Professional Documents
Culture Documents
University of Mysore
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in
Food Engineering
by
K. VENKATESH MURTHY
K. Venkatesh Murthy
Scientist,
Department of Food Engineering,
Central Food Technological Research Institute,
Mysore-570 020, India
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the thesis entitled Heat Transfer Studies of
Equipments for Production of Indian Traditional Foods which is
submitted herewith for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Food
Engineering of the University of Mysore, is the result of the research work
carried out by me in the Department of Food Engineering, Central Food
Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India under the guidance of
Dr. KSMS. Raghavarao, during the period 2001 to 2006.
I further declare that the results of this work have not been
previously submitted for any other degree or fellowship.
K. Venkatesh Murthy
Date:23.02.2006
Place: Mysore
CERTIFICATE
I hereby certify that this Ph.D thesis entitled Heat Transfer
Studies of Equipments for Production of Indian Traditional Foods
submitted by Mr. K.Venkatesh Murthy for the degree, Doctor of
Philosophy in Food Engineering of the University of Mysore, is the result
of the research work carried out by him in the Department of Food
Engineering, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore,
under my guidance and supervision during the period 2001 to 2006.
(Dr. KSMS.Raghavarao)
Date:23.02.2006
Place: Mysore
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I express my sincere gratitude to Central Food Technological
Research Institute Mysore and Council Scientific Industrial Research,
New Delhi for giving me an opportunity to continue higher studies.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my guide
Dr.KSMS.Raghavarao for his perseverance, persuasion, encouragement
and guidance during the course work.
I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. V. Prakash,
Director CFTRI, Mysore for his constant encouragement and interest
shown in the field of equipment design for Indian Traditional Foods, which
would be a specialized and challenging area for engineers.
I express my thanks to Mr. A.Ramesh, Mr. H.Krishna Murty (former
HODs) and Dr. KSMS. Raghavarao, present Head of Food Engineering
for their support. I remember and thank Dr. R.Subramanian and Dr.
KSMS. Raghavarao, for their timely help during my professional career.
I gratefully acknowledge the help of staff of pilot plant Mr.
S.G.Jayaprakashan, Mr. I. Mahesh, Mr. B.V.Puttaraju, Mr. M.Shivakumar,
Mr. M.Nagaraju, Mr. K.Girish, Mr. Umesh, and Mr V.Kumar. Thanks are
also to my elder colleagues Mr R.Gururaj (Rtd), Mr. V.N.Subbarao (Rtd),
Mr. AVS.Urs (Rtd), Mr.D.Laksmaiah (Rtd), Mr. M.V.Srinivas Rao (Rtd),
Mr. Madhu (Rtd).
I also thank Ms. R.Chetana, Mr. Ganapathi Patil, and Mr. S.N.
Raghavendra for helping me during the preparation of this thesis.
I wish to thank my parents for providing me good education and
teaching me good values in life. I wish to thank my mother for giving me
blessings and guidance all these years that has lead to this humble work.
My mother was a silent crusader in shaping-up my personality.
My special thanks are also to my wife, Ms. Chetana who has
always been with me and thanks to my sons, Skanda and Sriram who
were all the while enquiring about the progress of the research work.
I thank and remember all my teachers who taught me good values
in life.
I remember my friend Mr. B.S. Prasad who has taught me to
accept success and failure in the same stride.
K.Venkatesh Murthy
Contents
Declaration by candidate
Certificate by guide
Acknowledgement
List of Figures
List of Tables
Notations
Synopsis
Chapter 1:
Introduction
1.1.0 History of Foods
1.2.0 Traditional Foods
1.3.0 Engineering Design of Machinery
1.4.0 Traditional Food Machinery
Materials
2.2.2
Methods
2.2.3
Design of Machine
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.4.0 Conclusions
Chapter 3:
Dosa Machine
3.1.0 Introduction
3.2.0 Materials and Methods
3.2.1 Materials
3.2.2 Methods
3.2.3 Measurement of Thermal Properties
3.2.4 Design of Machine
3.3.0 Results and Discussion
3.3.1 Design and Development
3.3.2 Standardization of Dosa Batter
3.3.3 Heat Transfer Analysis
3.4.0 Conclusions
List of Figures
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
2.1
Chapathi Machine
2.2
2.3
Pneumatic Extruder
2.4
2.5
2.6
3.1
3.2
3.3
Dosa Machine
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
4.1
Boondi Machine
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
Discharge Mechanism
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
List of Tables
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
Plate Temperature
3.10 Average Radiative Heat Transfer Coefficient (pd) as a
Function of Refractory Surface Temperature
3.11 Complete Heat Balance on the Dosa Machine
4.1
4.2
4.3
Composition of Chickpea
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
Central
Composite
Rotatable
Design
and
Response
Functions
4.9
Notations
Hc
Hd
pc
pd
tc
td
Ac
Area of the Chapathi bottom in contact with the hot plate, (m2)
Ad
Area of the Dosa in contact with the hot plate bottom, (m2)
Arc
Ard
Cpb
Cpc
Cpd
Dc
Dd
Df
Degree of freedom
fprc
Fprc
fprd
Fprd
hFc
hFd
ho
kb
kc
kd
Kdb
ma
mc
mf
mm
mp
Q1
Q2b
Q2c
Q2d
Q3b
Q3c
Q3d
QAb
QAc
QAd
QTb
QTc
QTd
q1d
q2d
qcc
qcd
qFc
qFd
qRc
qRd
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
Tc
Temperature of Chapathi, (C )
Tcb
Tcd
Tct
Td
Tdb
Tdd
Tdt
THc
THd
Tp
Tp1
TRc
TRd
W1
W1d
Wc
Wd
xc
xd
DBNU
BU
Brebanders unit
DGNU
LBU
SEM
NS
Not significant
Synopsis
The traditional foods have been prepared for hundreds of years
and the art of preparation has been perfected over years and varied
across the country. The attempts to change these food habits have not
been successful to the extent envisaged. As the value of time is
increasing day by day, especially with the working women being the sign
of times, the demand for the ready-to-eat traditional foods is also
increasing. Though the basic kitchen technology for the production of
these foods is known, considerable research and development efforts are
required to translate these technologies to the level of large-scale
production. This requires a lot of input from the food engineers and
technologists. The variation in these foods is so vast that it is very difficult
to treat them under a uniform class. The traditional food prepared and
consumed in one region may not be known in another region. Till recently,
the preparation of traditional foods was considered more an art than
science and the mechanization has been thought of very recently.
The successful operation of any machine depends largely on the
kinematics of the machines. The motion of parts is largely of rectilinear
and curvilinear type. Rectilinear type includes unidirectional, reciprocating
motion while curvilinear type includes rotary, oscillatory and simple
harmonic motions. Design is a process of prescribing the sizes, shapes,
material composition and arrangements of parts so that the resulting
machine will perform the prescribed task. The role of science in the
design process is to provide tools, to be used by the designers as they
practice their art. It is the process of evaluating the various interacting
i
ii
Chapter 2:
iii
The rate of heat transfer and total heat requirement for baking of the
Chapathi is presented. The contribution of different modes of heat transfer
and its relevance to the sensory characteristics of baking Chapathi,
thermal efficiency of the baking oven for Chapathi are discussed.
iv
vi
circular burner are also discussed. The product prepared from the
Chickpea batter was evaluated for various attributes of the sensory
evaluation of the product and their observations are presented in this
section. The results of this chapter are useful in understanding the
integration of the technological and mechanization of the process besides
the market acceptability of the machine made product.
The principle of operation and salient features of the forming and
frying machine are also discussed. The conceptual design for continuous
forming device and continuous circular deep fat fryer having different
parts such as the forming sub-assembly, discharge mechanism for the
fried product; custom built circular burner etc are discussed. The
theoretical heat required for frying of Boondi, the residence/frying time
based on added moisture and the heat loss in the frying machine are
discussed. The continuous circular deep fat fryer has been designed with
a circular burner for supply of heat to the oil, which is concentric to the
circular trough. Based on the theoretical heat analysis including the
operational losses, the dimensions of the burner, the number and
diameter of the holes, size of the mixing tube along with the required air
fuel ratio are arrived at. The discharge mechanism is an important subassembly in the continuous circular deep fat fryer. The discharge
mechanism has to work inside a circular rotating trough picking up the
fried product from the hot oil bath while draining the excess oil. The heat
transfer studies of the continuous circular deep fat fryer is presented in
this section. The theoretical heat analysis, thermal efficiency and
sensorial properties of the product are also presented. The frying
vii
viii
cycle, the eater and the food he eats and the universe must all be in
harmony and all of these are different manifestations of same essence.
The domestic hearth in a Hindu home was considered an area of
high purity; even of sanctity, in fact, it was set up adjacent to the area of
worship. The domestic hearth had to be located far away from wastedisposal area of all kinds and demarcated from sitting, sleeping and visitor
receiving areas (Achaya, 1994). Before entering the cooking area, the
cook was to take bath and don unstitched washed clothes. The objective
of cooking is not simply to produce materials suitable for eating but to
conjoin the cultural properties of the food with those of the eater.
1. Chapathi
A variety of breads have been developed from wheat, which is the
main staple food in India. The term bread is hardly appropriate for a
numerous roasted, fried and baked items of India. Dry baked forms of Roti
include the common Chapathi, baked dry on a hot plate (thava), some
times puffed out to a Pulka by brief contact with live coal/flame. A very
thin Chapathi prepared in Gujarat state is the Rotlee. The Rumali Roti
(scarf) is also thin but much bigger in size. The Bhatia made in the state
of Rajastan, are soft, thin Roties that come apart as two circles because
of the style of rolling of the dough. Dough carrying spinach yield distinctive
Roties, the Missiroti, baked dry on a thava, flaky in texture, has spinach,
green chillies and onions in the dough. The Kakras are kneaded with milk
and water and are crisp products that keep well for longer periods and are
carried by Gujarathi travelers.
Wheat products after rolling out can be either pan baked using just
a little fat, or baked with out fat. Paratas are the most common, often
square or triangular in shape rather than circular. The dough can be
mixed with seasoned vegetable like potatoes, spinach or methi and these
products are eaten with curds. Poories are deep fried products made from
wheat flour and some times the dough is mixed with sugar or fat. The
dough of the Bhatura is allowed to ferment using yogurt, and then rolled
out to give a layery fried product (Achaya, 1994).
The other category of the wheat based product which are
unleavened and baked, either in closed or heated oven or in Indian style
tandoors, which are open, lined, glowing ovens with live coals placed at
the bottom. Naan is made of maida, the white inner flour of wheat, which
is leavened before baking to yield a thick elastic product. Naan is normally
dressed with either saffron water or tomato to give red surface colour after
baking.
2. Dosa
Food was delicious and varied in South India in the first few
centuries AD. Rice was converted into many appetizing foods. The appam
was a pancake baked on a concave circular clay vessel and a favored
food soaked in milk. The other forms of shallow pan-baked snack were
Dosai and adai, both based on rice. The Dosa is now made by fermented
batter, a mixture of ground rice and urdh dhal and the adai is made from a
mixture of almost equal parts of rice and four pulses, ground together
before shallow baking.
The tosai (Dosai) is first noted in the Tamil Sangam literature of
about 6th century AD. It was then perhaps, a pure rice product, shallowfried in a pan, while the appam of similar vintage was heated without fat
on a shallow clay chatti (pan). Today the Dosa is made from fermented
batter and Dosa of Tamil Nadu is soft, thick product, while that of
Karnataka is thin, crisp and large. It is frequently stuffed with a spiced
potato mash to yield the popular masala-Dosai.
