Amateur PDF

Spectroscopic Atlas for Amateur Astronomers
Spectroscopic Atlas
for
Amateur Astronomers
A Spectroscopic Guide
to Astronomical Objects
and Terrestrial Light Sources
Richard Walker
Version 5.0
04/2014
Table of Content
1
Introduction .................................................................................................................. 8
Directory of Tables ................................................................................................... 10
Selection, Processing and Presentation of the Spectra..................................... 14
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
Selection of Spectra ............................................................................................................................. 14

Recording and Resolution of the Spectra ........................................................................................ 14
The Processing of the Spectra ........................................................................................................... 15
Calibration of the Wavelength ........................................................................................................... 15
Normalisation of the Intensity ............................................................................................................ 16
Line Identification ................................................................................................................................. 16
Presentation .......................................................................................................................................... 16
Terms, Definitions and Abbreviations ................................................................... 17
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
Parameters and Identification of the Stars ...................................................................................... 17

Galactic Nebulae and Star Clusters .................................................................................................. 17
Extragalactic Objects ........................................................................................................................... 17
"Early" and "Late" Spectral Types ...................................................................................................... 17
Abbreviations and Units ...................................................................................................................... 17
Identifying of the Elements and Ions ................................................................................................ 18
The Metal Abundance Z (Metallicity) ................................................................................................ 18
The Fraunhofer Lines ............................................................................................... 19
Overview and Characteristics of Stellar Spectral Classes ................................ 20
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
The Temperature Sequence ............................................................................................................... 20

The Luminosity Classes ....................................................................................................................... 23
Suffixes, Prefixes, and Special Classes ............................................................................................ 23
Statistical Distribution of Spectral Types to the Main Sequence Stars ...................................... 24
Appearance of Elements and Molecules in the Spectra .................................... 25
Spectral Class O........................................................................................................ 26
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
Overview ................................................................................................................................................ 26
Parameters of the Early to Late O-Class Stars ................................................................................ 27
Spectral Characteristics of the O-Class............................................................................................ 27
General Remarks to the Classification of O-Stars .......................................................................... 27
Commented Spectra ............................................................................................................................ 28
Wolf Rayet Stars ....................................................................................................... 33
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
Overview ................................................................................................................................................ 33
Spectral Characteristics and Classification ..................................................................................... 33
Classification System for WR Stars in the Optical Spectral Range ............................................. 34
The WR-Phase in the Stellar Evolution ............................................................................................. 35
Analogies and Differences to the Planetary Nebulae .................................................................... 35
Commented Spectra of the WR Classes WN, WC and WO .......................................................... 35
10
Spectral Class B ........................................................................................................ 41
10.1
Overview ................................................................................................................................................ 41
10.2
10.3
10.4
Parameters of the Early to Late B-Class Stars................................................................................. 41

Spectral Characteristics of the B-Class ............................................................................................ 41
11
LBV Stars .................................................................................................................... 48
11.1
11.2
11.3
Overview ................................................................................................................................................ 48
Spectral Characteristics ...................................................................................................................... 48
12
Be Stars ...................................................................................................................... 52
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
Overview ................................................................................................................................................ 52
Spectral Characteristics of Be-Stars ................................................................................................. 52
Textbook Example Scorpii................................................................................................................ 52
Classification System for Be Stars .................................................................................................... 53
13
Be Shell Stars ............................................................................................................ 56
13.1
13.2
13.3
Overview ................................................................................................................................................ 56
Spectral Characteristics of Be Shell Stars ....................................................................................... 56
14
PMS Protostars ......................................................................................................... 59
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
Overview ................................................................................................................................................ 59
Herbig Ae/Be and T Tauri Stars ......................................................................................................... 59
Spectral Characteristics of PMS Stars .............................................................................................. 59
The FU Orionis Phenomenon .............................................................................................................. 60
15
Spectral Class A ........................................................................................................ 65
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
Overview ................................................................................................................................................ 65
Parameters of the Early to Late A-Class Stars................................................................................. 65
Spectral Characteristics of the A-Class ............................................................................................ 65
16
Spectral Class F ........................................................................................................ 72
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
Overview ................................................................................................................................................ 72
Parameters of the Early to Late F-Class Stars ................................................................................. 72
Spectral Characteristics of the F-Class ............................................................................................ 72
17
Spectral Class G........................................................................................................ 77
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
Overview ................................................................................................................................................ 77
Parameters of the Early to Late G-Class Stars ................................................................................ 77
Spectral Characteristics of the G-Class ............................................................................................ 77
18
Spectral Class K ........................................................................................................ 82
18.1
18.2
18.3
Overview ................................................................................................................................................ 82
Parameters of the Early to Late K-Class Stars ................................................................................. 82
Spectral Characteristics of the K-Class ............................................................................................ 82
18.4
19
Spectral Class M ....................................................................................................... 90
19.1
19.2
19.3
19.4
Overview ................................................................................................................................................ 90
Parameters of the Early to Late M-Class Stars................................................................................ 90
Spectral Characteristics of the M-Class ........................................................................................... 90
20
Spectral Sequence on the AGB .............................................................................. 93
20.1
20.2
Evolution of the Stars on the Asymptotic Giant Branch (AGB) ..................................................... 93

The Spectral Sequence of the Mira Variables on the AGB ............................................................ 94
21
M(e) Stars on the AGB ............................................................................................. 95
21.1
21.2
21.3
Overview ................................................................................................................................................ 95
Spectral Characteristics of the M(e) Stars on the AGB.................................................................. 95
22
Spectral Class S on the AGB ................................................................................... 97
22.1
22.2
22.3
22.4
22.5
Overview and Spectral Characteristics ............................................................................................ 97

The Boeshaar Keenan SClassification System .......................................................................... 97
Intrinsic and Extrinsic (Symbiotic) S-Stars ............................................................................. 98
Hints for the Observation of SClass Stars ..................................................................................... 98
23
Carbon Stars on the AGB ......................................................................................103
23.1
23.2
23.3
23.4
23.5
23.6
23.7
Overview and Spectral Characteristics ..........................................................................................103

Competing Classification Systems ..................................................................................................103
The Morgan Keenan (MK) C System ............................................................................................103
The Revised MK System 1993 .....................................................................................................104
Function of the Subclasses in the Evolution of Carbon Stars .....................................................105
Merrill Sanford Bands (MS) ..............................................................................................................105
Commented Spectra ..........................................................................................................................106
24
Post AGB Stars and White Dwarfs ......................................................................110
24.1
24.2
24.3
24.4
24.5
24.6
24.7
Position of Post AGB Stars in the Stellar Evolution ......................................................................110

Post AGB Stars....................................................................................................................................110
Spectral Features at Post AGB Stars...............................................................................................110
White Dwarfs ......................................................................................................................................110
Spectral Characteristics and Special Features of White Dwarfs ...............................................110
Classification System by McCook & Sion .......................................................................................111
25
Supernovae ..............................................................................................................114
25.1
25.2
25.3
25.4
25.5
25.6
25.7
Phenomenon of Supernova Explosion SN ......................................................................................114

Labelling of Supernovae ....................................................................................................................114
Classification of SN Types ................................................................................................................114
Explosion Scenario "Core Collapse" ................................................................................................115
Explosion Scenario "Thermonuclear Carbon Fusion" ...................................................................115
SN Type Ia Standard Candle .........................................................................................................115
Spectral Determination-Diagram for the SN Type ........................................................................115
25.8
SN Type Ia Features in the Optical Spectral Range ..................................................................116
26
Extragalactic Objects .............................................................................................119
26.1
26.2
26.3
26.4
26.5
26.6
26.7
26.8
26.9
26.10
26.11
26.12
Introduction .........................................................................................................................................119
Morphological Classification ............................................................................................................119
Spectroscopic Classification ............................................................................................................120
Rough Scheme for Spectroscopic Classification ..........................................................................121
Absorption Line Galaxies ..................................................................................................................122
LINER Galaxies ....................................................................................................................................122
Starburst Galaxies ..............................................................................................................................123
The phenomenon of AGN (Active Galactic Nuclei) .......................................................................124
Seyfert Galaxies..................................................................................................................................124
Quasars ................................................................................................................................................126
Blazars and BL Lacertae Objects (BL LAC's) ..................................................................................129
List of Quasars Brighter than Magnitude 15m (DVAA) .................................................................130
27
Star Clusters ............................................................................................................138
27.1
27.2
27.3
27.4
27.5
27.6
27.7
27.8
27.9
Short Introduction and Overview .....................................................................................................138

Open Clusters......................................................................................................................................138
Globular Clusters ................................................................................................................................138
Spectroscopic Analysis of Star Clusters .........................................................................................138
Spectroscopic Age-Estimation of Star Clusters by Amateurs .....................................................139
The Pleiades - Analysis by Individual Spectra ...............................................................................140
Age estimation of M45......................................................................................................................141
Globular Clusters Analysis by Integrated Spectra.....................................................................141
Age Estimation of M3, M5 and M13...............................................................................................142
28
Emission Nebulae ...................................................................................................146
28.1
28.2
28.3
28.4
28.5
28.6
28.7
28.8
Short Introduction and Overview .....................................................................................................146

H ll Regions..........................................................................................................................................146
Planetary Nebulae PN The Most Significant Subgroup of Emission Nebulae ......................146
Protoplanetary Nebulae.....................................................................................................................146
Supernova Remnants SNR ................................................................................................................147
Wolf Rayet Nebulae WR ....................................................................................................................147
Common Spectral Characteristics of Emission Nebulae .............................................................147
Emission Line Diagnostics and Excitation Classes ...................................................................148
28.9
28.10
28.11
28.12
28.13
Remarks to the Determination of Excitation Classes and Recording of Spectra ....................149

The Excitation Class as an Indicator for Plasma Diagnostics .....................................................150
Emission Lines identified in the Spectra of Nebulae....................................................................150
Distinguishing Characteristics in the Spectra of Emission Nebulae .........................................156
29
Reflectance Spectra of Solar System Bodies ....................................................168
29.1
29.2
Overview ..............................................................................................................................................168
29.3
29.4
29.5
29.6
Reflectance Spectra of Mars and Venus ........................................................................................168

Reflectance spectra of Jupiter and Saturn ....................................................................................168
Reflectance spectra of Uranus, Neptune and Saturn-Moon Titan .............................................168
Comet C/2009 P1 Garradd ..............................................................................................................169
30
Telluric Molecular Absorption ..............................................................................174
31
The Night Sky Spectrum ........................................................................................178
31.1
31.2
31.3
31.4
Introduction .........................................................................................................................................178
Effects on the Spectrum ....................................................................................................................178
Countermeasures ...............................................................................................................................178
Comments to Table 96 ......................................................................................................................178
32
Terrestrial Light Sources .......................................................................................180
32.1
32.2
32.3
Spectra of Gas Discharge and Calibration Lamps ........................................................................180

Spectra of Gas Flames.......................................................................................................................190
Spectra of Terrestrial Lightning Discharges ..................................................................................192
33
Spectral Classes and Values of Important Stars .................................194
34
Required Ionisation Energies for the Individual Elements ..............................197
35
Bright Planetary Nebulae sorted by Excitation Classes ...................................198
36
Terminology of the Spectroscopic Wavelength Domains ...............................199
37
Positions of the Atlas-Stars in the HRD ..............................................................200
38
Assignment of Spectral Classes to the BV Colour Index ...............................201
39
Appendix ..................................................................................................................202
39.1
39.2
39.3
39.4
Constellations .....................................................................................................................................202
Periodic Table of Elements ...............................................................................................................203
Some Excerpts of Historical and up to date Spectral Atlases ....................................................204
Instruments .........................................................................................................................................207
40
Bibliography and Internet......................................................................................208
Change log of the atlas versions

Version 4.0:
Table of content: Inserting of an additional subtitle level
Sect. 2.2: Supplement with the data of the SQUES Echelle spectrograph
Sect. 3.7: Correction of the formula
Sect. 6:
Revised graphic
Sect. 8:
New: Table 6, WR 136 and WR 142, supplements in the text
Sect. 13: New: FU Orionis Phenomenon with Table 19
Sect. 15.3: Revised graphic
Sect. 23: General revision of the section with spectroscopic classification of the
Galaxies. New Tables 73 (M77) and 77, 78 (3C273)
Sect. 24:
New: Table 86, Wolf Rayet Nebula NGC 6888, supplements in the text
Sect. 26:
New: Table 95A, Highly resolved spectra of telluric H2O and O2 absorptions
Sect. 28: Table 106, Correction of the wrongly labelled H line
Sect. 28.3: Table 111, Spectra of terrestrial lightning discharges
Sect. 33:
New: Positions of the Atlas-Stars in the HRD
Version 5.0:
Sect. 1:
Sect. 6.4:
Sect. 8:
Sect. 9.3:
Sect. 12.4:
Sect. 19.1
Update of the Document Title and Introduction

Statistical Distribution of Spectral Types to the Main Sequence Stars
Additional subtitles, some supplements
Classification System for decimal subclasses of WR stars
Classification System for Be Stars
Correction of the illustration with the evolution of the AGB stars and Planetary
Nebulae
Sect. 22.7: New: Table 64B, R Leporis, Hind's Crimson Star, carbon star with H emission
line
Sect. 23:
New Section: Post AGB Stars and White Dwarfs
Sect. 24:
New Section: Supernovae, Table 67: SN 2014 J, renumbering of the Tables
60 68.
From hereafter renumbering of the existing sections
Sect. 26:
New: Sect. 26.5 LINER Galaxies, 26.6 Starburst Galaxies, 26.10 Blazars and
BL Lacertae (BL LAC) objects with according new Tables 71, 72, 79. Renumbering of the Tables 77 79. Additional subtitles. General revision of the
comment to Table 76. 26.12 List of quasars brighter than magnitude 15m
Sect. 27:
New Section: Star Clusters
Sect. 28:
New: Sect. 28.4 and Table 85, Protoplanetary Nebulae, Post AGB Stars, additional subtitles
Sect. 29:
New: Table 92, Reflectance spectra of Uranus, Neptune and Titan. Additional
subtitles
Sect. 32.1: New: Table 107, Relco Glow starter with Ar, Ne, He, H
New: Table 108, Philips Glow Starter with Ne, Xe
Sect: 37
Supplement of the HRD
Sect. 38:
New: Table with Assignment of spectral types to the Johnson BV colour index
Introduction
Probably most amateur astronomers have a common experience at the beginning of their
spectrographic career. Full of expectations they test the new device for the first time and
look with great pride at the first self recorded spectrum. This first enthusiasm then quickly
gives way to the perplexity, how these numerous lines shall now be identified and even
analyzed. Fortunately, some recommendable introductory literature, e.g. [1], to the interpretation of stellar spectra is available for amateurs. However, a real Spectral Atlas, which
systematically covers the classes O, B, A, F, G, K, M, by commenting most of the lines, visible in a medium resolved spectral profile, was still missing. In 2009 the extensive work
"Stellar Spectral Classification" was published by R. Gray and C. Corbally [2]. It is aimed
primarily at students and professional astronomers, but offers the significantly advanced
amateur valuable information, eg for determining the decimal subclasses or the spectral
characteristics of rare types of stars.
The project "Spectroscopic Atlas" launched in 2010, intended to close this publication gap,
which was particularly serious for the German-speaking amateurs. Originally intended was
just the complete documentation of the stellar spectral types, except of the Brown Dwarfs
L, T and Y, which remain exclusively reserved to professional infrared telescopes. Already
on the first edition followed a astonishingly positive and surprisingly broad international
feedback. This motivated me, in addition to the stellar classes, to document even further
object types, which are spectroscopically accessible for amateurs.
In the Internet we find many professional papers, mostly focused on small sections of a
spectral profile. Nevertheless, they often contribute valuable puzzle pieces to the exciting
detective work of line identification. Very well documented is the spectrum of the Sun (G2
V), where almost all of the lines are identified and commented. Here, at least two easily
readable and freely downloadable atlases are available on the net [80], [81]. These sources
can even help, with the necessary precautions, to identify spectral lines of adjacent spectral classes.
Spectral atlases from professional sources, published on the internet, and covering all important spectral classes can rarely be found. Amazingly, even in such professional papers,
usually only a few intense lines, mostly in very lowly resolved spectra, are commented.
However, the focus of many practical applications, even in professional works, is mostly
reduced to relatively few, highly intense and isolated lines, e.g. for determination of the rotation speed or the metal abundance. In such publications the ultraviolet, the blue- and redto far infrared part of the spectra are preferably treated - the sections "green" and "yellow"
however only rarely.
In Appendix 34.3 some excerpts from several historical as well as state of the art spectral
atlases are shown. Probably the best known and highly important one, even for the history
of science, is the out of print standard work "An atlas of stellar spectra, with an outline of
spectral classification" by Morgan, Keenan and Kellman [50]. This seminal work from 1943
can now be downloaded from the Internet but is limited to the short-wavelength part of the
visible spectrum, reflecting the state of technology in the 1940s. It presents photographic
1D-spectral stripes, commented with handwritten notes! Made in a similar style is the Revised MK Spectral Atlas for Stars Earlier Than the Sun from 1978 by Morgan, Abt, and
Tapscott [51].
Some spectral atlases were available in the past but are out of print today. The most comprehensive reference work is surely Bonner Spektralatlas, the title of the English edition: Atlas for Objective Prism Spectra by Waltraut C. Seitter, 1975 [5]). This atlas, covering the spectral types from O5 to M2, is out of print today, but recently available as
download [5]! Still based on photographic 1D-spectral stripes its the only reviewed work,
documenting most of the lines between about 3400 5000, which are visible with low to
medium resolving spectrographs. In the green-red range this atlas partly shows quite large
gaps. Its striking, that despite this work undoubtedly being outdated, it has never been
adapted to today's requirements, but is still referenced in various current papers. Written in
a similar style, but much less detailed, are also the atlases [6], [7] and [8].
Nowadays calibrated and intensity-normalized profiles, plotted against the wavelength are
required to meet the current standards. Fairly recent (2000) is "A Digital Spectral Classification Atlas" by R.O. Gray [52]. However its limited to a lowly resolved, short-wave part of
the visible spectrum. Furthermore several atlases exist, focusing on specific wavelength
ranges. Some of them are listed in the bibliography. For some of the brighter stars monographs are available, with fully commented spectra of e.g. Sirius, Procyon and Aldebaran.
Unfortunately, such papers are mostly available as abstracts only. The download prices
for the full versions are usually pretty high.
Very useful is Spectroweb [59], to find on the home page of Dr. Alex Lobel, Royal Observatory of Belgium. Its an interactive internet platform providing highly resolved and almost
completely commented profiles of some bright stars, belonging to the spectral classes B, A,
F, G, K, M. It is very useful for the interpretation eg of highly resolved Echelle spectra. Due
to the enormous line density its, particularly for beginners, very difficult to make the link to
the highly blended lines of their own, in most cases lowly resolved profiles. Here at last it
becomes clear, why spectral atlases need to be created for specific degrees of resolution.
This huge diversity of information explains why different sources have been used for the
line identification. References for each and every line would not be feasible. However, for
each spectral class, the mainly used sources are referenced. An alternative option would be
to compare the spectra with synthetically generated profiles, based on models of stellar
atmospheres. This allows for example the software "Spectrum" from R.O. Gray, which runs
on Linux with a command-oriented interface. The installation for non Linux users, and also
the operation are demanding. So this is probably a realistic option for very few amateurs
only.
This atlas is primarily intended to be used as a tool for the line identification as a supplement to "Analysis and Interpretation of Astronomical Spectra [30] and "Practical Aspects
of Astronomical Spectroscopy" [31]. In [30] also detailed information on the classification
system of the spectra and the Hertzsprung-Russel diagram (HRD) is included. Knowledge of
these topics are presupposed here and therefore treated briefly only. From the beginning it
was clear, that this atlas would never be reduced to an isolated collection of some labelled
spectral tables. Therefore, each spectral class is presented with their main characteristics
and typical features. The atlas will be continuously updated if new information or characteristic spectra are available. This intended future expansion was considered in the numbering
system of the tables. After such updates, direct or "hot links" on the file will necessarily
lead to the void. Therefore, I strongly recommend linking to the atlas only to:
http://www.ursusmajor.ch/astrospektroskopie/richard-walkers-page/index.html
Many thanks to Martin Huwiler, Urs Flkiger and Dr. Helen Wider for proofing the German
edition, and Urs again for kindly providing his homepage for downloading!
Richard Walker, CH 8911 Rifferswil
richiwalker@bluewin.ch
About the author: Born in 1951, I began to show interest in astronomy when I was about 12 years old after
my grandparents took me to a public astronomical observatory in Zurich one fine night, which led to my first
glance at Saturn. Later I started my own observations with one of the typical department store telescopes, followed by a self constructed 6 inch Newton reflector. For the last 10 years, my interest has increasingly focused
on theories about astrophysics and stellar astronomy, somewhat later also on the indispensable key to these
topics the spectroscopy. My professional background is civil engineering. For a long time I worked for a Swiss
engineering company, specialized in planning power plants, dams and tunnels. For the last 12 years of my professional career I was involved in risk assessments and worldwide inspections for a Swiss Reinsurance Company for so-called large risks like dams, power plants, large construction sites, high-rise buildings etc. For a
short time now I have been enjoying my retirement. My further interests are archeoastronomy, windsurfing,
paragliding, diving and mountain climbing and sometimes I am also busy with my granddaughters.
10
Directory of Tables
Table
Page
Topic
Objects
Wavelength
domain
Grating
01
21
Overview on the spectral classes
1D-spectra of various
stars
3950 6690
200L
02
22
Intensity profiles of
various stars
3950 6690
200L
30
Spectral features of the

