the "system clock," keeps track of the time of day
and makes this data available to the software. A "timesharing clock" interrupts
the CPU at regular intervals and allows the operating system to divide its time
between active users and/or applications.

Dip switch on an old motherboard.

Switches and Jumpers

COMTECH

Jumper pins with a cap on

Page 24 of 55 Pages

DIP (Dual In-line Package) switches are small electronic switches found on the
circuit board that can be turned on or off just like a normal switch. They are very
small and so are usually flipped with a pointed object such as a screwdriver, bent
paper clip or pen top. Care should be taken when cleaning near DIP switches as
some solvents may destroy them.
Jumper pins
Jumpers are small pins on the board with plastic or metal devices that go over the
pins. This device is called a bridge or a jumper cap. When the bridge is connected
to any two pins via a shorting link, it completes the circuit and a certain
configuration has been achieved.
Jumper cap
A metal bridge that closes an electrical circuit. Typically, a jumper consists of a
plastic plug that fits over a pair of protruding pins. Jumpers are sometimes used
to configure expansion boards. By placing a jumper plug over a different set of
pins, you can change a board's parameters.
Modern motherboards come with the following features:
Processor slot : Processor slot is used for processor.
Memory banks : Memory banks are used for RAM modules.
AGP slot : AGP slots are used for graphics accelerators.
PCI slots : PCI slots are used to provide connectivity for PCI cards such as
modems and sound cards.
IDE : IDE are used to connect and control IDE devices such as hard drives
and CD-ROM drives.
USB ports : USB ports are used to connect USB devices.
These are just some of the features that a motherboard may have as standard,
some motherboards come with integrated components such as a sound card,
graphics card, modem, NIC (Network Interface Card) and more.
Types of Motherboards
The type of motherboards depends on the CPU it was designed for. You can
therefore categories motherboards by which socket type they have. e.g. Socket A,
Socket 478 etc.
The Type of motherboard you buy is very important, as it will need to house your
CPU, and they are not interchangeable. When buying a motherboard, it will
always tell you what socket type it has.
COMTECH

Page 25 of 55 Pages

Chapter 3.2: How to Choose a Motherboard

As everything you have on the PC at some point needs the motherboard, you
need to consider these components when buying a motherboard. For example, if
you have a lot of devices with a PCI interface that you wish to use, there is little
point buying a motherboard that only offers you 3 PCI slots. Like wise with
memory, you have to make sure that there are enough slots for the amount of
memory you have or wish to have.
The motherboard also needs the correct type of interface for your Memory,
Graphics card, Hard disks and other items as well. You will find that most
motherboards offer everything you need however it needs checking on when
buying. Its especially important to pay detail to your motherboard if you want to
use older components, which a new motherboard may or may not support.
The major difference between motherboards that support the same CPU is the
model of the chipset (more on the chipset later). Different chipsets offer different
performance and different features in terms of memory support, AGP port speed,
Multiplier numbers, Bus speeds and much more.
When you are choosing one motherboard you have to consider:
What's Your Processor?
First and most important thing to consider when buying your motherboard - what
CPU or processor are you using? Motherboards are made differently, not all
motherboards will support all CPUs.
What CPU you select will determine the type of motherboard you get. For
example, if you want to use an Intel Pentium 4 CPU, the motherboard you select
must be able to support that brand and model of CPU.
The motherboards are also designed to support specific speeds for a CPU, so
make sure it can support the speed of the processor as well.
Choose Your Chipset
What is a chipset? Well, chipsets are the main controllers on the motherboard they allow the CPU to interface with the various components and expansion cards
installed.
When choosing your chipset, always bear in mind the type of memory supported
by the motherboard. Make sure that the board supports the type and amount of
RAM you need. Generally, choosing a chipset that supports high speed memory
will allow your system to perform better.

COMTECH

Page 26 of 55 Pages

What is a Motherboard Chipset?

A motherboard chipset controls all the data that flows through the data channels
(buses) of the motherboard. The primary function of the motherboard chipset is
to direct this data to the correct area's of the motherboard, and therefore the
correct components.
Expansions Slots and Connectors
If you intend to various peripherals to the computer, then the number and type of
expansion slots and connectors is important. By default, most motherboards
these days have USB 2.0 ports incorporated into their design.
If you intend to buy expansion cards, make sure the board comes with an ample
number of PCI slots.
Other Features
These days, most motherboards have a whole host of extra features loaded into
them. These can include things such as on-board VGA, audio, a RAID controller,
Modem or Network Card.