3. Idli
In Tamil literature the ittali is first mentioned only as early as the
Maghapuranam of the 17th century AD. The Manasollasa of about 1130
AD written in Sanskrit describes the Iddarika as made of fine urad flour,
fashioned into small balls, fried in ghee and then spiced with pepper
powder, jeera powder and asafetida. In Karnataka, the Idli in 1234 AD is
described as being `light, like coins of high value, which is not suggestive
of a rice base. The steaming vessel in Kannada is allage, and the iddalig.
In all these references, three elements of the modern Idli are missing.
One is the use of rice grits (in the proportion of two parts to one of urad).
The next is the long process of grinding and the overnight fermentation of
the ground batter. The last is the steaming of the fermented batter. The
literature does not offer certain answers as to when in the last few
centuries these elements entered the picture.
In 1485 AD and 1600 AD, the Idli is compared to the moon, which
might suggest that rice was in use; yet there are references to other
moon-like products made only from urad flour. The Indonesians ferment
many materials (soyabeans, groundnuts and fish) have a similar
fermented and steamed item called kedli. Steaming is a very ancient form
of food preparation in the Chinese ethos, referred to by Xuan Zang saying
that in the 7th century AD India did not have a steaming vessel. It has
been suggested that the cooks who accompanied the Hindu kings of
Indonesia during their visits home (often enough looking for brides) during
the 8th to 12th centuries AD, brought fermentation techniques with them to
their homeland. Perhaps the use of rice along with the pulse was
necessary as a source of mixed natural microflora needed for an effective
fermentation. Yeasts have enzymes which break down starch to simpler
sugar forms and bacteria which dominate the Idli fermentation carry
enzymes for souring and leavening through carbon dioxide production.
Even Czechoslovakia has a similar steamed product called the Knedlik
(pronounced needleck). Steaming can of course be achieved by very
simple means, merely by tying a thin cloth over the mouth of a vessel in
which water is boiled and its antiquity would be impossible to establish. It
is not unlikely that the name of the Idli persisted even though its character
changed with time, resulting in diversified forms of Idly (Achaya, 1994).
design. Such design does not demand special knowledge or skill and the
problems can be solved with ordinary technical training. A beginner can
learn a lot from the adaptive design and can tackle tasks requiring original
thoughts. A high standard of design ability is needed when it is desired to
modify a proven existing design in order to suit a different method of
manufacture or to use a new material. In developmental design, a
designer starts from an existing design but the final result may differ quite
remarkably from the initial product. This design calls for considerable
scientific training and design ability. New design, (which never existed
before) is done by dedicated designers who have sufficient personal
qualities of high order. Research, experimental activity and creativity is
aptly required.
In the actual design work in industries one need not design the
simple elements like bolt or nut every time and most of these elements
are readily available to meet standard specifications. A designer is
required to select these elements properly and put them together to meet
the requirements and this process of selection of elements and their
configuration is usually termed as system design. It is usual to break
down the complete system into a series of sub-assemblies, components
and materials and these sub-assemblies can be further broken down to
single detail parts each of which is made from raw material. In system
design, a designer has to properly think of a device capable of giving
required output for a given input; devise means and obtain the emergent
properties of the elements and system and their configuration; study the
feasibility of elements and system; examine the compatibility and
1. Chapathi machine
The Chapathi machine comprises of two major sub-units, namely
the Chapathi sheeting unit and the Chapathi-baking unit. Both these units
are integrated into the Chapathi machine in order to produce Chapathi
continuously in largescale automatically. The forming of circular Chapathi
discs of required thickness and diameter is done using the sheeting unit
and the discs are transferred to the Chapathi-baking unit for baking. The
development of the Chapathi machine design includes series
2. Dosa Machine
Some traditional Indian foods such as Dosa and Idli are becoming
more popular. Dosa, an Indian traditional food is consumed by a large
section of population as a breakfast food. For the largescale production, a
continuous automatic Dosa machine was designed and fabricated. The
machine can handle different types of batter such as conventional batter
as well as instant batter mix (powder). The consistency of the batter, the
timetemperature for baking of the Dosa have been standardized.
Predetermined quantity of the batter is dispensed, spread to uniform
thickness on the hot plate of the machine and baked Dosa are scraped,
rolled and discharged automatically. The invention is covered by Indian
patents.
3. Boondi Machine
The Boondi machine has two sub-units, namely, Boondi forming
unit and Boondi frying unit and both are integrated for continuous
operation. The forming machine has a die, for varying the diameter of the
globules and the unit has the provision for changing the die plates having
different sizes of holes. In order to form Boondi globules, the batter is
made to flow through perforated die under mechanical vibration. As the
batter passes through the holes/perforations of the die, it breaks into
10
globules, fall directly into the hot oil of the continuous circular fryer. The
invention is covered by Indian patents.
11
12
flue gas. The product processed by using this device has uniform color,
moisture and other sensorial properties. The material is processed under
hygienic conditions in a continuous manner. All the variables such as
residence time, temperature of the hot air, resting time and cooling time of
the roasted material are done sequentially using a programmable logical
controller (PLC).
13
14
Technology of Food
Food machinery
Thermal Diffusivity
Standardization of Ingredients
Engineering Design
Thermal conductivity
Specific heat
Standardization of preparatory
operations
Fabrication
16
18
19
20
21
them. The machine elements are to be sized keeping in view the criterion
of wear and the environmental conditions like temperature, corrosion and
other ambient conditions. Since there are many ways of addressing the
same problem and no rigid rules are applicable, as the designers must
rely upon models and other testing techniques to determine whether the
machine will perform satisfactorily.
The successful operation of any machine depends largely on the
kinematics of machines. The motion of parts is largely of rectilinear and
curvilinear type. Rectilinear type includes unidirectional, reciprocating
motion while curvilinear type includes rotary, oscillatory and simple
harmonic motions. Design is a process of prescribing the sizes, shapes,
material composition and arrangements of parts, so that the resulting
machine will perform the prescribed task.
Roti and Chapathi are the staple food in India and different type of
these unleavened breads are prepared from wheat and are baked on a
steel plate (tava) and puffed by bringing it in contact with live flame for a
brief period. Chapathi, normally hand rolled by a pin and plate are baked
on pan using fat. Fermented dough using yogurt and rolling out to give a
layery fried product is called the Bhatura. An Indian styled well-insulated
oven is used for the preparation of unleavened bread called the Tandoori
Roti. Naan is made of maida, the white inner flour of wheat, which is
leavened before baking to yield a thick elastic product.
The numerical values of thermo physical properties of food
products are necessary for design, optimization, operation and control of
food processing plants and quality evaluation of products. Most of the
22
Literature Survey
There are very few reports of development of machinery for Indian
traditional foods. Some of the machines designed and developed earlier
23
24
25
26
27
Justification
The design of machinery for Indian traditional foods is a new and
specialized area involving extensive research and experimentation. Very
few organizations are involved in design and development of such food
processing machinery. Most of the food processing machinery available
in the country are imported and most of them are for processing of fruits,
vegetables, bakery products, confectionery and oils. A few industries have
adapted these imported food processing machinery for Indian foods.
Imported submerged fryer and the slicers are used for largescale
processing of Potato chips.
28
29
Atta (A):
Atta was obtained from International School of Milling Technology
Mill (CFTRI, Mysore). It is one of the fraction obtained from the roller flour
mill and do not contain fractions such as maida, germ and bran.
30
Chemical Analysis
Flour moisture, gluten, ash and damaged starch were estimated by
standard AACC methods (1983).
Rheological Characteristics
Farinograph characteristics of Chapathi dough prepared in a
Hobart mixer were determined by transferring the dough equivalent to 50
g flour (14% moisture basis) to a 50 g mixing bowl of the Farinograph.
The dough was mixed for 10 min at 1:3 lever position and various
parameters like peak consistency, dough development time (DDT),
stability and elasticity were assessed from a farinogram in accordance
with the AACC methods (1983).
Extensograph characteristics of Hobart-mixed Chapathi dough
were measured with 100 g dough instead of generally used 150 g dough.
However, 50 g weight was placed on the dough hook, while stretching the
dough, to compensate for the lower dough weight. The extensograph
characteristics were measured as per the standard methods (AACC,
1983). Compliance and elastic recovery of the dough were measured
using a penetrometer (Sai Manohar and Haridasrao, 1992).
The consistency of the Chapathi dough was measured in RWAM
as per the method described earlier (Haridasrao, et al., 1987).
31
Hand Sheeting
For comparing the quality of machine-made Chapathi, about 35 g
dough was sheeted using a rolling pin and a rectangular frame with
adjustable height 1.5 mm as per the method described earlier
(Haridasrao, et al., 1986). The thickness as obtained in the Chapathi
sheet was maintained to the same thickness as obtained in the Chapathi,
sheeting device.
Baking of Chapathi
Baking of Chapathi was done on a hot plate, followed by puffing on
a gas flame as per the standard procedure (Haridasrao, et al., 1986).
Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis of the data was carried out according to Duncan
New Multiple Range Test (Snedecor and Cochran 1968).
32
Pneumatic Extruder
The pneumatic extruder is an important sub-assembly of the
Chapathi sheeting unit. The device as shown in Fig. 2.3 the extrusion is
based on compressed gas. The device comprises of a conical vessel,
having flanges at its top and bottom, with a provision for admitting
compressed gas. A plate having a slot, fixed gas tight on to the bottom of
the cylindrical vessel with suitable gasket. A pair of plates is bolted to the
bottom plate for varying the thickness of the extruded sheet. The cover
plates of the vessel may have additional means such as bolt and nut to
make it gas tight.
The rested (15 min) dough was transferred to the conical vessel of
Chapathi sheeting unit. The dough was extruded by compressed air under
air pressure (41 kg/cm2) through a slit adjusted to a width of 0.8 mm. The
air pressure was adjusted such that the rate of extrusion was maintained
constant at 800 mm per min. The circular-shaped discs are cut from
Chapathi dough.
The conical vessel has the drawback of cavitation, which led to the
escape of the compressed air and non-uniform extrusion.
33
extruder,
as
shown
in
Fig.
2.4
was
developed
(Venkateshmurthy, et al., 2000). The improved device has the ability for
the extrusion of dough into sheet or strands of uniform thickness at a
constant rate.
34
Energy Balance
The liquid petroleum gas (LPG) a blend of butane and propane in
the ratio of 60:40 (commercially available gas is used as heat source).
From the theoretical calculation the requirement of the LPG for supplying
the required heat to the hot plate is estimated to be around 640 g,
considering the heating value/calorific value of the LPG as 11,642 Kcal/
kg. It was reported that 30 kg of air is required for complete combustion
of the LPG. The circular burner is provided with a gas mixing tube (for
mixing of air and LPG for complete combustion), which balances the air
fuel ratio of 30:1 and the outlet is provided with holes of 3.5 mm diameter,
35
where the actual flame heats the circular hot plate. A diffuser tube is
provided inside the burner to lower the pressure of the LPG (which is at
higher pressure inside the filled cylinder) and also its uniform distribution.
From the preliminary experiments, it was found that the baking time
of the Chapathi depends on the thickness of the disc and the moisture
content of the dough disc and found to be 60 s for each side. The
rotational speed of the Chapathi-baking unit is designed for a total baking
time of 120 s and the speed variator has the provision even for the
incremental variations.
From the large-scale trial runs, it was noticed that the actual
consumption of the LPG was found to be around 1.25 Kg, which is more
than the theoretical estimates. The variation in consumption of the gas
can be attributed to the heat loss occurring in different parts of the baking
unit and the major heat loss in the baking unit is from the hood. Thermal
efficiency of the Chapathi baking unit is estimated to be around 51%.
