Cooling Sys PDF

COOLING SYSTEM ANALYSIS
LT Andrew Jiear1
University of New South Wales at the Australian Defence Force Academy
The Formula SAE competition challenges students to conceive, design, fabricate and compete with
small formula style race cars [1]. Since ADFA began participating in the Formula SAE Competition in
2004, ACME Racing has not conducted experimental research or detailed analysis of the cooling systems
in order to support and justify their design decisions. The aim of this thesis is to construct a robust
process for gathering experimental data and to conduct analysis in order to determine the most efficient
location and size of the radiator core on SAE vehicles. Data from experiments on coolant flow and
radiator characteristics were used to calculate the systems flow rate and heat load capacity. The
dynamic test results were unable to provide relevant data to pass judgement on the most efficient radiator
location and core size. The experimental and simulation data from experiments on cooling system
performance and coolant flow characteristics led to the recommendation to use an electrical water pump
on ACME racings 2009 vehicle, the WS05. This data along with background research will also provide
possibilities for research and development of a more efficient cooling system to be designed and evaluated
by future students for integration with future ACME Racing vehicles.
Contents
NOMENCLATURE ............................................................................................................................................... 2
I. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 3
A. The Formula SAE Competition ................................................................................................................. 3
B. UNSW@ADFA Formula SAE Participation: ACME Racing ................................................................... 3
C. Problem Analysis....................................................................................................................................... 3
1.
SAE Competition rules and structure .................................................................................................... 3
2.
Standard engine specifications .............................................................................................................. 4
D. Conclusions of problem analysis ............................................................................................................... 4
E. Revision of Initial Objectives .................................................................................................................... 5
F.
Revised Objectives and Outcomes ............................................................................................................ 6
II.
FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT TRANSFER............................................................................................ 6
A. Conduction ................................................................................................................................................ 7
B. Convection................................................................................................................................................. 7
C. Radiation ................................................................................................................................................... 8
III.
FUNDAMENTALS OF COOLING SYSTEMS ....................................................................................... 9
A. The primary function of vehicle cooling systems ...................................................................................... 9
B. Cooling system operating requirements .................................................................................................. 10
C. Cooling system types ............................................................................................................................... 10
D. Cooling system circuit and components .................................................................................................. 10
1.
Modified cooling systems: WS02 and WS04 ...................................................................................... 11
2.
Modifications to standard cooling system ........................................................................................... 11
E. Considerations for racing applications .................................................................................................... 12
IV.
HEAT TRANSFER IN COOLING SYSTEMS ...................................................................................... 13
A. Temperature Differential ......................................................................................................................... 13
B. Heat Load to the Cooling System ............................................................................................................ 13
C. Effects of Radiator Design on Heat Transfer........................................................................................... 14
1.
Coolant Flow Rate .............................................................................................................................. 14
2.
Cooling Airflow .................................................................................................................................. 15
3.
Radiator Face Area .............................................................................................................................. 15
V.
THE DATA ACQUISITION PROCESS ................................................................................................ 16
A. Justification for chosen experimental tests .............................................................................................. 17
B. Acquisition of data for determining radiator placement .......................................................................... 17
1.
Sensor selection and modification....................................................................................................... 17
2.
Sensor calibration ................................................................................................................................ 18
3.
Analysis of initial results ..................................................................................................................... 19
1
School of Aerospace, Civil & Mechanical Engineering. ZACM4451 Mechanical Engineering Project and Thesis
1
Final Thesis Report 2008, UNSW@ADFA
4.
Modifications to improve signal resolution......................................................................................... 22

Acquisition of data on coolant flow characteristics ................................................................................. 23
DATA ANALYSIS & SUPPOSITION ................................................................................................... 24
Dynamic test results ................................................................................................................................ 24
Cooling system performance and coolant flow characteristics ................................................................ 25
1.
Coolant flow rates ............................................................................................................................... 25
2.
Cooling system heat load capacity ...................................................................................................... 26
3.
Simulation results ................................................................................................................................ 26
4.
Experimental versus simulation results ............................................................................................... 27
VII.
CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY .............................................................. 28
A. Recommendations for dynamic testing for radiator location and size efficiency .................................... 29
B. Recommendations for use of CFD analysis for vehicle cooling systems ................................................ 29
1.
Engine Thermal Analysis .................................................................................................................... 29
2.
Heat exchanger thermal and fluid dynamic analysis ........................................................................... 30
3.
Cooling duct aerodynamic efficiency and design ............................................................................... 30
C. Summary ................................................................................................................................................. 30
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................................. 30
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................................... 31
C.
VI.
A.
B.
APPENDICES (In supplementary document)

Appendix A: Client Brief
Appendix B: Experimental process for pressure measurements using MOTEC Pitot Sensor
Appendix C: Texense Pitot Sensor Data Sheet
Appendix D: Honeywell CPX05G Data Sheet
Appendix E: Flow rate calculations
Appendix F: Heat load calculations
Appendix G: Glossary
Appendix H: Milestone Chart (Management Documentation)
Appendix I: Gantt Chart (Management Documentation)
Appendix J: Risk Management (Management Documentation)
NOMENCLATURE
cp
dT
dT/dx
h
k
qc
qr
qx
G
`
M
Q
Ts
T
Tsur
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Specific Heat [kJ/kg.K]

Temperature Differential [K]
Temperature Gradient
Convective Heat transfer Coefficient [W/m2.K]
Thermal Conductivity Coefficient [W/m.K]
Heat Flux (Convective) [W/m2]
Heat Flux (Radiation) [W/m2.K]
Heat Flux (Conductive) [W/m2]
G Force [N]
Mass Flow Rate [kg/s]
Heat Load [J/s or W]
Surface Temperature [K]
Fluid Temperature [K]
Temperature of Surroundings [K]
Emissivity constant
Stefan-Boltzmann constant [W/m2.K4]
ACME
ADFA
CFD
ECU
HoS
HP
RON
RPM
SAE
ULP
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
School of Aerospace, Civil and Mechanical Engineering

Australian Defence Force Academy
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Electronic Control Unit
Head of School
Horsepower
Research Octane Number
Revolutions per Minute
Society of Automotive Engineers
Unleaded Petrol
ABBREVIATIONS
2
I. INTRODUCTION
A. The Formula SAE Competition
The Formula SAE (F-SAE) competition is for SAE student members to conceive, design, fabricate and
compete with small formula style race cars. The restrictions on car chassis and engine are limited so that the
knowledge, creativity and imagination of the students are challenged. For the purpose of the competition, the
students assume that a manufacturing firm has engaged them to produce a prototype car for evaluation as a
production item. The intended sales market is the non-professional weekend autocross racer. Therefore, cars
must have high performance in terms of acceleration, braking and handling qualities. The car must be low in
cost, easily maintained and reliable. Additionally, the marketability of the car is enhanced by other factors
including aesthetics, comfort and use of common parts. [1]
B. UNSW@ADFA Formula SAE Participation: ACME Racing
The UNSW@ADFA began participating in the Formula SAE Competition in 2004 with the first ACME
Racing vehicle, WS01. The cooling systems used on ACME Racing vehicles to date have been sufficient in
meeting the cooling requirements of the vehicles Suzuki GSX-R600 engine. In fact it they have proved to be
over-engineered given that the heat loads generated have been managed easily, indicating that a more efficient
smaller system could be used. ACME Racing changed a three year pattern of placing the radiator on the
centreline at the rear of the vehicle with the placement of the 2007 WS04 radiator on the side of the vehicle.
ACME Racing has not conducted experimental research or analysis of the cooling systems in order to support
and justify these design decisions. It is probable that the choice was made to move the radiator to the side of the
vehicle to mimic the design of other successful SAE and Formula 1 cooling system layouts. However, it has
also improved access to the engine and when balanced correctly with oil and water tanks on the opposite side
lowers the vehicles centre of gravity.
C. Problem Analysis
In order to analyse the problem to be addressed within this thesis the relevant SAE competition rules and the
competition structure must be reviewed. Following an appreciation of the inherent design limitations of the
competition, the engine specifications and required modifications of the Suzuki GSX-R600 engines used for
SAE vehicles are reviewed.
1. SAE Competition rules and structure
The Formula SAE competition poses several limitations to the design and construction of each vehicle. The
following, as detailed in the 2008 Formula SAE Rules [2], specifically influence design considerations of
vehicle cooling systems.
Engine Limitations (Rule 3.5.1.1)
The engine(s) used to power the car must be four-stroke piston engine(s) with a displacement not exceeding
610 cc per cycle. The engine can be modified within the restrictions of the rules. If more than one engine is
used, the total displacement cannot exceed 610 cc and the air for all engines must pass through a single air
intake restrictor (see 3.5.4.3, Intake System Restrictor.)
System Sealing (Rule 3.5.1.5)
Separate catch cans must be employed to retain fluids from any vents for the coolant system or the
crankcase or engine lubrication system. Each catch-can must have a minimum volume of ten (10) percent of
the fluid being contained or 0.9 litres whichever is greater.
Catch cans must be capable of containing boiling water without deformation, and be located rearwards of
the firewall below drivers shoulder level. They must have a vent with a minimum diameter of 3 mm (1/8 inch)
with the vent pointing away from the driver.
Coolant Fluid Limitations (Rule 3.5.1.6)
Water-cooled engines must only use plain water, or water with cooling system rust and corrosion inhibitor
at no more than 0.015 litres per litre of plain water. Glycol based antifreeze or water pump lubricants of any
kind are strictly prohibited.
Location (Rule 3.7.1.1)
In plan view, no part of any aerodynamic device, wing, undertray or splitter can be further forward than 460
mm (18 inches) forward of the fronts of the front tires, and no further rearward than the rear of the rear tires.
3
No part of any such device can be wider than the outside of the front tires measured at the height of the front
hubs.
The SAE Competition structure defines the operating conditions that the vehicle is likely to experience. The
competition is judged in a series of static and dynamic events. The dynamic events include the following high
performance test and trials: Acceleration, Skid-Pad, Autocross, Fuel Economy and Endurance. Across all
events, any of the tracks used at any of the 7 competition locations will allow cars to reach a maximum speed of
105 km/h and require a distance of 22 km to be travelled in the Endurance event.
Additionally, the SAE technical specifications [3] state that any engine used and maintained as naturally
aspirated will produce between 60-80 HP at up to 12,000 RPM using 98 RON ULP pump fuel. These figures
are obviously based on specifications of the majority of cars and will differ depending on individual designs.
2. Standard engine specifications
The engine selected by ACME Racing for use in the WS01 to WS04 vehicles is the Suzuki GSX-R600
engine. The standard engines specifications of the 2004 GSX-R600 engine are detailed in Table 1.1. [4]
Table 1.1
1.1 Standard engine specifications of the 2004 GSX-R600 engine
Engine Type
Cylinders
Engine Stroke
Cooling
Valves
Valve Configuration
Bore (mm)
Stroke (mm)
Displacement (cc)
Compression Ratio
Horsepower
Fuel Requirements
Horizontal In-line
4
4 Stroke
Liquid
16 (4 per cylinder)
DOHC
67
42.5
599
12.2 : 1
106 HP (77.4 kW) @ 11800 RPM
PS DIN Corrections (Temperature, Humidity, Pressure)
95 RON ULP
D. Conclusions of problem analysis