CHAPTER 4: RAM
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the basic working
memory of your computer system. A computer used
RAM to hold volatile (Temporary) instructions and data
needed for processing. Volatile simply means that it is
not permanent, which means anything written to RAM
will be loses if the machine loses power or if it's turned off.
Another key point about RAM is that data stored init can be accessed much more
quickly than data retrieved from the hard disk. Theoretically data retrieved from
RAM is accessed 100 to 300 times faster then the same information from a hard
disk, optical drive, or a floppy.
Memory is measured in bytes, so you'll often encounter the terms megabyte (MB)
and gigabyte (GB) in describing RAM sizes (a megabyte is a million bytes; a
gigabyte, a billion). RAM is something that you do not want to skimp on. You can
choose a slower processor, but with RAM you want as much as you can get.
Types of RAM:
SDRAM
DDR2
DDR
DDR3

COMTECH

Page 27 of 55 Pages

SDRAM
Almost all systems used to ship with 3.3
volt, 168-pin SDRAM DIMMs. SDRAM is not
an extension of older EDO DRAM but a new
type of DRAM altogether. SDRAM started
out running at 66 MHz, while older fast
page mode DRAM and EDO max out at 50
MHz. SDRAM is able to scale to 133 MHz
(PC133) officially, and unofficially up to 180MHz or higher. As processors get
faster, new generations of memory such as DDR and RDRAM are required to get
proper performance.
DDR Memory (184-pin DIMMS)
These were introduced in 2002 to replace the earlier SDRAM format. To use this
type of memory you need a 184pin socket for the module to fit
into.
DDR Memory is available in
different speeds of PC2100,
PC2700, PC3200 (DDR400), and PC4000 (DDR500). The modules can be used
singly or how desired however you cannot mix different speeds together.
DDR2 Memory (240-pin DIMMS).
This format builds on the technology of DDR . This standard has more pins and
its main developments are the ability to run faster whilst consuming less power.
To use DDR2 memory you need a 240-pin
socket for the module to slot on your
motherboard. DDR2 Memory is available in
many different speeds including PC2-3200
(DDR2400), PC2-4200 (DDR2533), and PC25300 (DDR-667).
The modules can be used singly or you can
install different speeds of DDR2 memory together if your motherboard supports
the faster speed however faster modules will perform at the lower speed.

COMTECH

Page 28 of 55 Pages

This may be worth considering if you want to run Dual-Channel memory where
you must use the same speed and ideally matching pairs to ensure compatibility.
DDR3 Memory (240-pins)
THIS is the latest memory
standard (2008 onwards) taking
over from the previous DDR
and DDR2 standards. Although
DDR3 comes with 240-pins the same as DDR2 the notch is in a different place so
people can not install the wrong type.
DDR3 is not backward compatible with DDR2 in addition to the notch the voltage
runs at a lower 1.5V than DDR2 1.8V. DDR3 memory will not fit into a standard
DDR2 DIMM socket or an earlier DDR memory socket.
To use DDR3 memory, your system motherboard must have 240-pin DIMM slots
and a DDR3-enabled chipset.

CHAPTER 5: HARDDISK
The hard disk (or hard drive) is the permanent
storage area of your computer. It stores information
whether the computer is on or off. A hard drive is a
mass storage device found in all PCs (with some
exclusions) that is used to store permanent data
such as the operating system, programs and user
files.
The data on hard drives can be erased and/or
overwritten, the hard drive is classed as a nonvolatile storage device which means it doesn't require a constant power supply in
order to retain the information stored on it (unlike RAM).
Inside every hard drive are small round disk-like objects made of either an
aluminum/alloy or a glass/ceramic composite, these are called platters, each
platter is coated with a special magnetic coating enabling them to store data
magnetically. Hovering above these platters are read/write heads that transfer
data to and from the platters.
Hard drives come with many different storage capacities, hard drive capacity is
measured in bytes, with common capacities being stated in MB (Megabytes) and
GB (Gigabytes).
COMTECH

Page 29 of 55 Pages

Hard Drive RPM Speeds

You will often see hard drives advertised as being capable of a certain RPM
(Revolutions Per Minute), this figure (as the name suggests) refers to how many
times the spindle makes a complete 360? turn in any single minute. RPM values
range from about 5,400RPM to 12,000RPM and above.
How to Choose a Hard Drive
When you are choosi ng one Hard Drive you have to consider:
ATA and SCSI
In the hard drive world, there are two data access standards, ATA and SCSI
(pronounced 'Scar-Zee'). Most of normal hard drives we're used to rely on the
PATA standard. Some newer hard drives use the SATA standard.
SATA allows transfer speeds of up to 150 MBs while PATA gives up to 133 MBs.
However, to use SATA, you'll need a Serial ATA controller, a SATA drive and a
SATA power cable. The speed difference between PATA and SATA is also not
significant unless you have a high-end SATA drive.
The SCSI standard is a very fast hard drive standard used for professional
computer systems which demand extremely fast data access. SCSI drives provide
an access time of about 9.5ms - which I feel is really not needed for average home
use.
Disk Space vs. Price
An important factor to consider is the disk space versus price ratio. When you
look at the 30 GB, 40 GB and 80 GBPATA hard drives, you'll find they are very
close in price. For the average home user, however, 40 GB to 80 GB of disk space
is plenty.
Drive Speed
If data access speed is important to you, you can go for faster SATA drives or SCSI
drives. But remember that these drives come at a price premium and may not be
necessary for average home use.