36
Pneumatic Extruder
As discussed earlier, the pneumatic extruder is an important subassembly of the Chapathi-sheeting unit. The device as shown in Fig. 2.3
the extrusion is based on compressed gas. The device comprises of a
conical vessel, having flanges at its top and bottom, with a provision for
housing suitable gaskets a cover plate having a quick fix coupling on its
top at its center for admitting compressed gas into the vessel. The bottom
of the cover plate being provided with a gas deflector for preventing the
gas directly impinging on the dough mass contained in the vessel. The
cover plate rests over the flange at the top of the vessel and in between
the cover plate and the flange, a suitable gasket being provided to make
the arrangement gas tight. A plate having a slot, fixed gas tight on to the
bottom of the cylindrical vessel with suitable gasket. A pair of plates is
37
bolted to the bottom plate for varying the thickness of the extruded sheet.
The cover plates of the vessel may have additional means such as bolt
and nut to make it gas tight. The conical or trapezoidal shape of vessel is
preferable in the case of dough for making Chapathi because the hold-up
volume of the dough is less, when compared to a cylindrical one and
leakage of the compressed gas is reduced as the dough forms a wedge in
the conical or trapezoidal vessels.
However the pneumatic extruder discussed above was found to have
the following drawbacks.
Due to the conical shape of the vessel the rate of extrusion will
vary, as extrusion proceeds.
The force applied during extrusion also varies as the crosssectional area continuously changes, as extrusion proceeds.
The frictional resistance offered for the flow of the dough is more.
Variations in the rate of extrusion of the dough leading to nonuniform sheet of dough.
38
39
plate having a slot is fixed to the bottom of the cylindrical vessel with a
suitable gasket. A pair of strips is bolted to the bottom plate. The cover
plates and top portion of the vessel may have additional means such as
bolt and nut to make the cylindrical vessel gas tight.
The material of construction should withstand the pressure at
which the improved device is operated. Particularly in the case of sheeting
of Chapathi the pressure used is 2.5 to 6 bars. The bottom cover plate
has a blind slot at its center. This slot may be preferably of 200 mm length
and 8 mm width. Tapped holes are provided on the bottom cover plate, to
attach suitable strips for varying the size and shape of the extruded sheet.
The strips may also be of the same material as that of the cylindrical
vessel and preferably stainless steel. Such an arrangement will be useful
to control the thickness of the extruded sheet. This improved device can
be attached to a cutting unit, which can produce Chapathi,, of different
shapes such as circle, triangle, square, rectangle etc. This should not be
construed to restrict the use of the device for making Chapathi only. It is
to be noted that the device can be used for making other similar food
articles such as Papads, Noodles etc.
The working of the device is explained below with particular
reference to sheeting of Chapathi.
Dough out of whole wheat flour or atta with an initial moisture
content of around 8-12 % is prepared by adding water of about 50 ~ 68 %
and 5 % of fat (groundnut oil) and 3 % common salt. Ingredients are
mixed in a planetary mixer for about 3 min. The dough is covered with a
polyethylene sheet to prevent evaporation and allowed to relax for about
40
15 - 20 min. Then the dough is charged into the extruder vessel and admit
compressed air or nitrogen or carbon dioxide gas into the vessel at a
pressure of around 2.5 - 6 bar (g). Sheet will be extruded at a rate of
about 800 mm/min. Sheet width would be 175 mm as the slit on the
bottom plate is adjusted to 180 mm and thickness around 0.8-1.2 mm.
This extruded dough sheet is allowed to fall on the slat cutter of a
Chapathi-sheeting unit as described earlier. The linear velocities of dough
sheet and slat cutter are synchronized. The bottom and topside of the
dough sheet is dusted with dry flour to avoid sticking of dough sheet to
slat cutter and cutting roller. When the dough sheet is spread on the slat
cutter and the slat cutter passes beneath the Teflon roller, the circular
discs are formed in the dimple of the slat cutter. The uncut dough sheet is
transferred on to a return conveyor and collected in a tray. It is possible to
vary extrusion rates easily by controlling the air pressure. Air pressure can
also take care of the variations in the rheological characteristics of the
dough.
The main advantages of this invention are:
41
42
place. The Chapathi discs are collected and fed on to the Chapathi baking
oven.
Chapathi-Baking Unit
The Chapathi baking unit, as shown in Fig. 2.6 is based on the
concept of rotating hot plates. The Chapathi disc formed by using the
pneumatic sheeting unit is transferred to the first rotating hot plate through
a chute/guide. The disc after baking on one side on the first hot plate to
the predetermined time of 50 s and is transferred to the second hot plate.
During the transfer of the Chapathi disc from the first hot plate to the
second hot plate, it turns over to the other side during its free fall. The
Chapathi disc is allowed to bake on the second hot plate to the pre-set
time of approximately 50 s. Oil is dispensed on both sides of the Chapathi
disc through an oil dispenser for better heat transfer. The baked
Chapathis are transferred to the outlet chute, by a diverter placed on the
second hot plate, and collected in a tray. The circular rotating hot plates
are driven by an electric motor and a gearbox, having a very high velocity
ratio of 1: 3600. A set of pulleys and belt is used for connecting the motor
to the gearbox. The power transmission from the gearbox to the hot plates
is through a set of vertical shaft having key way and a key. The hot plates
are rotated at a pre-determined speed (to vary the baking time of the
Chapathi) by a speed variator. The electric motors are rated for an AC
supply frequency of 50 Hz and rotate at 1440 RPM. The supply frequency
can be varied in order to vary the speed of the electric motor and an AC/
frequency drive is used for varying the drive frequency of the electric
43
motor. The recommended lowest frequency, which the electric motor can
be run, is as low as 10% (5 Hz) of the rated frequency. The bearing
supports are mounted on to the main frame of the Chapathi-baking unit.
The selection of the hot plate material is limited to an alloy steel of C-40
(BIS) quality due to cost consideration and ease of machineablity and the
reported thermal conductivity of the C-40 alloy steel is 51.80 W/mC. A
circular gas burner is provided at the bottom of the hot plates, concentric
to them. The baking temperature of the Chapathi can be controlled by
varying the temperature of the hot plate through a temperature controller
having a measurable range of 400 C and provided with a PT-100
thermocouple. The temperature controller connected to the solenoid valve
controls the supply of the liquid petroleum gas (LPG) into the circular
burner. The thermocouple is placed on the hot plate and is in contact
during the rotation of the hot plate. A solenoid valve is coupled to the
circular burner either to stop/allow the liquid petroleum gas as required
and will act as safety against electrical power failure. The temperature
controller sends the signal to the solenoid to regulate the pre-set
temperature of the hot plate. All the parts in contact with the food
materials are made of stainless Steel of AISI 316 quality.
44
The
45
when fat or salt was added alone to the dough. The elastic recovery was
slightly affected with fat, as it decreased only by 2.1%, while with salt, it
increased by 23.4%. In case of atta, though the trends remained the
same, the effect with salt and/or fat on compliance and elastic recovery
was considerable and greater than those observed for whole-wheat flour
dough due to lower bran content.
The peak consistency of dough, as indicated in farinograph, was
reduced considerably with salt and fat. Similar observation was made
earlier for wheat flour dough (Tanaka et al., 1967). Slight increase in the
stability were observed on addition of salt for both whole-wheat flour and
atta dough. The mixing tolerance index, which was inversely related to
the stability, decreased considerably with salt and the decrease was more
for dough made of atta, compared to that made of whole-wheat flour.
Based on the largescale trials of the Chapathi sheeting unit, the slit width
of the pneumatic extruder was optimized. Contraction of sheet was
observed due to elastic nature, resulting in the increase of thickness
(Table 2.3). The slit width of 1.2 mm yielded Chapathi sheet of 2.05 mm
thickness; thereby indicating a 2/3rd increase in the thickness. However,
at lower slit width of 0.6 mm the thickness of the sheet was found to be
nearly double the slit width. It was observed that 0.8 mm slit width was
46
Sheeting Characteristics
The sheeting characteristics of Chapathi dough prepared from atta
and whole-wheat flour with varying levels of water are presented in Table
2.4. Dough prepared with water equivalent to Chapathi water absorption,
having an extrusion time of 605 s determined by RWAM had a tendency
to stick to the cutter and resulted in a non-uniform Chapathi sheet.
Hence, for obtaining a continuous sheet with good machineablity, water
had to be reduced. Different trials indicated that the consistency of the
dough should be around 110 s for atta and 120 s for whole-wheat flour.
The pressure required to extrude the dough naturally decreased from 4.5
to 3.5 kg/cm2 with an increase in water from 56 to 60%. The decrease in
weight with more water could possibly be due to higher extensibility and
lower resistance to extension of the dough (Table 2.2). This was also
reflected in the decreased thickness of the Chapathi sheet with the
increment of water. The scrap dough quantity, irrespective of the amount
of water used, remained almost same and it ranged from 38 to 42%.
In case of whole-wheat flour, it was observed that the weight of
Chapathi disc was lower, though the same slit width was kept and it
increased from 25.8 to 29.2 g with an increase in water from 63 to 67%.
Lower weight of Chapathi disc in case of whole-wheat flour could be
attributed to the lower thickness of Chapathi sheet possibly due to lower
47
The pressure
required to extrude the dough was less, even though the extrusion time
determined was higher as compared to atta. The higher extrusion time
could be possibly due to the stickiness of the whole-wheat flour dough.
The pressure required to extrude the dough increased considerably
from 3.0 to 5.0 kg/cm2 (Table 2.4), due to stiff nature of the dough on
addition of salt. This was also confirmed by decrease in the compliance
value.
The
Chapathi disc made from dough, containing fat had lower weight (27.0 g),
possibly due to its extensible nature as compared to that observed for
control dough (27.7 g). This was also reflected by its lower thickness,
being 1.30 mm with fat and 1.5 mm with salt and 1.47 mm in control
dough. The Chapathi disc containing salt required low amount of dusting,
as it was less sticky.
2. Baking Characteristics
The quality of Chapathis prepared at different water levels (Table
2.5) indicated that the puffed height increased from 6.5 to 7.0 cm with an
increase in water from 65 to 67% in case of whole-wheat flour. Similar
trend was also observed in case of Chapathi made with atta, but the
48
49
50
51
wider range of food products has been developed by Riedel, (1969) and
Martens, (1980).
52
different food products with moisture ranging from 30 to 100 %, the latter
performed multiple regression analysis on 246 published values on of a
variety of food products and obtained a regression equation.
2. Theoretical Aspects
The mathematical expression for each individual mode of heat
transfer can be written as
Conduction
xc
(1)
(2)
53
Radiation
q Rc = F prc . Ac . . T 4 Hc T 4 ct
(3)
C and Fprc, overall coefficient for radiation heat transfer for Chapathi
F prc = 1
{1
f prc + (1
pc 1 )+ ( Ac
Arc ). (1
Hc 1)} (4)
QTc = qCc + q Fc + q Rc
(4a)
54
QTc = qCc
= k c . Ac . (Tcb Tct )
(5)
xc
The total heat transferred must be equal to the total heat absorbed
by the Chapathi. Considering the gross temperature rise of the Chapathi
(sensible heat increase) and the latent heat of vaporization of evaporated
moisture, the total theoretical heat absorbed (QAc) by Chapathi can be
expressed as
Q Ac = Wc . C pc . (Tct Tcd )
tc + [L. v ]
tc
(6)
56
57
58
Quality characteristics
Whole wheat
Atta
flour
Chemical
Moisture, %
8.40
11.30
Ash, %
1.24
0.64
Dry gluten, %
10.80
10.40
Damaged starch
15.10
7.32
Water absorption, %
68.0
62.0
4.5
3.5
Stability, min
3.5
5.5
80.0
70.0
30.4
52.8
Farinograph
59
Table 2.2: Effect of Water and Optional Ingredients* on the Rheological Characteristics of Chapathi Dough.
