Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Abstract
To gain insight into the ventilation needs for an enclosed engine compartment
of an off-road machine, a prototypical test-rig that includes an engine and
other installation hardware was built. Well controlled experiments were conducted to help understand the effects of ventilation air flow on heat rejection
and component temperatures. An assessment of 1-D and 3-D simulation
methods was performed to predict underhood ventilation air flow and component temperatures using the experimental data. The analytical work involved
development, validation, and application of these methods for optimized ventilation air flow rate in the test-rig. A 1-D thermal-fluid network model was
developed to account for overall energy balance and to simulate ventilation and
hydraulic system response. This model was combined with a 3-D CFD model
for the ventilation air circulation in the test rig to determine the flow patterns
and the distributed surface heat transfer. The tests conducted at Caterpillar
and the complementary analyses performed at Argonne provide an opportunity to understand the isolated effect of ventilation air cooling on underhood
thermal management.
Introduction
Construction equipment and other types of heavy vehicles have common underhood thermal management challenges: restrictive enclosures and everincreasing variety of heat sources. But off-road machines have rather unique
additional underhood thermal management issues such as
high auxiliary loads,
severe operating conditions involving dust and debris,
wide range of altitudes and temperatures,
374
T. Sofu et al.
375
Experimental Study
A U.S. EPA Tier II emissions level engine (Fig 2)
was installed into a
mockup representing a
typical medium size offhighway machine with a
full engine enclosure separated from the cooling fan
by a solid wall [1]. The enclosure was constructed
from sheet metal and
tightly sealed at all seams,
but was not insulated. The
CAD model shown in
Fig 2. Engine setup and enclosure frame without walls.
Fig.3 provides a perspective
on the enclosure and inlet/outlet locations with respect to engine components. Consistent with a typical off-highway machine with this size engine, the enclosure dimensions were
100x140x140-cm3. The 30x30-cm2 inlet opening in front of the crank shaft
was used to supply ventilation air into the enclosure. A 30-cm diameter opening at the top was connected to a variable capacity blower to draw air from the
enclosure, and the total flow rate throughout the enclosure was measured.
Front
Inlet
Outlet
376
T. Sofu et al.
were stabilized. To allow the data to be scaled for different engine compartment configurations, the ventilation air flow rate was normalized with respect
to the engine combustion air flow rate. This ratio of the ventilation air flow
rate to the engine combustion air flow rate was also used as the basis of comparisons with analytical results. The airflow ratio varied between 0.5 and 3.75.
Analytical Studies
Computer simulations can improve the understanding of interactions between
the engine subsystems[2]. The main purpose of this study has been an assessment of simulation methods that could be used in predicting underhood ventilation air flow field and temperatures for an off-road machine. The work involved development and validation of combined 1-D and 3-D simulation
models of the Caterpillar test-rig. A 1-D thermal-fluid network model was developed to account for overall energy balance and simulate cooling system response using the commercial software Flowmaster[3]. A 3-D underhood
model of the complex test rig was built using the commercial CFD software
Star-CD[4] to determine the flow paths for the ventilation air system and the
surface heat transfer coefficient.
377
its top end was treated as a standard outlet boundary. The final CFD model
consists of 1.34 million fluid cells, with a 3 mm thick extrusion layer surrounding the engine and enclosure surfaces to give a maximum y+ value of 200
for airflow ratio of 1.5.
Outlet
Outlet
Front
Inlet
Fig.4. CFD mesh of the test rig (a) cutaway view of the surface mesh (b) a cross section of the
volume mesh.
The ventilation air flow field in the test rig and the convective heat transfer
coefficient for the solid surfaces were obtained using the commercial CFD
software Star-CD. An initial parametric study for inclusion of the buoyancy
force in the thermal-fluid calculations revealed that the effect of density variations on the overall flow and temperature fields is negligible. Thus, the ventilation air flow field was simulated as a steady incompressible flow with energy
equation using the high-Re number k-epsilon turbulence model with logarithmic wall functions.
As the most basic two-equation model, k-epsilon model is believed to provide a reasonable approximation of the time-averaged flow distribution over
the surface of the engine and its components in the test rig. A set of transient
calculations were also studied to investigate temperature fluctuations observed
during the experiments and assure that the calculated flow field is steady with
no oscillations. The results indicated negligible difference between the transient and steady state solutions. Five different inlet locations, each for five airflow ratios, were studied with the CFD model; however, only the results of
front inlet configuration (shown in Fig.4) are discussed here. The calculations
were performed on a linux cluster.
378
T. Sofu et al.
Fig.5. 1-D network flow model of the test rig for front-inlet configuration.
Air flow paths in the 1-D model are based on 3-D simulation results. In the
air loop, the entering ventilation air is considered to gain heat as it passes
through individual surface points on the engine as shown in Fig.5. In the oil
379
loop, after losing heat through the oil pan, the flow splits into three separate
branches (the turbo, the cylinder head, and the engine block) before returning
to the sump. In the coolant loop, the water cools the lubrication oil in the oil
loop and circulates inside the engine block and the cylinder head. The radiator
is simply modeled as a source with constant flow rate and with known inlet
temperature.