CHAPTER 6: CARD
6.1: Video Card
VGA Card is the one sending the monitor signal to the monitor.
A computer video card is placed in the motherboard, where it transfers video
signals through a cable to your monitor. The video card can either be built into
COMTECH

Page 30 of 55 Pages

the motherboard or be a separate card that is placed in either the AGP or PCIExpress Slot.
The computer graphics
cards major job in a
computer is to convert
graphic patterns into
signals for the monitor's
screen. However in recent
times as the graphics card
has
become
more
advanced it has taken
some of the jobs previously assigned with the CPU and through a graphics
pipeline adds 2D and 3D effects and it also adds textures.
How to Choose a Video Card
The VGA Card price will change on
1. VGA Card Processor
2. VGA Card Ram capacity
3. Ram type of VGA Card
When you are choosing one Video Card you have to consider:
The best way to see what video card to buy is to consider how you're using your
computer now. There are several categories:
Server
If you're using your computer as a mail server, FTP server, print server, or even a
game server, you definitely do not need a high-end video card. What you need is
a simple, no-frills low-end video card.
Simple Applications
Say you're using the PC for simple applications only, for example, word
processing, email or web surfing. Again, you do not need the best video card out
there. A cheap and decent one will do the trick.
Complex Applications
If you need to perform more complex tasks like 3D computer aided design or
video editing, it will make more sense to go for a heavy duty card. Screen
COMTECH

Page 31 of 55 Pages

resolution and image quality tend to be important factors for this type of work.
Look for a video card whose processor which supports a high screen resolution,
with ample graphics memory.
General Games
If you'll only play simple games like Minesweeper, Reverse or Backgammon, then
my advice is to save your money and just get a simple video card. No need for the
latest 3D graphics gizmo.

6.2: Sound Card

Sound Card
The sound card is an
essential component in the
PC, since it translates digital
signals into analog audio for
your listening pleasure. Well,
that's true, if you want to
play games or run multimedia
applications in your PC.
Otherwise, it may not be necessary, especially in business environments.
Sound card ports

COMTECH

Page 32 of 55 Pages

A computer sound card is used by a computer for music, sounds during

applications and entertainment (TV, movies and games). A typical sound card
usually has four ports. The largest port is the Midi/Game port , which is used for
connecting a joystick or gaming controller to. The other three ports look similar
and are generally green, pink and blue.
Underneath each port will be a small engraving of what each port does. The pink
port is for a microphone which can record sound to the computer. The green port
is line out and this is where the speakers are connected to produce sound from
the computer. The blue port is line in and this is for connecting a CD-player or
cassette tape to the computer.

Remember a sound card by itself is not enough to hear sound. You will still need
to purchase some computer speakers or a headphone set. If you want to make
use of the microphone feature then you will need to buy a computer microphone
and you should then be able to record sound to your computer.
How to Choose a Sound Card
When you are choosi ng one Sound Card you have to consider:
First thing to consider here is your intended usage of the sound card. If all
you want is basic sound support and not spectacular 3D surround sound, I'd
say go buy a cheap, simple card or even rely on your motherboard's onboard sound.
If you want great surround sound and better speaker connectivity options,
then you'll want to consider a dedicated sound card.

6.3: Modem Card

A device that translates data from your PC into a form that can be sent to other
computers over regular phone lines. The modem also receives signals from other
COMTECH

Page 33 of 55 Pages

computers and converts it into something your computer can understand. A

modem is the device most home computers use to connect to the Internet.
A Modem converts digital information into sound so that it may be transmitted
over telephone lines. When the modem hears this sound on the other end it
converts the sound back into digital information.
There are two types of modems:
INTERNAL
EXTERNAL
External modems are slightly more expensive than internal modems and are
housed in an external box or enclosure. External modems require a socket on the
computer or port (usually the serial port on the back of your computer.) The serial
port is also called a COM port, com for communications.

6.4: Network Card

A network interface card , more
commonly referred to as a NIC, is a device
that allows computers to be joined together
in a LAN, or local area network. Networked
computers communicate with each other
using a given protocol or agreed-upon
language for transmitting data packets
between the different machines, known as
nodes . The network interface card acts
as the liaison for the machine to both send
and receive data on the LAN.
The most common language or protocol for
LANs is Ethernet, sometimes referred to as
IEEE 802.3. A lesser-used protocol is Token
Ring. When building a LAN, a network interface card must be installed in each
computer on the network and all NICs in the network must be of the same
architecture. For example, all must either be Ethernet cards, Token Ring cards, or
an alternate technology.
An Ethernet network interface card is installed in an available slot inside the
computer. The NIC assigns a unique address called a MAC (media access control)
to the machine. The MACs on the network are used to direct traffic between the
COMTECH