late O-class
Alnitak Ori
Mintaka Ori
3920 6710
200L
31
Detailed spectrum of a late

O-class star
Alnitak Ori
3950 4750
5740 6700
900L
32
Spectral features of the early to

middle O-class
1 Ori C
68 Cygni
3800 6700
200L
39
Wolf-Rayet stars, type WN and WC

final stage of the O-Class
WR 133
WR 140
3850 7250
200L
40
Wolf-Rayet stars, type WN and WO

final stage of the O-Class
WR 136
WR 142
3860 7200
3750 7200
200L
10
43
Development of spectral features

within the B-class
Alnilam Ori
Gienah Corvi CrV
3900 6700
200L
11
45
Effect of the luminosity on spectra

of the late B-class
Regulus Leo
Rigel Ori
Sagittarii
3920 4750
900L
200L
900L
900L
900L
900L
12
47
Detailed spectrum of an early

B-class star
Spica Vir
3800 6750
3900 4750
4800 5100
5700 6050
6450 6600
13
50
LBV star, early B-class

P Cygni profiles,
P Cygni, 34 Cyg
3900 6950
6000 6800
200L
900L
13A
51
Detailed spectrum LBV star, early

B-class, P Cygni profiles
P Cygni 34 Cyg
3850 4650
4700 6050
900L
200L
900L
900L
900L
14
54
Be- star, early B-class
Dschubba Sco
3650 7000
4820 4940
6500 6700
6670 6690
14A
55
Be-star, early B-Class
Tsih Cassiopeiae
3970 6750
200L
15
58
Be Shell Star, comparison to an

ordinary Be Star
Tauri
Dschubba Sco
3800 6800
200L
17
62
Herbig Ae/Be Protostar
R Monocerotis
NGC 2261
3900 7200
200L
18
63
T Tauri Protostar
T Tauri
3900 7000
200L
19
64
FU Orionis Protostar, comparison

to the K0 Giant Algieba, Leonis
FU Orionis
Algieba, Leonis
3900 6800
200L
20
67

within the A-class
Castor Gem
Altair Aql
3900 6800
200L
Table
Page
11
Topic
Objects
Wavelength
domain
Grating
21
68
Detailed spectrum of an early Aclass star
Sirius A CMa
3900 6700
3900 4700
4780 5400
200L
900L
900L
22
70
Effects of the luminosity on spectra

of the early A-class
Vega Lyr
Ruchbah Cas
Deneb Cyg
3900 4700
900L
23
71
Metallicity: Vega vs. Sirius
Vega Lyr
Sirius A CMa
3920 4700
900L
30
74

within the F-class
Adhafera Leo
Procyon CMi
3830 6700
200L
31
76

of the early F-class
Porrima Vir
Caph Cas
Mirfak Per
3920 4750
900L
40
79
Development of spectral
features within the G-class
Muphrid Boo
Vindemiatrix Vir
3800 6600
200L
41
80
Detailed spectrum of an early Gclass star
Sun
3800 7200
3900 4800
200L
900L
42
81
Detailed spectrum of an early Gclass star
Sun
4700 5700
5650 6700
900L
50
85

within the K-class
Arcturus Boo
Alterf Leo
3900 6800
200L
51
86
Detailed spectrum of an early

K-class star
Pollux Gem
3900 6800
3800 4800
200L
900L
52
88

of the late K-class
Alsciaukat Lyncis
61 Cygni B
4000 4900
900L
53
89
Detailed spectrum of a later

K-class star
Aldebaran Tau
5150 5900
5850 6700
900L
56
92

within the M-class
Antares Sco
Ras Algethi Her
3900 7200
200L
59
96
Mira Variable M(e), comparison to

a late classified M-Star
Mira o Ceti
Ras Algethi Her
3900 7200
200L
61
99
Extreme S-Class star, comparison

to a Mira Variable M(e)
R Cygni
Mira o Ceti
4100 7300
200L
62
101

within the S-Class
Omikron1 Orionis
Chi Cygni
R Cygni
4100 7300
200L
63
102
Comparison of an intrinsic and

extrinsic S-Class star
BD Camelopardalis
HR Pegasi
4300 7200
200L
64
107
Comparison of differently classified carbon stars
WZ Cassiopeiae
Z Piscium
W Orionis
4600 7300
200L
64A
108
Merrill Sanford Bands, details at a

higher resolved spectrum
W Orionis
4730 5400
900L
64B
109
Carbon star with H- emissionline
R Leporis
5100 - 7300
200L
12
Table
Page
Topic
Objects
Wavelength
domain
Grating
65
113
White Dwarfs with different spectral classification
WD 0644 +375
40 Eridani B
Van Maanen 2
3900 6600
200L
67
118
Supernova Typ Ia, characteristic

spectrum and chronology
SN 2014 J
Host galaxy M82
3800 - 7200
200L
70
131
Absorption line Galaxy

Comparison with stellar G-Class
Andromeda M31
Vindemiatrix Vir
3900 6700
200L
71
132
LINER Galaxy
M94
3850 6900
200L
72
133
Starburst Galaxy
M82
4300 7000
200L
73
134
Seyfert Galaxy, AGN
M77
3800 6800
200L
75
135
Quasar: Emission lines
3C273
3800 6600
200L
76
136
Quasar: Redshift
3C273
4400 7600
200L
77
137
Blazar, BL Lacertae Object
Makarian Mrk 421
3950 7000
200L
78A
143
Stars of the open Pleiades Cluster

with emission line classification
17-, 23-, 25-and, 28

Tau
3800 6700
200L
78B
144
Stars of the open Pleiades Cluster

with absorption lines
16-, 18-, 19- 20-, 21and 27 Tau
3800 6700
200L
79
145
Integrated spectra of Globular

Clusters
M3, M5, M13
3900 6700
200L
80
157
Emission Nebula: Hll Region
M42
3800 7300
200L
80A
158
Intensity profiles of H and [OIII]

(5007) in the central area of M42
M42
n.a.
200L
81
159
Emission Nebula: Planetary Nebula

Excitation class E1
IC418 Spirograph
Nebula
4100 7100
200L
82
160

Excitation class E4
NGC6210 Turtle Neb.
3850 6600
200L
83
161

Excitation class E8
NGC7009 Saturn
Nebula
3800 6700
200L
84
162

Excitation class E10
M57 Ring Nebula
4600 6800
200L
84A
163
Intensity profiles of [O III] and [N II]

in the longitudinal axis of M57
M57 Ring Nebula
n.a.
200L
85
164
Post AGB Star with

Protoplanetary Nebula
Red Rectangle
HD44179
3800 7000
200L
86
165
Emission Nebula: SNR

Excitation class E>5
M1 / NGC 1952
4600 6800
200L
87
166
Emission Nebula: Wolf Rayet WR

Excitation class E1
Crescent Nebula
NGC 6888
4700 6800
200L
88
167
Emission Nebula: Wolf Rayet WR

and ionisation source WR star
NGC 2359 Thors Helm

WR 7, HD 56925
4000 7200
4500 6800
200L
200L
90
170
Reflectance spectra of solar

system bodies
Mars, Venus
4300 7800
200L
13
Table
Page
Topic
Objects
Wavelength
domain
Grating
91
171

system bodies
Jupiter, Saturn
4400 7800
200L
92
172

system bodies
Uranus, Neptune, Titan
4500 7900
200L
94
173
Spectrum of Comets
C/2009 P1 Garradd
3800 6400
200L
95
175
Spectral absorptions due to the

earths atmosphere
Earths atmosphere
6800 7800
900L
95A
176
Absorptions due to earths atmosphere. High resolution spectrum:

H2O lines around H
Sun
Scorpii
6490 6610
95B
177
Absorptions due to earths atmosphere. High resolution spectrum:

Fraunhofer A- und B-Band
Sun
6865 6940
7950 7700
Echelle
96
179
Night sky spectrum
Light Pollution
Airglow
4000 7400
200L
101
182
Gas discharge lamp
Neon glow lamp
5800 8100
900L
102
183
Gas discharge lamp
ESL Osram Sunlux
3900 6400
200L
103
184
Gas discharge calibration lamp
Xenon strobe tube
3900 8100
200L
900L
104
185
Gas discharge lamp
High pressure
sodium vapour lamp
4700 7250
200L
105
186
Gas discharge lamp
High power xenon

lamp
4900 6900
200L
106
187

with Argon
Glow Starter OSRAM

ST 111
4000 7700
3900 4800
200L
900L
107
188

with Argon, Helium, Neon
Glow Starter RELCO

480
3800 7200
200L
108
189

with Neon, Xenon
Glow Starter Philips

S10
3900 7200
200L
110
191
Swan Bands / Hydrocarbon gas

flames: Comparison of superposed
spectra
Butane-gas-torch
Comet Hyakutake
WZ Cassiopeiae
3800 6400
200L
111
193
Spectra of terrestrial lightning discharges
Several integrated
lightning discharges
3750 7200
200L
SQUES
Echelle
SQUES
14
Selection, Processing and Presentation of the Spectra
3.1 Selection of Spectra

Main criteria for the selection of the spectra have been the documentation of the spectral
characteristics and further the demonstration of certain effects e.g. due to the different luminosity classes. The consideration of bright common knowledge stars was of secondary
importance. In principle, every spectral class, including some extraordinary star types, is
presented at least with an early and a late representative spectrum to show the development of characteristic features in the profile. Commented in separate chapters are spectra of emission nebulae, composite spectra of extragalactic objects, reflection spectra of
solar system bodies, absorption bands generated by the earths atmosphere and some profiles of terrestrial light sources.
3.2 Recording and Resolution of the Spectra

Most of the spectra have been recorded with the DADOS spectrograph [603], equipped
with reflection gratings of 200- or 900 Lines/mm. Unless otherwise noted, the recording
was made through the 8 inch Schmidt-Cassegrain Celestron C8, the 25m slit of the DADOS spectrograph. To display some highly resolved spectral details, the SQUES Echelle
spectrograph was used [600], applying slit widths of about 15-25m. The recording was
finally made with the monochrome camera Meade DSI III Pro or the cooled ATIK 314L+,
both equipped with the same Sony chip ICX285AL. The spectra on the Tables 5 (WR133),
70 and 84 have been recorded with Martin Huwiler through the CEDES 36 inch telescope
of the Mirasteilas Observatory in Falera (see Appendix 34.4). Anyway applying longer exposure times, these objects are also within the reach of average amateur equipment!
The processing of the profiles with Vspec yields about following dispersion values [/pixel]:
DADOS 200L mm-1: 2.55,
DADOS 900L mm-1: 0.65,
SQUES Echelle: 0.18.
Data of the Sony Chip ICX285AL: 1.4 Mega-pixel, 2/3" Monochrome CCD, Pixel size
6.45m x 6.45m [606]. For longer exposure times a dark frame was subtracted, if necessary also the separately recorded light pollution (with Fitswork). The processing of a "flat
field" was omitted.
According to the Manual of the DADOS Spectrograph
[603] the R-value (resolution), corresponds to = 647
at 6160 and = 3,000 at 5610 (slit width 25 m).
My own measurements in this wavelength domain, using
several averaged FWHM values of Neon emission lines,
yielded R-values in the order of = 900, respectively
= 4,000. Generally these resolutions have proven to
be ideal for the presentation of the stellar spectral sequence. Therefore its not surprising that Gray/Corbally [2]
denote profiles with a resolution of ~ 3 as "classification
resolution spectra. Even the professional astronomy uses
spectrographs with lower resolutions for certain tasks.
Substantially higher R-values would be soon comparable
to reading a newspaper with the microscope.
The SQUES Echelle Spectrograph [600], applied to present some higher resolved line details, reaches approximately 20,000 at a slit width of ~15m. The device
can either be connected directly to the telescope or coupled via a fibre optics.
15
3.3 The Processing of the Spectra

The monochrome fits images have been processed with the standard procedure of IRIS
[550]. In most cases, about 57 spectral profiles have been stacked, to achieve noise reduction. The generating and analysing of the final profile was performed with Vspec [551].
The procedure is described in detail in the IRIS and Vspec manuals. For the software functions, applied to process the spectra in this atlas, a step by step description is available in
[31] (German only).
With minor exceptions in all broadband spectra (200L) the pseudo-continuum was removed. The profiles have been rectified divided by the course of their own continuum.
Thus, the intensity of the spectral lines becomes visually comparable over the entire range
and further it results a flat (rectified), space-saving and easily readable profile [30]. The
relative depth or height of a line in relation to the height of the according continuum level is
crucial for the intensity comparison. The profile of a pseudo-continuum presents strong
lines at the blue or red end of the spectrum optically as relatively too weak and vice versa,
weak lines in the middle part, -as too high. But just this reasonable correction may confuse
the beginners, if they try to find lines of their uncorrected pseudo-continuum in the flat, rectified atlas profile. The following graphic illustrates this effect with the superposition of the
uncorrected pseudo-continuum (blue) and the atlas profile of the solar spectrum (red).
In rare cases with an increased noise level (by faint objects), the profile was sometimes
smoothed, using filters such as the Vspec MMSE filter (minimum mean squared error).The
goal of this process was here exclusively to improve the readability of the documented
lines. A reduction of the telluric H2O/O2 absorption in the yellow/red range of the spectral
profile was omitted. Therefore the line documentation in this domain was restrained accordingly.
3.4 Calibration of the Wavelength

Most of the spectra have been calibrated relatively, based on known lines and not absolutely with the calibration lamp. This prevents that the profile, as a result of possible high
radial velocities (Doppler Effect), is shifted on the wavelength axis. The focus here is the
presentation of the spectral class and not the documentation of the individual star. Only for
spectra of late spectral classes and extraordinary stars the calibration was carried out with
the lamp. The unit for the wavelength is here generally Angstrom []. These values are
shown according to convention [2] with the prefix []. E.g. 5000 correspond to 5000.
The values are from the Vspec database "lineident", according to the manual: Catalogue of
lines in stellar objects, ILLSS Catalogue (Coluzzi 1993-1999), VI/71A.
16
3.5 Normalisation of the Intensity

An absolute flux calibration of the intensity profile would be very time consuming and is not necessary for the purpose of this atlas. But the continuum intensity of the rectified profiles was always normalised to unity, so
that the medium continuum level yields about = 1. An absorption line is
usually saturated to the maximum if it reaches from the continuum level
down to the wavelength axis = 0. At the applied low to medium resolutions, in stellar spectra this can rarely, if at all, be seen. Hence, for space
saving reasons, in most of the cases, not the entire range of saturation is
presented. Instead the corresponding level on the wavelength axis is indicated with amounts mainly in a range of 0.30.6. In case of montages
showing several spectra in one chart, the single profiles have been normalised to unity, based on the same continuum section, to enable a rough
comparison of the line intensities.
3.6 Line Identification