On reviewing the rules and competition structure the following considerations based on limitations and event
characteristics relevant to cooling system design are:
Coolant will consist of water only as use of the additive is not essential for the competition conditions,
Cooling system must adequately cool an engine across a range of 0-105 km/h, for sprint and endurance
events up to distances of 22km,
Cooling systems will require a fan for cooling during static events or waiting at race start positions, and
Modified engines used in SAE will most likely produce 60-80 HP depending on aspiration type and
other design factors.
The modified engine specifications of the SAE vehicles are significantly different to the standard
specifications of the GSX-R600 engine as used in the motorbike. The standard engine as used in a motorbike
generates 106 HP [4] but due to conversion of the system for use in an SAE vehicle the modified engines
generate much less. The most prominent modification is the use of the required 20mm intake restrictor that will
limit an un-modified engine in F-SAE to 60-70 HP. As stated by the SAE brief technical specifications
expected horsepower levels are 60-80 HP indicating that further gains can be made with the restrictor in place
[3]. The WS02 vehicle produces 78 HP @ 10,600 RPM PS DIN Corrections (Temperature, Humidity, and
Pressure) measured at the wheel hubs (86 HP at flywheel). The main reason for the higher power output is
modification of the intake lengths based on dynometer tuning as conducted by Laine Pierce [5]. Furthermore,
the SAE vehicles are not constrained by the strict noise and pollution emissions policies that the motorbike is.
This allows the SAE vehicle to be tuned to run at lower engine temperatures, typically in the range of 86-90C,
producing higher peak torque but more pollution and noise.
The greatest affect from modification of the cooling system for use in SAE was generated from the
thermostat valve operating temperatures remaining unchanged from factory settings. This is important due to
the modified operating temperatures for WS02 of 86-90 C; which means the thermostat valve never fully
opens; as it was built to fully open at 95C. This restricts the coolant flow rate during the tests. This problem
4
has been overcome with WS04 by use of an electrical water pump. This will be discussed further in Section II
but due to WS04 being inoperable during 2008, it was unable to be used for comparative testing of side and rear
mounted systems as originally desired. The effects of the electrical and mechanical pump on coolant flow and
power output may be investigated during static experimental analysis of the coolant characteristics and if
possible estimated by use of engine modelling software such as Engine Analyser Pro v3.5.
The major components, physical properties and governing factors of the cooling system are shown in Figure
1.1. It is necessary to understand that in the design of the cooling systems UNSW@ADFA SAE teams have
been unable to influence the design of the radiator core with the exception of specifying a size. Teams generally
purchase a core based on the engine manufacturers recommendation for cooling requirements. Consequently,
the only parameters specific to the core that a team can alter to increase performance are the location and size.
For this reason these issues will be the main focus of this thesis. Other considerations directly influenced by the
core location are the negative effect of extra weight from piping and the effect on overall vehicle aerodynamics.
Further improvements can be achieved by optimising coolant flow rate through water pump selection and
improving the incoming cooling air speed. It is with extensive study of air flow characteristics around a vehicle
that teams can reduce the size of a core by taking advantage of greater cooling air speeds by optimising fan
configurations and intake aerodynamics.
Figure 1.1
1.1. Major system components, physical properties and governing factors of cooling systems
In general, several major factors can lead to an ineffective cooling system used on ACME Racing vehicles.
These emerge from an absence of:
thermal analysis conducted on the engine to determine its cooling requirements;
thermal analysis of the cooling system, specifically the heat exchanger, to determine heat dissipation;
fluid dynamics analysis of the cooling system, particularly the heat exchanger, to determine spot
pressures, cavitations and flow inconsistencies;
consideration of the benefits of integrated oil and engine cooling systems;
modelling of the intakes for optimisation of aerodynamic efficiency and directing flow through the
radiator core; and
experimental justification for the placement of the radiator unit and its integration with the overall
vehicle system.
E. Revision of Initial Objectives
The initial objectives of the thesis are included in the Client Brief in Appendix A. Revisions of the
objectives was undertaken during the course of the project. The main reason for this was that the original thesis
experimentation relied on use of operational WS02 and WS04 SAE vehicles.
5
The WS04 vehicle failed to become operational in 2008. This has restricted dynamic testing to the WS02
vehicle, meaning that the comparison of radiator locations had to be carried out by designing experiments that
replicated the side mounted radiator on WS02. Physical tests to compare the use of mechanical versus electrical
water and oil pumps could not be conducted due to WS04 being inoperable. This can be tested analytically
using engine analyser software.
Further, the WS02 vehicle was inoperable for a large part of the first session following a driver training
accident that damaged the vehicle suspension. Consequently this postponed the time to analyse the vehicle
experimentally until late June 2008.
Furthermore, the ever present risk of the car possibly being required to be dismantled for use in construction
of the WS05 vehicle for the 2008 SAE Competition as identified in the risk analysis in Appendix J existed. This
risk was settled in late July when the 2008 ACME racing team decided to not attend the 2008 SAE competition
and postpone construction to focus on design of the WS05 for the 2009 competition.
F. Revised Objectives and Outcomes
Based on the abovementioned circumstances a set of revised objectives and outcomes had to be established.
The new and final objectives of the thesis are as follows:
Obtain dynamic experimental data of air flow characteristics from the ACME Racing 2005 (WS02)
vehicle,
Determine the most efficient placement of the radiator from dynamic experimental analysis of WS02,
Determine the most efficient radiator size from dynamic experimental analysis,
Determine the coolant flow characteristics from static experimental analysis for heat load calculations
and future students use in CFD, and
Research cooling system analysis to provide background information that supports use of the physical
values of the coolant and radiator core obtained through experimentation in CFD analysis during later
thesis.
The list of objectives was developed in order to establish specific tasks to be achieved during the course
of the thesis. These specific tasks are detailed in the list of thesis outcomes that follow.
Develop airflow velocity vs. vehicle velocity curves for rear and side locations through dynamic
experimental testing for WS02.
Determine the following coolant characteristics from static experimental analysis for use in heat load
calculations and future CFD analysis by determining:
o Coolant flow rate versus operational load curves, and
o Coolant operating temperatures.
Calculate the heat load to the cooling system from static experimental data.
Compare the use of mechanical and electrical pumps by use of static experimental data and analytical
software.
To justify the placement and size of the radiator on ACME Racing vehicles based on experimental data
curves and experimental airflow characteristics.
To establish a foundation based on the data and characteristics obtained in this thesis for use in later
analysis or design thesis in the area of cooling systems specifically with CFD.
II. FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT TRANSFER

Whenever a temperature difference exists between two or more media or inside a medium, heat transfer
will occur. Heat transfer is defined as thermal energy in transit due to a spatial temperature difference [6].
Three main mechanisms of heat transfer exist, classified by the physical mechanism under which the transfer
process occurs; conduction, convection, and radiation. All of these depend on a temperature difference.
Conduction is the transfer of heat from one part of a body to another part or to another body by short range
interaction on a molecular scale [7]. Convection is the transfer of heat by the combined mechanisms of fluid
mixing and conduction [7]. Radiation is the emission of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves by any
bodies above absolute zero temperature [7].
Establishing an understanding of the fundamentals of heat transfer and the three mechanisms by which it
occurs is essential for understanding the physical events that take place within a vehicle cooling system. The
three modes of heat transfer explain the physical events that allow for the dissipation of heat produced by
burning fuel inside the engine by the cooling system. It is the heat transfer modes of conduction and
6
convection that are responsible for dispersing the build up of heat produced during combustion through the
engine, cooling system and exhaust. Likewise it is by the mechanism of radiation that heat is transferred to the
surrounding areas. Similarly, it can be seen that through conduction and convection the heat is transferred to the
cooling liquid, or coolant. Finally these two processes explain the cooling effect of flowing ambient air and its
interaction with the radiator core to redistribute generated heat from the system to the passing airflow.
The fundamental principles and the applicable rate equations of each mode will be established in this
Section. The application of heat transfer to cooling system design and analysis specifically will be discussed in
Section IV.
A. Conduction
When a temperature gradient exists
within a solid, contained fluid or
contained gas the term conduction is
coined to describe the heat transfer that
occurs through the medium [8]. On an
atomic level, atoms in a hotter region of
a medium have more kinetic energy
than those in a cooler region creating a
temperature gradient inside the medium
[6]. Conduction is the energy transfer
from more energetic to less energetic
particles occurring in the direction of
decreasing temperature as seen in
Figure 2.1 [8].
Figure 2.2
2.2. Conduction heat transfer [6]
Collisions
between
molecules
enhance the energy transfer, referred to as energy diffusion. In gases molecules are widely spaced but have
strong molecular interactions, a case very similar for liquids except the spacing is decreased and the molecular
bonds are much stronger, with more frequent collisons. Finally, in a solid conduction occurs due to vibrations
across the atomic lattice [6].
The rate equation for conduction that quantifies the amount of energy transferred per unit time is Fouriers
Law, expressed in Equation 1.1[9]:
"

(Eqn 1.1)

