Direct Determination of the Flow Curves of NonNewtonian Fluids. II.

Shearing Rate in the Concentric Cylinder Viscometer

Irvin M. Krieger and Harold Elrod
Citation: J. Appl. Phys. 24, 134 (1953); doi: 10.1063/1.1721226
View online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1721226
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JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS

VOLUME 24.

NUMBER 2

FEBRUARY. 1953

Direct Determination of the Flow Curves of Non-Newtonian Fluids.

ll. Shearing Rate in the Concentric Cylinder Viscometer
IRVIN M. KRIEGER, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Case Institute of Technology, Cle'Deland, Ohio
AND

HAROLD ELROD,

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Case Institute of Technology, Cle'Deland, Ohio

(Received July 21, 1952)

Another method has been developed for obtaining the rate of shear '/IS shearing stress curves of nonNewtonian fluids from concentric cylinder viscometer data. The mathematical expression developed is a
rapidly converging power series in Ins, where s is the cup to bob radius ratio. An estimate of error shows
that under favorable conditions only two terms of the series are significant, and that terms past the third
will hardly ever be needed.

INTRODUCTION

Since M is constant under steady flow conditions,

HE first paper in this series reviewed the theory of

T
the concentric cylinder viscometer. There it was
shown that an exact solution in closed form for the rate
l

of shear can be obtained by treating the radius

ratio of the cylinders as a variable. To use the method
which was developed in this manner, one must obtain
torque-angular velocity data with two or more bobs of
different radii.
It was also shown that an expression for the difference
between the rates of shear at the cup and at the bOb
wall can be recovered from data taken with only one
bob. In the present paper, a solution for this difference
equation is obtained as a rapidly converging series.

(1)

The first objective of viscometry is the recovery of this

relation, called the flow equation, from experimental
data. The flow equation may be expressed in analytic,
tabular, or graphical form.
As in the previous paper, we consider a concentric
cylinder viscometer having an inner cylinder or bob
of length L and radius R l , and an outer cylinder or cup
of radius R 2 = sRI. The cup rotates with angular velocity n, while an external torque M holds the bob
stationary. When the fluid in the annular space between the cup and the bob is in laminar flow, the rate
of shear at a distance r from the axis, where the fluid
rotates with angular velocity w, is

I. M. Krieger and S. H. Maron,

(5)

IfF!

iFI

1
g(F)d InF= -2 rl
2

n= --

g(F)

~F.

(6)

.'F. F

In the previous paper, g(F) was obtained by differentiation with respect to s at constant F 2, giving

(2)

(7)

From this equation an experimental method was developed for determining the rate of shear from data
obtained using two bobs.
When (6) is differentiated with respect to Fl , a difference equation is obtained:l - a
dn
1
-=-[g(F l )-g(F2)].
dF l 2Fl

(8)

The method described here for obtaining g(F) is based

on a solution of this difference equation.
SOLUTION OF THE DIFFERENCE EQUATION

Let us define a function heFt) by the relation

(9)
From Eq. (8),
(10)

Also,
h(r2FI) = g(s-2F I) - g(s-4FI) ,
h(s~FI) = g(s-4FI)- g(s-6F I),

while the shearing stress is

F=M/27r'f2L.

g(F) = -2(dw/d InF).

g(F I) = s(an/as)F 2

The present treatment presupposes the existence of

a functional rel3;tionship between the rate of shear
dv/dyand the shearing stress F, namely,

dw dw
g(F)=r-=-,
dr d Inr

(4)

At the bob surface, F=F l and w=O, while at the cup,

F=F 2 and w=n. Integrating (5) between these limits,
one obtains

THEORY OF THE CONCENTRIC CYLINDER

VISCOMETER

dv/dy=g(F).

d InF= -2d lnr

and

(3)

J. Appl. Phys. 23, 147 (1952).

(11)

1M. D. Hersey, J. Rheol. 3, 196 (1932).

M. Mooney, J. Rheol. 2, 210 (1931).

134

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135

FLOW CURVES OF NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS. II

s> 1 and g(O) = 0,

etc. Since

00

h(s-2nF 1) = g(F 1).

