Optical Networks:

from fiber transmission

to photonic switching

Broadcast-and-Select Networks
Fabio Neri and Marco Mellia
TLC Networks Group Electronics Department
e-mail: lastname@polito.it
http://www.tlc-networks.polito.it/
fabio.neri@polito.it tel. 011 564 4076
marco.mellia@polito.it tel. 011 564 4173
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 1

Broadcast-and-select networks
No routing, but full connectivity: information from a
source is broadcasted to all receivers; receivers select
the information directed to them, and discard the rest
Similar to traditional LAN operation
All nodes have visibility on all network traffic, but do
not need to process (switch) all of it
The aim is to limit the bandwidth processed by
network nodes, finding the proper balance between
photonic and electronic technology
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 4

Broadcast-and-select networks
Typical topologies: star, bus and ring
1
8

2
star
coupler

4
5

It is possible to have star of stars, ring of rings, etc.

Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 5

Passive couplers
Passive component, to couple or split signals in different
fibers
input 1
output 1
input 2

output 2

O1 = I1 + (1-) I2
O2 = (1-) I1 + I2
Can be fiber based, or realized in waveguides
Can be wavelength selective
When = , the input power on one fiber is (as a first
approximation) halved on each output fiber (3 dB coupler)
When 1 (0.9 - 0.95), we have a tap
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 6

Broadcast-and-select networks
Using a passive star coupler it is possible to build the
broadcast star topology
overall n/2 log2n 22 (3 dB) couplers
log2 n 22 devices crossed on all paths: same power loss
for every node pair
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

3-dB coupler

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 7

Broadcast-and-select networks
A bus topology requires 2n 22 couplers
Losses along the path are typically larger
(linear with n)
Losses are different for each node pair
3-dB coupler

Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 8

Broadcast-and-select networks
Each node is usually attached to two fibers: one
to transmit, one to receive
W WDM channels are available
Tx and Rx operate on a single WDM channel at
a time (to reduce electronic bandwidth)
It is possible to observe collisions and contention
Collision: two or more transmitters transmit on the
same channel at the same time
Contention: a single receiver must tune to two or
more channels at the same time

We need a Medium Access Control (MAC)

protocol
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 9

Broadcast-and-select networks
Nodes can be equipped with one or more tx and rx
devices, which may be tunable or fixed
Tunable txs and rxs are more expensive (and tunable rxs
usually cost more than tunable txs)
Connectivity may be limited due to components or
complexity constraints
For example, if node i has a fixed tx on i and a fixed rx
on |i-1|N, a ring logical topology results
Traffic will be then routed using multi-hop paths, going
through a number of intermediate nodes, where OEO
conversion is performed
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 10

Broadcast-and-select networks
With limited connectivity, a logical topology is built
over the (broadcast star) physical topology
For example: 2 fixed tx/rx per node allow to build a
shuffle topology
1
1
2
5

2 3

9
5
10 13
6 11

3 4
7 6
4
8

7 14
15
8
16

1
1
2
5

2 3
3 4
12 7 6
4
8

Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 11

Broadcast-and-select networks
Different resource allocation strategies can be adopted
when the traffic pattern is relatively stable (flow duration
much larger than propagation delays), or when a
dynamic, packet by packet, network control is necessary
Often time is slotted, and statistical time multiplexing is
adopted
Tuning time of tx/rx may be a non-negligible and must be
taken into proper account
One (or more) channel can be devoted to signaling
(almost necessary in broadcast stars )
Slot synchronization does not come for free, since the
slot time is small (guard times must be small compared
to the slot duration)
Bit synchronization must be faced as always
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 12