The heat flux, qx (W/m2) is the heat transfer rate per unit area perpendicular to the direction of transfer and
is proportional to the product of the temperature gradient dT/dx and the thermal conductivity coefficient, k
(W/m.K). The minus sign indicates the direction of heat transfer is in the direction of decreasing temperature
[9].
B. Convection
Convection is comprised of two mechanisms:
the energy transfer due to diffusion (molecular
motion) as experienced in conduction and the
energy transferred by a bulk motion of fluid [9].
Convection is reserved for referring to the
cumulative heat transfer that occurs between a fluid
(gas or liquid) in motion and a boundary surface at
different temperatures due to both abovementioned
mechanisms [6]. During the process a region
known as a boundary layer develops in the fluid
where velocity varies from zero at the surface to a
finite value associated with the flow. When a
temperature difference is present between the
surface and the flow this creates a temperature
gradient through the boundary layer; termed a
thermal boundary layer as shown in Figure 2.2 [6].
Figure 2.2. Boundary layer development in convection
heat transfer [6]
7
The contribution of diffusion energy dominates the heat transfer near the surface. This is demonstrated by
the fact that the fluid velocity is zero at the surface interface, but as the boundary layer develops the contribution
of the fluids bulk motion increases and the conducted heat is swept into the flow.
The nature of the flow is used to
classify convection; forced or free
convection as indicated in Figure 2.3.
Forced convection involves an external
means of circulating the flow generally
by a mechanical means such as a pump,
blower or fan [8]. Free convection (or
natural convection) is a naturally
occurring flow induced by buoyancy
forces caused by the density differences
that are consequent of temperature
differences in the fluid [6].
The rate equation for conduction
regardless of the nature of the flow is
given by Newtons Law of Cooling,
expressed below in Equation 1.2[9]:
Figure 2.3. a) Forced Convection b) Free (Natural) Convection [6]
"

(Eqn 1.2)
The convective heat flux, qc (W/m2) is the heat transfer rate per unit area and it is proportional to the
product of the temperature difference between the surface (Ts) and the fluid (T) and the convective heat
transfer coefficient, h (W/m2.K) [9].
C. Radiation
Thermal radiation is emitted by all matter at a non zero temperature as a result of changes in the electronic
configurations of the atoms within it [9]. The transfer of heat occurs in electromagnetic waves (or photons)
such as visible light, infrared and ultraviolet radiation [8]. Unlike conduction and convection, radiation requires
no intermediate mediums to propagate heat; in fact it is most effective in a vacuum [6]. Solid surfaces, liquids
and gases all emit, absorb and transmit thermal radiation to varying degrees dependent on shape, size,
temperature and emissivity.
The emissivity of a material () is the ratio of energy radiated by a particular material to energy radiated by a
black body at the same temperature. It is a measure of a material's ability to absorb and radiate energy [6].
Emissivity of a given material will depend on factors such as temperature, surface finish, chemical composition,
orientation and the wavelength of the radiation [7].
A typical engineering assumption is to assume that a surface's spectral emissivity and absorptivity do not
depend on wavelength, so that the emissivity is a constant. This is known as the grey body assumption and
determined by both the geometrical structure and the chemical composition, follow Kirchhoff's Law of thermal
radiation: emissivity equals absorptivity (for an object in thermal equilibrium) [7]. Application of Kirchhoffs
Law accounts for emission and absorption allowing the rate of heat transfer to be quantified.
The rate equation for radiation is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann Law, expressed in Equation 1.3[9]:
"
(Eqn 1.3)
The radiation heat flux, qr (W/m2) is the heat transfer rate per unit area and it is proportional to the product of
the forth power temperature difference between the surface (Ts) and the surroundings (Tsur) and the emissivity
() and the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ().
Sometimes it is more convenient however to express the radiation heat flux in a linear relationship as seen in
Equation 1.4 [9], where A is the surface area (m2):
"

8
(Eqn 1.4)
This allows for radiation to be modelled similar to convection by using the heat transfer coefficient, hr
(W/m2.K) which is given in Equation 1.5 [9].

(Eqn 1.5)
III. FUNDAMENTALS OF COOLING SYSTEMS

The level of research in the field of cooling system design and analysis is very advanced. It is expected that
Formula One racing teams, many university SAE participants and other racing cohorts carry out extensive
research in the field. However, the availability of published experimental results that support radiator placement
and core size selection is limited, most likely due to the competitive nature of the sport and the advantage that
these results can provide in a racing environment. The available published literature allows for a thorough
understanding of vehicle cooling system operation, the principles of heat exchangers and their heat load
capacity. This literature is essential in understanding the considerations for cooling system analysis and design.
This section contains the necessary information for understanding the function and operating requirements of
the cooling system, types, circuit and components and further considerations for racing applications.
A. The primary function of vehicle cooling systems
One of the three most common failures of Formula SAE racing vehicles during the competition is engine
overheating [10]. One of the first priorities in the design of a racing vehicle should be the provision of
adequate engine cooling, having a capacity proportional to the horsepower output [11]. High performance
racing engines produce extensive amounts of heat driven by the internal combustion process. The primary
function of the cooling system is to maintain proper and reliable engine performance within an optimal
temperature range in all environmental conditions [12]. If engine operating temperatures are too low or too
high the performance, reliability and ultimately the life time of the engine block are severely reduced.
Operating below the minimum engine temperature causes excess fuel to be used to achieve satisfactory
engine performance as there is insufficient heat to properly vaporise the fuel mixture. This leads to unburned
fuel existing in the system. The unburned fuel can dilute the oils in the engine and form sludge that combines
with hydrocarbons and additives to forms acids which can cause oxidation and corrosion of the engine and
cooling system.
Operating above maximum engine temperature affects the engine oils by promoting oxidation and producing
hard carbon and varnish. The high temperature reduces oil viscosity causing higher friction and wear, excessive
oil consumption and decreases horsepower. The high temperatures in the cooling system can raise combustion
temperatures causing pre-ignition and detonation.
The purpose of the heat exchanger coolant is to remove excess heat from the engine, through the cooling
system to be transferred to the surrounding ambient air. Ideally none of the heat generated by combustion
should be lost from the engine or exhaust system as the combustion process is enhanced at high temperatures.
In broad terms one third of heat produced by the combustion process is effectively turned into mechanical work
(HP) used to move the car and the remainder is lost to the surrounding ambient air [13]. From the two thrids of
the engines total heat energy lost one half can potentially be transferred to the coolant and through the cooling
system to the radiator before being passed to the ambient air [14]. The remaining one half is lost to ambient air
as exhaust and frictional heat as indicated in Equation 2.1[13].
!
"
"
"
#$ #%& '(() * +&, -(%.
(Eqn 2.1)
From Equation 2.1 it can be seen that the heat load to the cooling system is essentially equal to the
horsepower produced by the engine from the fuel combustion process. This means that any increase in engine
power will proportionally increase the required cooling load.
Ideally if engine operation would use all generated heat why is there a requirement to cool the engine? The
requirement arises due to physical properties of the coolant, i.e. water boils and begins to vaporize at 100C. In
a closed loop system such as an engine and cooling system the temperature will rise due to the internal
combustion process and hence the pressure is also forced to rise. The generated heat is transferred to the
cooling system through the coolant, which in turn heats up, causing an internal pressure to build up in the
cooling system. If the heat generated is allowed to continue to rise the pressure would continue to increase until
the engine or cooling system fails by over pressurisation. The cooling systems pressure relief spring in the
9
radiator cap will allow the pressure to escape at pre-set levels stopping this failure from occurring. The higher
pressures lead to an increased boiling point for the water by 7 to 10 degrees allowing the coolant to reach
temperatures above 100C without vaporizing [13]. The reason for wanting the higher temperatures is the
difference between the radiator average core temperature and the temperature of the cooling air is the driving
force behind the transfer of heat from the coolant to the cooling air, which is further discussed in Section IV.
B. Cooling system operating requirements
The cooling system keeps the cylinders and head at temperatures within the physical limits of the materials.
It is imperative that the system allows the engine to warm up to and then maintain operating temperatures as
quickly as possible, usually a few minutes. Between the high and low operating temperatures exists the range of
normal operating temperatures. The cooling system is required to keep the GSX-R600 engine temperature
between the minimum temperature of 82C (a nominal value selected by the SAE team), controlled by a
thermostat, and the maximum temperature equivalent to the coolant boiling point and radiator capacity [4]. The
pressure within the system should be around 25 PSI to promote higher coolant boiling points within a safe range
[14]. The effects of temperatures below and above the engines operating temperature range can have adverse
effects on the engine and its performance.
C. Cooling system types
All of the heat removed by the cooling system from the engine block will ultimately be transferred to the
ambient air. In general two basic types of cooling systems exist. These are characterised by the method of
removing the heat; air or liquid cooling.
Air cooling is rarely used and generally limited to low horsepower vehicles or applications where weight and
simplicity are paramount. Air cooling systems generally use air baffles or shrouds and rely on airflow over fins
placed on the surface of the heads as the mechanism of heat dissipation [15]. Cooling fins increase the effective
cooling area that heat transfer can occur across. However, in some vehicles this is applied in conjunction with a
high volume fan to direct air across the fins to increase the heat dissipation. The effects of cooling airflows and
surface area; more specifically radiator face area in cooling systems, is discussed in Section IV.
Liquid cooling relies on facets of air cooling in combination with the use of a coolant flow through the
engine as an intermediate medium to remove heat and achieve more effective cooling. The continual circulation
of the coolant through the engine block and cooling system transfers heat from the block to the liquid. The
liquid is consequently cooled as air flows over the radiator cooling the liquid inside before it circulates through
the engine again [15].
D. Cooling system circuit and components
The cooling system circuit of the
standard engine as used in the GSXR600 motorbike is represented in Figure
3.1 [4].
It includes all major
subsystems, sensors and switches to
model the stock GSX-R600 cooling
system.
The solid arrows indicate
coolant flow directions whilst the
broken arrows are dependent on the
temperature, as commented in Figure
3.1. The solid links indicate electrical
and mechanical connections.
The
circuit provides an understanding of the
cooling systems dependencies on
sensors and thermostats to control flow
rates and paths. The stock system is not
adequate for SAE racing applications as
it is inefficient to use given its weight,
layout and requirement for integration
with the ECU [16].
However, it
provides an essential basis for
developing an adequate system.
Figure 3.1. Standard GSX-R600 cooling system circuit.
10
The standard Suzuki cooling system is fitted

with a mechanical water pump and uses a 50:50
mixture of mineral water and Glycol Anti-freeze
with a total volume of 2400mL. The oil used to
lubricate the engine also accounts for some of the
heat dissipation, but this will not be investigated.
The fan is set to come on when the coolant has
reached 105 C and turns off at 100 C which
maintains the engine operating temperatures in the
vicinity of 100 C.
The thermostat valve operating range is set to
begin to open at 82 C and become fully opened at
95 C [4].
1. Modified cooling systems: WS02 and WS04
The WS02 cooling system includes the majority
of the standard cooling system components
repackaged in the form of a rear mounted radiator
design for application in SAE racing as shown in
Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2. WS02 cooling systems radiator core and fan
rear view.
The WS04 cooling system employs a similar system to WS02 but replaces the mechanical water pump with
an electrical variant and is repackaged in the form of a side mounted radiator design specific for SAE racing as
in Figure Catch
3.3. Cans
Radiator Core
and Fan
Radiator Grill
Figure 3.3. WS04 cooling system rear and frontal views showing radiator core, fan, catch cans and radiator grill.
2. Modifications to standard cooling system