Interface between the 3-D CFD and 1-D Network Flow Models
Fig.6 shows the schematic of the sequential analyses with the 1-D network
flow and 3-D CFD models. The 1-D model requires flow rates and inlet temperatures as the boundary conditions in the air and coolant loops and oil pump
speed in the oil loop to account for overall energy balance and predict the engine component temperatures. In the 3-D thermal analysis, these predictions
are prescribed as surface temperature boundary conditions for various engine
components and enclosure walls, and they are used to calculate ventilation air
flow field and temperatures. The results of the 3-D CFD analysis are, in return, provided back to the 1-D model to improve component temperature
predictions by modifying the air flow paths and heat transfer coefficients between the engine components and ventilation air. The typical values of estimated heat transfer coefficients between the engine components and ventilation air are found to vary in the range from 10 to 50 W/m2-K.
Model Improvements
Boundary Conditions:
using FLOWMASTER
Boundary Conditions:
Air flow rate and inlet
temperature
Output:
Surface temperatures
Air temperatures
Oil and coolant temps.
Output:
Ventilation air flow paths
and heat transfer rates
between engine and air
380
T. Sofu et al.
Normalized Temperature
381
Fig.9. The calculated ventilation air flow field and temperature distributions on a vertical plane
that intersects the front inlet.
1.0
The comparison of the experimental and 3-D model predictions for pressure drop
through the test rig is shown in
Fig.10 as a function of airflow
ratio. The y axis is the normalized pressure drop for flow
through the enclosure. A good
agreement for such system restriction curves is the first indication that CFD model captures
the flow field accurately. The
other comparisons (air temperatures throughout the enclosure) are consistent with the experimental values when accurate
surface temperatures are specified as the boundary conditions.
Calculated
Experimental
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
Airflow Ratio
3.0
382
T. Sofu et al.
Normalized Temperatures
Normalized Temperatures
1
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
Experimantal
0.2
Experimantal
0.2
Calculated
Calculated
Oil to Sump
Oil to Bearing
Oil to Cooler
Water to Engine
ECM Area
Fig.11. Comparison of temperatures between measured data and model predictions: (a) ventilation air temperatures, (b) coolant and oil temperatures.
Although the discrepancies are generally small, the attempts to resolve them
are part of the overall modeling effort to provide a better description of the
underhood system. For example, based on the CFD results, the discrepancy for
the exhaust-side rear ventilation air temperature is attributed to a local recirculation zone in that region. However, since the estimated temperature is small
and its impact on overall temperature distributions is negligible, a modification
to the network flow model for the front inlet configuration is not considered
to be essential.
383
Conclusions
Experiments were conducted to gain insight into the ventilation air flow needs
for an enclosed engine compartment of an off-road machine. These laboratory
experiments were well controlled to provide good accuracy and to draw important conclusions on minimum ventilation flow requirements for maintaining acceptable underhood temperatures. About 96% of the total fuel energy
was accounted for during the test. Underhood temperatures in the areas of
concern are found to be generally stabilized near an airflow ratio of two. Data
obtained were also used to provide boundary conditions and validation information for simulation methods.
A combined 1-D and 3-D simulation methodology was developed for optimization of engine compartment ventilation air flow. The air flow field and
the rate of heat transfer between engine and ventilation air inside the enclosure
were determined with the 3-D CFD simulations. A 1-D network model was
built by discretizing the various fluid paths and the solid metal structure in the
system. Once the ventilation air flow paths and heat transfer coefficients were
determined with CFD, the 1-D network model with reduced complexity was
used to simulate thermal interaction of the engine structure with the air, coolant, and oil flow. The results indicate that the temperatures and distributed
heat rejection rates can be estimated within reasonable accuracy when 3-D and
1-D models are used in combination.
Acknowledgements
This work was completed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy Office of FreedomCAR and Vehicle Technologies. The submitted manuscript has been created by the University of Chicago as Operator of Argonne
National Laboratory (Argonne) under Contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38
with the U.S. Department of Energy.
References
[1] Srinivas R. Malipeddi, Underhood Thermal Management Guidelines,
Jan 2003, Caterpillar Internal Document.
[2] C. Hughes, et.al, Heavy Duty Truck Cooling System Design Using CoSimulation, SAE Technical Paper Series 2001-01-1707, Proceeding of
Vehicle Thermal Management Systems Conference & Exhibition, Nashville, TN, May 14-17, 2001.
[3] D. S. Miller, Internal Flow Systems, 2nd edition, Flowmaster International Ltd., published by BHR Group Limited, 1996.
[4] Star-CD, Version 3.150A, CD-adapco Group, Melville, NY.