Page 34 of 55 Pages

computers. The back plate of the network interface card features a port that
looks similar to a phone jack, but is slightly larger. This port accommodates an
Ethernet cable, which resembles a thicker version of a standard telephone line.
Ethernet cable must run from each network interface card to a central hub or
switch. The hub or switch acts like a relay, passing information between
computers using the MAC addresses and allowing resources like printers and
scanners to be shared along with data.
A network interface card does not have to be hard wired with physical cable.
Wireless Ethernet cards are installed like their wired counterparts, but rather than
a port for an Ethernet cable, the card features a small antenna. The card
communicates with the central wireless switch or hub via radio waves. Wireless
LANs may have some restrictions depending on the material the building is made
from. For example, lead in walls can block signals between the network interface
card and hub or switch.
When buying components for a LAN, make sure the NICs and hub or switch have
the same capabilities. The entire network must be either wired or wireless, so a
wireless network interface card cannot talk to a wired switch or hub. In addition,
newer versions of hardware will likely support more features and/or greater
speeds than older versions. Make sure your central switch or hub can utilize the
highest capabilities of the network interface card under consideration.

CHAPTER 7: PERIPHERALS
Chapter 7.1: Keyboard and Mouse
These two input devices are obviously needed, otherwise you can't interact with
the computer system. These components are fairly standard stuff and can be
purchased at pretty cheap prices.
Keyboards
The keyboard is the main input device for most
computers. There are many sets of keys on a
typical windows keyboard. On the left side of the
keyboard are regular alphanumeric and
punctuation keys similar to those on a typewriter.
These are used to input textual information to the
PC.
A numeric keypad on the right is similar to that of an adding machine or
calculator. Keys that are used for cursor control and navigation are located in the
COMTECH

Page 35 of 55 pages

middle. Keys that are used for special functions are located along the top of the
keyboard and along the bottom section of the alphanumeric keys.
Keyboards are mainly divided into two types
1.Multimediakeyboard. 2.OrdinaryKeyboard.
Mouse
Mouse is another input device used in computer. Mouse
is a device that controls the movement of the cursor or
pointer on a display screen.
A mouse is a small object you can roll along a hard, flat
surface. Its name is derived from its shape, which looks a
bit like a mouse, its connecting wire that one can
imagine to be the mouse's tail, and the fact that one
must make it scurry along a surface. As you move the mouse, the pointer on the
display screen moves in the same direction.
Mouse contain at least one button and sometimes as many as three, which have
different functions depending on what program is running. Some newer mouse
also includes a scroll wheel for scrolling through long documents.

Chapter 7.2: Floppy Drive and CD-Rom

Floppy Drive
A 3.5 square holding a flexible magnetic disc that
holds information or data. You need a floppy drive
to read the floppy. A floppy disk can hold only
1.44 megabytes, but it is portable and allows you
to make copies of your files.
CD-Rom
A CD-ROM drive used to be an 'optional extra' in
computers - it is no longer so. Most software
packages come in CD format, so you must have a
CD-ROM drive to read them. Typically, CD-ROM
drives today need to be at least 24X speed to
keep up with the newer software applications out
there.
COMTECH

Page 36 of 55 pages

A CD drive connects to the computer motherboard through two types of cables.

The older and more common connection is through the IDE Ribbon cable .
Recently SATA (Serial ATA) drives have been produced and will gradually become
more common. The benefits of having SATA cables is that they are smaller and
the transfer rate is higher.
Floppy drives were the main source of data transfer and files were small enough
to fit on them. However, today even CD drives are getting out of date and are fast
being replaced by the DVD ROM and DVD RW Drives.
CD-RW
CD writer is used to write CD. It can also used as
a CD drive. CD can be able to write with
different formats. By using CD writer we can
able to write with different speeds. There are
different types of writers are available in the
market with different writing speeds.
On a CD drive there is usually some numbers
with a x symbol after it. This stands for times,
for example common speeds are 4x, 8x, 16x,
18x, 24x, 32x, 40x and 52x. CD RW drives have
speeds like 24x-10x-40x or 52x-32x-52x.
How to Choose a CD-RW
When you are choosing one CD-RW you have to consider:
Drive Speed
For CD writers, you should generally look for a 40X record speed or faster. If you
buy anything that is slower, it will definitely waste a lot of time when you're
burning CDs.

Chapter 7.3: Monitor

Monitor
Monitor is the display device. Many
times per second, the video card sends
signals out to the monitor. The
information video card sends controls
which dots are lit up and how bright
they are, which determines the picture
you see.