The major difference between the standard cooling system and the modified cooling systems used on WS02
and WS04 is the use of an ECU to manage the cooling fan operation opposed to a thermo-switch. The operating
temperatures have also been altered for the modified systems. However, the thermostat valve operating range
has remained unchanged bringing implications to coolant flow. The WS04 mechanical water pump was
replaced with an electrical water pump. The modified cooling system circuits of WS02 and WS04 can be seen
diagrammatically in Figure 3.4.
Engine Management System (ECU)
The WS02 and WS04 use a MOTEC Engine Management System (ECU) which controls the thermo-fan
switch in accordance with the modified temperature range of 86-90 C. This is significantly more accurate than
the standard thermo switch as the ECU can track the temperature of the coolant using the engine coolant
temperature sensors and is more reliable as it does not rely on a mechanical switch.
11
Operating temperatures and thermostat range

The most prominent modification to the cooling system used in WS02 is that the thermostat valve operating
temperatures remained unchanged from the standard factory settings. This is important due to the modified
operating temperatures of 86-90 C; which means the thermostat valve never fully opens given the standard
range has not been changed. This
posed the problem that the coolant
flow rate was restricted due to the
valve never being fully opened. This
problem has been overcome with
WS04 by use of an electrical water
pump as discussed below.
Water Pumps
The WS02 water pump is
mechanical as per the standard system
and consequently draws engine HP to
run it. This power requirement is
estimated at 3 HP according to
standard specifications [4] and will
depend on the size of the pump fitted.
The actual HP requirements will be
calculated during comparison of the
electrical and mechanical water pump
in Section VI.
Figure 3.4. Modified GSX-R600 cooling system circuits of WS02 and
WS04.
The WS04 cooling system uses an electrical water pump which controls the flow paths using the ECU,
hence negating the use of a thermostat valve. This means that the coolant flow rate is not hindered by a partly
opened valve as experienced by the WS02 system. An electrical water pump also means that it does not draw
engine horsepower to run it as it uses electrical power supplied by auxiliary outputs of the ECU. This electrical
power supply allows for the system to exert control of the flow rate very precisely and also allows the
horsepower otherwise used by a mechanical pump to be delivered to the wheels.
E. Considerations for racing applications
Additional design considerations for cooling systems must be implemented when used for racing
applications. Due to the higher demand imposed on the cooling system by the extreme operating conditions of
racing engines, systems must differ from those of passenger vehicles used in standard operating environments.
The amount of cooling able to be achieved by a cooling system is dictated essentially by the area of the
radiator core and the amount of air flowing around it. Larger face areas provide greater cooling ability.
However, they possess poor aerodynamics and are heavier. The most efficient designs will minimise drag and
weight whilst achieving the required cooling. Radiator sizes can be reduced with the use of fins and liquid tubes
that increase surface areas used for cooling without altering the face area [17].
In all cooling systems two fluids require cooling; oil and water; and vehicles will have two systems to
achieve this. Generally racing teams will source radiators for this purpose from large scale manufacturers so the
ability to influence design is limited to the size and placement, and then the coolant requirements will be
specified by the engine manufacturer [17].
The placement of the radiators is usually dictated by the engine plumbing which will correspond to
manufacturer supplied engine specifications that indicate connecting points for oil and water systems [18].
Radiator core locations have been vast and originally most F1 racing teams placed the core in the nose. In 1972,
Lotus began lateral side mounting, an idea that has been widely copied since. The universal solution for
Formula 1 is to side mount the radiator inside side pods open at the front for air intake and leaning at an
optimized angle stipulated by the engines cooling requirements [11].
In attempting to determine the most efficient size of radiators, most vehicle designers meet with radiator
manufacturer technical representatives or make the selection of the core from product catalogues. The
catalogued designs detail the predicted airflow and assessed heat rejection capability to assist in size selection.
The chosen core is consequently tested in mock up vehicles in wind tunnels to determine the pressure
differential across the core. The mock up test figures allow for the core size to be justified or for the designers
12
to reduce the size and consequently aerodynamic drag. Designers must ensure the system can provide adequate
cooling within the pressure-differential parameters hoping to achieve higher efficiency with the smallest size
core [18]. The next step will require analysis of the duct sizes and design to provide adequate airflow volumes
with even distribution.
Further factors exist to make the
implementation of radiators in racing
difficult. The water radiator system is
generally asymmetric as the majority of
teams will position both the oil and water
cooling systems in ducted side pods along
the chassis. In this instance one side pod
must accommodate a small oil cooling
radiator. F1 racing teams generally install a
smaller water cooling system in the same
pod as the oil cooler as per Figure 3.5 and a
full sized water radiator system in the other
pod [18].
The requirement for two water cooling
system stems from the concept of providing
cooling to the two cylinder banks
individually. Due to the asymmetric layout
teams are forced to design systems that
allow for even cooling of both banks,
usually in the form of figure 8 piping,
installing two pumps and mixing fluids at
the outlet valves [18].
Figure 3.5
3.5. Split Cooling System. Split Radiator Arrangement
(Water and Oil) on right side of Lola BMS-Ferrari T93/30. [18]
In the pits and stages of no movement Formula 1 teams place detachable fans to the air intake ducts to cool
the vehicle. The use of fans in the cooling system is otherwise not relevant to Formula 1 due to the high speeds
the car averages. This presents a specific consideration to Formula SAE, being the number, diameter and rpm
of fans used for cooling at low speeds or engine idle to avoid overheating.
IV. HEAT TRANSFER IN COOLING SYSTEMS

As discussed in Section II there are three mechanisms of heat transfer. All of these play a role in the transfer
of heat from the engine, to the coolant and the consequent cooling of the coolant in the radiator. As previously
stated each of the mechanisms requires a temperature differential for heat transfer to occur. The temperature
differential and the heat load transferred to the cooling system will be discussed in this Section. Also
investigated is the effect of radiator design on heat transfer. This information is necessary to be able to establish
the physical properties that must be measured during the data acquisition phase of the thesis in order to quantify
the heat load capacity of the radiators used on the ACME Racing vehicles.
A. Temperature Differential
As was established in Section II a temperature differential is required for heat transfer to occur. The
temperature differential between the average radiator core temperature and the cooling air is the physical
mechanism driving the cooling process, or transfer of heat from the coolant and radiator to the cooling air flow.
As discussed in Section III as the engine starts up heat is generated from the internal combustion process and as
the heat builds up to a predetermined operating temperature the thermostat opens to allow the coolant to flow
through the radiator. Initially, the coolant and the engine absorb the heat through conduction and convection
continuing to do so until the temperature exceeds the cooling air flow temperature and heat transfer to the
cooling air begins [19]. The coolant temperature continues to rise until the point where the temperature
differential of the average core temperature and the cooling air is great enough to transfer the entire heat load to
the cooling air achieving a steady state condition [19].
B. Heat Load to the Cooling System
In cooling systems the heat transfer is governed by a single major factor: the heat load to the cooling system.
Regardless of whether a poorly or well designed radiator is used, the heat load, which is the heat rejected to the
cooling system, is transferred to the cooling air by the radiator [19].
13
What makes cooling system analysis a