For the sometimes complex identification process of spectral lines nearly all referenced information sources have been used. Some intensive, but in all the listed sources not documented lines, have been determined with Vspec (Tools/Elements/line ident). The values,
implemented in this tool, are based on the ILLSS Catalogue, Coluzzi 1993. This procedure
was applied very restrictively, i.e. in few cases with a clear profile, high line intensity and
missing, plausible alternative elements in the immediate neighbourhood. The labelling of
such items is declared with a red "V".
The wavelengths of spectral lines are here usually labelled with an accuracy of two decimal
places. These values were complemented from the Vspec tool, because in ancient sources
(e.g. BSA), the indicated accuracy is only rounded to 1 . All labelling, lacking decimal
places, here mostly indicate, that the line is a blend, formed by several elements/ions
with comparable intensity. Typically affected are metal absorption lines in spectra of the
middle to late spectral classes. However, if in such cases the intensity of a blended line is
clearly dominated by a certain element or ion its also used to label the whole blend.
3.7 Presentation
All spectra are at least documented by a broadband profile (200L grating). In the presence
of interesting lines or according information, higher resolved spectra are attached, recorded with the 900L grating ore in some special cases even with the SQUES Echelle spectrograph [600]. The line profiles are supplemented on the wavelength axis by synthetically
produced 1D-spectra (Vspec). Their colour gradient shall chiefly serve as a rough visual reference for the wavelength domain.
Generally, only such details are commented, which are really recognizable in the profiles.
Molecular absorption bands are marked with this icon:
.
For densely labelled tables, I recommend to zoom it on the screen even if inaccuracies of
my drawings become relentlessly obvious this way. Due to this "online aspect", I avoided to
separate the tables and the explanatory text in to different parts of the atlas. Due to numerous slim lines, hardcopies of this document require a high printer resolution.
17
Terms, Definitions and Abbreviations
4.1 Parameters and Identification of the Stars

The information to the spectral and brightness classes comes largely from the Bright Stars
Catalogue [505] or James Kaler [506], the distance information, if there available, from the
Karkoschka Atlas [10]. The information to the "surface temperature" of the stars stems
from a variety of sources, e.g. [506]. It is also referred to herein as effective temperature
. It usually relates to the layer of the stellar photosphere, which is mainly responsible
for the formation of the spectral lines as well as for the spectral distribution of the stellar
radiation intensity (course of the continuum).
The rotation velocity of a star refers here to the part of the surface velocity , which is projected to the direction of the earth and can spectrographically be determined by
using the Doppler principle (details and procedures see [30], [31]). These values are mainly
derived from the Bright Stars Catalogue [505] or by James Kaler [506].
Brighter stars are referred in the atlas with the proper name and in the Bayer system with
small Greek letters, combined with the abbreviated Latin constellation name, e.g.
Sirius CMa (see the corresponding lists in appendix 34.1). Fainter stars, lacking proper
names, are identified with the Bayer system, or if necessary, with the Flamsteed- or HD
number (Henry Draper Catalogue), e.g. Sagittarii, 61 Cygni, HD 22649.
4.2 Galactic Nebulae and Star Clusters

Such parameters are from NED [501], the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database or Karkoschka [10].
4.3 Extragalactic Objects

Parameters of galaxies and Quasars, e.g. the Z-values of the Redshift are from NED [501],
the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database. From understandable reasons, information about
the masses of such objects is missing there. Current estimates are still very uncertain, and
accordingly the subject of debate not least about the existence of dark matter. Therefore
these values come from recent publications.
4.4 "Early" and "Late" Spectral Types

At the beginning of the 20th Century, a hypothesis wrongly postulated that the spectral sequence from O to M represents the chronological development stages in the life of a star
from very hot to cold. This misleading thesis has subsequently influenced the terminology,
which is still in use today. Therefore the classes O, B, A are still called early-, and K, M as
"late" types. In this Atlas the classes F and G are referred as middle.
This terminology is logically also applied within a class. So e.g. M0 is called an "early" and
M8 a "late" M-type. In consequence e.g. A2 is "earlier" than A7.
4.5 Abbreviations and Units

AU: Astronomical unit, 149.6M km
AGB: Asymptotic Giant Branch (HRD)
BSA: Bonner Spektralatlas
ESO: European Southern Observatory
ESL: Energy saving lamp
EW: Equivalent width of a spectral line [] [30]
FWHM: Full width at half maximum height [] [30]
HB: Horizontal Branch (HRD)
18
HD: Henry Draper Catalogue

HRD: Hertzsprung-Russel Diagram
HST: Hubble Space Telescope
LBV: Luminous Blue Variable (sect. 11)
MK: Morgan, Keenan, Kellman: spectral classification system and spectral atlas
mV: Apparent visual magnitude, MV: Absolute Magnitude at a distance of 10 parsec
PN: Planetary Nebula
PMS: Pre-Main sequence Star. Young Protostar, not yet established on main sequence
RGB: Red Giant Branch (HRD)
RSG: Red Supergiant
SB1: SB 1 system. Spectroscopic binary stars with strongly different bright components.
Only the spectrum of the brighter component can therefore be observed.
SB2: SB 2 system. Spectroscopic binary stars with two similar bright components.
A composite spectrum of both components is therefore observed.
SN: Supernova
VLT: Very Large Telescope, ESO telescope group at Cerro Paranal, Chile
WR: Wolf-Rayet stars
SuW: German astronomical journal: Sterne und Weltraum
K: Kelvin temperature unit K Celsius + 273
: unit of wavelength Angstrom. 1 = 10-10m
ly: light year [ly] 1 ly = 9,46 x 1012 km
parsec: [pc] 1 pc = 3.26 ly
Labeling of the Balmer Series: H, H, H, H, H, H8, H9, H10 etc: Further lines after H
are labelled with the affected shell number, involved in the according electron transition.
200L / 900L: reflection grating of the DADOS spectrograph with 200 or 900 lines/mm.
V: Spectral line identified with help of the Vspec Tool
: Molecular absorption band
: Comparison to the sun: M: solar mass, L: Luminosity of the sun
4.6 Identifying of the Elements and Ions

As usual in astrophysics, all the elements, except of hydrogen and helium, are called "metals" and identified in the astrophysical form - for details see [30].
The term Ionisation stage refers here to the number of electrons, which an ionized atom
has lost to the space (Si IV, Fe II, H II, etc.). The Roman numeral I is used for spectral lines
associated with the neutral element, numeral II for those from the first ionization stage,
III for those from the second-, and so on. This must not be confused with the term Degree
of ionisation in plasma physics. It defines for a gas mixture the ratio of atoms (of a certain
element) that are ionised into charged particles, regarding the temperature, density and the
required ionisation energy of the according element. This Degree is determined in astrophysics with the famous Saha equation.
So-called "Forbidden lines" are written within brackets, eg [O III].
4.7 The Metal Abundance Z (Metallicity)

Of great importance is the iron to hydrogen ratio /" , considering the relative number
of atoms and not the mass! The Metallicity # in a stellar atmosphere, also called "%&'/()",
is expressed as the decadic logarithm in relation to the sun:
. /" / 0123
# = %&'/() = *+,-
. /" /045
# values, smaller than found in the atmosphere of the Sun, are considered to be metal poor
and carry a negative sign ().The existing range reaches from approximately +0.5 to 5.4
(SuW 7/2010).
19
The Fraunhofer Lines
Fraunhofer has characterised the more prominent of

the solar absorption lines with the letters A to K
this at a time when the physical relationships were
still unknown. Later, additional lines were supplemented with small letters. These line designations
are still in use even in current professional papers.
In this atlas some of the Fraunhofer lines are labelled in the solar spectrum and neighbouring spectral classes. The table shows the listed Fraunhofer
lines, rounded to 1 (Sources: Table: NASA,
Graphic: Wikipedia).
Line
ident.
Element
Wavelength []
A Band
O2
7594 - 7621
B Band
O2
6867 - 6884
H ()
6563
a Band
O2
6276 - 6287
D 1, 2
Na
5896 & 5890
Fe
5270
b 1, 2, 3
Mg
5184/73/69
H ()
4861
Fe
4668
Fe
4384
H ()
4340
G Band
CH
4300 - 4310
Ca
4227
H ()
4102
Ca II
3968
Ca II
3934
Below: Original drawing of the solar spectrum by Joseph Fraunhofer. In contrast, the convention today requires the blue region of the spectrum to be left and vice versa the red to
be right. Stunningly visionary appears to me the sketched, estimated intensity profile of the
pseudo-continuum above the 1D-spectral stripe! This type of plotted profiles, today of
course normalised/calibrated and overprinted with the spectral lines, we can find again in
publications only since about the last 40 years!
20
Overview and Characteristics of Stellar Spectral Classes
6.1 The Temperature Sequence

The rough, one-dimensional determination of the spectral classes O, B, A, F, G, K, M, is easy
and even feasible for slightly advanced amateurs. This sequence of letters is further subdivided into decimal subclasses which follows directly the decreasing photospheric temperature, starting with the extremely hot O-type of several 10,000s K, and proceeding down to
the cold M-class with about 2,400 3,500 K. The Sun is classified as G2 with 5,800 K. Not
treated here are the spectral types L and T which were first introduced in the 1990s as a
low temperature extension of the M-Class, and include, among others, the so-called Brown
Dwarfs. These cool objects are extremely faint and radiating primarily in the infrared range.
Therefore, these classes remain unreachable by amateur means.
Spectral distinction criteria are prominent features such as lines in absorption or emission,
which appear prominently in certain classes, and are entirely absent in others. The following charts show a montage with sample spectra of the entire class sequence of
O M. Here the original profiles of the stars are shown (200L grating), which are also used
to present the individual spectral classes. This way, this resolution already enables the
identification of the intense and therefore most documented spectral lines. Further also the
influence of some elements, ions or molecules to the different spectral types becomes
roughly visible.
Table 01 shows superposed the synthetically produced 1D-spectral stripes Table 02
shows the same but with the according intensity profiles.
What is already clearly noticeable here?
In the upper third of the table (B2A5), the strong lines of the H-Balmer series, i.e. H,
H, H, etc. They appear most pronounced in the class A2 and are weakening from here
towards earlier and later spectral classes.
In the lower quarter of the table (K5M5) the eye-catching shaded bands of molecular
absorption spectra, mainly due to titanium oxide (TiO).
Just underneath the half of the table some spectra (F5K0), showing only few prominent
features, but charged with a large number of fine metal lines. Striking features here are
only the Na I double line (Fraunhofer D1, 2) and in the blue part the impressive Fraunhofer lines of Ca II (K + H), gaining strength towards later spectral classes. Fraunhofer H
at 3968 starts around the early F-class to overprint the weakening H hydrogen line at
3970. In addition, the H-Balmer series is further weakening towards later classes.
Finally on the top of the table the extremely hot O-class with very few fine lines, mostly
ionised helium (He II) and multiply ionized metals. The H-Balmer series appears here
quite weak, as a result of the extremely high temperatures. The telluric H2O and O2 absorption bands are reaching high intensities here, because the strongest radiation of the
star takes place in the ultraviolet whereas the telluric absorption bands are located in
the undisturbed domain near the infrared part of the spectrum. By contrast the maximum
radiation of the late spectral classes takes place in the infrared part, enabling the stellar
TiO absorption bands to overprint here the telluric lines.
In the spectra of hot stars (~ classes from early A O) the double line of neutral sodium
Na I (Fraunhofer D1,2) must imperatively be of interstellar origin. Neutral sodium Na I has
a very low ionisation energy of just 5.1 eV (see table in sect. 34) and can therefore exist
only in the atmospheres of relatively cool stars. The wavelengths of the ionised Na II lie
already in the ultraviolet range and are therefore not detectable by amateur equipment.
Alnitak
25000K
B1
Spica
22000K
B7
Regulus
15000K
A1
Sirius
10000K
A7
Altair
7550K
F0
Adhafera
7030K
F5
Procyon
6330K
G2
Sun
5700K
Vindemiatrix
4990K
K1.5
Arcturus
4290K
K5
Alterf
3950K
Richard Walker 2010/05
Antares
M1.5 3600K
TiO
TiO
TiO
TiO
TiO
Mg l 5167-83
Mg Triplet
TiO
K H
Ca I 4227
CH 4300
Rasalgethi
3300K
Ca ll
M5
He I 6678
H 6562
Telluric O2
He I 5876
Na I 5890/95
He II 5411
H 4861
He I 4922
He I 5016
He I 50486
C III 4647/51
H 4340
He I 4388
He I 4471
H 3970
O9.5
H 4101
TABLE 01
G8
21
K H
TiO
TiO
TiO
Alterf
3950
TiO
K5
TiO
Arcturus
K1.5 4290
TiO
Vindemiatrix
G8 4990
Fe l 5328
Fe l/Ca l 5270
Sun
5700
F0
Mg l 5167-83
Mg Triplet
G2
A7
TiO
F5
Regulus
15000
Sirius
10000
Altair
7550
Adhafera
7030
Procyon
6330
TiO
B7
TiO
Spica
22000
Fe l/Ca l 4526 - 29
B1
A1
Fe l/Ca l 4455 - 59
Alnitak
25000
He I 6678
H 6563
Telluric O2
He I 5876
Na I 5890/95
He II 5411
H 4861
He I 4922
He I 5016
He I 5048
C III 4647/51
H 4340
He I 4388
He I 4471
H 4101
H 3970
TABLE 02
Ca I 4227
CH 4300
O9.5
Ca ll

22
Antares
M1.5 3600
M5 Rasalgethi
3300
23
6.2 The Luminosity Classes

Within the same spectral class, stars can show huge different absolute luminosities, due to
different stages of their development. Since 1943, the spectral classes have therefore been
expanded by an additional dimension in Roman numerals the so called six luminosity
classes. The Sun is classified with G2V since its (fortunately) still located on the Main Sequence of the HRD with the luminosity class V.
Luminosity class
Star type
Luminous Supergiants
Ia-0, Ia, Iab, Ib
Subdivision of the Supergiants according to decreasing luminosity
II
Bright Giants
III
Normal Giants
IV
Sub Giants
Dwarfs or Main Sequence Stars
VI
Sub Dwarfs
VII
White Dwarfs
(rarely used, as specified by prefix)

(rarely used, as specified by prefix)
6.3 Suffixes, Prefixes, and Special Classes

With additional small letters, placed as prefix or suffix, extraordinary phenomena, such as a
relative overabundance of a metal or the appearance of emission lines in the spectrum are
specified. Some additives however are over determining, as e.g. Giants, unlike the Sub
Dwarfs and White Dwarfs, are already specified by the luminosity class. Such labels are
therefore hardly ever in use. Further with additional capital letters some special classes are
specified.
Examples: Sirius A: A1 Vm, metal-rich Main Sequence Star (Dwarf) spectral class A1
Sirius B: DA2, White Dwarf or Degenerate of spectral class A2
Omikron Andromedae: B6 IIIep,
Omikron Ceti (Mira): M7 IIIe
Kapteyns star: sd M1 V, Subdwarf of spectral class M1 V
P Cygni: B2 Ia pe
Suffixes
24
Prefixes
Sharp lines
Dwarf
Broad lines
sd
Subdwarf
Extraordinary sharp lines
Giant
comp
Composite spectrum
em
H- emission lines in
B- and O- stars
He- and N- emission lines in
O- Stars
Metallic emission lines
Interstellar absorption lines
Strong metal lines
n / nn
wk
Diffuse lines/
strongly diffuse lines eg
due to high rotation speed
Weak lines
p, pec
Peculiar spectrum
sh
Shell
Variation in spectrum
Fe, Mg
Relatively high or low ()

abundance of the specified
element
Special Classes
Q
Novae
Planetary Nebulae
Degenerate (White Dwarf)

+additional letter for O, B, A
spectral class (see sect. 24)
Wolf-Rayet Star + additional

letter for C-, N- or O- lines
(see sect. 9)
Stars with zirconium oxide absorption bands

(see sect. 22)
Carbon stars
(see sect. 23)
L, T,
Brown dwarfs
Theoretical class for brown

dwarfs < 600 K
Nowadays the special classes P (Planetary Nebulae) and Q (Novae) are barely in use! The
suffixes are not always applied consistently. We often see other versions. In the case of
shell stars e.g. pe, or shell is in use.
6.4 Statistical Distribution of Spectral Types to the Main Sequence Stars