(12)

The sum is a slowly convergent one, which may be

asymptotically evaluated using the Euler-MacLaurin
sum formula,4

:. fen) = Lmf(X)dx+tU(O)+ f(m)]

..-0

B2k

--U(2k-l)(m)-f(2k-l)(0)]
k-l (2k) !
+

m-lfHl
E . P2r+l(X-i)J<2r-H>(x)dx.

(13)

f. h(s-2nF = L""h(r2xF 1)dx+ t[h(F 1)+h(O)]

1)

1 [d3h(S-2nF1)]""
+-1 [dh(S-2nF1)]"" -"3 + ....

12

dn

_0

720

dn

Therefore, in view of the definition of h,

-1
h(S-2xF 1)dx=-

f.0 h(y)d Iny=-.n

2 Ins 1"1

(17)

Ins

The derivatives appearing in Eq. (14) are

d2

-4 Ins

d(lnr2nF 1)2

where a and N are constants characteristic of the

fluid.6-7 Integration of Eq. (6) with this value of g(F)
gives
(22)
hence
d lnn/d InF1=N,
(23)
d 3n/ d(lnF 1)3= N3n,
etc. Thus
n [

(14)

The integral is readily evaluated by making the substitutions

y=s-2xF 1
(15)
and
dx= -dy/2y Ins.
(16)

"

(21)

g(F) = aFN,

Here Bi is the ith Bernouilli number and Pi the Bernouilli polynomial. Applying this formula to the summation in Eq. (12),

_0

A particularly attractive feature of the above result

is the fact that the bracketed term is a power series in
Ins. The better concentric cylinder viscometers are
constructed with small clearances, so that Ins rarely
exceeds 0.2 and is frequently 0.05 or less. The term
d lnn/d InFl is unity for Newtonian fluids, but may
take on higher values for non-Newtonian fluids. (Values
as high as five have been observed in this laboratory.)
The second term is therefore significant.
To estimate the error involved in terminating the
series at any given point, it is convenient to consider
the special case of a fluid whose flow equation is

(18)

etc.

g(F 1) = -

Ins

l+N Ins+

(N Ins)!

(N Ins)4

45

]
+....

(24)

Hence the error in terminating the series at the second

term is of order leN Ins)2, while carrying the third
term reduces the error to 1/45(N Ins)4.
In this connection, it is evident that an instrument
for which s is small is desirable. Comparison of two common concentric cylinder viscometers brings out this
point. For the Precision-Interchemica:l viscometer,S R2
= 1.500 cm, Rl = 1.300 cm, making s= 1.154. Here N
must be less than 1.4 in order that the series may be
terminated at two terms without exceeding 1 percent
error, while N values up to 7.0 may be used if the third
term is carried. For the Mooney-Ewart coni-cylindrical
viscometer,9 for which Rl = 2.00, R 2= 2.10, and s= 1.05,
the corresponding N values are 4.1 for two terms and
20.5 for three. The computational problem is thus
much simpler in the latter case, since a second differentiation will rarely be required.
USE OF THE METHOD

Since h(F 1) and its derivatives are zero when Fl=O,

the final asymptotic expression for the rateof shear
may be written
n[

. d Inn (Ins)2 d2n

1+Ins--+--_Ins
d InF 1
3n d(InF 1)2

g(Fl) = -

(lns)4

--.

d 4n

45n d(lnF 1)4

. ]
+ ....

(20)

4 J. Jeffreys and B. S. Jeffreys, Methods of Mathematical Physics

(Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1946), p. 255.

In practice, M 'VS n data are obtained, and F 1 calculated by multiplying M by the factor 1/211'R 12L. A
plot of logn 'Vs 10gFl is constructed. If this plot is linear,
the exponential flow equation applies, and g(F) may be
obtained by well-established techniques. 7 If this graph
is curved, graphical differentiation at points along the
6 A. W. Porter and P. A. M. Rao, Trans. Faraday Soc. 23, 311
(1927).
6 Farrow, Lowe, and Neale, J. Textile Inst. 19, T 18 (1928).
7 I. M. Krieger and S. H. Maron, J. Colloid Sci. 6, 528 (1952).
8 H. Green, Industrial Rheology (John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1949), p. 100.
9 M. Mooney and R. H. Ewart, J. Appl. Phys. 5, 530 (1934).