COMTECH

Page 37 of 55 pages

Color monitors can display anywhere from 16 to over 1 million different colors.
Color monitors are sometimes called RGB monitors because they accept three
separate signals -- red, green, and blue.
The resolution of a monitor indicates how densely packed the pixels are. In
general, the more pixels (often expressed in dots per inch), the sharper the image.
Most modern monitors can display 1024 by 768 pixels, the SVGA standard. Some
high-end models can display 1280 by 1024, or even 1600 by 1200.
How to Choose a Monitor
If you're a graphics professional, you may prefer a CRT monitor because they are
said to show more realistic colors. However, the latest high-end LCDs can also give
equal color quality.
If you with text most of the time, a LCD is a good choice because the various
pixels that you find on a LCD will have nicely defined edges. This gives sharp and
focus letters on the screen.

CHAPTER 8: CASE AND POWER SUPPLY

Chapter 8.1: Case
Computer Case

The computer case is your computer's housing. You need this to store your
components, the largest of which is your motherboard.

COMTECH

Page 38 of 55 pages

Types of Case
Mini Tower :
Advantages: Excellent size which can be placed on
top ofbelow of a computer desk.
Disadvantages: While this case does offer
upgradeability it can be filled up much faster then
the Mid-Sized tower.
Recommendations: Great PC for end-users and small
businesses.
Mid-Size Tower:
Advantages: Excellent case which can fit below and on
top of your computer desk. Plenty of expandability for
new devices for businesses, end-users, and advanced
users. One of the most used computer cases found
today.
Disadvantages: None

Full-Size Tower
Advantages: Excellent computer for
upgradeability. Excellent case for a server
machine.
Disadvantages: Cost is going to be a lot more
then a standard case. Generally A large case
which cannot be placed on top or beneath a desk.
Recommendations: This case is an excellent
choice for all users and businesses.

COMTECH

Page 39 of 55 pages

Desktop
Advantages:
Excellent
desk
computer. Great use of desk space
when monitor is placed on top of
the computer.
Disadvantages: With some types
of desktop cases can be very
difficult to upgrade. Does not
really work on the floor.
Recommendations: We recommend that this type of case be purchased by
advanced users or users who plan to have a stand alone machine as a server.

Chapter 8.2: How to Choose a Case

Choosing a computer case can be difficult if you don't know what your looking for.
The range of computer cases is huge and bigger then its ever been. So how do you
find one that suits you. This guide will explain how to choose a computer case
that suits your needs.
What's your budget
The first step in choosing a computer case is working out how much you are
willing to spend on a case. If you would like to save money then don't spend a
fortune on your case.
What's your needs
The second step in choosing a computer case is making sure that it has enough
room to house all your components. If you have two CD drives then get a case
that has room for the three drives. Put one at the top and one at the bottom
leaving space in between for cooling. Do the same for your hard drives and floppy
drives. Also make sure that your motherboard can fit inside the case. Some cases
are smaller then others and some motherboards are bigger then others so make
sure your motherboard will fit.
Next make sure that there is at least one fan built into the case. I would
recommend two fans at least and if you are really worried about your equipment
over-heating then get another fan.

COMTECH

Page 40 of 55 pages

I have a friend who is very worried about over-heating. He has about 6 fans inside
his computer and when he turns it on it sounds like an airplane taking off and all
the lights in his house go dim.
So if your prepared for a little more noise then its a good idea to get an extra fan
to cool your equipment down. However, don't get paranoid about fans, one or
two should be fine and unless there is no circulation your hardware should
survive.
Computer Case Style
The last thing to do in choosing a computer case, is to choose what you want the
case to look like. Do you want a black or white case, a fancy or plain case. The
range of computer cases on the market is huge so select one that you like. If you
would prefer a cheap computer case then choose a plain one. Many computer
cases come with extras at the front like USB and ports for a headset. These can be
very useful and are worth it for the extra money.
When you are choosing one Case you have to consider:
External Space
The first factor to consider is how much space your PC case is going to take up.
Are you placing it on a tight, crammed desk? Or on a large desk? If you have the
space, tower PC cases are a good choice. If you're short of space, you may wish to
consider smaller mini PC cases which are getting more popular these days.
Internal Space
Another factor to consider is how many components you wish to fit in your PC
case. If you're a computer nut like me, you'll want to fit in a good motherboard,
CPU, a couple of hard drives, video card, LAN card, cooling fans, a CD-ROM drive
and a DVD writer. That's a lot of components to be cramming into a PC case!
Again, a good choice would be a tower PC case. However, with so many
components, you have to watch out for overheating problems - make sure you
deck out the system with a couple of good fans.
Motherboard Support
Check that your motherboard can fit into the case! Some cases are flexible
enough to support AT, ATX and Baby-AT boards, but others only support one of
these sizes. Even then, you need to be careful - some cheaper 'ATX' cases don't

COMTECH

Page 41 of 55 pages

really fit ATX motherboards. I remember buying a wonderful ATX motherboard

and it couldn't fit into my PC case! Imagine my frustration!
Power Supply
Most PC cases come with power supplies. With more and more components
being fitted into a PC, you will certainly need enough juice to power them.
Cooling
If you're a over clocker or have many system components, you'll need to ensure
you've got enough fans in that case to cool the system. Good PC cases allow
multiple (4 or more) cooling fans to be installed, ensuring good ventilation.
Looks
Just a few years back, PC cases were boring white boxes. These days, you can find
a plethora of colorful PC cases - if you're concerned about your PC's 'look'. Many
PC enthusiasts I know go for good looking PC cases that come in a variety of colors
- red, black, green, blue and what not.