Slot
synchronization

Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 13

Synchronization problems
Varying propagation delays must be equalized (ranging)
Slot phase (when the slot starts) and frequency (how long does
it last) information must be distributed; chromatic dispersion
and tuning latencies must be taken in proper account using
guard times at slot boundaries
The bit frequency (not the bit phase) can be broadcasted (to
simplify the receiver design), or acquired at each receiver
The bit phase must be acquired at receivers
Burst mode receivers are necessary: each rx can receive from
a different source in different time slots (we no longer have
point-to-point channels); therefore bit synchronization and
decision threshold must be acquired for each new reception

Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 14

Slotted Aloha / Slotted Aloha

Broadcast-and-select star network; N nodes;
W<N WDM channels, plus a channel on c
dedicated to signaling
Time is divided into minislots (signaling) and
slots (data), with L minislots per data slot
data

L=5

data

Data frames can start at any minislot

Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 15

Slotted Aloha / Slotted Aloha

When node x has to transmit a packet:
It selects according to some criteria (e.g. at random) a transmission
channel T
It transmits a control frame (containing destination node and chosen
data channel) using c
The data frame is transmitted on T in the next minislot

Every node
Keeps listening to the control channel
When a transmission to its address is detected, it tunes the rx on
channel T

There can be collisions (on c and on T) and contention (on

T)
This is called tell-and-go approach (data is assumed to be
received after large propagation delays)
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 16

Slotted Aloha / Slotted Aloha

Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 17

Slotted Aloha / Slotted Aloha

Two tx/rx pairs per node are necessary:
One fixed pair locked to the control channel
One tunable pair for data channels

To avoid useless transmissions on the data channels after

collisions on control and data channels, it is possible to use a
wait-and-see approach: do not transmit data until the control
frame is received back (after a propagation delay); we get:
higher throughput
higher access delays

To reduce hardware costs, it is possible to use only one

tunable tx/rx pair (with TDM implementation of the control
channel)
Variable-size packets can be accommodated by specifying the
packet length (in minislots) in control packets
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 18

DT-WDMA
Broadcast-and-select star network; N nodes;
W=N channels plus a control channel on c
Time is divided into minislots (signaling) and
slots (data), with N minislots per data slot
data

data

control

Nodes are equipped with a fixed transmitter

and a tunable receiver for data, plus a fixed
tx/rx pair on c
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 19

N=6

DT-WDMA
Due to transmitter-dedicated channels, no
collision is possible on data channels
No collision on the control channel, due to TDMA
access
There could be contention on the data channel;
we assume that all nodes use the same algorithm
to solve these contentions, so that no explicit ack
is necessary
The destination id is the only information carried
by the control frame (source and data channel are
known due to the TDMA control access)
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 20

Scheduling protocols
It is possible to increase performance keeping the same DTWDMA scheme, but delaying transmission of data frames
If data frame allocation is decided by all nodes with the
same rules after having received all reservations,
contentions can be avoided
data
slot X

control
end-to-end delay
reservations
for slot X

Access to the control channel can become random (instead of

deterministic TDM) to improve scalability
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 21

Performance of scheduling

Larger delays at low loads

Larger maximum throughput
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 22

Scheduling protocols
The previous schemes are distributed: no central control
node, no delay in collecting reservations
They can be viewed as extensions of traditional and
successful LAN MAC protocols to a multi-channel setup
If access delays are increased, and network resources
are allocated to signaling, it is possible to collect all
requests in a central node (or in all network nodes), and
compute a schedule for transmissions in the next slot,
or next set of slots (frame)
In case of a centralized scheduler, the outcome of the
scheduling algorithm must be returned to network nodes
The scheduling (or resource allocation) algorithm can
operate on the knowledge of the traffic request matrix
R[i,j]
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 23

Switches and B&S networks

Broadcast-and-select networks are
equivalent to packet switches
Nodes in the network correspond to input/output
ports (linecards) of the switch
The central star corresponds to the switching
fabric

The same equivalence holds between MAC

algorithms and scheduling algorithms in
switches
similarities for input buffering, output buffering,
and speed-up can be easily recognized
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 24

Output buffer switch

switching fabric
a1

aN

input 1

output 1

.
.
.