difficult concept is that when quantifying
the performance of a radiator the same
value or heat load will be transferred by a
poor or good radiator.
For a given
geometry, the difference between a radiator
of poor performance and a radiator of good
performance is that the radiator inlet
temperature of a good performance core
stabilises at a lower temperature [19],
avoiding the possibility of overheating the
engine as a result of the coolant boiling as
seen in Figure 4.1.
The heat load to the cooling system is
quantified in Equation 4.1 [19]:
Figure 4.1. Heat loads transferred by radiators
/ 0 1 23 1 .
(Eqn 4.1)
The heat load, Q (J/s or W) is the heat load transferred to the cooling system from the engine area and it is
proportional to the product of the temperature differential through the radiator core, dT (K), the mass flow rate
of coolant, M (kg/s) and the specific heat of the coolant, cp (kJ/kg.K).
Since the specific heat will vary only from 4.211 kJ/kg.K at 275K to 4.256 kJ/kg.K at 400K [9] it is
generally treated as constant throughout the coolant operating range. Similarly, the coolant flow rate is constant
at any given engine speed for a mechanical system. Hence for a given heat load and flow rate the temperature
drop through the core is constant. This raises the question then, to what advantage is radiator design if the
temperature drop is constant?
C. Effects of Radiator Design on Heat Transfer
It has been established that the design of the radiator core is not going to be of any benefit in regards to the
capability to handle larger heat loads, but it will allow for a lower steady state temperature to be reached. In the
majority of commercial cars the top tank temperature of the cooling system is around 88C and the bottom tank
82C. This means an average operating temperature of 85C [19].
Using the commercial vehicle figures as a tool to prove the effects of radiator design, a cooling system
whose heat load and coolant flow rate results in a 6C coolant temperature drop through the radiator is
investigated. As stated in Equation 4.1 that same coolant temperature drop will be experienced regardless of
heat transfer performance. However, some design factors can improve the heat transfer performance and allow
for a lower steady state operating temperature. The factors that will be covered are coolant flow rates, cooling
airflow and the radiator face area.
1. Coolant Flow Rate
It was established in Equation 4.1 that the heat load transferred to the cooling system is governed by the
specific heat and mass flow rate of the coolant and the temperature differential that exist through the radiator
core. So according to this, increasing the mass flow rate will increase the heat load transferred to the cooling
system. However, when the flow rate is reduced it becomes more effective at transferring the heat, effectively
causing a greater temperature drop through the core. So what is the right decision?
For a constant heat load, when the flow rate is slowed the bottom tank temperature lowers as more heat is
effectively transferred, but the core maintains the average core temperature so in turn the top tank temperature
rises to ensure the heat load is transferred to cooling air [19]. Using the average commercial temperatures above
we are now operating with a highest temperature above 88C, as the bottom tank is now below 82C. But the
average core temperature is maintained at 85C. This puts the system at risk of overheating, and due to a
decreased flow velocity, less scrubbing action occurs in the radiator core tubes, causing the average coolant
temperature to rise slightly and hence the top tank temperature also, to assist in the transfer of the heat load to
the cooling air [19].
14
For a constant heat load, when the flow rate is increased, the system compensates again. However, this time
it causes the coolant temperature to decrease, resulting in a higher bottom tank temperature [19]. Again, the
core temperature stabilises to maintain the same average core temperature of 85C so the top tank temperature
lowers, achieving the same heat load being transferred with a lower top tank temperature. So the system is now
transferring the same heat load with a lower top tank temperature, effectively allowing for more power to be
obtained where possible with a lower risk of overheating. In contrast, the flow velocity is now greater, causing
more scrubbing action in the radiator tubes and a lower average coolant temperature, hence a lower top tank
temperature, result in further performance improvements.
There is a limit to how much the flow rate can be increased before some of the problems associated with
aeration and foaming of the coolant begin. Other issues include the possibility of cavitation in the pump and
radiator overpressure due to the pressure drop through the radiator core [14]. The ideal coolant flow speed
depends on the system but should see an average speed of 1.8 m/s to 2.4 m/s and never exceed 3.0 m/s [19].
The flow speeds of the cooling air around the ACME Racing vehicles will be measured during the course of
this thesis.
2. Cooling Airflow
The cooling air flow becomes heated from convection and radiation heat transfer as it passes through the
radiator core. It enters at some ambient temperature, exiting at a raised temperature. The difference between
the average core temperature and the average of the cooling air in and out temperature creates the ability of the
radiator to transfer heat [19]. Similar to the case of coolant flow rate, the air flow speed affects the ability to
transfer heat; slower air transfers more heat by convection, having a higher exit temperature hence a higher
average cooling air temperature. Again, a higher average temperature means less heat is transferred from the
coolant to the air. As expected, a faster cooling air flow will have a lower average cooling air temperature
increasing the differential between the coolant and the cooling air, driving an increased capability to transfer
heat [19].
As indicated in Section III.E, Formula 1 teams spend significant time researching means of increasing air
flow to the radiator face. Increasing airflow can be achieved by improving the aerodynamic intakes to the core
yielding increased speed and preventing by pass of the core, by reducing air restrictions to the flow by grilles or
engine components in combination with radiator placement [18].
In the case of SAE vehicles that
require a cooling fan, further increases in
the air flow speed can be achieved by
speeding up the fan or by improved fan
designs [19].
Fan design can be
especially complex when using multiple
fans and involves the study of a
combination of fan numbers and sizes,
stand-off
distances,
pusher/puller
configuration and rotation patterns. From
Stephens and Cross [20] study of fan and
heat exchanger flow interactions in 2004
for SAE international it was established
that a four-fan, counter rotating pusher
configuration (CR1) achieved up to 1015% higher heat rejection than puller
configurations and 3-4% over standard
pusher configurations, see Figure 4.2.
Whether the implementation of four fans
is practical in the sense that the weight
and complexity outweighs the cooling
achieved by a single fan is still unclear.
Figure 4.2. Water-side heat rejection versus fan speed for push 5cm,
pull 7 cm, and CR1 configurations. ([20]
3. Radiator Face Area

If we consider the system with a heat load and flow rate that results in a 6C drop in coolant temperature, it is
seen from Equation 4.1 that the face area of the radiator will not alter this temperature drop. However, the
difference between a large face and small face is in how effective the heat transfer to the cooling air is. This is a
15
similar case to the coolant where it translates to a lower stabilised top tank temperature and hence lower
operating conditions at steady state [19].
As discussed in Section IV.C.2 the air moving through the radiator will increase in heat due to convective
heat transfer. In a radiator core this translates to the rear rows of the core being cooled by warmer air than those
at the front of the core; the area closest to incoming cooling air. The advantage achieved from increasing the
face area of a radiator is that more coolant is exposed to the cooler ambient air, in turn increasing the heat
transfer capability [19].
There is an inherent weight problem however that must be considered before simply building the largest
radiator possible to be fitted to the car. Furthermore several considerations specific to racing applications, some
of which were discussed in Section III.E must be applied. These essentially revolve around racing design
drivers such as:
radiator core weight,
auxiliary component weights such as piping and pumps
fluid volume required and consequent weight,
aerodynamic drag effects, and
the available space for the system.
The improvements obtained from a larger radiator face must be measured against the abovementioned
negative effects to determine at what size are the cooling improvements in agreement with these considerations.
Alternatively, relocation of the radiator can be considered as mentioned in Section IV.C.2 to expose as much
face area as possible.
The effects of the three major design drivers on radiator performance are indicated graphically in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3. Effects of design drivers on radiator heat dissipation performance
V. THE DATA ACQUISITION PROCESS

On initial acceptance of the proposed thesis ACME Racing had the 2005 (WS02) and 2007 (WS04) vehicles
currently race ready or able to be race ready early in 2008. Due to unforeseen events in 2007 from an optimistic
standpoint it was doubtful that the WS04 would be race ready until August 2008 if at all. Consequently the
scope of the thesis shifted to focus on testing with the WS02 and static testing of both vehicles where possible.
16
The justification for the experimental process developed to obtain the desired outcomes of the thesis is
discussed.
A. Justification for chosen experimental tests
From the radiator design parameters to improve cooling system performance discussed in Section 4 the
ability to improve the cooling system performance based upon a few selected criteria will be investigated.
Radiator placement will be investigated aiming to take advantage of the free stream air velocities experienced
during driving conditions. This will also assist in the ability to determine the most effective size of the radiator
core. The outcomes of these tests should be airflow velocity vs. vehicle velocity curves for rear and side
locations to justify the placement and size of the radiator on ACME Racing vehicles.
Further to investigating radiator placement experiments will be carried out to measure the current coolant flow
rates of the WS02 and WS04 cooling systems. The aim being to compare the differences between the
mechanical and electric pump configurations and justify the modelling of the system by computer based engine
analyser software.
Finally, experiments that measure physical values of radiator inlet and outlet temperatures and the coolant
operating temperatures will be used to determine the heat load to the cooling system. These will aid future
students in CFD analysis of the cooling system.
It was decided that improving the cooling air flow by aerodynamic intakes or other means is outside the
scope of this thesis and should be performed by future students to assist in the design of a more effective cooling
system for ACME Racing vehicles. Similarly, the amount of testing required to determine the most effective
flow rate of the coolant is too cumbersome for the timeframe of this thesis and should be carried out by a future
student.
B. Acquisition of data for determining radiator placement
1. Sensor selection and modification
The process was initially developed based on use
of the MOTEC Pitot sensor. This process is
included in Appendix B. The MOTEC Pitot sensor,
produced as a Texense Pitot Sensor by Texys
International and pictured in Figure 5.1, was chosen
as it had built in G-Force compensation, radio
frequency interference (RFI) and electromagnetic
interference (EMI) protection. The output is a linear
analogue voltage between 0-5 V, as required for the
MOTEC ECU. The data sheet for the Texense Pitot
sensor is included in Appendix C.
The Australian supplier, MOTEC, along with all
other dealer agencies could not source the sensor as
stock in Australia was finished. Texys International,
the French based manufacturer, also could not
provide the sensor within the timeline of the thesis
due to priority stock orders for European racing
teams.
Figure 5.1. Texense Pitot Sensor
(Texys International, 2008)
This led to the option of adapting a sensor built by ACME electronics workshop staff member, Evan Hawke,
for use with unmanned aerial vehicles. The sensor, pictured in Figure 5.2, is constructed of an Aluminium
casing with a Honeywell CPX05G Silicone pressure sensor. This is an uncompensated, un-calibrated, 5 PSI,
un-ported gauge pressure sensor. For a constant voltage input between 3 and 12 V it will output a mV signal.
The corresponding data sheet is included in Appendix D.
17
The sensor required minor modifications for use

with the WS02. An applicable input voltage was
supplied; 8 V controlled by the MOTEC ECU to
ensure constant power supply. The sensor was
terminated to an analogue input within the ECU,
reading 0-5 V, to capture the data for analysis using
the MOTEC ECU software.
2. Sensor calibration
Given that the Honeywell sensor employed in the
Pitot sensor is un-calibrated and uncompensated a
calibration curve had to be developed. The MOTEC
ECU supplied the sensor with an 8 Volts constant
voltage input and was required to be calibrated for an
analogue voltage output between 0 and 5 Volts, in
order for the ECU to capture and interpret the voltage
readings as air speed (Km/h).
This was achieved by moving the WS02, with the
Figure 5.2. Evan Hawkes Pitot sensor
sensor installed, in vicinity of the ACME wind tunnel.
The sensors Pitot tube was mounted in to the wind tunnel, which contained a second Pitot tube connected to a
Micro-Manometer which was automatically equalised and set up to read air speed.
The sensor measures to a maximum of 33 m/s (118.8 km/h). Consequently the wind tunnel speed was
graduated from 0km/h to a maximum of approximately 115km/h in 10 intervals in order to create a calibration
curve over the range of the sensors measuring capability using the MOTEC ECU. The calibration curve from
the ECU display is shown in Figure 5.4
Figure 5.4. Calibration curve for the Pitot sensor
It should be noted that the sensor would never read 0 km/h as a residual voltage always exists within the
system meaning that when the Pitot tube actually measures an air speed of 0 km/h the displayed reading will be
approximately 3 km/h. From the calibration curve it is also seen that at the lower end of the curve readings will
not be as accurate as at high speeds given that it requires a very small change in voltage to represent large
changes in measured air speed.
18
3. Analysis of initial results