Chapter 8.3: Power Supply

A computer power supply is a compulsory unit to a
computer. Without the power supply a computer is
useless as it is just a case full of metal and plastic. This
page will explain the different power cables and
connectors and how they work inside your computer.
A power cable connects from the power point to the
power supply where it supply's the motherboard and
other components with power. Often there is a power
switch on the back which can be switched off to stop the power current. If this is
not switched off and even though the computer is off power will still be drawn
out
of
the
power
point
(very
small
amount).
The most common power supply that we have in our computers today are the
ATX Power Supply. The AT Power Supply was found in many computers a few
years ago but this has become less common.
The graphic below shows each power cable and its name.

COMTECH

Page 42 of 55 pages

The computer power supply is placed inside the computer case generally near
the top of the case. It is sometimes necessary to buy a mini power supply for
some cases are so small that they need one. Most computer cases when bought
come with a power supply that is suited to its case. There are usually power ports
on the motherboard for the fans in the case but if not it is possible to buy an
adapter that will convert power from the 4-pin power cable to a fan power cable.

RJ45 COLORS AND WIRING GUIDE DIAGRAM TIA / EIA 568 A B

The information listed here is to assist Network Administrators in the color coding of Ethernet
cables. Please be aware that modifying Ethernet cables improperly may cause loss of network
connectivity. Use this information at your own risk, and ensure all connectors and cables are
modified in accordance with TIA standards.
BASIC THEORY:

COMTECH

Page 43 of 55 pages

By looking at a T-568A UTP Ethernet straight-thru cable and an Ethernet crossover cable with a
T-568B end, we see that the TX (transmitter) pins are connected to the corresponding RX
(receiver) pins, plus to plus and minus to minus. You can also see that both the blue and brown
wire pairs on pins 4, 5, 7, and 8 are not used in either standard. What you may not realize is
that, these same pins 4, 5, 7, and 8 are not used or required in 100BASE-TX as well. So why
bother using these wires, well for one thing its simply easier to make a connection with all the
wires grouped together. Otherwise you'll be spending time trying to fit those tiny little wires
into each of the corresponding holes in the RJ-45 connector.

T-568A Straight-Through Ethernet Cable

The T-568A standard is supposed to be used in new network installations. Most off-the-shelf
Ethernet cables are still of the T-568B standard; however, it makes absolutely no functional
difference in which you choose.

COMTECH

Page 44 of 55 pages

T-568B Straight-Through Ethernet Cable

Both the T-568A and the T-568B standard Straight-Through cables are used most often as patch
cords for your Ethernet connections. If you require a cable to connect two Ethernet devices
directly together without a hub or when you connect two hubs together, you will need to use a
Crossover cable instead.

RJ-45 Crossover Ethernet Cable

A good way of remembering how to wire a Crossover Ethernet cable is to wire one end using
the T-568A standard and the other end using the T-568B standard. Another way of
remembering the color coding is to simply switch the Green set of wires in place with the
Orange set of wires. Specifically, switch the solid Green (G) with the solid Orange, and switch
the green/white with the orange/white.
HOW TO BUILD AN ETHERNET CABLE INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Pull the cable off the reel to the desired length and cut using wire cutters or scissors. If
you are pulling cables through holes, it's easier to attach the RJ-45 plugs after the cable
COMTECH

Page 45 of 55 pages

2.
3.

4.

5.

is pulled. The total length of wire segments between a PC and a switch or between two
PC's cannot exceed 100 Meters (328 feet) for 100BASE-TX and 300 Meters for 10BASE-T.
Start on one end and strip the cable jacket off (about 1") using a wire stripper or a knife.
Be extra careful not to nick the wires, otherwise you will need to start over.
Spread, untwist the pairs, and arrange the wires in the order of the desired cable end.
Flatten the end between your thumb and forefinger. Trim the ends of the wires so they
are even with one another, leaving only 1/2" in wire length. If it is longer than 1/2" it will
be out-of-spec and susceptible to crosstalk. Flatten and insure there are no spaces
between wires.
Hold the RJ-45 plug with the clip facing down or away from you. Push the wires firmly
into the plug. Inspect each wire is flat even at the front of the plug. Check the order of
the wires. Double check again. Check that the jacket is fitted right against the stop of the
plug. Carefully hold the wire and firmly crimp the RJ-45 with the crimp tool.
Check the color orientation, check that the crimped connection is not about to come
apart, and check to see if the wires are flat against the front of the plug. If even one of
these are incorrect, you will have to start over. Test the Ethernet cable.