.
.
.

input P

output P

x1

xP

Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 25

Output buffering
In the packet switch: the switching fabric
and the output card buffers must operate
at the aggregate speed
Limited scalability

In the B&S network: output buffering is

equivalent to have W=N channels, and N
receivers in each node
In both systems, it is possible to show that
this complexity is not needed
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 26

Input buffer switch

a1

input 1

x1

switching fabric
output 1

.
.
.

aN

input P

.
.
.
xP

output P

D
scheduler

Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 27

Input buffering
Considering W=N WDM channels, the B&S
network behaves as a rearrangeably nonblocking crossbar (if W<N, it becomes a blocking
architecture)
Using a single TX/RX pair (tunable/fixed or
fixed/tunable) it is possible to mimic the behavior
of an input buffer switch
If more than one TX/RX is used, then a
speedup is possible
More than one data frame per slot from each s,d pair

Per-destination queuing is needed to avoid HoL

blocking

Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 28

Input buffer switch with VOQ

input 1

a1

a1,1

output 1

x1,1
x1,P

a1,P

input P

aP

switching architecture

.
.
.

.
.
.
1

aP,1
xP,1
xP,P

aP,P

output P

scheduler
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 29

Matching problem
input

output

input

output

Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 30

Scheduling problem
Matching algorithms on bipartite graphs
are used

requests

maximum
matching

maximal
matching

Maximum matching has a complexity O(N2.5)

Requests can be weighted (priority, queue
length, age, ) leading to weighted matching
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 31

Scheduling
By increasing the access delay, it is possible to solve a
time/frequency scheduling problem considering several
slots in a time frame
Input is the traffic request matrix (which can be static in case of
persistent requests, or dynamic)
Constraints: no more than one transmission per TX and no more
than one transmission per RX in each time slot; tuning latencies
may have to be taken into account
Utility: find the minimum number of slots (minimum frame size) to
satisfy all requests, or minimize losses for a fixed frame

Off-line or on-line traffic scenarios; single hop or multihop

strategies

Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 32

Scheduling example (I)

A traffic rate matrix (node to node rates are normalized
to channel capacity) is given (N=4 nodes):
0.0 0.7 0.1 0.1
0.1 0.0 0.5 0.2
0.5 0.1 0.0 0.4
0.4 0.2 0.4 0.0
Each row sum is the total tx rate of one node: must be
less than or equal to the number of transmitters
available at that node (we assume one)
Each column sum is the total rx rate of one node: must
be less than or equal to the number of receivers
available at that node (we assume one)
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 33

Scheduling example (II)

A frame size F must be decided; longer frames give
finer granularity but more complexity; we take F=10
Rates must be translated in slots per frame; in our
case:
0 7 1 1
1 0 5 2
5 1 0 4
4 2 4 0
A time-wavelength plan must be built, subject to
constraints (no more than one packet can be
received and transmitted by a node in a slot)
We assume that i delivers information to receiver i
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 34

Scheduling example (III)

Largest demands are served first (scanning the traffic matrix
by rows)
The 4 slots from 4 to 3 cannot be accommodated (the red
slots cannot be used due to constraints); we move forward
in time four transmissions from 2 to 3
1
2
3

3
1
2

3
1
2

3
1
2

3
1
2

3
1
2

4
1

4
1

4
1

10

Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 35

Scheduling example (IV)

The 2 slots from 4 to 2 cannot be accommodated
(the red slots cannot be used due to constraints);
we move forward in time two transmissions from 1
to 2

1
2
3
4

3
1
4
2
1

3
1
4
2
2

3
1
4
3

3
1
4
4

3
1
2
5

4
1
2
3

4
1
2
3
6

2
3

2
3

10

Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 36

Scheduling example (V)

The slots from 3 to 2 cannot be accommodated; we
swap in time the last two transmissions to 1, 2 and
3