Rheological
Characteristics
Research Water
Absorption meter
(RAWM)
Extrusion time, sec
Farinograph
Peak consistency, BU
Dough development time,
min
Stability, min
Mixing tolerance index,
BU
Extensograph
Resistance to extension,
BU
Extensibility, * 10-3 m
Area, cm2
Penetrometer
Compliance, %
Elastic recovery X 10,mm
Salt
Atta
Fat
Salt +
Fat
63
65
67
200
120
75
105
65
72
850
1.0
730
0.5
710
0.5
675
1.5
700
0.5
1.0
240
0.5
170
1.0
200
2.5
135
480
400
360
60
36
60
29
37.5
6.95
41.1
7.05
Water, %
56
Salt
Fat
Salt + Fat
58
60
150
110
70
90
45
45
640
1.5
760
1.0
700
1.0
650
1.0
640
1.5
665
1.0
610
1.5
1.0
160
2.0
110
2.0
210
1.5
190
1.5
200
5.0
70
1.0
180
3.5
110
520
360
440
510
470
400
580
360
370
62
28
72
52
76
33
84
45
82
53
87
53
88
45
95
76
100
45
106
57
46.9
7.10
40.0
8.70
46.5
6.90
47.1
8.51
35.6
9.45
40.1
9.48
44.0
9.72
37.7
11.83
49.4
8.27
50.6
10.15
* Salt and fat used at levels of 1.5% and 4% respectively at 65% water for Whole Wheat Flour and 58% water for Atta
60
* 10-3
df 76
Atta
0.6
1.24a
1.30A
0.8
1.47b
1.59B
1.0
1.68c
1.81C
1.2
1.82d
2.05D
0.0134
0.0149
SEM
Means of the same column followed by different letters differ significantly (P<0.05) according to Duncan
New Multiple Range Test. df- Degree of freedom, SEM Standard Error Mean.
61
Table 2.4: Effect of Water and Optional Ingredients* on the Sheeting Characteristics of Chapathi Dough.
Characteristics
Salt
Fat
Atta (A)
Salt
Water, %
Salt
Fat
Salt +
+ Fat
Extrusion pressure,
kg/cm
63
65
67
3.5
3.0
2.5
5.0
2.5
1.34
1.4
1.5
1.55c
8c
Fat
56
58
60
4.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
4.5
3.0
3.5
1.3
1.40
1.6
1.59
1.50
1.66
1.43
1.53
6A
df
114
34.
33.6
32.0
36.9
28.3
33.0
Chapathi sheet
thickness, * 10-3 m
Chapathi
sheet
weight, g
df
114
25.8
27.
SEM
29.
29.9c
0.01438
27.
27.8
SEM
0.01438
Un-used dough, %
df
114
40
38
SEM
40
41
0.21
38
42
df
114
38
41
SEM
42
40
0.26
41
43
* Salt and fat used at levels of 1.5% and 4%, respectively at 65% water for Whole Wheat Flour and 58% water for Atta.
Means of the same row followed by different letters differ significantly (P<0.05) according to Duncan New Multiple Range
Test. df- Degree of freedom, SEM Standard Error Mean.
62
Table 2.5: Effect of Water and Optional Ingredients* on the Quality of Chapathi.
Rheological
Atta
characteristics
Water, %
Salt
Fat
Salt + Fat
Water, %
Salt
Fat
Salt
+ Fat
Puffed height, mm
63
65
67
60
65
70
df
61
52
SEM
0.06
49
56
58
60
70
80
86
df
30
Pliability, mm
21
75
SEM
57
52
0.05
30
24
26
df
20
29
SEM
0.03
23
24
25
27
df
30
22
31
SEM
0.04
28
30
Baking loss, %
26.8
28.9
Appearance
DBN LBU
32.3
19.0
DGNU
LBU
25.9
23.7
DBNU
20.9
19.3
20.2
20.9
23.3
23.6
LBU
LBU
DONU
LBU
DBNU
LBU
U
* Salt and fat used at levels of 1.5% and 4%, respectively at 65% water for Whole Wheat Flour and 58% water for Atta
DGNU Dull grey non-uniform; LBU Light brown uniform; DBNU Dark brown non-uniform;
63
Table 2.6: Comparative Quality Characteristics of Chapathi made by Manual and Mechanical Sheeting.
Quality characteristics
Whole wheat
Atta
flour
Manual
Mechanical
Manual
Mechanical
Puffed height *, cm
6.50
6.43
8.05
8.10
Pliability*, cm
2.40
2.34
2.60
2.55
Baking loss, %
28.96
28.98
19.25
19.20
Appearance
LBU
LBU
LBU
LBU
Texture
* NS: Not significant at 5 % level (P<0.05)
64
Table 2.7: Average Thermal Conductivity (kc) as a Function of Hot Plate Temperature of Whole Wheat Flour.
Thermal
Dough
Mass
Temp. of
Heat
Chapathi
Capacity
Trial
Hot
Chapathi
Chapathi
Total Heat
Conductivity
Mass
of Chapathi
No.
plate
Dia.
Thick.
of
kg
kg
Temp.
Chapathi
(Initial)
(Final)
* 10-3
* 10-3
W/m. oC
(Tp)
(Dc)
(xc)
(kc)
(W1)
(Wc)
(Tc)
(Cpc)
(QTc)
Sensible
Latent
Heat
heat
(Q2c)
(Q3c)
(Wheat Flour)
kJ/kg oK
220
146
1.34
80.01
141.41
0.2846
0.0258
0.0183
120
1.83
225
150
1.47
84.52
151.69
0.2715
0.0277
0.0197
110
1.83
230
151
1.58
91.13
160.00
0.3167
0.0292
0.0207
124
1.83
65
Table 2.8: Average Thermal Conductivity (kc) as a Function of Hot Plate Temperature of Atta.
Dough
Mass
Trial
Hot
Chapathi
Chapathi
Total Heat
Thermal
Mass
of Chapathi
Temp. of
Heat
No.
plate
Dia.
Thick.
Conductivity
kg
kg
Chapathi
Capacity
Temp.
o
W/m. C
m
-3
* 10
(Tp)
(Dc)
* 10
(Initial)
(Final)
-3
(Wheat Flour)
kJ/kg oK
(xc)
(QTc)
Sensible
Latent
Heat
heat
(Q2c)
(Q3c)
(kc)
(W1)
(Wc)
(Tc)
(Cpc)
210
149
1.66
104.88
119.35
0.3751
0.0348
0.02812
116
1.83
213
148
1.59
122.74
115.34
0.3555
0.0336
0.0271
118
1.83
225
152
1.50
99.00
111.83
0.3035
0.0326
0.0263
120
1.83
66
S.No.
Description
Contribution
(W)
Percentage
%
236.25
100.00
85.22
36.07
151.03
63.93
67
=10,380.00
= 20,761,30
= 31,141.30
= 60,814.90
= 51.12%
68
Photograph 1A
Photograph 1B
Chapathi machine
70
Sheeting Unit
Sheeting Unit
Diverter - 2
Diverter - 2
Hot Plate - 1
Hot Plate - 1
Gas Burner
Gas Burner
Diverter - 1
Diverter - 1
LPG Cylinder
LPG Cylinder
Gear Box
Gear Box
Motor
Motor
Hot Plate - 2
Hot Plate - 2
Elevation
Elevation
Drawing Not to Scale
Drawing Not to Scale
Cutter Roller
Return Conveyor
Cutter Roller
Return Conveyor
Dusting Sub-Assemly
Dusting Sub-Assemly
Main Drive
Main Drive
Diverter / Chutes
Diverter / Chutes
Gasket
Conical Vessel
Gas Deflector
Gasket
WHEAT DOUGH
Bottom Flange
Bottom Cover Plate
END VIEW
Slit 1.5 * 180 mm
Sliding Piston
AI
Dough
IN
LE
T
Cylindrical Vessel
ELEVATION
Dusting Sub-Assembly - 2
Cutting Roller
Tube / Rotary Brush / Sieve
Return Conveyor
Dusting Sub-Assemly - 1
Sprockets / Antifriction Bearings
Geared Motor
Roller Chain
Frame
Slat Cutter Assembly
Chain Conveyor
Diverter - 2
Sheeting Unit
Hot Plate - 1
Gas Burner
Outlet chute
Diverter - 1
Oiling device
Diverter - 2
Sheeting Unit
Hot Plate - 1
Transfer chute
Gas Burner
Outlet chute
Diverter - 1
Oiling device
Gear Box
End View
Motor
Transfer chute
Hot Plate - 2
Elevation
Gear Box
End View
Motor
Hot Plate - 2
Plan
Elevation
Chapathies
Plan
Chapathies
Outlet chute
77
Literature survey
A review of the status of machinery for Indian traditional foods and
the need for mechanization with the emphasis on hygiene with reduced
processing cost for the Indian food machinery manufacturers to be
competitive in the global market (Ramesh, 2004).
The Central Food Technological Research Institute at Mysore
(India) has developed formulations for instant Dosa mix, incorporating
machine-ground cereal and pulse flours, baking soda and acid ingredients
such as tamarind, citric acid and soured buttermilk. Formulations for rice,
wheat and millet Dosa are given elsewhere (Anon, 1976). Bureau of
Indian standards has formulated a standard for Dosa mix which contains
rice, black gram, flour, NaCl, sodium bicarbonate and citric or tartaric acid
(ISI, 1983). Instant mixes of traditional food products (including Idly, Dosa
and Medu Vada) based on blends of rice and black gram are becoming
increasingly popular. Due to high price of black gram, there is a risk that
some manufacturers may replace some of the black gram in their
products by cheaper materials such as ragi, kidney bean etc. A study
based on modified volumetric bromide/bromate method has been used to
analyze the compositions of such blends, based on the difference in the
pentosan contents of rice and black gram (Paradkar et al., 2002). A
78
composition,
moisture
content,
palatability
and
cooking
79
characteristics
of
the
products
and
differences
in
processing
80
new
cereal-based
probiotic
foods
(Blandino
et
al.,
2003).
81
Foods
involving
an
acid
fermentation,
covering
sauerkraut, Indian idli and Dosa, sour dough breads and related
fermentations, Nigerian ogi and gari, Kenkey-fermented maize dough
balls of Ghana, Mexican pozol, Russian kefir, and vinegar fermentation
(Steinkraus, 1982). Cheese, fermented cereal-legume batters (idli and
Dosa), chocolates, fermented vegetables, sprouted legumes, wine, curd
and processed meat and fish products were analyzed by HPLC to
determine polyamine composition (Vasundhara et al., 1998).
Digestibility indices (DI) of ragi-based preparations (dumpling, roti,
puttu and Dosa (with/without accompaniments)) were determined by
measuring rate of starch hydrolysis in vitro, and thereafter comparing the
same by replacing ragi with other cereals (rice, wheat or jowar) in similar
preparations are discussed (Roopa et al., 1998).
82
83
84
bearing on the problem and partly because of the availability of very large
number of materials and alloys possessing most diverse properties from
which the materials has to be chosen. With the development of new
material, a good knowledge of heat treatment of materials which modifies
the properties of the material to make them most suitable for a particular
application is also very important. The property of corrosion resistance is
obtained by adding chromium or by adding chromium and nickel together
and stainless steel is manufactured in electric furnaces. Selection of
material for food processing machinery is an added task for the designer.
For most of the food application stainless steel is the preferred material as
the food material contains large amount of moisture and product is for
human consumption, hence needing hygiene. In certain cases, where
acid foods are handled, a special variety of stainless steel having very low
carbon content, which has oxidation-resistant property, is recommended.
The thermal and physical properties of a few fruits and vegetables
studied are co-efficient thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, specific
heat, specific gravity, electrical conductivity and magnetic property. The
various mechanical properties are strength in tensile, compressive, shear,
bending, torsion and fatigue as well as impact resistances.