The sensor was now calibrated and ready to be used in dynamic tests of the vehicle with the aim of
producing an air speed versus vehicle speed curve for the rear and side radiator locations. The initial results of
the test showed limited correlation to the vehicles speed and significant noise in the signal at low speeds and
during static periods. This led to an exhaustive process of diagnosing the signals in an attempt to decipher the
sources of the noise and interference and then engineer the problems out of the system.
The process used to ascertain the sources of the noise involved static testing of the system at different stages
of operation. During the tests the ECU was connected directly to the laptop allowing for the readout from the
sensor channel to be viewed in real time using the MOTEC software, MOTEC i2 Standard.
The vehicle was statically tested in the following operational conditions:
Ignition on, engine off,
Engine idling without cooling fan on,
Engine idling with cooling fan on, and
Engine revving.
The MOTEC i2 Standard display for each of the tested operational conditions is included in Figures 5.5.
These figures measure four signals. The first measures the engine RPM, the second field is the vehicle
corrected speed and throttle position, the third field is the most important measuring the vehicle ground speed
and the air flow speed at the sensor location (GP Speed 1 Large). The final field shows the vertical and lateral
G Forces that the car experiences.
Figure 5.5.a. MOTEC i2 Standard display for Ignition on, Engine Off
Figure 5.5a shows the readings for the ignition turned on whist the engine is off. It indicates a steady
reading of 4.2 km/h. As previously explained in Section V.B.2 the reason for this is the residual voltage in the
system that causes a non-zero reading.
19
Figure 5.5b shows the readings for the engine idling whilst the cooling fan is turned off. It indicates an unsteady
reading ranging between 2.5 km/h and 7.0 km/h.
Figure 5.5.b. MOTEC i2 Standard display for Engine idling without cooling fan on
Figure 5.5.c. MOTEC i2 Standard display for Engine idling with cooling fan on.
20
Figure 5.5c shows the readings for the engine idling with the cooling fan on. It indicates that the reading
remained unsteady ranging between 5.0 km/h and 8.6 km/h indicating a distinct step up in the reading when
the fan is activated.
Figure 5.5.d. MOTEC i2 Standard display for Engine revving up to 8142 RPM
Figure 5.5d shows the readings for the engine revving at up to 8142 RPM. It indicates that the reading
became increasingly unsteady ranging between -7.8 km/h to 11.8 km/h. The negative values cannot be justified
in this instance by flow directions or any other explanation.
Using the built-in oscilloscope
function of the MOTEC i2
Standard program, the vehicle
was run at all these
operational states once more
to attempt to diagnose the
reason for the interference.
The oscilloscope reading is
shown in Figure 5.6 with the
operational
conditions
overlayed.
Figure 5.6. MOTEC i2 Standard Oscilloscope readout
21
The oscilloscope reading

supports the information
deduced from the sensor
readings.
The noise that
occurs during idle and revving
is caused by vibrations from
the engine being transferred
through the bodywork to the
sensor via the solid mounts.
The noise that is induced
when the fan is on indicates
radio-frequency interference (RFI), causing the step up increase in the signal, along with limited inference due
to vibration.
4. Modifications to improve signal resolution
Using this information a set of modifications were decided upon and implemented with a strict testing
regime to try and remove the interferences and improve the signals resolution.
Initially the problem of the
RFI step up when the fan began
to operate was addressed by
rewiring the system using
shielded cable. This reduced
the effects of RFI interference
and during a test also proved
that the location of the sensor,
close to the dash as shown in
Figure 5.7, was experiencing
interference as a result of
electro-magnetic
induced
signals into the unshielded
cabling most likely from the
large amount of electronic
circuits surrounding the dash
area.
Sensor with dampening foam
Figure 5.7. Original sensor location.

Also found during the
Note: This picture includes the dampening materials introduced during this
intermittent test of the shielded
modification process; it was originally solid mounted to the bodywork)
cabling was the effect of the
sensors orientation.
The
pressure sensor is made of a small housing containing a piezoelectric film. Both sides of the housing are ported
to the dynamic and static pressure ports of the Pitot tube causing the film to flex based on the difference in
pressure. This induces a voltage reading.
During the test it was noticed that the sensor is very sensitive to forces applied in the plane of the sensors
film. This meant that the vertical G forces that the car experiences; as high as 1.34 G downwards and 1.43 G
upwards during the initial test, could interfere with the sensor operation if mounted with this orientation. Also
the orientation must avoid the effects of the accelerating force on the sensor. To achieve this the sensor was
mounted with the plane of the film vertical and parallel to the direction of travel, it was also located central on
the vehicle to minimise any lateral G force effects; which were as high as 0.70 G. These G forces were
experienced due to the uneven track surface violently pitching the car.
The problem of vibration was attempted to be addressed using the foam dampening surrounding the sensor
as pictured in Figure 5.7. When the sensor was to be remounted based on the effects of orientation this material
was not sufficient on its own. Two 100 g weights were attached to the top of the sensor to increase the weight
and alter the natural frequency. The sensor was then wrapped in a layer of acoustic dampening foam before
being placed inside a complete casing of the dampening foam used previously. The effects of vibration were
reduced significantly. However, during the intermittent testing it was found that the piping from the sensor to
the Pitot tube was picking up vibration transferred from the engine through the chassis.
It was decided that the most convenient means of eliminating this noise was to relocate the sensor as close to
the Pitot tube location as possible and increase the lengths of the shielded cabling as it was operating with
minimal interference being experienced. The sensor was relocated onto a custom mount built to go between the
roll hoop bracing, behind the drivers seat and above the air intake manifold. This reduced the tube lengths and
eliminated the need to fix the tubes to the chassis at any location. The static tests results of the modifications are
included in Figure 5.8.
In comparison with the similar test conditions indicated in Figure 5.5d it can be seen that the effects of
interference have been significantly reduced. The improvements are to the stage where even during engine
revving up to 11538 RPM, which is 3396 RPM higher than the initial tests; the signal has a range of only -4.2
km/h to 0.1 km/h averaged at -1.6 km/h.
22
Figure 5.8. Static Test results following sensor modifications
The sensor was now producing readings with acceptable resolution which could be used to obtain dynamic
test results in order to produce an air speed versus vehicle speed curve for the rear and side radiator locations.
The dynamic test is to be conducted by driving a short course in a straight line over the speeds expected in
the competition, being 0-105 km/h. The dynamic test is designed to:
eliminate the effects of weight difference between configurations by plotting only vehicle speed
against the air velocity,
be impartial to forces encountered during turning so the rear mounted radiator configuration can
be used as a temporary fixture, and
produce as close to equal conditions by testing under straight line driving for fair comparison.
The dynamic results are included in Section VI.
C. Acquisition of data on coolant flow characteristics
In order to calculate the heat load transferred to the cooling system by the engine the temperatures of the
inlet and outlet of the radiator core and the flow rates of the cooling systems had to be measured.
Given that the heat load calculations required only a temperature differential there was not a requirement for
an actual fluid temperature to be measured using a thermocouple or intrusive technique. Instead the
temperatures were measured using a digital infrared thermometer and confirmed using a digital thermometer.
Readings were taken on the inlet and outlet piping and also the top and bottom radiator tanks. The temperature
drop between the inlet and outlet of the radiator core are as follows:
6C (6K) for operation without the cooling fan running, and
10C (10K) for operation with the cooling fan running.
Measuring the flow rates of the WS02 and WS04 cooling system required some practical engineering. For
measuring the flow rate of WS02 the thermostat was removed and a modified thermostat used to allow flow to
occur through the cooling system without the coolant temperature having to be at 82C. Given WS04 uses an
electrical water pump and consequently has no thermostat the connections to the engine block from the pump
were disconnected stopping flow from recirculating until it reached operating temperature and forcing flow
through the entire system.
23
During both tests the inlet to the water pumps were connected to a 26 Litre container of water and the outlet
piping of the radiator channelled into an empty container. The systems were primed by forcing water via a hose
through the outlet piping until it exited the inlet piping to the water pump. This was then placed in the 26 Litre
water reservoir that was elevated above the level of the water pump.
In the case of WS02, the car was held steady at 3000RPM, 6000RPM and 9000 RPM to obtain
measurements to create the flow rate curve over a typical operating range. For WS04 the electrical water pump
was run with a 12 V input and measurements taken at 20%, 50% and 100% operating capacity. Both tests were
conducted statically in the workshop and are repeatable. The calculations for determining the flow rates from
the measured data are included in Appendix E.
VI. DATA ANALYSIS & SUPPOSITION

The results from the tests described in Section 5 with explanations as required and an analysis of the results
conducted will be presented in this Section. As per the thesis objectives results of an engine simulation will be
presented and compared to the experimental results for the cooling systems performance and coolant flow rates.
A. Dynamic test results
The dynamic test results included in Figure 6.1 show the MOTEC i2 Standard laptop display. The first
frame displays the vehicle RPM, shown in red. The second frame indicates the engine temperature, in blue, and
in this instance the fan turns on at approximately 3 mins (at 86C) at remains on for the duration of the test. The
fourth frame indicates the vertical and lateral G Forces. The third frame is of particular interest, as it indicates
an inverted correlation between the vehicle ground speed (indicated in Yellow) and the measured air speed at
the radiator face (indicated in Pink).
Engine RPM
Fan Turns On
Engine Temperature
Vehicle Ground Speed & Sensor reading
Vertical and Lateral G Forces
Figure 6.1. Dynamic Test results following sensor modifications
It is possible that the inverted correlation between the vehicle speed and the air speed is caused by one or a
combination of several reasons including:
The air flow travels around the vehicle and through the radiator core from the rear,
Turbulence at the radiator face is so great that the static port receives a greater dynamic flow
than the dynamic port represented as a negative reading,
24

The Pitot orientation is not precise given the flow inconsistency at the radiator face, or
The inverted correlation was caused by the tubes being switched between the static and
dynamic port.
It seems unlikely that the ports were connected incorrectly as a re-calibration was conducted following the
test to ensure the results were accurate. However, it is difficult to conclude why the modified steady state
reading is -1.6 km/h whilst prior to modifications steady state readings were 4.2 km/h.
The turbulence experienced at the radiator face makes using the Pitot tube difficult. A Pitot tube requires the
dynamic port to be orientated directly into the incoming flow being measured and the static port to have no
incoming flows. This makes it highly possible that in a turbulent area such as the radiator face these operating
principles are being compromised. In this case it is possible to record negative signals accounting for the
negative readings and inverted correlation.
The possibility that the flow over the preceding body work at the front end of the car forces the streamlines
to be diverted wide around the engine block and through the radiator core from the rear must be investigated. In
order to investigate the flow around the bodywork analysis of CFD results could be carried out. In Matthew
James thesis on Formula SAE bodywork [21] a CFD analysis of the air flow over the WS02 was performed.
The assumptions used in this CFD analysis simplified flow in vicinity of the engine block and rear radiator
location making a viable comparison unachievable at present. Other flow visualisation methods to measure or
view the flow are discussed in Section VIII.
B. Cooling system performance and coolant flow characteristics
The physical tests discussed in Section V.C allowed for the flow rates to be calculated as per Appendix E
and consequently the heat load to the cooling system to be calculated as per Appendix F. These calculations are
expressed graphically in this Section and compared to results from the engine simulation software, Engine
Analyser Pro, to ultimately compare the use of mechanical and electrical water pumps.
1. Coolant flow rates
The coolant flow rate for the WS02 is shown in Figure 6.2 and for WS04 in Figure 6.3.
WS04 Flow rate through