The table shows in the neighbourhood of the sun the percental distribution of main-sequence stars to the individual
spectral classes. On the main sequence, the star spends
more than 90% of its total lifetime. The analysed sample
refers to a volume of 10'000 pc3, ie a virtual sphere with a
radius of about 13 pc. Further details see [730].
By far the largest part consists of main sequence stars of
the M-Class. These are so faint that even the closest one
can just be observed telescopically. Example: Proxima
Centauri (M6 Ve) mv = 11.13m.
0.0003% 1 in 3 Mio.
0.125%
1 in 800
0.625%
1 in 160
3.0%
1 in ~33
7.5%
1 in ~13
12%
76%
25
Appearance of Elements and Molecules in the Spectra
The spectrum of a star is primarily determined by the temperature of the photosphere. This
temperature defines directly the spectral class in the HRD. From secondary importance is
the density of the stellar atmosphere, primarily depending on the luminosity class, and further the specific abundance of certain metals. Another influential parameter is the rotation
speed of the star, which, as a result of the Doppler Effect, broadens the spectral lines and
reduces their intensity.
For the spectroscopy the following chart is from similar
importance as the HRD. It shows roughly the appearance and the intensity (EW) of characteristic spectral
lines, depending on the spectral class, respectively the
surface temperature of a star. The latter determines
for a certain element the stage and degree of ionisation. The theoretical foundations have been developed
in 1925 by Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin (1900-1979),
according to Otto Struve "undoubtedly the most brilliant Ph.D. thesis ever written in astronomy. She was
the first to apply the laws of atomic physics to the
study of the temperature and density of stellar bodies and to conclude that hydrogen and
helium, the two lightest elements, are also the two most common in the universe. She also
disproved the old hypothesis that the chemical composition of the Sun is the same as of the
earth. In addition to this scientific career, she was a mother of three children.
This chart is not only of great value for determining the spectral class, but also prevents by
the line identification from large interpretation errors. Thus it becomes immediately clear
that the photosphere of the Sun (spectral type G2V) is a few thousand degrees too cold to
show helium He l in a normal (photospheric) solar spectrum. It also shows that the hydrogen lines of the Balmer series remain visible in varying degrees of intensity in nearly all
spectral classes. Only in the late M- classes, they are increasingly overprinted by strong absorption bands of mainly TiO. The examples Sirius (A1V) and Regulus (B7V) show however
that the influence of the Fe lines goes much further to the left, as indicated in this diagram.
Temperature of the Photosphere (K)
Line Intensity EW
50000
25000
10000
8000
6000
H
He II
O5
4000
TiO
He I
Si III
B0
3000
Ca II
Fe II
Mg II
Si IV
5000
Fe I
Ca I
Si II
A0
F0
G0
Spectral Type
K0
M0
M7
26
Spectral Class O
8.1 Overview
The O-Class comprises the hottest, most masHD
Name
sive and shortest-living stars of the universe. At
the end of their short lives, they will all end, due
24912
Menkhib, Per
to their huge masses, in a SN explosion. Subse30614
Cam
quently the only remains will consist of a very
36486
Mintaka, Ori
small, extremely compact Neutron Star or even
36861
Meissa, Ori
a Black Hole. These blue shining, extreme types
37022
1 Ori C
of stars are very rare. For the Milky Way only
about 20,000 representatives of the O-type are
37043
Nair al Saif, Ori
estimated. As a result of their tremendous lumi37468
Ori,
nosity two bright representatives of this class
37742
Alnitak, Ori
are visible in a distance of some 1,000 ly in the
47839
15 Mon
constellation Orion: Alnitak ( Ori) 1.8m and Minm
57060
29 CMa
taka 2.2 ( Ori). All these stars are late O57061
30 CMa
Types. Bright representatives of earlier O-types
are only found in the southern sky, such as
66811
Naos, Pup
Naos, 2.3m ( Puppis). The list on the right
149757 Oph
shows O- stars with an apparent magnitude V
203064 68 Cyg
from about 5m upwards, which are spectroscopically accessible even for averagely equipped amateurs.
Spec. Class
Vm
O7.5 III e
4.1
O9.5 Ia e
4.3
O9.5 II+B0III
2.4
O8 III
3.4
O6 pe v
5.1
O9 III
2.8
O9.5 V
3.8
O9.5 Ib
1.8
O7 Ve
4.6
O7
5.0
O9 Ib
4.4
O4 I f(n) p
2.3
O9.5 V n
2.6
O7 III n(f)
5.0
Two other Orion stars - (Alnilam), and - (Saiph), are classified as B0, just scarcely missing
the O-Class. Significantly fainter, but also much further distant, is the multiple Trapezium
star 1 Ori. Its C-component 1 Ori C is a spectral type O6pe V and plays a key role for the
ionisation of central parts in the Orion nebula M42.
This striking accumulation of extremely massive stars known as so-called
OB Associations is not yet fully understood. Other slightly smaller clusters are located in
the constellation Scorpion, Perseus and Swan. Together with other groups, they form the
so-called "Gould Belt", (discovered by Benjamin Gould 1879) which is inclined some 20 to
the galactic plane and has a diameter of about 2,000 ly. Our Sun is located somewhat offcentre but still roughly within the ring plane [700] [700a].
27
8.2 Parameters of the Early to Late O-Class Stars

The following table shows the data exclusively for the Main Sequence Stars of the O-class
compared to the Sun () and according to [701] and other sources. Especially for the lower
temperature limit, and even between reputable sources, are to find here clear differences in
the published values (see also [30]).
Mass
M/M
60 20
Stay on Main
Sequence [y]
1M 10M
Temperature photosphere [K]

50,000 25,000
Radius
R/R
15 9
Luminosity L/L
800,000 90,000
The O-class is open-ended. Currently, the top ranking is O3 with a surface temperature of
about 50,000 K [1]. The late O9 class has been subdivided into decimal subclasses.
8.3 Spectral Characteristics of the O-Class

Spectra of the O-class are dominated by relatively low intense absorptions of singly or multiply ionised elements. The extremely high temperatures cause in addition to neutral helium
He I, also lines of ionised helium (He II). In the early O-classes He II may also appear as
emission line. In earlier times the appearance of He II in the spectrum was used as the main
criterion for the definition of the O-class [2]. Today, in higher-resolved spectra, it can be detected already in the B0 class. Further appear also multiply ionised metals, as C III, N III, [O
III] and Si IV. Due to the extreme temperatures, the degree of ionisation is here too high for
the H-Balmer Series and their line intensity therefore only weak [30]. If H-lines appear in
emission, the suffix "e" is added to the class letter (Oe). If He and/or N are seen in emission, the suffix "f" is added. Of stars seem to form the link between the O-Class and the
Wolf-Rayet Stars, probably also to the LBV stars (see sect. 9/11).
The maximum intensity of the real continuum is in the UV range. The graph shows the theoretical continuum for a synthetic O9V standard star (Vspec Tools/Library).
8.4 General Remarks to the Classification of O-Stars

In no other spectral class, even among reputable databases, such different classifications
can be found as in the O-class. Perhaps this can also be justified by the typically highly variable spectral features. This particularly affects the suffixes. But even by the decimal subclasses we see significant differences. Further in the early O-classes indications for the luminosity class are often missing.
28
8.5 Commented Spectra

Table 1: Alnitak ( Ori) and Mintaka ( Ori)
This table shows two broadband spectra (200L grating) providing an
overview on the spectral features of the late O-class.
Alnitak (1200 ly) belongs to the spectral class O9.5 Ib, representing the
lower level of the so-called Supergiants. The Wikipedia picture shows the
size of the star compared to the Sun.
Mintaka (1200 ly) is classified slightly below with O9.5 II (Bright Giant). Both stars are
dominant components in multiple star systems and their surface temperature is about
25,000 K. In spite of the minimal class difference even in these low-resolution spectra,
some differences can be observed (see comment below).
Table 2: Detailed spectrum of Alnitak ( Ori)
This table shows for Alnitak (1200 ly), a late O-Type star, two higher resolved spectra in the blue- and red wavelength domains (900L grating).
Here, the main distinguishing feature between the two spectra of Table 1
is clearly visible. The H line at 6562 forms here a textbook example of
a P-Cygni profile with a red shifted emission- and a blue-shifted absorption line. This is always an indication for radially ejected matter by the
star, a common process for some members of this extreme stellar class.
The wavelength shift results here to about 7 . According to the Doppler
law this yields a gas-expansion velocity 63 320 78/9.
63 =
;
=
;
; = Wavelength of the line, = = 300> 000 78/9 (speed of light)

For further information, refer to Table 13 for P Cygni or [30].
Line identification:
The line identification is based amongst others on [1], [5], [51], [56], [57]
Table 3: 1Ori C, HD37022 mV =+5.13m
and 68 Cygni
HD203064 mV =+5.04m
This table shows two apparently faint representatives of the early to mid-O-class, which are
easily accessible for the averagely equipped amateur (200L grating).
1Ori C (~1400 ly) is the brightest component of the
B HD37021
famous Trapezium in M42. This stellar giant with its
Main Stars
B1V
Trapezium Cluster
ever-changing spectral characteristics is being investigated intensively. The interferometric study [351] proN
vides a good overview on these efforts. The data conD HD37023
cerning the spectral type show a wide variation range
B0.5V
W
A HD37020
eg O4O6 pv [500], O5O7 [351] or O6 [506]. DeB0.5V
pending on the source the stellar mass is estimated to
about 31-34 solar masses. Like nearly all other stars of
C HD37022
the Trapezium, also 1Ori C has at least one companO6
ion of spectral type O9.5, maybe also B0, with an orbital period of about 11 years. Recently, still another, very closely orbiting companion, with
about one solar mass and a period of ~ 50 days is presumed. The data for the surface temperature vary approximately in the range of the proposed spectral types between 39'000K
and 45'000K. The C- component generates some 80% of the total amount of photons
[223], exciting the H II region of the Orion Nebula (see Tables 80/80A)!
29
Most of the absorption lines appear here similar to those of Alnitak and Mintaka. H is striking, because the emission line, generated in the surrounding nebula, grows out of a broad,
photospheric absorption dip of the star. The two [O III] emissions must be generated by the
surrounding nebula, because the hot and dense stellar atmospheres can impossibly generate "forbidden" lines. The H emission is produced by the recombination of the encircling H
II region, totally veiling here the stellar line (sect. 28).
It is strongly recommended to record 1Ori C with autoguiding to ensure the tracking on
the correct trapezium star. The orientation of the slit axis should be optimised accordingly.
The sketch above should facilitate the orientation. The exposure time for the profile in Table
3 is 340 seconds.
68 Cygni (~2300 ly) is surrounded by the weakly developed H II region Sharpless 119. It is
the brightest of total 6 ionising stars. Most of the sources classify this star with 30 solar
masses and a surface temperature of about 35'000K as O7 III n (f) [505]. Of stars are
considered as a transitional phase on the way to Wolf Rayet stars and show eg He and N
lines in emission - a clear indication that material is repelled. As classification lines for the
Of-type the blends N III 46344042 and He II 4686 are used [2]. Since only N III appears here in emission, 68 Cygni is considered as a "mild" Of star, and the suffix "f" is
therefore set in parentheses (f) [2]. In the intensive Of -phase both features, N III and He II,
show up in emission. Compared to the O9-types the C IV lines ( 5801/5812) are quite
intensive here. This indicates that 68 Cygni, as well as 1 Ori C, are stars of the rather early
O-class. C IV requires with 47.9 eV almost twice the ionisation energy as He II.
According to [505] 68 Cygni passed about 1959-70 a phase with H in emission. Because
of the high proper motion, it is regarded as so called "runaway star" and originates probably
from the OB2 region of Cepheus. As a possible scenario, the acceleration by the supernova
explosion of a companion star is discussed. Perhaps the remaining black hole with ~3
M still orbits around the star very closely. Observed fluctuations of equivalent widths at
certain spectral lines indicate a possible orbital period of about 5 days. The prior information is mainly based on [352].
He I 6678.15
H 6562.82
Telluric O2
O III 5592.37
He II 5411.52
He I 5047.74
He I 5015.68
Interstellar
Interstellar
Alnitak Ori O9.5 Ib
Na I 5889/95
He I 5875.6
Mintaka Ori O9.5 II
He I 4921.93
H 4861.33
He I 4713.15
C III 4647 /51
He II 4541.59
He I 4471.48
He I 4387.9
H 4340.47
He II/N lll 4200
He I 4025.5
H 3970.07
I=0.7
He I 4143.76
H 4101.74
I=0.7
TABLE 1
30
31
He I 6678.15
TABLE 2
He I 4713.15
He II 4685.68
H 6562.82
C III 4647 - 51
N ll/Nlll 4630-34
OII 4609/10 V
O II 4596.17
O II 4590.97
Si III 4574.78
Si III 4567.87
Si III 4552.65
He II 4541.59
N III 4511/15
Mg ll 4481
He I 4471.48
O II 4416.98
O II 4414.91
O II 4366.9 V
H 4340.47
O II 4315/17
O II 4302.81 V
O II 4276-95
O II 4254
He II/N lll 4200

O II 4185.46
Fe ll 4151.6 V
He I 4143.76
Telluric O2
Alnitak Ori O9.5 Ib
He I 4387.9
N III 4379.09
He I 4120.81
Si IV 4116.1
H 4101.74
N II 5932/42
Si IV 4088.86
O II 4070
Na I 5895.92
Na I 5889.95
He I 5876.0
O II 4075.87
He I 4025.5
He I 4009.27
N ll 3995
O II 3983
H 3970.07
I=0.6
C lV 5812.14
C lV 5801.51
I=0.6
He l/O lII 3962/65
Interstellar
32
TABLE 3
He I 6678.15
H 6562.82
C lV 5812.14
C lV 5801.51
O III 5592.37
He II 5411.52
He I 5047.74
He I 5015.68
He I 4921.93
H 4861.33
He I 4713.15
He II 4685.68
N III 4634-42
He II 4541.59
N III 4511/15
He I 4471.48
He I 4387.9
H 4340.47
68 Cygni O7III n(f)
C III 5696
Interstellar
N II 5932/42
O6 pv
He I 5875.6
Interstellar
1 Ori C
Na I 5889/95
Emission lines Orion Nebula M42
Telluric O2
C III 4647 /51

N V 4604-4620
Diffuse ISM Band
O II 4276-95
I=0.8
I=0.8
He II/N lll 4200
He I 4143.76
H 4101.74
He I 4025.5
H 3970.07
H8 3889.05
H9 3835.38
33
Wolf Rayet Stars
9.1 Overview
The French astronomers Charles Wolf and Georges Rayet discovered in 1867 very rare
stars, whose spectra are standing out by massively broadened, intense helium emission
lines and the almost complete absence of hydrogen. These objects are grouped in an extra
class, marking the final stage of massive O-type stars approx. 25 M. Below this mass
limit of <25 M, the SN explosion takes place directly at the end of the Red Giant stage,
without to pass a subsequent WR phase.
On the northern hemisphere mainly in the constellation Cygnus, a concentration of such
extreme stars can be found, which are members of the Cygnus OB associations. Here some
23 WR stars are located 14 are classified as WN-type, 8 as WC-, and just one as WOtype (WR 142). The two brightest ones reach an apparent magnitude in the range of 67m
and are therefore well accessible with a slit spectrograph, even for moderately sized amateur telescopes. By chance they just represent the two main types WN and WC.
At the begin of the WR phase, the star blasts away its entire outer hydrogen shell by a huge
stellar wind with velocities of up to 2000 km/s (see Tables 87, 88). On the further path to
the SN of the category 1b or 1c (sect. 25), similar to the peeling of an onion, also the layers
of the stellar core are removed from the top down. This causes an annual mass loss rate of
about 105 to 104 M [236]. On the surface of the star the extremely hot, former nuclear
H- and He fusion zones become exposed where, in addition to helium, the metals C, N, and
O have been formed. The total duration of the entire WR stage is estimated to be about
200,000 years [238].
9.2 Spectral Characteristics and Classification

Therefore, the spectrum differs now completely from the previous O-class stage. The broad
lines of ionised helium He ll appear now together with the emissions of highly ionised C, N,
or O depending on the currently exposed surface layer of the former H and He fusion
layers [236]. These metals determine the classification of the WR stars and their high stage
of ionisation is an indicator of the involved, extremely high temperatures and the corresponding excitation energies (see table sect. 34). Similar to the other spectral types also
the WR stars are subdivided into decimal subclasses.
WN:
WC:
WO:
WR stars with nitrogen emissions (Late subtypes WNL with H-lines; Early subtypes
WNE without H-lines [236])
WR with carbon emissions (by partial helium fusion [236])
WR with oxygen emissions (by complete helium fusion, very rare[236]).
Limited to the very early stages of the WR evolution, the H-Balmer series of the not yet
completely repelled hydrogen shell, can still be detected exclusively within blends at the
very late WN (WNL) types [2] [236].
In the later stages of WR-development, the "early" WC subclasses show, though still
weakly, the highly ionised oxygen O VI doublet at 3811/3834.
In the final WO phase, this O VI doublet appears strongly developed, together with other,
highly ionised oxygen emissions (Table 6). Pure WO stars are extremely rare and the corresponding final phase probably very short in addition associated with a significant X-ray
radiation.
34
9.3 Classification System for WR Stars in the Optical Spectral Range

The following tables show, according to [232], the Smith classification-system (1968) for
the decimal subclasses based on the ionisation stage and the intensity of dedicated emission lines. This system was amended by many authors, including K. van der Hucht et al
[232]. The subtypes are here sorted so, that the age and temperature of the individual WRstages increase from top to bottom. Within each WR subclass the development takes place
against the "semantic logic", ie from "late" to "early".
WN
Nitrogen Emission Lines
Other Emission Criteria
Temp.
WN11
WN10
WN9
WN8
WN7
WN6
WN5
WN4.5
WN4
WN3
WN2.5
WN2
N II He II, N III weak or absent

N III N II
N III > N II, N IV absent
N III >> N IV, N III He II 4686
N III > N IV, N III < He II 4686
N III N IV, N V present but weak
N III N IV N V
N IV > N V, N III weak or absent
N IV N V, N III weak or absent
N IV << N V, N III weak or absent
N V present, N IV absent
N V weak or absent
Balmer lines, He I P-Cyg

Balmer lines, He I P-Cyg
He I P-Cyg
He I strong P-Cyg
He I weak P-Cyg
WN11: 30kK
WN8: 40kK
WN2: 100kK
[234]
WC
Carbon Emission Lines
Temp.
WC9
WC8
WC7
WC6
WC5
WC4
C III > C IV
C III > C IV
C III < C IV
C III << C IV
C III << C IV
C IV strong, C II weak or absent
C II present, O V weak or absent

C II absent, O V weak or absent
C III >> O V
C III > O V
C III < O V
O V moderate intensity
WC9: 50kK
WC8: 70kK
WC4: >>100kK
[234]
WO
Oxygen Emission Lines
Temp.
WO4
WO3
WO2
WO1
O VII weak or absent

O VII < O V
O VII O V, O VIII present
C IV >> O VI, C III absent

C IV O VI, C III absent
C IV < O VI, C III absent
C III absent
~200kK
He II strong
Classification Lines:
WN Stars: He I 3888, He I 4027, He I 4471, He I 4921, He I 5875, He II 4200, He II
4340, He II 4541, He I 4686, He II 4861, He II 5411, He II 6560, N II 3995, N III
46344641, N III 5314, N IV 4058, N V 4603, N V 4619, and N V 49334944.
WC Stars: C II 4267, C III 5696, C III/C IV 4650, C IV 580112, and
O V 557298.
WO Stars: C IV 580112, O V 557298, O VI 381134, O VII 5670, and
O VIII 6068.
35
9.4 The WR-Phase in the Stellar Evolution