Justification
As already mentioned, design of machinery for Indian traditional
foods is new and a specialized area. Very few organizations are involved
in design and development of such food processing machinery, which fall
into the category of new design and involves extensive research and
85
86
Rice
Commercial grade raw rice was purchased from the market and
had initial moisture of 11%. The same rice was used for the preparation of
conventional batter as well as the dry instant batter.
Black gram
The split black gram was purchased from the local market for the
preparation of the conventional batter as well as dry instant batter.
(blackgram
dhal)
with
water
in
known
proportions
for
87
Fermentation of Batter:
The Dosa batter ingredients, namely rice and black gram was
soaked in water with a ratio of water to grain at 3:1 for 4 hours in a
measuring jar. The expansion of the soaked grain was measured at an
interval of 1 h. The ingredients are ground for 20 min using a domestic
wet grinder and the density of the ground batter was measured to be
1.340 g/cc. The batter is then allowed to ferment for about 17 h at a
controlled temperature ranging from 25 ~ 40O C in a drying oven and
increase in volume of the batter was observed after fermentation. The
conventional batter fermented at 40C had all the characteristic flavour of
the Dosa batter and the increase in volume of the batter after fermentation
was more than double.
88
89
batter powder was mixed with water in the ratio of 2:1 (water to solids)
and stirred well using a hand held blender and rested for 15 ~ 20 min.
Measurement of Temperature
Fermentation of the batter was carried out at a controlled
temperature ranging from 25 ~ 35OC in a drying oven for about 15 ~ 16 h.
A temperature controller of (EAPL make, model No.TX7-D) was used to
regulate the temperature inside the drying oven which had a K type
thermocouple with sensitivity of 5OC.
A digital temperature indicator (Model TFF 200, Make EBRO,
Germany, PT-100, Range: -50 to 200 C) was employed to measure the
temperature of the hot plate as well as the product. The temperature
indicator had a resolution of 0.1C with a least count of 0.1 C.
90
Determination
of
Microstructure
using
Scanning
Electron
Microscope
The baked Dosa prepared using different hot plate materials were
viewed under the scanning electron microscope (model -Leo 435 VP of
91
Sensory Analysis:
Sensory characteristics of the Dosa prepared on the Dosa -making
machine were tested among 10 trained panelists from Department of
Sensory Science using quantitative descriptive analysis.
92
Thermal diffusivity:
Experimental set-up
The experimental set-up is shown in Fig. 3.1. It consists of a
copper tube of 2.25-inch diameter and a length of 9 inch. Copper, being
rigid and having high thermal conductivity value facilitates high heat
transfer, thus reducing the time taken to reach steady state. The
apparatus based on the transient heat transfer conditions require only
time-temperature data. The apparatus consists of an agitated water bath
in which the copper tube-containing Dosa batter was immersed.
Thermocouples were soldered to the outside surface of the cylinder
monitoring the temperature of the sample at radius R. A thin
thermocouple probe indicated the temperature at the center of the
sample. The bottom end of the copper cylinder is fixed with a cap made of
Teflon (alpha = 4.17 * 10-3 ft2 / h) and filled with the Dosa batter of known
weight. The cap made of Teflon material is used to close the top end of
the copper tube and the thermocouple is inserted to full immersion to
insure proper radial positioning. The cylinder is placed in the agitated
water bath and temperatures of the wall and center temperature of the
copper cylinder (Dosa batter temperature) are recorded until a constant
rate of temperature rise is obtained for both inner and outer
93
R 2 0.55
(1)
d = A R2
4 (T1 T2 )
(2)
out side surface temperature of the copper cylinder, OC; T2, Temperature
of the batter inside the copper tube, OC; , Experimentation time, Min.
Experimental Procedure
To evaluate the approximate vales of the thermal diffusivity and the
specific heat of the Dosa batter, the mass fractions of the composition of
the Dosa batter such as carbohydrate, protein, fat, ash and the moisture
94
of the ingredients were noted from the literature. The main ingredients of
the Dosa batter are the Rice and Black gram and the composition of the
Rice and the Black gram is given in Table 3.2.
The empirical predictive equations developed by Dickerson (1969)
and Sweat (1986) for the evaluation of the specific heat and thermal
conductivity respectively were used for the estimation. The following are
the predictive equations:
(3)
(4)
95
The time-
temperature data of the surface of the copper cylinder and the core
temperature of the Dosa batter were recorder at a time interval of 2 min.
Thermal diffusivity of Dosa batter was estimated by substituting
appropriate values obtained during the experimentation in the equation (2)
considering Rd= 1.125 inch. The average value of the thermal diffusivity
(Table 3.3) was found to be 1.39 m2/s.
Specific heat of Dosa batter was evaluated by equating the heat
lost by the water bath (q1d) to that of the heat gained by batter (q2d). The
drop in temperature of water in the bath was in the range of 0.15 ~ 0.20
C. The specific heat of the Dosa batter was found to be 3.12 kJ / kg OC,
(Table 3.3) and the predictive and the experimental values are shown in
Table 3.4.
The average density of the Dosa batter was found to be 1108.70
kg / m3. The thermal conductivity of the Dosa batter was estimated by
substituting the values of the thermal diffusivity (d), specific heat (Cpd)
and the density (d) of Dosa batter in the equation; d = kdb / d Cpd. The
average value of the thermal conductivity of the Dosa batter is 0.48 W / m
O
C, (Table 3.3). The predictive and the experimental values of the thermal
96
97
turn drives the hot plate. The accessories such as batter cum oil
dispenser, floating spreader assembly curry dispenser and floating
scraper assembly and the scraper are provided above the hot plate. The
device is provided with electronic controls for varying the rotational speed
of the hot plate, the solid-state timer for controlling the quantity of the
batter and a temperature controller for controlling the hot plate
temperature.
3. AutoDischarge Assembly for Dosa
For automatic discharge of Dosa, a mechanism has been designed
as shown in Fig. 3.5 without manual intervention hygienically. It
comprises of a radial scraper which is rested on the hot plate of the Dosa
making machine for scraping the baked Dosa and the radial scraper is
provided with a radial diverter for folding and guiding the Dosa on to the
chute to be transferred to the collecting tray, and the holding bar holds
down the radial scraper as well as the radial diverter, firmly on to the hot
plate and the holding bar in turn is held in position by a set of fasteners,
all the parts are made of stainless steel.
4. Energy Balance
Theoretical heat absorbed by the baked Dosa involves the sensible
heat of the solids plus the water contained in the batter, the latent heat of
evaporation of water during baking. The sensible heat of solids and water
has been estimated to be 8307.80 kJ and the latent heat of evaporation of
water is around 22,994.93 kJ. The total heat required per Dosa was
estimated to be the sum of sensible heat and the latent heat and found to
98
be 31,302.72 kJ. From the experiments it was noted that the residence
time for baking of Dosa is around 120 s and the capacity of the Dosa
making machine is 360 Nos/h.
The machine has a circular liquid petroleum gas (LPG) burner,
having all the required operational and safety accessories such as mixing
tube, pilot lamp, solenoid etc. From the large-scale trials of the machine,
the actual consumption of the fuel (LPG) was found to be 60,814.90 kJ
(1.25 kg of LPG/h) and the thermal efficiency of was found to be 51.47%
(Table 3.5).
Commercially available LPG a blend of butane and propane in the
ratio of 60:40 is used as heat source. From the theoretical calculation the
requirement of the LPG for supplying the required heat to the hot plate is
estimated to be around 643 g, considering the calorific value of the LPG
as 48,651.92 kJ.
99
100
and covered on all the sides. The whole assembly is mounted on swivel
castors for easy movement of the device to the required place. Materials
like Steel / Stainless Steel / Steel coated with PTFE / Brass are used in
the fabrication of the device. All the necessary electrical parts of the
device are housed inside the panel board attached to the main frame. The
batter is prepared by grinding rice and black gram with sufficient quantity
of water in known proportion to a predetermined time to get the required
fineness. The batter is allowed to ferment for 8-10 hrs in a closed
stainless steel vessel. The prepared batter is charged into a vessel
connected to the feed side of the screw pump. The pump with a solenoid
valve is fitted in the discharge pipeline and the electronic timer, controls
the intermittent batter deposition on the hot plate in predetermined
quantities and appropriate time interval. Batter is spread into an elliptical
disk of uniform thickness by the spreading device as the hot plate rotates.
Automatic oiling device sprays a very thin coat of edible oil on the
spreadsheet of batter. This will not only improves the organoleptic
properties of the Dosa but also helps in rapid, uniform heat transfer and
baking of the Dosa. Depending on the water content of the batter, the
baking time is adjusted either by the sprocket train / worm and worm
wheel or by an electronic inverter. In the event, the Dosas needed to be
filled with curry, the material from the curry dispenser can be filled on the
Dosa before they are rolled and discharged. The baked Dosas are
scraped, rolled and discharged by a scraper and collected in a tray.
During the operation, the device was observed to have the following
drawbacks:
101
1. The hot plate has the tendency to distort during the process of heating
and operation.
2. The distortion of the hot plate produces non-uniform thickness of the
product.
3. Due to distortion of the hot plate the scraper needed flexibility to move
vertically and rotate as well.
4. The screw pump fitted on the battery discharger needs regular
attention and is very costly.
5. There is no water cleaning arrangement during the process of
operation.
102
hot plate assembly, is driven by a geared motor, and a gear box, and an
AC drive, supported by a set of bearings supports. The hot plate is heated
by a circular LPG burner with its accessories and the temperature of the
hot plate is regulated by a temperature controller with sensor, through a
LPG solenoid valve. The batter cum oil dispenser, is timed by an
electronic timer, and the thickness of the Dosa in controlled by a floating
spreader assembly. The water tank and the batter cum oil dispenser, is
mounted on the floating spreader assembly. The floating spreader
assembly and floating scraper assembly are mounted on the main frame.
A panel board is mounted on the main frame, for easy operation of the
machine and the panel board houses the AC drive for controlling the
speed of the hot plate and a mechanical digital electronic counter and an
electronic timer. The batter and the oil are contained in the batter
container and an oil container, which is mounted on the batter cum oil
dispenser. A curry dispenser is mounted on the hood with sight glass for
dispensing the curry on to the baked Dosas. The scraper assembly is
fastened to the main frame through a round bar, and a compression
spring is assembled on to the round bar and the straight edged scraper,
rests on the hot plate. The floating spreader assembly, comprises of a set
of square bars fastened to the main frame and the thumb wheels
connects the square bars, a set of compression springs, is placed
between the square bars, the pressure is exerted by the thumb wheel, on
to the hot plate. The batter cum oil dispenser is used for the dispensation
of the batter and oil simultaneously. The batter cum oil dispenser consists
of a solenoid, to actuate the valve, for dispensing the batter and oil. A
103
water tank is mounted below the solenoid and the valve and the opening
and closing of the batter cum oil dispenser is by an electronic timer.
104
soaking time was about 4 h and the expansion index of rice and black
gram was observed to be in the range of 1.45 to 1.55 and 2.18 to 2.45,
respectively (Table 3.6). The maximum expansion of the grains were
observed in the first hour of soaking with an expansion index of 1.45 for
rice and 2.18 for black gram, only a nominal expansion index of 0.1 and
0.27 for rice and black gram, was observed respectively during the rest
of the soaking period of 3 h. The ingredients are ground for 20 min using
a domestic wet grinder and the density of the ground batter was
measured to be 1340 kg/m3. The batter is then allowed to ferment for
about 17 h at a controlled temperature ranging between 25 ~ 40O C in a
drying oven and increase in volume of the batter was observed after
fermentation. The conventional batter fermented at 40C had all the
characteristic flavour of the Dosa batter and the increase in volume of the
batter after fermentation was more than double.