What is an IP address?
Every machine on a network has a unique identifier. Just as you would address a
letter to send in the mail, computers use the unique identifier to send data to
specific computers on a network. Most networks today, including all computers
on the Internet, use the TCP/IP protocol as the standard for how to communicate
on the network. In the TCP/IP protocol, the unique identifier for a computer is
called its IP address.
There are two standards for IP addresses: IP Version 4 (IPv4) and IP Version 6
(IPv6). All computers with IP addresses have an IPv4 address, and many are
starting to use the new IPv6 address system as well. Here's what these two
address types mean:
IPv4 uses 32 binary bits to create a single unique address on the network.
An IPv4 address is expressed by four numbers separated by dots. Each
number is the decimal (base-10) representation for an eight-digit binary
(base-2) number, also called an octet. For example: 216.27.61.137
IPv6 uses 128 binary bits to create a single unique address on the network.
An IPv6 address is expressed by eight groups of hexadecimal (base-16)
numbers separated by colons, as in
2001:cdba:0000:0000:0000:0000:3257:9652. Groups of numbers that
contain all zeros are often omitted to save space, leaving a colon separator
to mark the gap (as in 2001:cdba::3257:9652).
COMTECH

Page 46 of 55 pages

At the dawn of IPv4 addressing, the Internet was not the large commercial
sensation it is today, and most networks were private and closed off from other
networks around the world. When the Internet exploded, having only 32 bits to
identify a unique Internet address caused people to panic that we'd run out of IP
addresses. Under IPv4, there are 232 possible combinations, which offers just
under 4.3 billion unique addresses. IPv6 raised that to a panic-relieving 2128
possible addresses. Later, we'll take a closer look at how to understand your
computer's IPv4 or IPv6 addresses.
How does your computer get its IP address? An IP address can be either dynamic
or static. A static address is one that you configure yourself by editing your
computer's network settings. This type of address is rare, and it can create
network issues if you use it without a good understanding of TCP/IP. Dynamic
addresses are the most common. They're assigned by the Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP), a service running on the network. DHCP typically
runs on network hardware such as routers or dedicated DHCP servers.
Dynamic IP addresses are issued using a leasing system, meaning that the IP
address is only active for a limited time. If the lease expires, the computer will
automatically request a new lease. Sometimes, this means the computer will get a
new IP address, too, especially if the computer was unplugged from the network
between leases. This process is usually transparent to the user unless the
computer warns about an IP address conflict on the network (two computers with
the same IP address). An address conflict is rare, and today's technology typically
fixes the problem automatically.
Next, let's take a closer look at the important parts of an IP address and the
special roles of certain addresses.

IP Classes
Earlier, you read that IPv4 addresses represent four eight-digit binary numbers.
That means that each number could be 00000000 to 11111111 in binary, or 0 to
255 in decimal (base-10). In other words, 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255. However,
some numbers in that range are reserved for specific purposes on TCP/IP
networks. These reservations are recognized by the authority on TCP/IP
addressing, the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). Four specific
reservations include the following:
0.0.0.0 -- This represents the default network, which is the abstract concept
of just being connected to a TCP/IP network.

COMTECH

Page 47 of 55 pages

255.255.255.255 -- This address is reserved for network broadcasts, or

messages that should go to all computers on the network.
127.0.0.1 -- This is called the loopback address, meaning your computer's
way of identifying itself, whether or not it has an assigned IP address.
169.254.0.1 to 169.254.255.254 -- This is the Automatic Private IP
Addressing (APIPA) range of addresses assigned automatically when a
computer's unsuccessful getting an address from a DHCP server.
The other IP address reservations are for subnet classes. A subnet is a smaller
network of computers connected to a larger network through a router. The
subnet can have its own address system so computers on the same subnet can
communicate quickly without sending data across the larger network. A router on
a TCP/IP network, including the Internet, is configured to recognize one or more
subnets and route network traffic appropriately. The following are the IP
addresses reserved for subnets:
10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 -- This falls within the Class A address range of
1.0.0.0 to 127.0.0.0, in which the first bit is 0.
172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 -- This falls within the Class B address range
of 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.0.0, in which the first two bits are 10.
192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 -- This falls within the Class C range of
192.0.0.0 through 223.255.255.0, in which the first three bits are 110.
Multicast (formerly called Class D) -- The first four bits in the address are
1110, with addresses ranging from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255.
Reserved for future/experimental use (formerly called Class E) -- addresses
240.0.0.0 to 254.255.255.254.
The first three (within Classes A, B and C) are those most used in creating subnets.
Later, we'll see how a subnet uses these addresses. The IANA has outlined specific
uses for multicast addresses within Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
document RFC 5771. However, it hasn't designated a purpose or future plan for
Class E addresses since it reserved the block in its 1989 document RFC 1112.
Before IPv6, the Internet was filled with debate about whether the IANA should
release Class E for general use.
Next, let's see how subnets work and find out who has those non-reserved IP
addresses out on the Internet.