Crowther et al. has postulated three different evolutionary scenarios for WR stars, as a
function of the initial stellar mass ?@, [234].
?@ > 75 M
O > WNL > LBV > WNE > WC > SN Type Ic
40 M < ?@ < 75 M
O > LBV > WNE > WC >WO > SN Type Ic
25 M < ?@ < 40 M
O > LBV/RSG > WNE > WC > SN Type Ib
According to [234] the evolutionary role of the LBV phase (sect. 11) is not yet clear and
may possibly be skipped in some cases. Unsure also appears in which cases a WO stage is
passed before the final SN.
The HST image (NASA) shows the star WR 124 located in
the constellation Arrow. With the very late spectral class
WN8 it is still at the very beginning of the WR stage. Just
about 10,000 years ago, he started to repel its hydrogen
envelope with a stellar wind of about 2000 km/s.
In the southern sky, some 1100 ly distant, Velorum, alias
WR 11, with the spectral class WC8, is much more advanced than WR 124. It has repelled its hydrogen envelope
since a very long time and is therefore no longer visible as a
WR nebula. With an apparent brightness of 1.74m it is the
by far brightest representative of all WR stars.
Such bizarre stellar monsters" with originally about 2580 solar masses and surface temperatures of 30,000100,000 K, will end up in a final cataclysmic SN explosion and the
small remains will most probably implode in to a Black Hole. This event will be accompanied by a high-energy Gamma-Ray Burst, emitted in both directions of the stellar rotation
axis (sect. 25).
9.5 Analogies and Differences to the Planetary Nebulae

Also the by far smaller central stars of Planetary Nebulae PN repel their shells (sect. 28).
During their final stage, they show similar spectra, which are also classified as WR types
(WRPN). However, their absolute magnitude and mass is significantly lower and they finally
end up, much less spectacular, as White Dwarfs (see sect. 24 and 28).
9.6 Commented Spectra of the WR Classes WN, WC and WO

Table 5: Wolf-Rayet Stars WR 133 and WR 140
The montage of two overview spectra (200L grating) presents the subtypes WN and WC of
Wolf-Rayet Stars.
WR 133 spectral class WN4:
HD 190918
J2000 RA: 20h 05 57.3 Dec: +35 47 18.2
mV =+6.78m
Some 6,500 ly distant, the very well explored WR 133 in the constellation Cygnus hides itself inconspicuously within the central
members of the open cluster NGC 6871. Despite to the use of
"Goto Telescopes" here is a certain risk to record the wrong star
what will be instantly recognisable in the spectrum. In particular,
the bright He II "emission knots" can hardly be overlooked.
WR133
36
WR 133 forms a spectroscopic binary (SB2) with an O9 l Supergiant in an orbital period of

about 112 days. Therefore, we see a composite spectrum, which is however clearly dominated by the emission lines of the WR star (labelled red in Table 5). Striking here are the
numerous lines of differently high ionised nitrogen, responsible for the classification WN.
However one faint carbon emission shows up here, C IV at 5801-12 [230]. This spectral
feature is significantly weaker, compared to the WC type WR 140 (see below).
The very close-by O9 companion star generates here some absorptions of helium- and
some H-Balmer lines (labelled black in Table 5), as well as the sodium double line, which is
of interstellar origin [344]. In sect. 28.12 the same classified WR 7 is presented as ionising
source of NGC 2359, showing a "pure" WN 4 spectrum (see Table 88). The continuum is
here, in comparison to WR 140 (presented below), relatively intense. The strong He II
emission at 6560 poses a considerable risk to be misinterpreted as H line at 6562!
The most intense line here is clearly He II at 4686. The expansion velocity of the stellar
wind can be estimated from the FWHM values of the two intense He II emissions. If these
figures are put in to the Doppler formula and the results are finally corrected by the instrumental broadening [30], velocities of 63 1800 78/9 at 4686 and 63 1500 78/9 at
6560 are resulting. In the order of magnitude, these figures agree quite well with literature
values (63 < 2000 78/9). The spectrum was recorded with the 90 cm (36 inch) CEDES Cassegrain Telescope in Falera exposure: 4x30 sec. The line identification is based amongst
others on [230] [231] [232] [233] [344].
WR 140 spectral class WC7:
J2000 RA: 20h 20 28
HD 193793
Dec: +43 51 16.3
mV =+6.93m
Also located in the constellation Cygnus and some 4,700 ly distant, WR140 is a member of a spectroscopic binary (SB2) with
an O4 V Main Sequence Star in a highly excentric orbit with a
period of some 2,900 days. During the Periastron passages this
binary system usually attracts the worldwide attention of professional- and amateur astronomers, mainly observing effects,
caused by the colliding stellar winds (colliding wind binary)
[346] [347].The map shows the star pattern in the immediate
vicinity of the WR star. Its relatively isolated and therefore
much easier to find than WR 133.
WR 140
This composite spectrum is clearly dominated by the WR star. One of the reasons is presumably the time of the last Periastron passage of January 2009. At the time of recording it
dated already back more than 1 years. In contrast to the very close binary system WR
133, absorption lines are barely visible here, besides the well known telluric lines and the
double line of sodium. The latter is certainly of interstellar origin. The numerous different
lines of highly ionised carbon show clearly, that WR 140, with the classification WC7, is a
representative of the carbon type among the WR stars. Nitrogen is not detectable. The intense C III/C IV emission at 4650 is blended with the He II line at 4686. This feature is
even the most striking of the spectrum, followed by the C IV emission line at 5801-12 and
the C lll "hump" at 5696. The He II emission at 6560 is relatively weak. The spectrum
was recorded with the Celestron C8 exposure: 10x90 sec. The line identification is based
amongst others on [230] [231] [232] [233] [344].
37
Table 6: Wolf-Rayet Stars WR 136 and WR 142

The montage of the two broadband spectra (200L grating) allows
for the WR sequence the direct comparison of the early stage
WN with the final stage WO, shortly before the final SN explosion.
WR 136 spectral class WN6:
J2000 RA: 20h 12 07
HD192163
Dec: +38 21 18
mV =+7.65m
In a distance of about 4,700 light years, located in the constellation Cygnus, WR 136 belongs to the Cygnus OB1 association.
With 55> 000 F [239], it forms the origin and ionising
source of the elliptical shaped Crescent emission nebula
NGC 6888 (see Table 87). Within about 30,000 years this repelled hydrogen shell has expanded to ~16 x 25 ly [237] and is still visible. Therefore WR
136 is at the beginning of the WR sequence, whose duration is estimated to be about
200'000 500,000 years [237]. The velocity of the stellar wind is 63 1700 78/9 [232]. It
generates the visible shock wave (NGC 6888) by collision with interstellar matter, which
still propagates with about 75 km/s [240]. WR 136 has no proven companion star (image:
Wikipedia, M. Schopfer).
The spectrum is dominated by numerous striking He II emissions. The
more intense of them belong to the so-called Pickering Series, which
was discovered in 1896 by E. Pickering (see table). Towards shorter
wavelengths it shows a similar decrement, ie intensity loss, like the
Balmer Series of hydrogen (sect. 28.2). Further some of these He II
emissions are located very close to the H-Balmer lines. If hydrogen is
present in the spectrum, this becomes evident in the blends with the
He II lines, whose peaks then clearly exceed the decrement line of the
Pickering Series [2]. At WR 136, hydrogen is theoretically detectable
at ; G (H [239]. The spectrum was recorded with Celestron C8/Atik
314L+/6x120 seconds.
The line identification is here based on [230] [231] [232] [233] [237]
[238] [239].
WR 142 spectral class WO2:
Sand 5 (Sanduleak 1971)
J2000 RA: 20h 21 44.35 Dec: +37 22 31
Balmer
HI
Pickering
He II
6563
6560
5412
4861
4859
4542
4340
4339
4200
4102
4100
ST3 (Stephenson 1966)
mV =+13.82m [232] +13.4m [241]
A complete contrast to WR 136 forms the some 4,000 ly distant WR 142 in the constellation Cygnus, inconspicuously embedded in the open star cluster Berkeley 87. It is currently one
of four in the Milky Way detected, oxygen types of the WR
stage in addition to WR 142 and a recently discovered
specimen in the Scutum arm of the Milky Way [243], also WR
102 (V = 15.8m). All are very close to the end as a SN. In the
Magellanic Clouds three other WO stars have been detected.
Like most of the WO class stars also WR 142 is an active X-ray
source [241].
With mV = +13.82m WR 142 is by far the brightest WO- representative and for sure the only one, which can be recorded with
a DADOS/C8 setup.
WR142
38
Five of these WO stars are numbered with Sand 1... 5, named after Nicholas Sanduleak,
who was looking with objective prism for these exotic stars in the 70s of the 20th century. These extremely rare and highly interesting objects are well researched and documented.
Compared to WR 136, WR 142 shows mainly extremely broad and highly ionised emissions of oxygen. These obviously exorbitant amounts of energy, generated in the final stage
of a WO star, can be estimated wit help of the detected ionisation stages. The required energy to ionise oxygen to the stage O VI is 113.9 eV (Table sect. 34). This is as much as 4.6fold to generate He II and 8.3-fold to ionise hydrogen H II. In addition to the extremely high
temperatures, this is also caused due to the photoionisation by X-ray sources [235].
The Doppler analysis of the line widths obtained here stellar wind speeds of about 3600 up
to >5000 km/s, after all some 30 50% of the radial velocity of a typical SN explosion(see sect. 25) or ~1.6% of the speed of light! Suitable for own measurements is the relatively isolated, unblended O VI line at 5290.
The spectrum was recorded with Celestron C8/Atik 314L+/4x1300 seconds, 2x2 binned.
The line identification is here based on [242] [243] [2].
39
TABLE 5
C lll 7037
N V 7102 - 29
Telluric O2 6870
Telluric O2 6870
He ll 6560.1
He ll 6560.1
WR 140 HD 193793 WC 7
WR 133 HD190918
WN 4
Telluric
Na l5890/96
He l 5875
C lV 5801-12
He ll 5411.52
Telluric
Na l5890/96
C lV 5801 - 12
C lll 5696
N V 4933/44
H 4861.33
He ll 4685.7
Clll / ClV 4650
He ll 4685.7
N V 4619.4
N V 4603.2
He l 4471
I=0.7
N lll 4097
N lV 4057.8
He l 4026.2
H 3970.1
H8 3889.1
I=0.7
H 4340.47
40
TABLE 6
N IV 7103 - 29
ClV 7062
He ll 6890.88
Telluric O2 6870
He ll 6683.2
He ll 6560.1
He ll 6525/6560
He ll 6406.3 V
WO 2
O VI 6202
WR 142
Sand 5
ClV 5801 -12
O V 5597/5600
O VI 5362
O VI 5290
He ll 6310.8 V
WR 136 HD192163 WN 6
Telluric
He ll 6233.8 V
He l 5875.62
C lV 5801 - 12
He ll 5411.52
N IV 5200 - 05
N V 4933/44
+H
He ll 4859.32
He ll 4685.7
He ll 4685.7
ClV 4658.3
O V 4498/4523
N III 4634 - 40
He ll 4541.59
+H
He ll 4338.67
O V 4179/ 4211
O V 4120 - 51
O VI 3811/3834
He ll 4199.83
+H
He ll 4100.04
N lV 4057.8
He ll 4025.6
He ll 3968.43
He l 3888.65
41
10 Spectral Class B
10.1 Overview
Below the extreme O-category seamlessly follows the B-class. Several of the bright Orion
stars are early B0-types and differ therefore from the above presented late O9.5 stars, only
by small nuances within the spectral profiles. These blue-white luminous B-stars are less
massive and hot and therefore living much longer. Further they are much more numerous,
dominating a considerable part of the brighter constellations. Here some examples: all
bright members of the Pleiades (see sect. 27.6), all the bright Orion stars except Alnitak,
Mintaka and Betelgeuse, all bright stars in the head of the Scorpion, except the reddish
Antares. Further mentionable are Regulus, Spica, Alpheratz, and the weaker blue component of the well known double star Albireo B (B8V). Even the famous, unstable giant P
Cygni, as well as most of the Be- and Be-Shell stars (Tables 14 15) are members of the Bclass.
10.2 Parameters of the Early to Late B-Class Stars

The following table shows the data, exclusively valid for the Main Sequence Stars of the
B-class, compared to the Sun () and according to [701] and other sources (*). Here, the
enormous spread becomes evident, covered by this class from the B0B9 types. Particularly impressive is the difference in the luminosity that is about a factor of 550! The huge
luminosity is one of the reasons, why the some 1000 ly distant, mostly early B-class stars in
the Orion constellation, are able to show such a great brightness. Within this class, in the
range of about 810 solar masses, its decided whether single stars explode as a SN or end
up as White Dwarfs.
Mass
M/M
18 3
Stay on Main
Sequence [y]
10M 400M
Temperature
photosphere [K]
25,000 (*) 10,500
Radius
R/R
8.4 3.0
Luminosity L/L
52,000 95
10.3 Spectral Characteristics of the B-Class

This class is characterised by the absorption lines of neutral helium, He I, reaching their
maximum intensity at about class B2 and weakening downwards the subclasses to B9. Further dominating are spectral lines of singly ionised metals O II, Si II, Mg II. Towards later
subclasses, the Fraunhofer K line of Ca II becomes faintly visible and the H-Balmer series
gets significantly stronger. Due to lower temperatures and thereby decreasing degree of
ionisation the simply ionised He II is only visible in the top B0 subclass, but limited here to
the Main Sequence Stars of the luminosity class V. Absorption lines of higher ionised silicon
Si III and Si IV appear until down to type B2.
Higly abundant in the Bclass are so called "Fast Rotators". Such stars with high rotation
speed (about 150400 km/s) influence the appearance of the spectrum significantly. For
details, see the comments to the tables below.
The maximum intensity of the real continuum is still in the UV range, but with a significantly
higher share in the visible spectrum. The following graph shows the theoretical continuum
for a B6 IV standard star (Vspec Tools/Library). Marked with a red arrow is here the small
kink of the emerging but still very weak Fraunhofer K-line of singly ionised calcium Ca II.
42
K-Linie Ca ll

Table 10: Alnilam ( Ori) and Gienah Corvi ( Crv)
The development of the B-subclasses is demonstrated here by a montage of two overview
spectra (200L grating) representing an early and late subtype.
Alnilam (1200 ly) belongs to the spectral class B0 Iab, and is a so-called Supergiant. The
surface temperature is about 25,000 K. The star ejects permanently matter, visible here by
the somewhat stunted P Cygni profile of the H line. About this detail, a PhD thesis exists
[340], which analyses a time series of the line-profile change. For more information, refer
to Table 13, P Cygni.
Gienah Corvi (165 ly) is classified with B8lllp Hg Mn. Its in the Giant stage and shows
overabundances of mercury Hg and manganese Mn (at this resolution not visible in the profile). For a giant, it has a remarkably high apparent rotation speed of some 150 km/s [506].
This flattens the spectral lines, as the following example of Regulus will show more detailed. According to [506] this effect explains why the overabundances of some metals
have been discovered here so late.
The comparison of these spectra clearly demonstrates the remarkable change in the spectra within the enormous span from the early to the late B-Class. The He I lines of Gienah
Corvi are only very faint. Moreover, they are now blended by numerous, still weak, singly
ionised or even neutral metal absorptions, such as Fe I/II, Mg II, Ca I/II. These lines appear
very diffuse, additionally flattened by the enormous rotation speed. Clearly visible however
is the striking increase in the intensity of the H-Balmer series towards the late subclasses.
Here appears, for the first time and tentatively only, the Fraunhofer K-line, Ca II at 3933.
The remarkable small kink in the continuum peak between H and H8, will grow dramatically within the following A-class and becomes the most dominant spectral feature for the
middle- to late spectral types! Their "twin-sister", the Fraunhofer H-line at 3968, has still
no chance to compete against the strong Balmer absorption line H at 3970.
He I 6678.15
TABLE 10
43
H 6562.82
Telluric O2
He I 5047.74
He I 5015.68
Fe ll 4923.92
He I 4921.93
H 4861.33
He I 4713.15
C III 4647 - 51
OII 4590/96
Si III 4567.87
Si III 4552.65
He I 4471.48
OII 4415/17
He I 4387.9
H 4340.47
OII 4276 - 95
Fe l/ll 4383/84
Fe ll 4233/34
Ca l 4226.73
Fe ll 4172/78
I=0.7
OII 4185/90
He I 4143.76
H 4101.74
He I 4025.5
H 3970.07
Ca II 3933.66
I=0.5
He II 5411.52
Gienah Corvi Crv