In order to have the controlled fermentation of the batter, a drying
oven having a temperature controller was used. Increase in the volume of
the batter (Table 3.7) was measured using a measuring jar. Fermented
batter was diluted with water in the ratio of 3:1 (water to rice + black
gram) and each kilogram of rice and black gram produced 3 kgs of
Dosa batter. It was observed that the viscosity of the rice batter (without
black gram) was measured to be in the range of 172 ~ 209 m.Pa.s. The
viscosity of the fermented batter increased with the increase of black
gram and the viscosity of the Dosa batter (with addition of black gram
ranging between 15 ~ 35%) was in the range of 196 to 2041 m.Pa.s
(Table-3.8).
105
The test Dosas were prepared from the fermented batter using a
conventional hot plate (tava) baking for about 120 s at a temperature
ranging between 180 ~ 190 C. The Dosa was prepared using different
formulations such as the batter with zero black gram and with addition of
black gram ranging from 15 ~ 35% of rice. The baked Dosas were
evaluated for shear strength and colour (of top and bottom sides of the
Dosa). The shear strength of the Dosa was studied both with and without
the application of oil. It was observed that the shear strength of the Dosa
without oil was in the range of 5.77 ~ 8.52 N. It was also noted that the
shear strength of the Dosa baked using oil was slightly less than that
baked without oil indicating less crisp product and was in the range of
5.24 ~ 6.69 N (Table 3.8). It was noted that the shear strength reduced to
2.00 N with the urdh content of 35% indicating soft/less crispier Dosa
(Table 3.8). It was noted that the colour of the bottom side of the Dosa
was of much darker brown as given in (Table 3.8).
106
the ratio of 2:1 (water to solids) and stirred well using a hand held blender
and rested for 15 ~ 20 min.
Dosas were prepared using the above batter on a conventional hot
plate (tava) maintained at 180 ~ 190C. It was observed that the Dosa
were spongy and
dried
material
is
scraped
out
from
the
trays
and
107
of
the
moisture
during
the
baking
process.
The
microstructures are shown in Fig. 3.9. It is clearly seen from the figure
that the material such as stainless steel and teflon-coated aluminum had
smaller and uniform structural holes of large numbers as compared to the
cast iron and alloy steel material. This can be attributed to the fact that the
material with higher thermal conductivity has uniform distribution of heat
and also high rate of heat transfer compared to alloy steel and cast iron.
The difference in density of the holes was clearly reflected in better
surface finish of the Dosa prepared using stainless steel and Teflon
coated aluminum hot plate materials.
The sensory analysis was carried out by 10 panelists using
quantitative descriptive analysis. The profilogram as shown in Fig. 3.10
indicates the typical characteristics of Dosa having low value of staleness,
bitterness and sourness, which are the measures of good quality product.
108
The high values of crispness, colour, puffiness, tearing strength are added
attributes to the good quality of the Dosa with an overall score at 11 out of
15 as shown in the profilogram in Fig. 3. 10.
xd
(5)
(6)
where qFd is the heat transferred by convection to the Dosa, kJ; hFd
convective heat transfer coefficient of Dosa, W/m2 o K; Ad the area of the
Dosa in contact with the hot plate bottom, m2; TRd the temperature in oC of
the hot air inside the hood: Tdt the temperature of the Dosa top surface,
C.
109
Radiation
q Rd = Fprd . Ad . . T 4 Hd + T 4 dt
(7)
Where, qRd is the heat transferred by radiation to the Dosa, kJ; the
Stefan-Boltzman constant, W/m2 h k4; THd the hood (refractory surface)
temperature, oC: Tdt the temperature of the Dosa top surface, C and Fprd
overall coefficient for radiation heat transfer, is given by
Fprd = 1
{1
f prd + (1
pd 1 ) + ( Ad
Ard ) (1
Hd 1)}
(8)
QTd = qCd + q Fd + q Rd
(8a)
QTd = qCd + q Rd
= kd . Ad . (Tdb Tdt )
xd + Fprd . Ad . T 4 Hd T 4 dt
(9)
110
The total heat transferred must be equal to the total heat absorbed
by the product. Considering the gross temperature rise of the product
(sensible heat increase) and the latent heat of vaporization of evaporated
moisture, the total theoretical heat absorbed by Dosa (QAd) can be
expressed as
td + [L. v ]
td
(10)
where Wd is average mass of Dosa batter, kg; Cpd heat capacity of Dosa
batter, kJ/kg o K; Tdd Dosa batter temperature, oC; Tdt temperature of the
Dosa top surface, oC: td Dosa baking time, s; L moisture loss during
baking of Dosa, kg; and v latent heat of water evaporation, kJ/kg.
The other factors such as heat of reaction, solution and heats of
vaporization of volatiles other than water are usually small and can be
ignored.
In order to test the exclusive effect of conductive heat transfer, Dosa were
heated from the bottom only (while preventing radiation by covering the
Dosa with an asbestos disc) on the hot plate of the oven at three different
preset temperatures. Thermal conductivity of Dosa was calculated by
setting the total heat absorbed by the Dosa equal to the expression for
conduction. The results of these experiments are given in Table 3.9 and
the average thermal conductivity was 0.42 W/m C. The expressions for
radiation from hood surfaces given in equations are simplified by
assuming the value of both hood emissivity (H) and the geometric factor
(fpr) to be unity, which are valid assumptions under the conditions of the
investigation. When Dosa was baked only through radiation heat, as
described earlier, there was no appreciable change on the product
111
surface (except for the formation of a thin hard layer). The characteristic
holes on the top of the Dosa were also absent. This could be attributed to
the fact of the Dosa not being in contact with the surface of the hot plate,
indicating the importance of conduction heating in baking of Dosa. The
result of test runs is given in Table 3.10. Using equation (10), the total
theoretical heat absorbed by the test Dosa was calculated using
temperature and moisture data given in Table 3.9. The value of specific
heat (Cp) is taken as 1.83 kJ / Kg.
112
(11)
Where, Tp1 is the temperature of the Dosa oC; C1, C2, C3, p and q are
constants. The initial and boundary conditions for the present case are,
x = x, t = 0, T0 = Tdd
x = 0, t = 0, T0 = C1 = Tp = Tdb
where, Tdd is temperature of Dosa batter at ambient conditions, o C; Tdb is
the Dosa bottom temperature, which is in equilibrium with the hot plate
temperature Tp, o C: t is the time, s: x thickness of Dosa, m.
Hence,
Tt = 0 = T0 = C1 + C2 x + C3 = Tdd
The above equation is valid only when C2 = 0, otherwise T0 would have to
vary with x, where as it is assumed to be uniform.
Hence
Tdd = C1 + C3 or C3 = Tdd Tp
Substituting in equation (7) results in
Where, f1 x
2 d t
2 d t
(12)
diffusivity, m2/s. The values of the integral are obtained from literature
(Kern, 1950.)
113
114
each individual heat transfer modes, which in turn is useful for design
modifications of the Dosa machine (burner and rotating hot plate). As a
result Dosas prepared by using stainless steel and Teflon coated
aluminum had better surface finish. The sensory analysis indicated a
good overall quality and acceptability of the Dosa baked on the machine.
The experimental temperature profiles across the thickness of the Dosa
indicates similar trend of the theoretical ones, however, the values of
temperature are lower than the theoretical ones which could be attributed
to the evaporative cooling that takes place during the baking of Dosa.
The sensory analysis indicates a reasonably good over all quality of the
Dosa baked on the Dosa machine.
The photograph of the improved Dosa machine is presented as
photograph-2. The automatic discharge mechanism of Dosa is discussed
in detail at Annexure 1.
115
Table 3.1: Wall and center temperature of the copper tube for Dosa
Batter
Time
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
Wall
Temperature
22
56
57
58
58
58
58
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
60
60
60
Center
Temperature
22
24
24
31
36
41
45
48
50
52
54
55
56
56
57
57
57
57
57
58
58
58
58
58
58
58
58
58
58
58
58
Sl
No.
Composition
Rice
%
Black gram
%
Carbohydrate
78.20
59.60
Protein N * 6.25
6.80
24.00
Fat
0.50
1.40
Ash
0.40
0.50
Moisture
13.70
10.90
Batter
Mass
Mass
Drop in
Duration
Rise in
Trial
Wall Temp.
Temp.
of
of
bath
of
Temp. of
No
batter
water
temp.
heating
batter
* 10-3
in bath
Min
Thermal
Specific
Thermal
Diffusivity
Heat of
conductivity
* 10 7
batter
of batter
m2 / s
kJ / kg C
W/ m C
(Cpd)
(kdb)
(T1)
(T2)
kg
kg
(td)
(T1-T2)
60
58
165
32.160
0.15
56
38
1.1674
3.2129
0.4159
60
58
160
31.420
0.15
56
38
1.1670
3.2370
0.4188
80
79
160
31.420
0.20
60
53
1.5197
3.0945
0.5214
80
79
160
31.060
0.20
60
55
1.6912
2.9479
0.5527
(d)
Table 3.4: Comparison of Thermal Properties of Dosa Batter by Composition and Experimentation
Sl
Thermal property
No
Prediction by
By experimentation
composition
(Average)
Thermal Diffusivity * 10 7 , m2 / s,
(d)
1.2797
1.3863
(Cpd)
3.2316
3.1231
0.4585
0.4772
1108.70
(d)
= 8,307.80
= 22,994.93
= 31,302.72
= 60,814.90
= 51.47 %
Table 3.6: Expansion Characteristic of Rice and Black gram during Soaking
Soaking time
h
Initial volume
Expanded volume
ml
ml
Rice
Black
gram
Expansion Index
Rice
Black
gram
Rice
Black
gram
110
110
165
240
1.45
2.18
170
260
1.55
2.36
170
270
1.55
2.45
170
270
1.55
2.45
170
270
1.55
2.45
Volume per 100 g of Raw Rice and Urdh dhal = 110 ml respectively.
Grinding time = 90 s
Sl
Fermentation
Fermentation
Initial volume of
Final volume of
No
Temperature
time
Batter
Batter
ml
ml
25
17.00
100
100
30
17.00
100
110
35
17.00
100
130
40
17.00
100
220
40
17.00
100
230
Sl
Quantity
No
Rice
Black
Colour of Dosa
Batter Viscosity
m.Pa.s
With oil
Top
Bottom
gram
1
500
5.77
5.24
20.92
25.35
195.85
500
75
6.90
6.69
29.27
30.08
625.60
500
125
8.52
6.33
21.60
26.44
1833.40
500
175
2.09
2.00
21.68
26.71
2041.40
Table 3.9: Average Thermal Conductivity (kd) as a Function of Hot Plate Temperature
Mass of
Hot
Dosa
Dosa
Mass
Total Heat
Heat
Temp.
Thermal
Trial
Batter
Plate
Dia.
Thick.
of Dosa
Capacity
of Dosa
Conductivity
No.
Kg
Temp.
* 10-3
* 10-3
Kg
(Flour)
(Final)
KJ/Kg oK
(Tp)
(Dd)
(xd)
(W1d)
(Initial)
(Wd)
(QTd)
Sensible
Latent
Heat
heat
(Q2d)
(Q3d)
Of Dosa
W/m. oC
(Cpdf)
(Td)
(kd)
0.100
185.00
207
2.10
0.07169
192.31
532.29
1.83
80.50
0.44
0.100
170.50
207
2.20
0.07600
188.84
451.33
1.83
74.60
0.43
0.100
172.00
208
2.00
0.07574
191.58
459.79
1.83
75.50
0.40
Table 3.10: Average Radiative Heat Transfer Coefficient (pd) as a Function of Refractory Surface Temperature.
Mass of
Dosa
Dosa
Mass
Trial
Hood
Batter
Dia.
Thick.
Temp. of
of Dosa
Radiative
No.
Temp.