cooling system
WS02 Flow rate through cooling

system
70.0
25.00
64.6
Flow rate (Litres/Min)
60.0
20.00
57.0
50.0
21.11
17.81
15.00
40.0
13.57
30.0
10.00
24.7
20.0
5.00
10.0
0.00
0.0
0
5
Engine Speed (RPM x1000)
Figure 6.2. WS02 Flow rate curve
10
10
60
110
Pump Operating Cacpacity (%)
Figure 6.3. WS04 Flow rate curve
25
The WS04 achieves a flow rate

approximately 1/3 of that achieved by
WS02.
This would suggest the
mechanical pump is better but through
practical use we have learnt that the
WS02 system as a whole is over
engineered and can be significantly
reduced in core size and heat load
performance.
WS02 Heat Load to the cooling

system
Heat Load (kW or kJ/s)
As discussed in Section III WS02

employs a mechanical water pump and
WS04 an electrical water pump. From
Figure 6.2 it can be seen that the
efficiency of the mechanical pump is
reduced as the engine speed (RPM)
increases. From Figure 6.3 it can be
seen that the efficiency of the electrical
pump experiences a less significant
reduction in efficiency as the operating
capacity increases. The cause of this
efficiency drop at higher RPM is likely
to be cavitation related.
50.00
45.00
40.00
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
44.85
39.57
17.15
23.74
26.91
10.29
2
4
6
8
10
Heat Load (Fan Off)
Heat Load (Fan On)
Figure 6.4. WS02 Heat Load to the cooling system
2. Cooling system heat load

capacity
The WS04 vehicle was inoperable for the duration of the thesis hence it was not possible to measure the
temperature differential across the radiator core. Consequently the heat load capacity was only obtained for
WS02.
As was discussed in Section IV.B the heat load depends on the mass flow rate, the temperature differential
and the specific heat of the coolant. The heat loads were calculated for the WS02 using the temperature
differentials with the fan on and fan off as discussed in Section V to produce two heat load curves as indicated
in Figure 6.4.
For this case the temperature differential was considered to be constant across the operating range as before.
The actual water temperature used was 300K. This does not replicate realistic temperatures of the coolant but
was essential in limiting the risk of being burnt by heated coolant during realistic test conditions. The specific
heat and the density used in the calculations were based on water at 300K also. The data and calculations for
the heat load are included in Appendix F.
Given the behaviour of the mass flow rate curve in Figure 6.2 and the dependence of the heat load on this
term, the shape of the curve indicated in Figure 6.4 is expected. It should be noted that in this instance the
safety aspect has forced the use of a cooler fluid which has indicated heat load capacities lower than would be
achieved in realistic operating environments given the corresponding specific heat and density values used.
3. Simulation results
The engine simulation software used, Engine Analyzer Pro, allowed for only the heat load to the cooling
system to be calculated. This was used to reverse engineer flow rate curves based on the results, which will be
used in the comparison of the experimental and simulation data in Section VI.B.4.
The simulation results for the heat load capacity of the WS02 are shown in Figure 6.5.
The simulation software was used to test an electrical and mechanical pump configuration on the existing
WS02 engine model. The results of the heat load to the cooling system (represented as Coolant HP) for each
configuration is shown. Simultaneously, the brake horsepower produced; the useable power delivered to the
vehicle wheels, was graphed as Brake HP. In this simulation it can be seen that the mechanical pump draws 2.4
HP (1.79 kW) of useable power. The electrical pump receives power from the ECU at a maximum operating
voltage of 13 V and uses 1.3 Amps. The voltage used for the simulation was 12 V, as per the WS04 water
pump, yielding a power requirement of 15.6 W assuming 100% efficient operation.
26
HP
Figure 6.5. WS02 simulated test results from Engine Analyzer Pro
4. Experimental versus simulation results

A comparison of the experimental and simulation results will allow for recommendations to be made on the
accuracy of the simulation. It will ultimately support the recommendations to be made between a mechanical or
electrical water pump by assisting in filling the gaps of the data that could not be replicated in experimental
tests.
WS02 Heat Load to the cooling system
40.00
33.46
Heat Load (HP)
35.00
30.00
29.52
25.00
20.00
17.71
15.00
20.07
12.79
10.00
7.68
5.00
0.00
0
Heat Load (Fan Off)
4
6
8
Heat Load (Fan On)
Heat Load EAP (Electric Pump)
Heat Load EAP (Mechanical Pump)
Figure 6.6. Comparison of the heat load to the cooling system calculated from simulation using
Engine Analyzer Pro and experimental tests
27
10
As stated in Section VI.B.3 the Engine Analyser Pro software could only be used to calculate the heat load.
The simulated and experimental results are seen below in Figure 6.6.
From these results the flow rates for the electrical pump and the mechanical pump were able to be produced
based on them being fitted to the WS02. These results are presented in Figure 6.7. It should be noted that the
measured result indicated in Figure 6.7 is for the mechanical water pump used on WS02.
WS02 Flow rate through cooling system
70.0
64.6
Flow rate (Litres/Min)
60.0
57.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
24.7
20.0
10.0
0.0
0
2
WS02 measured
4
6
Electric Pump EAP
10
Mechanical Pump EAP
Figure 6.7. Comparison of the flow rates calculated from simulation using
Engine Analyzer Pro and experimental tests.
From these results it can be seen that the Engine Analyser Pro software does not account for the inefficiency
of the pumps at higher operating demand as measured for both pump configurations in experimental testing.
The simulated heat loads to the cooling system, as indicated in Figure 6.6 lie in between the calculated heat
loads from the experimental tests. It is likely that the temperature differential used by the simulation software is
closer to that used for calculating the heat load when then fan was off; i.e. in the vicinity of a 6C temperature
differential. Other variations in the heat load results are possible given the simulation software uses coolant at
85C, opposed to the experimental tests that used 22C coolant.
Given that the flow rate is the contributing function to the heat load it follows that they are dissimilar for the
same reasons.
VII. CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY

In order to offer conclusions to the thesis it is pertinent to correlate the experimental and simulation data
analysis conducted in Section VI to the thesis outcomes.
Based on the data obtained in dynamic testing the following outcomes were to be achieved:
Develop airflow velocity vs. vehicle velocity curves for rear and side locations through dynamic
experimental testing for WS02.
To justify the placement and size of the radiator on ACME Racing vehicles based on experimental data
curves and experimental airflow characteristics.
Analysis of the dynamic results showed an inverted correlation between the vehicle ground speed and the air
flow through the radiator core. Without the ability to support these results with CFD analysis the conclusion is
that the experimental results were not viable. Consequently the thesis fails to pass judgement on the most
beneficial radiator location and hence justifying the core size.
Based on the results obtained on the cooling systems performance and coolant flow characteristics the
following thesis outcomes were to be achieved:
Determine the following coolant characteristics from static experimental analysis for use in heat load
calculations and future CFD analysis:
o Coolant flow rate versus operational load curves
28

o Coolant operating temperatures

Calculate the heat load to the cooling system from static experimental data.
Compare the use of mechanical and electrical pumps by use of static experimental data and analytical
software.
Analysis of these results showed that the simulation software used was able to reasonably represent the
vehicles engine and cooling system. It did not account for the inefficiency measured in both electrical and
mechanical water pumps during experimental tests. The ultimate outcome of these tests was to compare the use
of the electrical and mechanical water pumps to recommend which would be used on WS05 in 2009. From the
data it is seen that the use of the mechanical water pump will reduce useable horsepower by 2.4 HP (1.79 kW), a
considerable loss in a racing environment. Furthermore the data showed that the electrical pump has a better
efficiency across the operational range than the mechanical pump. The other consideration is that the
mechanical pump has proven its capability to cope under racing conditions whilst installed on WS02 and
achieves a flow rate three times larger than the electrical pump, which is still untested. Regardless of this the
benefits of using an electrical pump, as seen from the data, outweigh the risk of trialing it on WS05 in 2009.
The final thesis outcomes was to establish a foundation framework based on the data and characteristics
obtained in this thesis for use in later analysis or design thesis in the area of cooling systems specifically with
CFD. The data obtained will offer significant assistance in future thesis student CFD analysis of the cooling
system and based on the recommendations in Section VIII will assist future students based on the lessons learnt
from this thesis.
In the course of this thesis I learnt several lessons, including most importantly aspects of practical engineering
importance during the diagnosis of the initial results obtained from the sensor in dynamic testing.
A. Recommendations for dynamic testing for radiator location and size efficiency
From the dynamic tests conducted in this thesis it is apparent that the sensor used is inadequate for the
conditions experienced at the radiator face. It is possible that this method may yield results for tests at the side
location given that the flow at the side is less disrupted and the current results do have a distinct correlation to
the vehicle velocity. Without achieving a means of effectively measuring the flow at the rear of the vehicle, a
location comparison is not possible.
The following are my recommendations for improving dynamic testing to justify the location of the radiator
core:
Consider simultaneous use of numerous pressure transducers in order to minimise dependence
on Pitot tube orientation and account for irregular flow through the core at the rear
Consider using the MOTEC Pitot Sensor (See Appendix B & C)
Use flow seeking Pitot tubes to avoid problems with orientation into the oncoming flow
Results require support of CFD or use of practical methods such as wind tunnel analysis, tufting
the vehicle or other flow visualisation techniques.
B. Recommendations for use of CFD analysis for vehicle cooling systems