B8lllp Hg Mn
O III 5592.37
N II 5932/42
Alnilam Ori B0 Iab
Na I 5895.92 Interstellar
Na I 5889.95
He I 5876
44
Table 11: Effect of the luminosity on spectra of the B-class: Regulus ( Leo), Sagittarii
and Rigel ( Ori).
Regulus (77 ly) is classified as B7V and is, like our Sun, as socalled Dwarf still remaining on the Main Sequence of the HRD.
Its the dominant component of a quadruple star system with a
surface temperature at the poles of about 15,000 K. Its very
high apparent rotation speed at the equator is about 315
km/s, which is not exceptional for stars of the late B-class. Albireo B (B8Ve) for example has an apparent rotational speed
of some 250 km/s [506]. Thereby the spectral lines of Regulus
are strongly widened and the star itself gets impressively flattened. (Computer drawing by W. Huang: Regulus in size compared to the Sun). The H line is already well developed in this late B-class.
Sagittarii (230 ly) is classified with B8lll and therefore a so-called Normal Giant. Its surface temperature is about 12,300 K and the apparent rotation speed is indicated by Kaler
[506] with relatively low 52 km/s. This has hardly a noticeable influence on the line width
in this spectrum.
Rigel (800 ly) is classified as B8 lab, belonging to the Supergiants. It has a small companion, which is even visible in amateur telescopes, but hardly affects this spectrum of medium
resolution (Photo NASA). The surface temperature is about
11,500 K. The apparent rotation speed is indicated in the range
of about 4060 km/s, depending on the info source.
The comparison of these three spectra, equally normalised,
shows a clear decrease of the width and intensity of the
H-Balmer lines with increasing luminosity. Conversely to this,
the metal lines in the giants become more intense and narrower
at the same time, caused by the less dense stellar atmosphere and thus a lower pressureand collision broadening. For the Regulus spectrum, an additional role plays the so-called
rotational broadening. With its apparent rotation speed of 315 km/s its a real Fast rotator. This value is about 5 6 times higher than by Rigel and Sagittarii. Due to this effect
particularly the fine metal lines of the Regulus spectrum become additionally broadened
and their intensity considerably reduced.
F. Royer [401] has shown this effect in a chart for the A-class stars and the Mg II line at
4481 (marked in Table 11 with a red ellipse). Due to this effect, the absorption lines of
Regulus become additionally ironed out. Remarkable that the Mg II line in Table 11 shows
a slightly different behaviour than the directly adjacent He l absorption at 4471.
Caveat: This synthetic spectrum is calculated for a much higher resolution than shown in
Table 11. Therefore the lines appear in the DADOS spectrum considerably wider, as a result
of the greater instrumental broadening!
45
Fe ll 4583.99
Fe ll 4549
Effect of the luminosity on spectra of the B-class
Mg ll 4481.33
He I 4471.48
He I 4387.93
Fe ll 4351.8
H 4340.47
Fe ll 4303.17 V
C ll 4267.27
Fe ll 4233/34
Fe ll 4179
Fe ll 4172.45
He I 4143.76
Si l 4130.89
Si l 4128.07
He I 4120.81
H 4101.74
Ti ll 4054
Fe l 4046
He I 4026
He I 4009.27
H 3970.07
Ca ll 3933.66
Fe ll 4522.63
Rigel
Sgr
Regulus
Regulus Leo B7 V
Fe ll 4629.34
Sagittarius B8 lll
He I 4713.15
Rigel Ori B8 Iab
TABLE 11
46
Table 12: Detailed spectrum of Spica ( Vir)

Overview spectrum (200L grating) and higher resolved profiles (900L grating)
Spica (260 ly) is a spectroscopic binary with an orbital period of about four days. The dominant A-component is in the Giant stage and has a surface temperature of about 22,000 K,
corresponding to the spectral type B1 III-IV. The smaller B-component with the spectral
type B2V is still on the Main Sequence and with a temperature of about 18,500 K significantly less hot and luminous. This very close orbit of the two stars causes, due to the Doppler effect, a periodic splitting of spectral lines (SB2 system), which is not recognisable in
these profiles here. Ionised helium He II is here no more recognisable however still several
absorption lines of multiply ionised metals.
The line identification is based amongst others on [1], [51], [56], [57]
47
TABLE 12
He I 6678.15
H 6562.82
He I 4713.15
H 6562.82
O II 4676.23
Telluric O2
I=0.6
C III 4647 /51

O ll 4639 - 52
Si III 4591/96
Si III 4574.78
Si III 4567.87
Si III 4552.65
Na I 5895.92
Na I 5889.95
He I 5876
Spica Vir
B1III-IV+B2V
Mg ll 4481.13
He I 4471.48
N lI 4447.03
He I 4437.55
O II 4416.98
O II 4414.91
Na I 5895.92
Na I 5889.95
He I 5876
He I 4387.9
O II 4366.9
H 4340.47
O II 4317/ 20
O II 4302.81 V
O II 4285.7
O II 4276.7
C lI 4267.27
O II 4253.98
Si lll 5739
I=0.6
He I 5047,74
He I 5015.67
He l 4921.93
H 4861.33
O lI 4189.79
C lll 4187
He I 4168.97
O lI 4153.3
He I 4143.76
He I 4713.15
C lll/ O ll
Si III
He I 5047,74
He I 4120.81
He I 4471.48
He I 5015.67
H 4101.74
He I 4387.9
C III/O ll 4068-76
H 4340.47
He l 4921.93
He I 4025.5
He I 4143.76
He I 4009.27
H 4101.74
He l 3926.53
I=0.5
H9 3835.38
I=0.6
H 3970.07
H8 3889.05
H 4861.33
H 3970.07
I=0.5
He I 4025.5
48
11 LBV Stars
11.1 Overview
P Cygni is one of the so-called Luminous Blue Variables (LBV), most probably progenitors of
WR stars! Its an unstable and variable Supergiant of spectral class B2 Ia pe, with a surface
temperature of about 19,000 K. Its distance is according Karkoschka some 5000 ly. What
we analyse here with our spectrographs, apparently "realtime", took therefore really place
at the end of the Neolithic period a genuine "time machine" at its best! At the beginning
of the 17th century, he showed a tremendous outburst, which is known as Nova Cygni
1600. After about six years as a star of the third magnitude, the brightness decreased to
<5 m. Apart from a few minor episodic outbursts, the luminosity increased again in the 18th
century, until it reached the current, slightly variable value of about +4.7 m to +4.9m.
11.2 Spectral Characteristics

P Cygni is the prototype for the already presented P Cygni profiles in Table 2 (Alnitak) and
Table 10 (Alnilam). Such spectral features are found in nearly all spectral classes and are a
reliable sign for a huge amount of radially ejected matter by the star. Not surprisingly this
effect is sometimes also visible in the spectra of Novae and Supernovae.
The chart below shows how the resulting P Cygni profiles are generated. The left image
shows parts of the expanding star shell, taken with the Coronograph of the HST. The star in
the center is covered thereby. In the direction of the blue arrow a small part of the expanding shell of gas moves right in our direction, so the resulting absorption lines appear blue
shifted by the Doppler Effect. The red arrows symbolise the light, generated by the ionised
shell areas, ejected sideways, and therefore are visible as emission lines.
direction to earth
In the case of an expansion both phenomena cause now the resulting layout of the spectral
line with a blue-shifted absorption part, which transits continuously into the mostly more
intensive, red shifted emission peak. As already demonstrated in Table 2 and in [30], the
difference ; between the two peaks enables the estimation of the expansion velocity of
the shell (here some 200 km/s).
In the case of a contraction the absorption part is redshifted (see eg. sect. 14, Table 18).
49
H Line P Cygni (900L):
H Emisssion
He I 6678.15
He I 6678.15
H Absorption
H EmisssionH Absorption
The "original" P Cygni star shows a highly impressive H

emission line. Therefore the other spectral features appear
strongly compressed, so they are barely recognisable. The
blue absorption part of this line is strongly stunted.
In contrast to this, the helium emission at 6678 shows
here and in the lower profile of Table 13 (900L) a textbooklike P Cygni profile the same does H in the upper profile
of Table 13 (200L). To show the other lines, overprinting
here the telluric absorptions, the profiles in Table 13 are
strongly zoomed in the vertical intensity axis. The top of the
H emission is therefore cut. Noteworthy, that the continuum appears significantly elevated in an area of some 100
around H.

Table 13: Overview and detailed spectrum of P Cygni (34 Cyg)
Overview spectrum (200L grating, recorded September 16, 2009) and a higher resolved
profile around the H line (900L grating, recorded June 22, 2010). The line identification is
based on [341].
Table 13 A: Detailed spectrum of P Cygni (34 Cyg)
Higher resolved profile sections (900L grating), recorded May 07, 2011) in the green and
blue area of the spectrum. The line identification in the range > 4100 is based on [341], in
the range of < 4100 according to [341a], [341b].
Remarks:
What appears in these profiles as absorptions turns out at a higher resolution in most cases
as emission lines or P Cygni profiles!
Telluric O2
TABLE 13
50
He I 6678.15
H Emission
He I 6678.15
Si ll 6371.36
Si ll 6347.1
Telluric O2
N II 6610.58
C II 6582.85
C II 6578
H Emission
H Absorption
Fe lll /Si ll 5979

Fe lll/ Si ll
Ni l/Si ll
Si ll 6371.36
Si ll 6347.1
Fe lll5156.12
Si ll 5056
He l 5015.68
He l 4921.93
Telluric O2
H Emission
He l 4713.37
He l 4471.69
Fe ll/ Fe lll
H Emission
I=0.5
H Emission
I=0.5
P Cygni 34 Cyg
B2 la pe
He I 5875.6
51
Fe lll 6048
Fe lll 6033
N II 4643
N II 4631
N II 4621
N II 4614
N II 4601
Fe lll 5999
Fe lll /Si ll 5979
Fe lll/Si II 5954/58
Fe lll 5930
Si III 4575
Si III 4568
Si III 4553
Na I 5890/96
interstellar
He I 5875.6
Mg II 4481
He l 4471.69
Fe III 4431
Fe III 4420
Fe III 4396
He l 4388
O II 4353/59
O II 4346/49
N II 5667
DIB interstellar
N II 5767
N II 5747/55
N II 5711
Al III 5696
N II 5686
N II 5680
N II 5667
Si III 5740
Al III/N II 4529/30
Al III 4513
Fe ll 5546V ?
H 4340.47
Si II/Fe II 4285/87
S III 4254
N II/FeII4242/44
Fe ll 5376
Fe ll 5334
Fe lll 5272-80
FeIII/ l 5260/62V
Fe lll 5243
Fe III 4165/67
He l 4144
Fe lll 5194
He l 4121
Fe lll 5156
Fe lll 5128
H 4101.74
Fe lll 5087
Fe lll 5074
Si ll 5056
Si ll 5041
He l 5015.68
N II 4994 - 5011
NII/FeIII 4235 - 42
He l 4026
He I 4009.27
N II 3995
O II 3973
H 3970.07
He l 3965
He l 5048
He l 4921.93
N II 4895
H 481.33
Ca II 3933 interstellar
He I 3927
Si III 4813/20
H8 3889.05
I=0.5
C I 4262 ?
He l 4713.37
I=0.5
P Cygni 34 Cyg
B2 la pe
TABLE 13 A
52
12 Be Stars
12.1 Overview
Be stars form a large subgroup of the spectral class B,
and all of them show a high rotation speed. A small
number is still to find in the early A-class. These stars
are mostly located on or near the Main Sequence of
the HRD. A few Be-stars only have reached the giant
stage with an upper limit of luminosity class III. The
first Be-star, Cassiopeiae, was discovered in 1868
by Father Angelo Secchi, who wondered about the
"bright lines" in this spectrum.
Unive rsity Western Ontario
12.2 Spectral Characteristics of Be-Stars

In contrast to the stars, showing P Cygni profiles due to expanding matter (Table 13), the
Be stars develop, often just episodically, a rotating circumstellar disk of gas in the equatorial plane. The mechanism is not yet fully understood. This phenomenon is accompanied by
H l and He l emissions in the spectrum, as well as strong infrared and X-ray radiation. Outside such episodes, the star can seemingly spend a normal life in the B class. Due to the
sometimes just temporary occurrence of the Be stage, the suffix e for emission lines is
missing in some stellar classification databases, which suggests that emission lines may
occur.
12.3 Textbook Example Scorpii

The approximately 450 ly distant scorpii (Dschubba), dominant member in a quadruple
star system, has mutated since about 2000 from the B0.3 IV spectral type in to a Be-star
and developed a typical circumstellar disk of gas. The apparent rotation speed of the central star is approximately 180 km/s [505].
V peak
<
R
Normalized Intensity
The spectra in Table 14 show the state of the

gas disk at different dates. The H emission
line was taken on August 18, 2009. Its intensity is significantly lower than by P Cygni, but
although still so high, that the interesting,
much weaker double peak profile of the helium line at 6678, could be overlooked. To
make such details visible, the profiles in Table
14 are strongly zoomed in the intensity axis.
The chart shows, how this double peak arises
due to a combination of Doppler- and perspective effects. The intensities of V and R, as well
as the distance between the two peaks, inform about the apparent current state of the
disk. For detailed information with examples
and formulas refer to [30] and [31].
Continuum level Ic=1
Ic
H
Wavelegth
The main interest of the research seems to be focused on these spectral features. Anyway
even more remarkable effects are to see here. Also H shows an emission line, which
grows up here in the middle of a broad photospheric absorption line of the central star
[250]. Such spectral features are therefore called emission- or shell cores [2]. However H,
H and H appear at this resolution as "normal" absorption lines, a suggestion for amateurs,
to observe these lines with higher resolutions. Further at about 3700 the profile shows a
53
kind of double peak emission. A similar structure within this wavelength domain was commented in [702] by H.A. Abt as a "Disk Line".
12.4 Classification System for Be Stars

In Gray/Corballi [2] the seven stage classification system according to Janet Rountree Lesh
(1968) is presented. Criteria here are within the range of 3800 - 5000 (without H) the
number and intensity of the concerned H-Balmer-, as well as Fe II lines, which appear in
emission.
Classification
Standard Star
Classification Criteria
e1
66 Oph
No obvious H-Emission, week "filling-in" in the core of H
e1+
48 Per
H shows narrow emission core, but remains predominantly an

absorption line
e2
Per, 120 Tau,
H in emission, H shows week "filling-in", the higher Balmer

lines are not affected
e2+
HD 45995
H shows a week emission core, the higher Balmer lines show a

week filling-in
e3
11 Cam,
HD 58050
Complete H-emission spectrum, Fe II emissions are present
e3+
HD 41335
Fe II lines are prominent, Intensity of the H-Emissions is lower

compared to e 4 (example see Cas, Table 14A)
e4
Oph
Extreme Be Star, High Intensity of all H-Emissions, highly intensive Fe II lines

Table 14: Be- star Dschubba ( sco) B0.3 IV mV = 2.32m
Overview spectrum (200L grating) and higher resolved profiles (900L grating) around the
H and H lines, further a zoomed detail of the Helium double peak at 6678.
Table 14 A: Be- Star Tsih Cassiopeiae B0 IVe (610 ly) mV = 2.47m
Overview spectrum (200L grating). The apparent rotation speed of the central star is typically very high, ~300 km/s. The spectrum was taken on April 9, 2011. In contrast to sco
much more lines are here in emission. Some of them are caused by Fe I/Fe II (estimated
classification e3+). The He I line at 6678 is hidden within a broad absorption and barely
visible in this lowly resolved profile. The red profile represents the actual intensity ratios
with the dominant H and H emission. The blue one is strongly zoomed to make the fine
lines better visible.
TABLE 14
54
Telluric O2
He I 6678.15
H 6562.82
He I 6678.15
Telluric O2
N II 5932/42
Na I 5889.95
He I 5876
He I 4921.93
H 4861.33
He I 4713.15
C lll/ O ll/He l
I=0.5
H 6562.82
He I 4471.48
He I 4387.9
H 4340.47
He I 4921.93
H 4101.74
H 3970.07
H 4861.33
I=0.8
H8 3889.05
H9 3835.38
H10
H11
I=0.8
Dschubba Sco B0.3 lV
He I 6678.15
TABLE 14 A
He I 6678.15
H 6562.82
Telluric O2
Tsih Cas
B0 IV e
N II 5932/42
Na I 5889/95
He I 5876
Interstellar
Fe I/II 5362-65 V
Fe I/II 5317-20 V
Fe I/II 5278-80 V
Fe I/II 5230-34 V
Fe I/II 5195-96 V
Fe I/II 5168-69 V
He I 5016
He I 4922
H 4861.33
He I 4713
C lll/ O ll/He l
He I 4471
He I 4388
H 4340.47
He I 4143.76
H 4101.74
C III/O ll 4068-76
He I 4025.5
H 3970.07
55
56
13 Be Shell Stars
13.1 Overview
During the Be phase a star can pass in some cases also the extreme shell stage. In this
case it forms not only a disk, but rather a large scale, low density shell (pseudo photosphere [2]), which has similar characteristics like the photosphere of the Supergiants with
a luminosity class of approximately I-II.
13.2 Spectral Characteristics of Be Shell Stars

Accordingly, only few emission lines are showing up here, however much more very narrow
but strikingly intense absorption lines with low FWHM values. Prototype for this star category is Tauri. Also 28 Tauri (Plejone) is undergoing this extreme shell stage from time to
time (see sect. 27.6!). Sometimes the suffix pe is added to the spectral classification of
such stars.