Kg
* 10-3
* 10-3
Dosa
Kg
Heat transfer
(Initial)
(Final)
Coefficient
(THd)
(Wd)
(Dd)
(xd)
(Td)
(W1d)
(pd)
141.00
0.110
207.0
2.50
40.50
0.1030
0.29
160.30
0.100
205.0
1.90
50.20
0.0930
0.31
167.00
0.100
212.5
1.93
57.60
0.0920
0.33
S.No.
Description
Contribution
(W)
Percentage
%
724.60
100.00
192.31
26.54
532.29
73.46
713.85
98.51
10.75
01.49
Stirrer
Water Bath
Temperature controller
060.12
Heating Element
Support plate
Water
70
60
50
40
Series1
Series2
30
20
10
0
1
9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31
128
Hood
Batter assembly
Scraper assembly
Panel board
Sproket
Main frame
Electric Geared Motor
Pump with solenoid valve
Ground
Cover
Pivot bearing
Hood
Hot plate
Circular burner
LPG Control valve
Vertical shaft
Gear box
Panel board
Electric geared motor
Main frame
LPG cylinder
Castor wheel
Ground level
Hot Plate
Chute
Radial Diverter
Radial Scraper
Thumb wheel
Spreader bar -1
Compression spring
Spreader bar -2
Hot palte
Holding bar
Compression spring
Vertical support
Main frame
Hot plate
Drawing Not to Scale
Batter container
Oil container
Batter valve
Solenoid
Teflon spreader
Hot plate
Drawing Not to Scale
Stainless Steel
Alloy Steel
Cast Iron
135
Attribute s
C
el
lu
la
r
Pu
ffi
ne
G
ss
ol
de
n
br
ow
n
Pa
st
y
C
ris
Te
pn
ar
es
in
s
g
St
re
ng
th
So
ur
Bi
tte
r
Sa
lti
ne
ss
St
al
e
O
Q
Mean scores
10
136
Dosa Machine
138
Literature survey
There are very few reports of development of machinery for Indian
traditional foods. With regard to the standardization of batters for different
Indian traditional foods, the work has been carried out by several people.
In order to form boondi globules, the batter is made to flow through
perforations in a tray of the boondi forming unit under mechanical
vibration. As the batter passes through the perforations, forming small
globules, fall directly into heating medium of the fryer (Ramesh et.al.,
2004). Preparation of boondi having a perfect spherical shape depends
on the water content of the batter, as the batter consistency (which
strongly depends on moisture content) plays a very critical role (Priya et
al., 1996). At low levels of water, boondi are oblong in shape. At higher
139
water levels also, the batter tends to spread in the frying medium again
leading to oblong shaped boondi with a tail like shape (Semwal et al.,
2005).
Many studies have been reported on the physico-chemical
characteristics of boondi. The deep fat frying characteristics of
bengalgram flour suspensions reported that boondi of a large size
absorbs less oil than smaller one (Bhat et al., 2001). Since the emphasis
in the preparation of legume based snack foods is on deep fat frying of
the batter, efforts have been made to reduce the oil content by
incorporating various additives. Priya and co-workers (1996) reported
studies on addition of carboxyl methyl cellulose (CMC) and hydroxymethyl
cellulose (HMC) as additives in reducing the oil content of fried boondi.
Storage studies of fried sweet boondi have been studied by Semwal et al
(2005). Especially the addition of sorbic acid and using different types of
packaging for increasing the shelf life of boondi. Storage studies of Khara
boondi in flexible films were also reported (Mahadeviah et al., 1979)
The mechanization and automation of boondi preparation offers a
challenge since many parameters affect the product quality. It is
necessary to understand the complex process that occurs during frying so
that improvements can be made by optimizing the process, leading to
better automation and optimization of the formulation (Singh et al., 1995
and Blumenthal et al., 1991). Amongst all, the moisture content of the
batter plays most important role. The oil content in the product, frying
time, shape of the globule are parameters dependent on the moisture
content of batter. From the consumers point of view, deep fat fried boondi
140
The main
141
objection to steady state analysis is long time required to attain the steady
state conditions which in turn leading to changes in compositions during
measurement. There is also a possibility of moisture migration due to
maintaining the temperature difference across the material for a long
period of time (Urbicain and Lozano, 1997). Polley et al. (1980) have
compiled data on Cp of vegetables and fruits. Lamberg and Hallstrom,
(1986) have reported Cp over the temperature range of 20 to 90 C and a
moisture range of 8 to 85% (wet bulb) of freeze-dried Brintje potato. The
specific heat is often measured using method of mixing, adiabatic
calorimeter, differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) and differential
thermal analysis (DTA). DSC techniques have been vividly discussed by
Callanan and Sullivan (1986). The guarded hot plated method can also
be used for measurement of Cp.
142
143
144
Justification
The main objective of the present study is to optimize the process
of mechanization of forming and frying of boondi. The mechanization and
automation of boondi preparation offers a challenge as many parameters
affect the product quality. It is necessary to understand the complex
process that occur during frying and improvements can be done by
optimizing the process leading to better automation and optimizing the
formulation.
The design of machinery for Indian traditional foods is new and a
specialized area. Very few organizations are involved in design and
development of such food processing machinery, which fall into the
145
category
of
new
design
and
involves
extensive
research
and
electrical
and
electronic
and
food
engineering.
The
146
Chickpea Flour
Chickpea flour was purchased from the market. Initial moisture
content of the flour was around 10%. The quantity of the chickpea flour
used is around 100 g /batch.
147
148
Determination of Colour
The colour of the was measured using a Labscan XE (C iIIuminant.
2 View angle). The L, a, b and the total colour difference (E), which
represents the total colour of the sample were directly obtained from the
system.
Experimental Design
A central composite rotatable design (CCRD) with two variables
was used to study the response pattern and to determine the optimum
combination of the variables. To find a functional relationship of the total
colour difference and compressive strength, as a function of batter
moisture and hole diameter, a mathematical function Y = f (batter
moisture, hole diameter), was assumed. To approximate the function f, a
second-degree polynomial equation was used:
Y = bo + b1 x1 + b2 x 2 + b3 x 21 + b4 x1 x 2 + b5 x 21 + e
where bo is the intercept, b1, b2 to b5 are constants, co-efficient 'e' is the
response error and X's are coded independent variables. The actual value
and the corresponding coded value of independent variables used in
developing the experimental design are given in Table 4.1. The total
colour difference and the compressive strength were the two responses
measured. Optimization was carried out individually for the responses.
Analysis of variance, (ANOVA), a partial F test for the individual
parameters and analysis of residuals for total colour difference and
compressive strength were carried out.
149
predetermined consistency
Sensory Analysis
Sensory characteristics of the fried prepared on the forming/frying
machine were tested by 10 trained panelists from department of Sensory
Science using quantitative descriptive analysis.
150
R 2 0.55
(1)
151
b = A R2
4 (T1 T2 )
(2)
cylinder, m; T1, The out side surface temperature of the copper cylinder,
O
C;
C; ,
Experimental Procedure
To evaluate the approximate vales of the thermal diffusivity and the
specific heat of the Chickpea batter, the mass fractions of the composition
of the Chickpea batter such as, carbohydrate, protein, fat, ash and the
moisture of the ingredients were noted from the literature. The main
ingredients of the Chickpea batter is Bengalgram or Chickpea. The
following are the composition of the Chickpea is given in Table 4.3.
The empirical predictive equations developed by Dickerson
(1969) and Sweat (1986) for the evaluation of the specific heat and
thermal conductivity respectively were used for the estimation. The
following are the predictive equations:
(3)
152
(4)
153
of 0.15 ~ 0.20 C. The specific heat of the Chickpea batter was found to
be 2.87 kJ / kg OC, (Table 4.4) and the predictive and the experimental
values are shown in Table 4.5.
The average density of the Chickpea batter was found to be
1156.25 kg / m3. The thermal conductivity of the Chickpea batter was
estimated by substituting the values of the thermal diffusivity (b), specific
heat (Cpb) and the density (b) of Chickpea batter in the equation; b =
kb/b Cpb. The average value of the thermal conductivity of the Chickpea
batter is 0.45 W/m OC, (Table 4.4) and Table 4.5 shows the predictive and
the experimental values of the thermal conductivity.
154
155
be moved from place to place by a set of rigid and swivel castors and the
trough is covered on top by a cover. The cover for the trough is perforated
to allow vapor to escape during the process of continuous deep fat frying
and the sides of the circular LPG burner is covered on all the sides by a
set of covers to avoid radiation of heat energy. A circular burner heats the
edible oil kept in the trough assembly and the temperature of the oil is
controlled by a digital temperature controller through a sensing probe
immersed in the oil bath inside the rotating trough. An improved discharge
mechanism as shown in Fig. 4.7 is provided for discharging of the deep
fat fried product from the trough assembly.
4. Energy Balance
The Chickpea batter has moisture content of 57% and the final
moisture in the fried product is around 3%. The heat source/burner for the
boondi frying machine is designed to supply heat during frying. The total
heat load on the frying machine involves the initial heat required to bring
the temperature of the oil to around 190 C, the heat absorbed by the
metal trough and the total heat requirement for frying of the product. The
heat absorbed by the globules has two components, namely, the sensible
heat of water, the latent heat of evaporation of water. It was estimated
that the sensible heat of water is around 5423 kJ, the latent heat of water
to be 41,867 kJ. The total heat requirement of the frying machine is
around 55,750 kJ for frying of 34 kgs of Chickpea batter. The frying time
of the boondi is moisture dependent and the batter having moisture
content of 57% will take around 90 s for frying. From the large-scale trials
156
of the machine, the actual consumption of the fuel (LPG) was found to be
2.20 kg of LPG/h (1, 06,957 kJ) and the thermal efficiency of was found to
be about 49.93% (Table 4.6).
Commercially available LPG blend of butane and propane in the
ratio of 60:40. From the theoretical calculation the requirement of the
liquid petroleum gas for supplying the required heat to the hot trough is
estimated to be around 560 g, considering the calorific value of the LPG
as 48,651.92 kJ.
157
forming sieve is hinged on to the main frame. The main frame slides
inside a bush for varying the height of fall of the formed batter and a timer
is used for varying the ON/OFF time of magnetization of the solenoid
which gives impact to the forming sieve against a stationer rod which is
welded to the main frame. The frequency of impact can be controlled by
varying the time period of the timer, a batter container with a control valve
is placed above the forming sieve. The batter container is mounted on the
main frame through a hole in the main frame, a toggle switch and the
timer are housed inside a panel board. The panel board is fastened to the
main frame. All the parts of the device are made of stainless steel.
158
moved from place to place by a set of rigid and swivel castors. The trough
is covered on top and the cover is perforated to allow vapor to escape
during the process of continuous deep fat frying. The sides of the circular
LPG burner is covered on all the sides by a set of covers to avoid
radiation of heat energy. A burner heats the edible oil kept in the trough
assembly and the temperature of the oil is controlled by a thermostat
through a sensing probe immersed in the oil bath inside the rotating
trough. The solenoid valve controls the supply of the LPG to the circular
burner to regulate the oil temperature and the ignition of the circular
burner is done by a pilot lamp mounted on the circular burner and is lit at
the time of starting of the circular deep fat fryer. A discharge mechanism
as shown in Fig. 4.5 is provided for discharging of the deep fat fried
product from the trough which comprises of a conveyor chain driven by a
set of rollers driven by a servo motor mounted on a set of side supports
and the deep fat fried products are guided on to the conveyor chain by a
diverter attached to the discharge mechanism. The movement of the oil
backwards is arrested by a dam placed inside the trough assembly and
discharge mechanism is mounted on the main frame using suitable
fasteners and all the electrical parts of the continuous deep fat fryer is
housed inside the control panel and is mounted on the main frame.
159
160
motor mounted on a set of side supports and the deep fat fried products
are guided on to the conveyor chain by a diverter attached to the
discharge mechanism. The movement of the oil backwards is arrested by
a dam placed inside the trough assembly and discharge mechanism is
mounted on the main frame using suitable fasteners and all the electrical
parts of the continuous deep fat fryer is housed inside the control panel
and is mounted on the main frame.