In accordance with my final thesis objective the purpose of these recommendations is to establish a
foundation framework based on the data and characteristics obtained in this thesis for use in later analysis or
design thesis in the area of cooling systems, specifically with CFD. Use of the physical values of the coolant
obtained in this thesis will assist in modelling the cooling system effectively.
Engine thermal analysis has become an essential tool in early design stages as it allows for different cooling
system designs to be studied. CFD thermal analysis augments experimental data to reduce the range of
prototypes required to be built and assist in optimisation of a system without having to physically build it. CFD
programs have many applications to cooling system development allowing for research into modelling and
optimisation of engine thermal analysis, heat exchanger thermal and fluid dynamic analysis and uses for
aerodynamic consideration such as duct efficiency and design.
1. Engine Thermal Analysis
One of the essential measurements required for improving a vehicle cooling system is the amount of heat
produced by the engine to accurately allow for design of a cooling system with a specific heat rejection
capability. One method of doing this is thermal analysis. This is useful for identifying areas of high heat
production generally found around the exhaust valve sides of the chambers [14]. Identifying hotspots can be
achieved through CFD thermal analysis with less difficulty than physical experimentation and measurements.
29
The data, although simplified in most cases by the models, provides enough understanding for effective designs
of the cooling system. Once a cooling system is designed analysis of the coolant flow can be modelled to
address hot spot issues within the engine greatly enhancing engine performance. Modelling fluid paths through
the engine can assist in determining proper coolant distribution and heat dissipation.
2. Heat exchanger thermal and fluid dynamic analysis
Specific to heat exchangers it is possible in CFD programs such as FLUENT to predict coolant flow inside
the tank and pipes, air flow passing through the radiator and air temperatures. FLUENT also allows for
simulation of the effects that radiator fans can achieve by using the built in fan-model [22]. It allows for coolant
volumes to be optimised, cavitations to be identified, flow irregularities to be viewed and ultimately assisting in
optimising the system.
3. Cooling duct aerodynamic efficiency and design
The placement of radiators creates substantial drag problems. For this reason radiators are generally
enclosed inside an air duct. Intakes are required to be optimised for provision of adequate airflow volumes with
even distribution. The idea is to promote a low pressure area behind the radiator to draw air through the cores
cooling matrix [23]. The successful design of an intake requires that the momentum of the passing air is not lost
and that the external design does not negatively contribute to drag on the vehicle.
Using CFD analysis in the design process can help optimise the mass flow ratio, pressure recovery ratio and
the effects of boundary layers inside the inlet [23]. The analysis is used to assist in achieving even airflow
distribution across the face. However, some intake designs yield results where parts of the radiator are not even
receiving airflow meaning the size could be excessive if acceptable cooling is occurring or alternatively that a
larger size core is required as the full capability of the current core is not exploited [18].
The following important considerations for future application of CFD analysis were noted:
It is required to support experimental analysis
The use of CFD will be questionable for the flow at the rear radiator location if the engine is
modelled as a simple block because the complex flow interactions that develop in reality will
not be produced
The ability to produce the required model in vicinity of the rear radiator location is near
impossible for a thesis student with limited CFD experience. The main difficulty in producing
the model will be the meshing of the model.
C. Summary
The dynamic tests used were designed to be impartial to the major factors of weight, difference in pump
configurations, and forces experienced on temporary fixtures that would make comparison of the two
configurations (rear and side) inaccurate. The process aimed to provide a robust framework for gathering data
and analysing it to determine the most efficient location and size of the radiator core in accordance with the
objectives of the thesis. The dynamic results failed to provide relevant data to pass judgement on the most
efficient radiator location and size core. However, from a qualitative standpoint and following the extensive
time spent studying the flow during data acquisition I would suggest that the side mounted location will produce
a more uniform flow when it comes in to contact with the radiator face. This can greatly enhance cooling
capability through use of aerodynamic intake ducts and radiator orientation to speed the flow and take full
advantage of the air flow qualities offered at the side location.
The experimental and simulation data from the further experiments on cooling system performance and
coolant flow characteristics provided relevant information leading to the recommendation to use an electrical
water pump on ACME racings 2009 vehicle, the WS05.
The information obtained during the experimental process and further investigation of published background
research will provide future thesis possibilities for research and development of an efficient cooling system to be
designed and evaluated for integration into future ACME Racing vehicles.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to acknowledge the guidance and assistance that Dr Warren Smith provided during the course of
the thesis. His assistance has greatly improved the quality of this thesis report. I would also like to
acknowledge Neil Trama. Without his willingness to spend significant time and effort to assist with physical
experiments and provide guidance in all practical aspects of this thesis there would be nothing to discuss in the
30
first place. Further acknowledgment should go to Mike Harrap and Evan Hawke who assisted greatly with the
selection and use of the sensor for the data acquisition process during the thesis. Finally, to my friends, family
and colleagues who kept everything in perspective. I will miss you next year.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
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[12]
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[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
SAE Australia, Concept of the competition in Formula SAE-A 2006 Australasia Official Program,
2006, p.5.
SAE Australia, 2008 Formula SAE Rules, Formula SAE-A, URL: http://www.saea.com.au/formulasae-a/rules-important-documents [accessed: 25 July 2008]
SAE Australia, Brief Technical Inspection Specifications Formula SAE-A, URL:
http://www.saea.com.au/formula-sae-a [cited: 25 August 2008]
Suzuki Motor Corp., Suzuki GSX-R600 Service Manual, Suzuki Motorcycle Service Dept., Japan,
2000.
Pierce, L, Design of a variable intake manifold for the 2006 UNSW@ADFA F-SAE vehicle, Final
Thesis Report, School of Aeronautical, Civil and Mechanical Engineering, University of New South
Wales @ Australian Defence Force Academy, Canberra, ACT, 2006.
Incopera, F.P., DeWitt, D.P., Bergmann, T.L. and Lavine, A.S., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass
Transfer, 6th Edn, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2007, pp.2-11.
Avallone, E.A. and Baumeister, T., Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 11th Edn,
McGraw Hill, Inc., New York, 2007, pp. 4.63-4.82.
Freeman, R.A. and Young, H.D., University Physics, 11th Edn, Pearson Education, Inc., San
Francisco, CA, USA, 2004, pp.663-669.
Moran, M.J. and Shapiro, H.N., Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, 5th Edn, John Wiley
& Sons, Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2004, pp.48-50.
Downs, C.M. and Auer, G., Formula SAE Cooling System Design and Optimization, Mechanical
Engineering and Mechanics Department, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, 2004.
Incandela, S., Fluid Systems and Safety Measures, in The Anatomy and Development of the Formula
One Racing Car from 1975, edited by I. Bamsey, Haynes Publishing Group, Somerset, England, 1982,
pp.69-71.
Schwartz, E. And Frank, D., Drexel FSAE Cooling System Remodelling, Mechanical Engineering and
Mechanics Department, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, 2006.
Day, J., Cooling Systems, The Bosch Book of the Motor Car, St Martins Press, New York, 1975, p. 67.
Yuick, S., Power Secrets, SA Design Publishing Comp., Brea, CA, USA, 1983, pp. 118-123.
Ellinger, H., Automechanics, Prentice Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA, 1972, pp.95-104.
Downs, C., Formula SAE Cooling System Design and Optimisation, Mechanical Engineering and
Mechanics Department, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, 2003.
Gray, W., Taking the Lid Off F1, ATLAS F1, Vol. 6, Issue 47, 22 Nov, 2002.
Macknight, N., The Modern Formula One Race Car, Motorbooks International, Osceola, WI, USA,
1993, pp. 139-151.
Crook, R.F., 14 Rules for Improving Engine Cooling Systems Capability in High-Performance
Automobiles, for USA National Automotive Radiator Association, Transpro, Inc., USA 2007.
Stephens, T. And Cross, T., Fan and Heat exchanger Flow Interactions. SAE International, 2005.
James, M, Formula SAE vehicle bodywork, Final Thesis Report, School of Aeronautical, Civil and
Mechanical Engineering, University of New South Wales @ Australian Defence Force Academy,
Canberra, ACT, 2008.
FLUENT Inc, Underhood Thermal Management, in Applications Briefs from FLUENT- EX201, 2003
[Online], URL: http://www.fluent.com [accessed 24 April 2008].
Staniforth, A., Race and Rally Car Source Book: The Guide to Building or Modifying a Competition
Car, Haynes Publishing Group, Somerset, England, 2001, pp.94-95.
Engine Committee, Engines, Fuels, Lubricants, Emissions and Noise, in 1984 SAE Handbook,
Volume 3, SAE Inc., Warrendale, PA, USA, 1984, pp. 24.121-24.123.
31

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COOLING SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Modifications to improve signal resolution......................................................................................... 22

APPENDICES (In supplementary document)

Specific Heat [kJ/kg.K]

School of Aerospace, Civil and Mechanical Engineering

D. Conclusions of problem analysis

II. FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT TRANSFER

Figure 2.2. Boundary layer development in convection

heat transfer [6]

Figure 2.3. a) Forced Convection b) Free (Natural) Convection [6]

III. FUNDAMENTALS OF COOLING SYSTEMS

  #$  #%&  '(() * +&, -(%.

Figure 3.1. Standard GSX-R600 cooling system circuit.

The standard Suzuki cooling system is fitted

Figure 3.2. WS02 cooling systems radiator core and fan

2. Modifications to standard cooling system

Operating temperatures and thermostat range

Figure 3.4. Modified GSX-R600 cooling system circuits of WS02 and

(Water and Oil) on right side of Lola BMS-Ferrari T93/30. [18]

IV. HEAT TRANSFER IN COOLING SYSTEMS

What makes cooling system analysis a

pull 7 cm, and CR1 configurations. ([20]

3. Radiator Face Area

Figure 4.3. Effects of design drivers on radiator heat dissipation performance

V. THE DATA ACQUISITION PROCESS

Figure 5.1. Texense Pitot Sensor

(Texys International, 2008)

The sensor required minor modifications for use

Figure 5.4. Calibration curve for the Pitot sensor

3. Analysis of initial results

Figure 5.6. MOTEC i2 Standard Oscilloscope readout

The oscilloscope reading

Sensor with dampening foam

Figure 5.7. Original sensor location.

Figure 5.8. Static Test results following sensor modifications

VI. DATA ANALYSIS & SUPPOSITION

Vehicle Ground Speed & Sensor reading

Vertical and Lateral G Forces

Figure 6.1. Dynamic Test results following sensor modifications

WS04 Flow rate through

WS02 Flow rate through cooling

Flow rate (Litres/Min)

The WS04 achieves a flow rate

WS02 Heat Load to the cooling

Heat Load (kW or kJ/s)

As discussed in Section III WS02

Figure 6.4. WS02 Heat Load to the cooling system

2. Cooling system heat load

4. Experimental versus simulation results

WS02 Heat Load to the cooling system

Heat Load (HP)

Heat Load (Fan Off)

Heat Load EAP (Electric Pump)

Heat Load EAP (Mechanical Pump)

Engine Analyzer Pro and experimental tests

WS02 Flow rate through cooling system

Flow rate (Litres/Min)

Mechanical Pump EAP

Engine Analyzer Pro and experimental tests.

VII. CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY

o Coolant operating temperatures

B. Recommendations for use of CFD analysis for vehicle cooling systems

#$ #%& '(() * +&, -(%.