Table 15: Comparison Be Shell star Tauri, and Be star scorpii.
Tauri (HD 37202), B4 IIIpe [505], Vvar= 2.88m 3.17m
The approximately 417 ly distant Tauri has a surface temperature of some 22,000 K. The
apparent rotation speed of the central star is some 330 km/s, which is not unusual high for
this type of star. It forms the main component of a binary system with a much smaller Bcomponent of spectral class G8III. The orbital period is some 0.36 years, the distance between the components some 1 AU. The behaviour of the spectral lines is sometimes very
volatile. According to [505] the width of the H-lines may change within some 10 minutes
not unusual for Be shell stars! The spectral class of Tauri is specified inconsistently by different data sources. So its classified by [2] with B2 IIIn shell, instead of B4 IIIpe according
to [505].
He I 6678.15
H 6562.82
The Montage of the two spectra in Table 15 shows the difference between the two stars. In
contrast to scorpii, H is the only recognisable emission line in the spectrum of Tauri
(200L grating). The following profile (900L grating) shows H as an asymmetrical double
peak emission line. Their shape can change within a very short time a highly rewarding
monitoring project for amateur astronomers!
57
Unlike to scorpii the spectrum of Tauri shows the He I line at 6678 and the H line at
4861 not as emission- but relatively intensive absorption lines. (marked in Table 15 with
red ellipses). Furthermore all absorption lines appear much more intensive compared to
scorpii, corresponding approximately to those of early B Giants. Striking however is the
strong absorption around the He I line at 5016. Due to the strong zoom in the vertical intensity axis, the peaks of the H emissions appear here cut. Their real intensity is similar
in both spectral profiles.
58
TABLE 15
He I 6678.15
H 6562.82
Telluric O2
Tauri
B4 IIIpe
Interstellar
Sco
B0.3 IVe
N II 5932/42
Na I 5889/95
He I 5876
He I 5016
He I 4921.93
H 4861.33
He I 4713.15
C lll/ O ll/He l
Si III
He I 4471.48
He I 4387.9
H 4340.47
O II
Fe II ?
O II/CIII
He I 4143.76
H 4101.74
C III/O ll 4068-76
He I 4025.5
H 3970.07
He l 3926.53
H8 3889.05
H9 3835.38
59
14 PMS Protostars
14.1 Overview
These objects represent the stellar birth phase. These so-called YSO (Young Stellar Objects)
are formed from contracting gas and dust clouds. Due to this gravitational process the temperature in the center rises until the onset of the hydrogen fusion. Finally the star begins to
shine. From now on, within the rough time frame of several hundred thousand to millions of
years, it approaches from top, downward to the main sequence of
the HRD. Therefore, these objects are also called PMS stars (PreMain Sequence) [2]. The highly irregular optical brightness variations
proof, that the PMS stars are still very unstable. In a later phase
planets are formed from the residual, protoplanetary disk material.
In this phase, the material forms a rotating accretion disk, which at
least temporarily veils the central star. A part of the so-called accretion flow doesnt hit the emerging protostar [275]. It is deflected and
ejected on both side of the disk, forming a cone-shaped, bipolar nebula (graphics Wikipedia). At some distance from the protostar, this
jet may collide with interstellar matter, forming rather short living,
nebulous structures, so-called Herbig Haro objects. These are named
after George Herbig and Guillermo Haro. A detailed and illustrated
presentation of these effects can be found in [275].
14.2 Herbig Ae/Be and T Tauri Stars

The Herbig Ae/Be objects represent the birth stage of the
stellar spectral classes A O. For the later F M types these
are the T Tauri stars, which are still subdivided into Classical
T Tauri Stars (CTTS) with intense emission lines and Weak
T Tauri stars (WTTS) with predominantly absorption lines. The
limit is determined here by the equivalent width EW of the H
emission line. According to [2] the object is a CTTS if
IJ > |10| and according to other sources IJ > |5|.
14.3 Spectral Characteristics of PMS Stars

This striking instability becomes also evident in the spectrum. Typically, it shows emission
lines of the H-Balmer series, as well as of the H- and K (Ca II) Fraunhofer lines. Depending
on the state of the accretion disk, and our perspective on the object, in addition numerous
Fe I and Fe II lines, as well as Ti II may show up [270]. Mainly late WTTS T Tauri stars sometimes generate more or less pure absorption spectra, which enable a fairly accurate classification of the star.
Gray Corbally [2] presents a classification system for Herbig Ae/Be stars with the following
main criteria:
The presence and intensity of emission lines of the H-Balmer series
The presence and a possible shift of so-called Shell Cores, mainly observed by the
Balmer series. These are emission lines, raising up from rotationally broadened,
photospheric absorption sinks.
The presence of emission lines of ionised metals, particularly the Fe II (42) Multiplet
The appearance of the Fe II (42) multiplet as emission lines, absorption lines, or P Cygni
profiles (see below)
Strength of the Balmer Decrement
60
14.4 The FU Orionis Phenomenon

FU Orionis is the eponymous star of this phenomenon, which occupies a special position in
the birth phase of stellar evolution. In astronomical jargon such objects are also called
"FUors". 193637 FU Ori increased its apparent brightness within 120 days by about 6
classes from ~16m to ~9m [289]. At first an ordinary nova eruption was suspected. Anyway,
the subsequently expected decrease in brightness did not take place, but remained, with
slight fluctuations, more or less on this level until today. In the 1970s, V1057 Cygni
showed a similar behaviour. Today it is believed, that the long-lasting increase in brightness
at T Tauri stars is caused in their late phase by a dramatic increase of matter, falling from
the accretion disk down to the protostar [286] [290]. Thereby the spectrum is changing
dramatically and it resembles to that of a supergiant of the spectral classes F K (details
see the following comment on Table 19). In my personal opinion, this effect could possibly
be caused by a temporarily formed pseudo photosphere, similar to the Be shell stars (sect.
12). Further it is believed, that this stage is passed through several times and further limited to stellar masses 1 M, what consequently means, restricted to the T Tauri class
[289].

Table 17: NGC 2261 (Hubble's Variable Nebula) with R Monocerotis
R Monocerotis (approx. 2500 ly) is a Herbig Ae/Be star. Of its
bipolar nebula from our perspective only one of the two conical
halves is visible as NGC 2261 (image: HST). The star itself and
the second symmetrical half of the nebula remain hidden behind
the accretion disk. The brightness of R Monocerotis varies between approx. 1012m. Quite recently it became clear, that this
well-hidden object is a Herbig Ae/Be star of spectral type B0.
Like most of the representatives of early spectral classes, R
Monocerotis is also orbited by a smaller companion.
In the 1970s it was still considered by many authors as a
T Tauri object of middle spectral class. In such cases, the spectral type can, with reasonable accuracy, be determined only with today's methods and
means.
The spectrum in Table 17 was taken on March 12, 2012 in the brightest tip of the nebula,
near the not directly visible R Mon. With the 50 m slit of DADOS at the C8, an exposure
time was applied of 4x780 seconds: Atik 314L, 10 C, 2x2 binning mode. As for Table 86
(M1), it was here also necessary, to record separately the disturbing light pollution spectrum just outside the nebula and to subtract it afterwards from the NGC 2261 signal (with
Fitswork).
The most striking features are the strong H Balmer lines, which are seen here in emission.
The Balmer Decrement in this profile yields "M /"N 5. For such objects, this selective
reddening of the profile is significantly influenced by the density of the circumstellar dust
cloud and poses even an important classification criterion (see above). The high degree of
dust occultation is probably one reason why here almost exclusively emission lines can be
seen. C.A. Grady et al [273] noted the correlation between the intensity of the Fe I and Fe II
emissions, and the degree of dust occultation, combined with the associated infrared excess. Striking in this profile appears further the so called Fe II (42) Multiplet at 4923,
5018 und 5169 [2]. This feature can also be found in the spectra of Novae and Supernovae
as well as in Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN). Herbig already noted in the 1960s that the
short-wave K-line of the two Ca II emissions mostly appears more intense.
61
Here it was also confirmed, that the spectrum, taken in a wider area of the NGC 2261 nebula, looks similar to a profile, recorded very close to R Monocerotis. Thus NGC 2261 is apparently rather a reflection than an emission nebula. The quality of the obtained noisy profiles however is insufficient for this publication. The line identification is inter alia based on
[2] and [270].
This highly interesting object is also very popular amongst astrophotographers who record
the short-term brightness variations in spectacular series of images. On January 26, 1949
NGC 2261 became famous, because Edwin Hubble himself photographed this nebula as
the official First Light Object of the new 5m telescope at Mount Palomar Observatory!
Table 18: T Tauri HD 284419, Prototype of the T Tauri Stars
T Tauri (approx. 462 ly, [Loinard et al.]) is a Classical T Tauri Star CTTS with highly intense
emission lines. This clearly demonstrates here the EW value of H: IJ"M 87. At first
glance, the two profiles of Table 17 and 18 look very similar. The Fe II (42) multiplet however is here much weaker, but the Ca II emission significantly stronger. T Tauri is classified
as G5 Ve, much later than Type A. This can only be recognized here at the CH absorption
band ( ~4300).
A highly interesting detail are the forbidden [O I] line, the strikingly intense sulphur lines [S
II] and the H emission, which at the time of recording on March 27, 2012 appeared as Inverse P Cygni profiles! These indicate large-scale contraction movements within the accretion disk, headed towards the star this in contrast to the normal P Cygni profiles, which
are always a reliable sign for an expansion. The Doppler analysis showed here contraction
velocities of some 600 km/s (formula and example see Table 2).
According to AAVSO the apparent brightness of the object at the
time of recording was ~10m. The spectrum in Table 18 was taken
with DADOS and the 25m slit; exposure time 3x724 seconds: Atik
314L, 10C, 2x2 binning mode. As for Table 17, it was here also
necessary, to subtract the disturbing light pollution spectrum from
the T Tauri signal. At T Tauri, as a by-product of this star birth, a
closely neighbouring Herbig Haro object is to observe. Here it is the
variable nebula NGC1555, named after John Russell Hind (182395) visible in large telescopes next to T Tauri (image: CDS).
Table 19: FU Orionis, G3 Iav + K, [500], Vvar= ~+9.6m and Leonis, Algieba, K0 IIIb+G7III
Spectral comparison of the protostar FU Orionis (approx. 1300 ly, [289]), with the K0 IIIb
giant Leonis (approx. 126 ly). Recording data with C8/DADOS/Atik 314L+: 25m slit,
8x600 seconds, 2x2 binning mode, 20C, including subtraction of the light pollution. In
the short-wave range the "Fuor" spectra look generally like those of FG Supergiants, but in
the near-infrared rather like those of K-giants. In comparison to Leonis (K0 IIIb), this is
easily recognisable here and is also expressed by the spectral class of G3 Iav + K. In comparison with the Leonis profile we see the following striking differences:
At FU Orionis the H line forms a distorted P-Cygni profile. Typically, the
red shifted emission part appears here strongly stunted [286], [290].
The strong, broad absorption of lithium Li I at 6708 shows, that FU
Orionis must necessarily be a very young object, because at high temperatures (due to convection) this element is reduced to helium [11].
Very slim but intense appears here the H-Balmer series, with the exception of H, as well as the D1,2 sodium absorptions at about 5900.
62
TABLE 17
O2 telluric
[ S II ] 6718/33
H 6562.82
Original Profile
Zoom in the intensity axis
(Recorded March 12. 2012)
[O I] 6364
[O I] 6300
Fe II Multiplet
Fe II 5169
Fe II 5018
Fe II 4923
H 4861.33
Fe II 4629
Fe II 4508 - 84
H 4340.47
Fe II 4296
Fe II 4174
Fe I 4036 ?
Fe I 4006 ?
Ca II 3968
Ca II 3934
I=0.0
NGC 2261 / R Monocerotis
Fe II 5316
63
TABLE 18
O2 telluric
[ S II ] 6718/33
H 6562.82
Fe II 5169
Original Profile
Zoom in the intensity axis
Fe II Multiplet
(Recorded March 27. 2012)
Fe II 5018
Fe II 4923
H 4861.33
H 4340.47
CH 4299 - 4313
H 4101.74
Ca II 3968
Ca II 3934
I=0.0
T Tauri HD 284419
Inverse
P Cygni Profiles
[O I] 6364
[O I] 6300
64
TABLE 19
Li l 6708
Fe l/Ca l 5270
Mg l 5183.60 Magnesium
Mg l 5172.68
Triplet
Mg l 5167.32
Fe l/Ti l 5002-13
H 4861.33
H 4340.47
CH 4299 - 4313
H 4101.74
Ca II 3968.47
Ca II 3933.66
Algieba Leonis
K0 IIIb + G7 III
Na l 5895.92
Na l 5889.95
Recorded December 18, 2013)
FU Orionis G3 Iav + K
H 6562.82
65
15 Spectral Class A
15.1 Overview
Several of the best known and most striking, bright white stars, like Sirius, Vega, Castor,
Deneb, Denebola, Altair, and most of the stars in the Great Bear are classified as A-types. In
this and all the following later classes, the single stars on the Main Sequence will pass at
the end of their life a Giant phase, combined with an impressive "farewell tour" through almost the entire HRD. They will end their lives as extremely dense White Dwarfs. During this
final process at least some of them will repel a photogenic Planetary Nebula.
15.2 Parameters of the Early to Late A-Class Stars

The following table shows the data exclusively for the Main Sequence Stars of the A-class,
compared to the Sun () and according to [701]. Compared with the enormously broad BClass, the low mass range (factor 1.5) is striking here. Nevertheless impressive is the huge
influence of this relatively small mass difference on the luminosity and life expectancy.
Mass
M/M
32
Stay on main
sequence [y]
440M 3bn
Temperature
photosphere [K]
10,000 7,500
Radius
R/R
2.7 1.7
Luminosity
L/L
55 8
15.3 Spectral Characteristics of the A-Class

Since the beginning of spectroscopy in the 19th century this class has fascinated by their
impressive hydrogen lines, but otherwise very tidy and esthetically looking spectra. This
was at least one reason for numerous false hypotheses. Father Angelo Secchi already classified these spectra in the mid-19th Century as "Type I" (see appendix 34.3). Edward
Pickering labelled these in his later refined system as "A-Type". Today, this class has still
Pickering's "A-label", but inconspicuously in the upper middle of the MKstellar classes.
These distinctive and clear spectra are very well suited as a didactic introduction to the
practical spectroscopy. Moreover, the pattern of the strong H-Balmer lines is an excellent
aid for first calibration attempts. This feature gains intensity since the late B-class and
reaches its maximum in type A2 [1]. Quantum mechanically, this can be explained with the
surface temperature of about 9,800 K. This way the hydrogen atoms are thermally excited
so that a maximum number of electrons stay already on the level n2, the takeoff level for
the electron transitions in the shell system n2 n of the H-Balmer series [30].
From here on, the later A-classes are characterised by a gradual, but still moderate intensity
loss of the H-Balmer series. Conversely, the two Fraunhofer H + K lines of Ca II become significantly stronger. The Fraunhofer K-line penetrates now deeper into the continuum peak
between H and H8 and exceeds between A7 and F0 the intensity of the hydrogen absorption. Within the same range also the growing Fraunhofer H-line ( 3968) overprints now the
weakening H absorption. In the late A-classes the "Blue Wing" of the H line shows a small
kink. At the latest in the F0 class, its revealed as the fast growing molecular CH-absorption
of the Fraunhofer G-band (in the following graph marked with red arrow).
Higher resolved spectra show immediately that the first impression of the simple spectrum is deceptive. The continuum between the hydrogen lines is interrupted by numerous
metal absorptions. The absorptions of neutral atoms become now more intensive at the expense of the singly ionised ones. In the early subclasses, a few He I lines still appear but
very faintly. The intensity maximum of the real continuum moves here already to the blue
short wave edge of the visible spectrum. The graph shows the theoretical continuum for a
66
G Band CH Absorption
K-Linie Ca ll
synthetic A5V standard star (Vspec Tools/Library). Marked with red arrows are the two
above-mentioned details.

Table 20: Castor ( Gem) and Altair ( Aql)
The development within the A-subclasses is demonstrated here by a montage of two overview spectra (200L grating), representing an early and late subtype.
Castor (52 ly) is a very rare 6-fold star system. The two brightest components can be resolved even in smaller amateur telescopes (own picture by
C8, and Meade DSI ll). They dominate the spectrum and their early Aclassifications, A1Vm and A2Vm, are very similar. The surface temperature
some 9,800 K is therefore similar as for Sirius (A1Vm).
Altair (17 ly) is an A7V Main Sequence Star of the late A-Class. Correspondingly lower is
therefore the surface temperature of some 7,550 K. For this late A-class it shows an extremely high apparent rotation speed of 210 km/s [506]. The equatorial diameter is therefore enhanced by about 22% (interferometric survey in 2007 by J. Monnier et al.).
Table 21: Detailed spectrum of Sirius A ( CMa)

Sirius A (8.6 ly), spectral type A1 Vm with a surface temperature of about 9,880 K, is similar to Vega and Regulus, a
Dwarf star on the Main Sequence of the HRD. It forms the
main component of a binary system with Sirius B (White
Dwarf).
The table shows an overview spectrum (200L grating) and
two higher-resolved profiles in the blue/green and red wavelength domain (900L grating). Within the blue/green part
most of the interesting metal absorptions are concentrated.
They look very slim, compared to the huge H-Balmer lines. Here, as well as in the spectrum
of castor, the so-called magnesium triplet appears, still faintly, for the first time at 5168
83 (Fraunhofer b).
Sirius is one of the metal-rich stars, which are labelled with the suffix [m] (see Table 23).
Computer graphic Wikipedia: Sirius compared in size to the Sun.
Its apparent rotation speed of about only 13 km/s is unusual low for the early A-Class. According to [1] however, such statistical outliers correlate significantly with an overabundance of metals.
The line identification is based amongst others on [1], [5], [50], [51], [52],
67
TABLE 20
Altair Aql
A7 V
H 6562.82
Na I 5895.92
Castor Gem
A1 Vm / A2Vm
Na I 5889.95
Ca l/Fe l 5587-90
Fe ll 5316.61
Fe ll 5276.0
Fe ll 5234.62
Mg l 5169-83
Fe ll 5018.43
Fe ll 4923.92
H 4861.33
Cr ll 4824.13
Ti ll 4767.3
Mg l 4703.98
Fe ll 4630/34
Fe ll/Cr ll 4584 - 88
Fe ll/Ti ll 4550
Mg ll 4481
Fe l/Ti ll 4526 - 29
Ti ll 4468
Fe ll 4384-85
H 4340.47
CH 4299 - 4313
Ca I 4226.73
Ti ll/Fe ll 4172
H 4101.74
Ca II 3933.66
I=0.4
H8 3889.05
I=0.3
Fe l/Mn l 4030-33
H 3970.07
68
TABLE 21
Fe ll/Cr l 4666
H 6562.82
Fe ll 4634.6
Fe ll 4629.9
Cr ll 4617/19
Cr ll 4588
Fe ll 4583.8
Ti ll 4571.97
Telluric O2
Fe ll 5316.61
Fe ll 4556
Fe ll 4550
Fe ll 4541
Fe ll 4534
Fe ll 4520/23
Fe ll 4515
Fe ll 4508
Fe ll 5276.0
Ti ll 4501.27
Fe ll 4489/91
Na I 5895.92
Na I 5889.95
He I 5876
Mg ll 4481
Ti ll 4470
Fe ll 5234.62
Fe l 5227.19 V
Fe ll 4451
Ti ll 4444
Sirius CMa
A1 Vm
Fe ll 5197.6
Fe ll 4416.8
Ti ll 4400.63
Ti ll 4395.04
Fe ll 4384-85
Ti ll 4375.35
Fe ll 4366.17
Mg l 5183.60
Mg l 5172.68
Mg l 5167.32
H 4340.47
Sc ll/Ti ll 4314
Fe ll 5100.66 V
Ti ll 4307.9
Fe ll 4303.2
Ti l 4289
Fe l 4271-72
Fe ll/Cr II 4258/62
Si ll 5056.02
Fe l 4250 - 51
Cr II 4242.38
Fe ll 4233.17
Si ll 5041.06
Ca l 4226.73
Sr ll 4215.77
Fe ll 4923.92
Fe ll 5018.43
Fe l 4198.31
Fe ll 5002/4
Fe l 4187.04
Fe ll/Cr ll 4178-79
Fe ll 4173.1
H 4861.33
Fe l 4152 - 61
Fe l 4143-44
Si ll 4128/31
Fe ll 4630/35
Fe l 4957 V
Fe l 4933 V
Fe ll 4923.92
H 4101.74
Mg ll 4481
Sr ll 4077.71
Fe l 4071.74
Fe l 4067.6
Fe l 4062.4
Mn l 4055.54
Fe l 4045.82
Mn l 4031 - 36
Ti ll/V ll 4023/24
Cr II/Ti ll 4012
Fe l 4002/05
Fe ll 4384-85
H 4340.47
H 4101.74
H 4861.33
H 3970.07
Cr II 3945
Ca II 3933.66
Cr ll 4824.13
Ti ll 4807
I=0.6
I=0.4
H 3970.07
Fe ll 4890 V
Ti ll 4793
I=0.6
Fe ll /Mg l 5169
69
Table 22: Luminosity effect on spectra of the early A-class: Vega ( Lyr), Ruchbah ( Cas)
and Deneb ( Cyg).
Vega (25 ly) is classified with A0V and is, like our Sun, a so-called Dwarf on the Main Sequence of the HRD. Its surface temperature is about 9,500 K its apparent rotational speed
at the equator with some 15 km/s is very low. However, recent interferometrical studies
show thats why we see Vega almost "Pole on" and the effective rotational speed is >200
km/s.
Ruchbah (100 ly) is classified with A5 III-IV. Thus its moving in the HRD on the way from
the Main Sequence to the Giant Branch. Its surface temperature is about 8,400 K. Its rotation speed is indicated by Kaler [506] with 113 km/s, an inconspicuous value for this class.
Deneb (2,000 ly) is classified with A2 Ia and thus belongs to the Supergiants. The surface
temperature is about 8,500 K. The apparent rotation speed is indicated with about 21
km/s. This Supergiant was during its former stay on the Main Sequence, an early B- or even
a late O-star [506].
The comparison of these three equally normalised spectra shows clearly a decrease of the
intensity and width of the H-lines by increasing luminosity. Conversely the metal lines in the
Giant become more intense, what is expected due to the less dense stellar atmosphere and
thus a lower pressure and collision broadening. Due to the relatively moderate 6 sin S values
the rotational broadening has here not a dominant influence on the appearance of the profiles.
Table 23: Different metal abundance of Vega and Sirius