161
4.10. The lack of fit, which measures the failure of the model to represent
the data in the experimental domain at points that are not included in the
regression, was insignificant at p < 0.01.
3. Compressive Strength
The force required to compress 50% of the globule was taken as
the compressive strength. The compressive strength is an indicator of the
162
163
to
understand
heat
transfer
that
takes
place
during
164
165
r = ho (T5 T3 )
(5)
C: r radius of the
globule,
r (T5 T3 )
(6)
166
167
speed) and to control the temperature of the hot groundnut oil for different
diameters of the globule respectively.
Thermal efficiency of the submerged frying machine is found to be
about 49.93%.
The complete design of the forming and frying machine and the
standardization of the Chickpea batter involved iterative development of
the machine and the Chickpea batter. Many times the machine was
modified to suit the machine and on few occations the batter was modified
to suit the deep fat frying machine. This iterative process continued till the
repetitive results for largescale preparation of fried was obtained.
The photograph of the improved machine is presented as
photograph-3. A simple heat balance for estimation of fryer capacity is
given in Annexure 2.
168
Table 4.1: Coded and Uncoded Process Variables and their Levels
Studied for
Variables
Moisture in
batter,
g/g
Die Diameter,
mm
+2
+1
-1
-2
0.524
0.535
0.545
0.556
0.565
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
Time
Wall
Temperature
Center
Temperature
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
50
22
56
58
58
59
59
59
59
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
20
21
24
30
36
41
45
48
50
52
54
55
55
56
57
57
57
58
58
58
58
58
58
58
58
58
Sl
Composition
No.
Chickpea
%
Carbohydrate
59.80
Protein N * 6.25
20.80
Fat
5.60
Ash
0.40
Moisture
9.90
Trial Calorimeter
No
wall temp.
C
Batter
temp.
C
Mass
of
batter
* 10-3
kg
Mass
of
water
in bath
kg
Drop
in bath
temp.
C
Duration
of
heating
Min
Rise in Thermal
temp. diffusivity
of
* 10 7
m2 / s
batter
C
(b)
(T1-T2)
38
1.3075
Specific
heat of
batter
kJ / kg
C
(Cpb)
2.8781
Thermal
conductivity
of batter
W/ m C
(T1)
60
(T2)
58
185
31.850
0.15
50
60
58
180
31.650
0.15
50
38
1.3075
2.9168
0.4410
65
63
180
32.160
0.20
50
42
1.4452
2.7591
0.4610
65
63
185
32.250
0.20
50
41
1.4140
2.9430
0.4812
(kb)
0.4351
Sl
No
1
Thermal property
Thermal Diffusivity of batter * 10 7, m2 / s, (b)
By experimentation
(Average)
1.3075
Prediction by
composition
1.3235
(Cpb)
2.8975
2.7942
(kb)
0.4381
0.4276
(b),
1156.25
S.No.
Description
Contribution
Percentage
658133.73
100.00
122420.77
18.60
535712.96
81.40
106957.40
(QTb/Q1)*100
49.93 %
Basis: Heat transferred to 34 Kgs of Chickpea batter per hour, having 57% of added water
Sl No
Moisture in batter
g/g
0.534
mm
3
5/5
5/6
4/5
0.545
5/5
5/4
5/6
0.534
6/6
6/5
7/6
0.545
7/8
7/7
8/6
5
6
0.534
6/6
6/8
7/8
0.545
7/6
7/8
8/8
Sphericity of ,
mm*
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Response variables
Coded
Coded
Uncoded
Uncoded
X2
Moisture in
batter
g/g
Diameter
X1
-1
-1
1
1
0
0
-2
2
0
0
0
0
0
-1
1
-1
1
-2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.534
0.534
0.555
0.56
0.545
0.545
0.523
0.565
0.545
0.545
0.545
0.545
0.545
3.5
4.5
3.5
4.5
3.0
5.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
Colour
Compression, N
Experimental
Predicted
Experimental
Predicted
48.96
46.85
50.26
49.18
49.70
47.78
49.25
51.07
49.45
49.88
50.14
50.25
49.67
49.79
47.84
50.39
49.87
49.57
47.10
40.44
51.07
49.90
49.90
49.90
49.90
49.90
8.13
10.98
11.76
9.15
8.05
7.84
9.74
11.56
9.20
8.58
7.80
9.20
8.65
7.50
10.20
11.14
8.38
8.32
8.26
10.09
11.91
8.97
8.97
8.97
8.97
8.97
mm
Table 4.9: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for Fitted Second Order Polynomial Model and Lack of
fit for Total Colour Difference and Compressive Strength as per CCRD
DOF
SS
MS
11.33
2.26
Residual
3.24
0.46
Pure error
0.67
0.16
Lack of fit
2.57
0.85
Total
12
14.58
Compressive Strength, N
Regression
5
18.27
3.65
Residual
4.19
0.59
Pure error
1.66
0.41
Lack of fit
2.53
0.84
Total
12
22.46
Significance
of
F
4.88
0.03
2.11
6.10
0.01
2.03
Table 4.10: Experimental and Predicted Values of Compression at Optimized Frying Conditions.
Sl
Moisture
Forming
Sphericity
No
in batter
unit die
of
Colour
Compression
diameter
g/g
mm
mm*
N
Experimental
Predicted
Experimental
Predicted
0.524
3.0
5/5
6/5
6/5
5.2
3.8
49.95
49.76
0.524
3.5
7/6
7/5
8/6
9.3
7.1
49.90
49.52
0.545
3.0
5/4
5/4
5/5
8.7
8.3
49.91
49.61
0.545
3.5
8/7
8/7
7/6
9.6
8.8
50.06
49.92
R square = 0.88
R square = 0.91
Table 4.11: Estimated Co-efficient for Fitted Polynomial Representing Relationship Between
Response and Process Variables
Co-efficient
Compressive
strength
Total colour
difference
b0
N
102.23
18.26
b1
-0.82
-2.60
b2
-3.95
70.85
b3
0.00
0.02
b4
0.10
-0.54
b5
-1.19
-0.67
Table 4.12: Average Convective Heat Transfer Co-efficient (ho) as a Function of Hot Oil
Temperature of Globules
Boondi
Globule
radius
* 10-3 m
Surface
temperature
of
Boondi
o
C
Core temperature
of Boondi
C
W/m2. oC
(T5)
(r)
(T3)
(T4)
(ho)
180
3.00
130
87
251.18
180
3.00
130
92
221.97
180
3.00
132
90
245.34
Average
Trial
Oil
No. temperatur
e
o
C
Convective Heat
transfer co-efficient
Solenoid valve
Batter container
Timer
Batter control valve
Hinge
Rotating Trough
Forming sieve
Switch
Vertical connecting rod
Stationery rod
Main frame
Main frame hinge
Stirrer
Water Bath
Temperature controller
060.12
Heating Element
70
60
50
40
Series1
Series2
30
20
10
25
23
21
19
17
15
13
11
183
Perforated Hood/cover
Discgarge Mechanism
Circular Oil Trough
LPG BUrner
Heat Shield
Panel Board
Main Frame
Ground Level
Castor Wheel
Rollers
Side supports
Conveyor Chain
Direction of Conveyor
Product
Trough View
Electric Motor
Reduction Gear Box
Panel Board
Main Frame
Ground Level
Castor Wheel
Geared Motor
Conveyor Flaps
Direction of Conveyor
Direction of Conveyor
Direction of Conveyor
Boondi Gloubles
Rollers
Chute
54
53
Total color change
52
51
0.57
0.56
0.56
0.55 Moisture
0.55 content (g/g)
0.54
0.53
0.53
0.52
50
49
48
47
46
45
3
3.5
4
4.5
Diameter, mm
188
Compression, N
17
15
13
0.57
11
0.56
9
0.55
7
0.53
5
3
0.52
3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50
Moisture
content (g/g)
5.00
Diameter, mm
Fig. 4.9: 3D graph showing the influence of die plate diameter on moisture
content in batter and Texture (crispness) of
189
Fig. 4.10 Contour plots showing the influence of die hole diameter and total
colour change on processing parameters of (------ Die
diameter,
Moisture in batter)
190
Photograph 3
Boondi machine
192
193
References
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physical
properties
from
transient
time-temperature
CRC-Critical-Reviews-in-Food-Science-and-Nutrition.
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Rao.
SN,
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202
Annexure 1
Discharging Mechanism of Dosa:
There are three operations involved in the discharging of the Dosa,
namely, the scraping, rolling and discharging (radial motion) into the
collection chute.
Baked Dosa is scraped, rolled and discharged automatically by a
stationery scraper (either straight edge or curvilinear) fixed on to the rotating
hot plate. Continuous scraping (rolling) and discharging (radial movement
away from hot plate) are to be synchronized such that the product doesnt
role one inside the other.
The resultant force of centrifugal force and gravitational force on the baked
Dosa plays an important role in
away from hot plate). Hot plate is rotates at a speed of 0.5 RPM and the
corresponding centrifugal force C f on Dosa during scraping and rolling is
given by
C f = (W
g) 2 R
(1)
It may be noted that, since the centrifugal force C f is much smaller than
weight of the Dosa W , it couldnt be discharged away from the hot plate.
203
The scraper is inclined to the radius of the hot plate at certain angle (to the
axis of the plate)
Considering the motion of the hot plate, radial force generated by the circular
motion of the hot plate is given by
{ (
F = W V2
V1
(r2 r1 ) }Cos
(2)
where F , is the force; W , weight of Dosa, V1 and V2 , are the linier velocities
of the hot plate at radius r1 and r2 respectively; and Cos component of the
force acting away from the hot plate due to the inclination of the scraper.
The following condition is essential for the radial discharge of the
Dosa, namely,
F + Cf W
(3)
204
Example
Considering typical values of considering typical values of W = 75 g; V1 , V2 =
1.05 and 1.02 m/min respectively; r1 , r2 = 0.333 and 0.325m respectively,
= 15, N = 0.5 RPM , R = 0.6 m and substituting in equations (1) and (2)
We get
F + Cf W
562.32 g 75 g
From the above it can be seen that the radial force is much higher than the
weight of the Dosa. It can be concluded that the circular motion of the hot
plate generate a radial force of 562 g to move the food material away from
the hot plate center.
205
Annexure 2
Heat balance for estimation of capacity of fryer
Fryer manufacturers determine the capacity of the fryer by the
experience of the equipment user. In deep fat frying, oil to product ratio is
very important and would differ from product to product based on the initial
moisture content.
The predictive model is based on the heat load on the fryer with out
considering the heat loss in the fryer.
We have total heat contained in the fryer by the frying medium is given by
Q = mo . C p . T
(1)
where, Q is the total heat contained in the frying medium; mo . , mass of the
frying oil; C p specific heat of oil; T , temperature gradient of the oil.
Taking the typical values of specific heat of groundnut oil and temperature
raise from room temperature to the frying temperature,
We have
Q = 368.28 mo
(2)
The heat is transferred from the heat source such as LPG burner to the wall
of the fryer and in turn the heat transferred to the oil. During deep frying, the
heat contained in the oil is transferred to the product by convection. The heat
transferred to the product has three components, namely, the sensible heat
206
of water, sensible heat of solid and latent heat of evaporation of water and
can be written as
Q = m. C p . t (water ) + m. C p . t ( solids ) + m. ( Latent heat )
(3)
(4)
Example
Considering typical values of a fryer,
We have m0 = 60 kg, C p = 3.275 (Chickpea flour),
m p = {(60.00
= 20.71 kg.
It can be noted that the 60 kg of oil is essential for frying of 20.71 kg of
Chickpea globules.
207