Internet Addresses and Subnets

COMTECH

Page 48 of 55 pages

The following is an example of a subnet IP address you might have on your

computer at home if you're using a router (wireless or wired) between your ISP
connection and your computer:
IP address: 192.168.1.102
Subnet mask: 255.255.255.0
Twenty-four bits (three octets) reserved for network identity
Eight bits (one octet) reserved for nodes
Subnet identity based on subnet mask (first address): 192.168.1.0
The reserved broadcast address for the subnet (last address):
192.168.1.255
Example addresses on the same network: 192.168.1.1, 192.168.1.103
Example addresses not on the same network: 192.168.2.1, 192.168.2.103
Besides reserving IP addresses, the IANA is also responsible for assigning blocks of
IP addresses to certain entities, usually commercial or government organizations.
Your Internet service provider (ISP) may be one of these entities, or it may be part
of a larger block under the control of one of those entities. In order for you to
connect to the Internet, your ISP will assign you one of these addresses. You can
see a full list of IANA assignments and reservations for IPv4 addresses here.
If you only connect one computer to the Internet, that computer can use the
address from your ISP. Many homes today, though, use routers to share a single
Internet connection between multiple computers. Wireless routers have become
especially popular in recent years, avoiding the need to run network cables
between rooms.
If you use a router to share an Internet connection, the router gets the IP address
issued directly from the ISP. Then, it creates and manages a subnet for all the
computers connected to that router. If your computer's address falls into one of
the reserved subnet ranges listed earlier, you're going through a router rather
than connecting directly to the Internet.
IP addresses on a subnet have two parts: network and node. The network part
identifies the subnet itself. The node, also called the host, is an individual piece of
computer equipment connected to the network and requiring a unique address.
Each computer knows how to separate the two parts of the IP address by using a
subnet mask. A subnet mask looks somewhat like an IP address, but it's actually
just a filter used to determine which part of an IP address designates the network
and node.
A subnet mask consists of a series of 1 bits followed by a series of 0 bits. The 1
bits indicate those that should mask the network bits in the IP address, revealing
COMTECH

Page 49 of 55 pages

only those that identify a unique node on that network. In the IPv4 standard, the
most commonly used subnet masks have complete octets of 1s and 0s as follows:
255.0.0.0.0 = 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 = eight bits for
networks, 24 bits for nodes
255.255.0.0 = 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 = 16 bits for
networks, 16 bits for nodes
255.255.255.0 = 11111111. 11111111.11111111.00000000 = 24 bits for
networks, eight bits for nodes
People who set up large networks determine what subnet mask works best based
on the number of desired subnets or nodes. For more subnets, use more bits for
the network; for more nodes per subnet, use more bits for the nodes. This may
mean using non-standard mask values. For instance, if you want to use 10 bits for
networks and 22 for nodes, your subnet mask value would require using
11000000 in the second octet, resulting in a subnet mask value of 255.192.0.0.
Another important thing to note about IP addresses in a subnet is that the first
and last addresses are reserved. The first address identifies the subnet itself, and
the last address identifies the broadcast address for systems on that subnet.
See the sidebar on the previous page for a look at how all this information comes
together to form your IP address. For even more information about IP addresses,
the Internet and related networking topics, head on to the next page.

TOOLS AND EQUIPTMENT

1. CABLE CUTTER/STRIPPER

COMTECH

2 . CRIMPING TOOL

Page 50 of 55 pages

3. LONG NOSE PLIER

5. PRESICION SET

7. LAN TESTER

COMTECH

4. DIAGONAL CUTTER PLIER

6. SCREWDRIVER SET

8. TAPE MEASURE

Page 51 of 55 pages

9.. HAMMER

11. FLASHLIGHT

14. EXTENSION CORD

COMTECH

10. DRILL

12. SOLDERING IRON

13. DESOLDERING PUMP

15. POWER CORD

Page 52 of 55 pages

16. MASKING TAPE

18. EYEWEAR/GOGLES

20.

COMTECH

GLOVES

17. ELECTRICAL TAPE

19. MAGNIFYING GLASS

21.

SURGICAL MASK

Page 53 of 55 pages

22. ANTISTATIC WRISTBAND

24. RJ45 CONNECTOR

26.

UTP CABLE

COMTECH

23. ANTISTATIC MAT

25. RUBBER BOOT

27. THERMAL PASTE

Page 54 of 55 pages

28. ANALOG MULTITESTER

30. WIRE STRIPPER/CUTTER

33. TWEEZER

36. LOGIC PROBE

COMTECH

29. DIGITAL MULTITESTER

31. ADJUSTABLE WRENCH

34. IC EXTRACTOR

32. PRONG HOLDER

35. IC INSERTER

37. LOGIC PULSER+

Page 55 of 55 pages