1
2
3
4

3
1
4
2
1

3
1
4
2
2

3
1
4
3

3
1
4
4

3
4
2
1
5

4
1
2
3

4
1
2
3
6

4
1
2
3
7

4
2
3
9

2
4
1
10

Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 37

Scheduling example (VI)

The final scheduling (just one of the several
possible) is a sequence of switching configurations
or of input/output permutations

1
2
3
4

3
1
4
2
1

3
1
4
2
2

3
1
4
3

3
1
4
4

3
4
2
1
5

4
1
2
3

4
1
2
3
6

4
1
2
3
7

2
4
1
3

4
3
2

3
1
4
2

3
1
4
2

10

3
1
4
3

3
1
4
4

Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 38

Broadcast-and-select testbeds
Several B&S testbeds were described since the early 90s:
Lambdanet [Bellcore 1990]: 18 1.5 Gb/s with 2 nm channel spacing
Testbed NTT [NTT 1993]: 100 622 Mb/s with 10 GHz channels
spacing
Rainbow I [IBM 1990]: 32 300 Mb/s with 1 nm channel spacing
Rainbow II [IBM 1996]: 32 1 Gb/s with 1 nm channel spacing
SONATA [E.C. ACTS 1999]: 800 622 Mb/s with 6.25 GHz (0.05 nm)
channel spacing

Today the interest in B&S networks for metro networks has

decreased
Passive Optical Networks (PONs) take a similar approach for
high-speed access and traffic concentration
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 39

Considering ring topologies

With an approach similar to B&S star networks,
consider a ring topology for applications in
metropolitan area networks
Rings help to distribute synchronization
information, permit spatial reuse of resources,
ease the design of distributed access schemes,
ease fault recovery, but introduces larger losses
Usually N users, WN WDM channels, tunable
transmitters and fixed receivers
Examples: CORD, Daisy+SR3, Hornet, Wonder
Recently interconnected WDM rings have been
proposed (e.g. IST DAVID project)
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 40

Arrayed Waveguide Grating (AWG)

Generalization of Mach-Zehnder interferometers
Wavelength-routing capabilities
11, 21, 31, 41
12, 22, 32, 42
13, 23, 33, 43
14, 24, 34, 44

AWG

11, 22, 33, 44

14, 21, 32, 43
13, 24, 31, 42
12, 23, 34, 41

Largely used
as WDM
mux/demux
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 41

AWG-based networks
AWGs have very interesting features to
implement single-hop interconnections using
tunable TXs and (tunable) RXs
TT1

RX1

TT2

RX2
AWG

TTN

RXN

No broadcasting
Max total
bandwidth = N
RXs can be fixed
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 42

TT
TT
TT
TT
TT
TT
TT
TT

TT
TT
TT
TT

AWG-based network with couplers

RX
RX
RX
RX

RX
RX
RX
RX

AWG
couplers

couplers

RX
RX
RX
RX

Max total bandwidth = N2

Packet scheduling needed
Tunable RXs (and TXs) neededBroadcast&Select WDM networks - 43

AWG-based networks with couplers

TT
TT
TT
TX

TT
Tx
TX
TX

TX
TX
TX
TX

RX
RX
RX
RX

RX
RX
RX
RX

RX
RX
RX
RX

The space equivalent is a 3-stage setup, with a full

mesh in the central stage
Boxes are non-blocking switches (e.g. crossbars)
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 44

TT
TT
TT
TT
TT
TT
TT
TT

AWG-based networks

RX
RX
RX
RX

AWG

TT
TT
TT
TT

RX
RX
RX
RX

RX
RX
RX
RX

One channel available between any pair of groups

of terminals
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 45

TT
TT
TT
TT
TT
TT
TT
TT

AWG-based networks

RX
RX
RX
RX

RX
RX
RX
RX

AWG

-converter

WDM mux

One extra channel

available between
any pair of groups
of terminals
Scheduling is
more complex
WDM demux
Broadcast&Select WDM networks - 46