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136

I. M.

KRIEGER AND HAROLD ELROD

CONCLUSIONS

curve yields the slope m, where

m=d InOld InFl

(25)

For those cases where m Ins is less than 0.2, the third
and higher terms may be neglected, and the rate of
shear calculated with an error of less than 1 percent by

g(F 1)=O/lns(1+m Ins).

(26)

When m Ins is greater than 0.2 but less than 1, an additional graphical differentiation is required to keep the
accuracy within 1 percent. Since
1
-

d20

o d(lnF 1)2

dm

+--,
d InF

m2

(27)

the third term may be obtained from slopes of a graph

of m vs InF 1. The rate of shear is then

o[
(InS)2 dm ]
g(F1)=- l+mlns+tcmIns)2+---- . (28)
Ins
3 dIn~
In the rare case when m Ins is greater than 1, the fourth
term may be required, although this has never been
necessary for the systems studied in this laboratory.
For most fluids, the first two terms should suffice.

JOURNAL OF APPLIED

PHYSICS

An alternate method has been devised for the recovery of the rate of shear of a non-Newtonian fluid
from data obtained in concentric cylinder viscometers,
thus permitting the direct determination of the flow
curves of such fluids without prior assumption of a
flow equation. The mathematical expression for the
rate of shear is a power series in the logarithm of the
radius ratio; the coefficients are derivatives of the
angular velocity with respect to shearing stress. Under
favorable conditions, terms beyond the second are
negligible, while inclusion of the third term is almost
always adequate. Instruments designed with radius
ratios near unity are more satisfactory in this respect,
since only one differential need be evaluated.
A paper is in preparation in which the flow curves of
several fluids, obtained by the various direct methods,
are intercompared. The work discussed herein was performed as part of a research project sponsored by the
Reconstruction Finance Corporation, Office of Synthetic Rubber, in connection with the Government Synthetic Rubber program. The advice and encouragement
of Dr. Samuel H. Maron are acknowledged.

VOLUME 24,

NUMBER

FEBRUARY,

1953

The Nature of the Coefficient of Friction

J. T. BURWELL * AND E. RABINOWICZ
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
(Received August 18, 1952)
The modem theory of the friction between dry metal surfaces ascribes it to local minute welds or adhesions
between the surfaces and suggests that for a given pair of surfaces the friction force is uniquely defined by the
normal load alone. Herein it is demonstrated that this cannot in general be true and that some further condition of operation must also be defined. Experiments are reported indicating that one such possible condition is the sliding speed so that the friction force is actually a function of the normal load and the sliding
speed. It is pointed out that the speed can influence the friction force in two ways-one, by the resulting
shear strain rate in the vicinity of the welded junction, and the other by the length of time taken for a
junction of full strength to form.

HE current theory of the mechanism of dry

frictionl -3 pictures the force of friction as arising
from the shear strength of minute welds formed between two bodies in contact and distributed more or
less at random over their apparent contact area. This
can be expressed by the relation for the friction force

F=sA,

(1)

where s is the average shear strength of these welds and

A the sum of their individual areas. Since it is these
areas that actually carry the normal load W between
* Now with Horizons, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio.

1 R. Holm, Electric Contacts (Almquist and WikseUs, Uppsala,

1946).
H. Ernst and M. E. Merchant, Proc. M.I.T. Sum. Conf. on
Surface Finish, p. 76, (June 1940).
a F. P. Bowden and D. Tabor, The Friction and Lubrication of
Solids (Oxford University Press, New York, 1950).

the two bodies, we also have

(2)
W=pm A ,
where Pm is defined as the flow pressure of the softer
material in the vicinity of these local true contact areas.
Eliminating A between these two equations leads to
the familiar expression for the friction coefficient

(3)
Bowden and Tabor emphasize the point that this is
the ratio of two plastic properties of the weld and
adjacent material. It has been customarily assumed that
these two quantities are each constant for a given pair
of contacting surfaces so that p. is also a constant.
Recently, however, McFarlane and Tabor' have
4 J. S. MacFarlane and D. Tabor, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London)
A202, 244 (1950).

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