The comparison of the "metallicity" between Vega and Sirius has been the subject of numerous professional studies in the past, such as [703], [704]. Besides the different metal
abundance these two stars are almost equally classified and have also a similarly low, apparent rotation speed. Differences in the spectrum must therefore primarily be caused by
the different metal abundance, which predestines the two bright stars for such investigations.
Equivalent width EW []
At this resolution (900L grating) it can immediately be noticed, that the Ca II line (Fraunhofer K at 3933) in the Vega spectrum is much intenser, even though the star is classified
slightly earlier than Sirius. This is already visible, even without measuring of the EW values.
But most, if not all other metal absorptions, are
significantly stronger in the profile of Sirius. The
graph shows the shape of the so-called "Curve
Saturated line
of Growth" according to Keith Robinson [3]. We
are interested here only in the approximately
linear range, covering the area of the unsaturated spectral line in the left part of the graph.
Curve of Growth
Here the EW of a particular spectral line is
Linear region
Linie profile deepening
nearly proportional to the number of atoms of
the corresponding element within a certain gas
Number of atoms
mixture.
A Chinese study by H. M. Qiu et al. [703] summarises that Sirius, with a &'/( ratio of +0.5
is relatively metal rich, Vega with a ratio of 0.57, however, is relatively metal poor. Here is
also confirmed that for Sirius Ca and Sc are underabundant and vice versa Fe overabundant. According to this study this deficit of Ca and Sc and the overabundance of Fe are
generally used as defining markers for metal rich Am stars. The Fraunhofer Ca II line
( 3934) also serves in various other studies as an important indicator of metal abundance.
Fe ll 4634.6
Fe ll 4629.9
Cr ll 4617/19
Cr ll 4588
Fe ll 4583.8
Fe ll 4550
Fe ll 4520/23
Ti ll 4501.27
Mg ll 4481
Ti ll 4470
Effect of the luminosity on spectra of the A-class
Ti ll 4444
Fe ll 4416.8
Ti ll 4395.04
Fe ll 4384-85
Fe ll 4366.17
Fe ll 4352
H 4340.47
Sc ll/Ti ll 4314
Fe ll 4303.2
Fe l 4271-72
Fe ll 4233.17
Ca I 4226.73
Fe ll 4178.9
Fe l 4173.1
Si ll 4128/30
H 4101.74
Sr ll 4077.71
Fe l 4067.6
Fe l 4045.82
Zr ll/Ti ll 4024/28
Fe l 4002/05
H 3970.07
Ca II 3933.66
Vega Lyr
A0 V
70
Deneb
Deneb
Vega
Ruchbah
Vega
Fe ll/Cr l 4666
Ruchbah Cas
A5III-IV
TABLE 22
Deneb Cyg
A2 la
Fe ll 4634.6 V
Fe ll 4629.9
Cr ll 4617/19
Cr ll 4588
Fe ll 4583.8
Fe ll 4550
Fe ll 4520/23
Ti ll 4501.27 V
Mg ll 4481
Ti ll 4470
Comparison of metallicity Vega vs. Sirius
Ti ll 4444
Fe ll 4416.8
Ti l 4395.04
Fe ll 4384-85
H 4340.47
Sc ll/Ti ll 4314
Fe l 4271 - 72
Fe ll 4233.17
Ca I 4226.73
Fe ll 4178.9
Fe l 4173.1
Fe l 4143-44
Si ll 4128/30
H 4101.74
Sr ll 4077.71
Fe l 4062.4
Fe l 4045.82
Fe l 4005.25
H 3970.07
Ca II 3933.66
Mn l 4055.54
Sirius
Vega
Fe ll/Cr l 4666
71
Sirius CMa
A1 Vm
TABLE 23
Vega Lyr
A0 V
72
16 Spectral Class F
16.1 Overview
The F-class is located directly above the G-category, where our Sun is classified. It includes
several well-known, bright yellow shining stars like Procyon, Caph ( Cas), Porrima
( Vir), Mirfak ( Per), Canopus in the southern sky and even the Pole Star. On the Giant
Branch of the HRD we find here several pulsation variables, belonging to the categories of
Cephei and RR Lyrae.
16.2 Parameters of the Early to Late F-Class Stars

The following table shows the data exclusively for the Main Sequence Stars of the F-class,
compared to the Sun () and according to [701].
Mass
M/M
Stay on main
sequence [y]
Temperature
photosphere [K]
3bn 7bn
7,200 6,000
1.6 1.1
Radius
R/R
Luminosity
L/L
1.6 1.2
6.5 2.0
16.3 Spectral Characteristics of the F-Class

The H-Balmer lines are now much weaker and the Fraunhofer H + K lines (Ca II) become the
dominant features, so that the Fraunhofer H absorption now clearly displaces the H line.
Towards the late subclasses the neutral elements, e.g. Fe l, Cr l, replace now increasingly
the absorption of the ionised ones. The Ca I line at 4227 clearly intensifies, as well as the
G-band (CH molecular) which surpasses within the F-Class the intensity of the neighbouring
H line. This striking line double can therefore exclusively be seen here so it forms essentially the unmistakable "Brand" of the F-class! The Magnesium Triplet ( 516883) becomes here stronger, compared to the A- Class.
At this resolution, at the latest since the early A-class, most of the
absorptions are formed by several metal lines of slightly different
wavelengths, so called blends. These can only be resolved with
high-resolution spectrographs. Labelled here are therefore only the
chiefly involved elements, causing these blends. In Table 30, one of
the absorption lines within the Procyon profile is summarily labelled
with Fe l/Ca l 4454 59 (small graph left). The large graph below
shows a highly resolved profile (Spectroweb [59]) in the corresponding wavelength domain. The imagination of isolated single lines
must be abandoned here!
Ti I
Fe I
Fe I
Fe I
Ca I
Fe I
Ca I
4454
4456
4458
4460
73
The intensity maximum of the real continuum is now clearly located within the visible range
of the spectrum. The graph shows the theoretical continuum for a synthetic F5 V standard
star (Vspec/Tools/Library). Highlighted with a red circle is here the Line-double of the Gband and H, the striking Brand of the F-class.
G Band

Tafel 30: Adhafera ( Leo) und Procyon ( CMi)
The development of the F-subclasses is demonstrated here by two superposed overview
spectra (200L grating) representing an early and middle subtype.
Adhafera (260 ly), classified as F0 III, is located at the top of the F-class and has already
reached the Giant stage (III). The surface temperature is about 7,030 K and its apparent rotation speed some 84 km/s [506]. Even within this early F-class, the Fraunhofer-H and K
lines have already surpassed the intensity of the H-Balmer series, where the K-line at
3968 has overprinted the H absorption.
Procyon (11 ly) is classified as F5 IV-V and thus representing approximately the center of
the F-class. Like Sirius, it has a white dwarf companion. The luminosity class IV-V reveals
that it has begun to leave the Main Sequence in the HRD towards the Giant Branch. The
apparent rotation speed is only some 6 km/s. The surface temperature with about 6,630 K
is expectedly lower than for the earlier classified Adhafera. At the first glance this has little
effect on the spectral profile.
The most noticeable and important difference relates to the "Brand" of the F-class - the increasing intensity of the CH molecular absorption band (at 4300) and conversely the
shrinking of the neighbouring H line. Further the growing intensity of the Ca l line
( 4227), at this resolution clearly visible only by the somewhat colder Procyon. Some further differences may be caused by the difference in luminosity class.
The line identification is based amongst others on [1], [5], [51], [52], [59]
74
TABLE 30
H 6562.82
Na l 5895.92
Na l 5889.95
Procyon CMi
F5 lV-V
Adhafera Leo
F0 lll
Telluric O2
Ca l/Fe l 5587-90
Fe l 5404 - 15
Fe l 5328.53
Fe l/Ca l 5270
Fe l/Ti ll 5227
Mg l 5183.60
Mg l 5172.68
Mg l 5167.32
Fe l/Ni l 5079-81
Fe l 5041
Fe ll 5018.44
Fe l 4983
Fe l 4957
Fe ll 4923.92
H 4861.33
Mn l 4754
Ti ll 4708
Fe ll/Sc ll 4666/70
Fe ll/Cr ll 4585/88
Ti ll 4550/56
Fe l/Ti ll 4520 - 34
Fe l/Ca l 4454 - 59
Fe l 4383.55
CH 4299 - 4313
H 4340.47
Ca I 4226.73
Fe ll/Ti ll 4172-73
H 4101.74
H9 3835.38
I=0.5
I=0.3
Mn l 4031-36
Ca II 3968.47
Ca II 3933.66
H8 3889.05
75
Table 31: Effect of the luminosity on spectra of the F-class: Porrima ( Vir), Caph ( Cas) and
Mirfak ( Per).
Porrima (39 ly) is classified with F0V and is, like our Sun, a Dwarf on the Main Sequence of
the HRD. Its surface temperature is about 7,100 K and its apparent rotation speed remains
here unknown.
Caph (55 ly) is classified with F2 III-IV, thus moving from the Main Sequence to the Giant
Branch in the HRD. Its surface temperature is about 6,700 K. His apparent rotation speed is
reported by Kaler [506] with 70 km/s.
Mirfak (600 ly) is classified with F2 lb and therefore one of the Supergiants. The surface
temperature is about 6,180 K. The apparent rotation speed is reported with 18 km/s. Mirfak is a former Main Sequence Star of the B-Class [506].
The comparison of these three equally normalised spectra shows no striking differences
between the luminosity classes. A difference regarding the intensity and width of the
H-lines is here visually not recognisable. The metal lines of the Supergiant Mirfak are
somewhat more intensive than in the profile of the Giant Caph. Between Caph and the Main
Sequence Star Porrima differences are hardly discernible.
Fe ll 4629.34
Fe ll/Cr ll 4585/88
Ti ll 4572
Fe ll 4550/56
Ti ll 4534
Ti ll 4501
Mg ll 4481
Ti ll 4470
Cr ll 4634.1
Cr ll/Fe ll 4618-20
Fe ll 4583.83
Ti ll 4564
Fe ll 4508
Fe ll 4490
Ca I 4454.78
Effect of the luminosity on spectra of the F-class
Ti ll 4444
Ca l 4435
Ti ll 4400
Ti ll 4395.04
Fe l/ll 4384-85
Ti ll 4368
Fe ll/Cr l 4352
H 4340.47
Fe l 4326
Sc ll/Ti ll 4314
CH/Fe ll 4299-13
Cr l/Ti ll 4290
Fe l 4271-72
Fe l/ll/Ti ll 4415-18
Zr ll 4258
Sc ll 4247
Fe ll 4231-33
Sr ll 4215.52
Fe l/V ll 4202
Ca I 4226.73
Y ll/V ll/Fe ll 4177-79
Fe ll/Ti ll 4172-73
Zr ll 4149
Fe l 4143
Si ll 4128/30
Fe l/ll 4118/22
H 4101.74
Fe l 4084
Sr ll 4077.71
Fe l 4064
Fe l 4045
Mn l 4031-36
Zr ll 4024
Fe l 4002/05
Fe l 3997
Fe l/Yll 3983
Ca II 3968.74
Ca II 3933.66
Ti ll 4154
Mn l 4055
Porrima
Mirphak
Caph
Fe ll/Sc ll 4666/70
76
Porrima Vir
F0 V
Ti ll 4708
Caph Cas
F2lll-lV
TABLE 31
Mirphak Per
F2 lb
77
17 Spectral Class G
17.1 Overview
The yellow shining stars of the G-class have, from a spectroscopic view, a special status,
because their spectra are more or less similar to that of our Sun, which is probably one of
the best explored and documented. Centauri in the southern sky is with G2V equally
classified as the Sun. It shows therefore nearly the same surface temperature like our central star. In the northern sky Muphrid ( Boo) with G0 IV is classified relatively close to the
Sun. Otherwise among the bright stars no further similar classified can be found. Capella
with its two binary components of G5llle and G0lll is already settled on the Giant Branch of
the HRD. The same applies for Sadalsuud ( Aqr) with G0lb.
Other well-known G-stars can only be found in the classes G7 and later, such as
Kornephoros ( Her), Leo, Per, Boo, Vindemiatrix ( Vir).
17.2 Parameters of the Early to Late G-Class Stars

The following table shows the data exclusively for the Main Sequence Stars of the G-class,
Mass
M/M
1.05 0.9
Stay on main
sequence [y]
7 bn 15 bn
Temperature
photosphere [K]
6,000 5,500
Radius
R/R
1.1 0.85
Luminosity
L/L
1.5 0.66
Striking is the percental very low mass range, which is covered by the G-class. Nevertheless, the life expectancy and luminosity of the star respond almost grotesquely sensitive to
this difference. Our Sun with a surface temperature of about 5,800 K (G2V) belongs to the
early G-class, spending some 7 billion years on the Main Sequence.
17.3 Spectral Characteristics of the G-Class

The Fraunhofer H + K lines of ionised Ca II become here impressively strong achieving theoretically the maximum intensity in the late G classes. This becomes also evident in the chart
in sect. 7. In the solar spectrum (G2V) they are by far the strongest lines generated by the
star itself. For Main Sequence Stars of the G-Class, the K-line is always slightly more intense than the H-line.
The H-Balmer series becomes significantly weaker, so these lines are now surpassed even
by various metal absorptions. Therefore they lose from here on their function as welcome
orientation marks, e.g. for the calibration and line identification. The intensity of the socalled Magnesium Triplet ( 5169-83) has increased during the F-Class and achieves a
considerable strength here, so with "b" its even labelled with its own Fraunhofer letter. The
Ca l line by 4227 also impressively gained intensity since the early F classes and becomes here a striking spectral feature also with an own Fraunhofer letter g.
In general, the trend here continues by growing intensity of neutral metals e.g. Fe I and the
Fraunhofer-D lines (Na I). Towards the later subclasses they increasingly replace the absorption of the ionised elements. Due to the dominance of fine metal lines, the spectra become now more and more complex. Therefore, our Sun is not really a suitable object for beginners. The temperature here is sunken to such a low level that simple and robust diatomic
molecules can survive in these stellar atmospheres. Most prominent of such features is the
Fraunhofer G-band of the CH molecule, which already surpassed in the late F-class the intensity of the H line. Further mentionable are also the strong CN and CH absorption bands
78
in the violet area, overprinting here the H8 and H9 Balmer lines beyond recognition. In
highly resolved spectra now finer absorption bands of carbon monoxide CO appear. The intensity maximum of the real continuum shifts now to the green part of the visible spectrum,
hence the evolution has optimised our eyes to this wavelength domain (Sun G2V). The
graph shows the theoretical continuum for a synthetic G5 V standard star
(Vspec/Tools/Library). Highlighted with a red arrow is here the area on the violet side of the
H+K Fraunhofer lines, where strong molecular CN and CH absorption bands overprint the
former H8- and H9-Balmer lines.

Table 40: Muphrid ( Boo) und Vindemiatrix ( Vir)
The development of the G-subclasses is demonstrated here by two superposed overview
Muphrid (37 ly) with G0 IV has already moved away from the Main Sequence towards the
Giant Branch in the HRD. Of all naked eye visible stars in the northern sky, its the closest
"class neighbour" to the Sun (G2V). Its surface temperature is about 6,100 K, i.e. slightly
hotter than our central star hence the earlier classification. Its a part of a spectroscopic
binary. The B-component however, is so small that, in contrast to Spica, no splitting of the
spectral lines can be observed (SB1 system). Muphrid is classified by several sources as
above average metal rich. Nevertheless, the suffix m is missing here in the classification.
Vindemiatrix (103 ly) with G8 lllab is a late representative of the G-class and has already
developed to the Giant stage. Its apparent rotation speed is <17km/s [505] what is usual
for this class. According to [506] Vindemiatrix was formerly a B-class Main Sequence Star.
The comparison of these spectra demonstrates mainly the intensity loss of the H-Balmer
lines, well visible by the H line. The profile of Vindemiatrix shows also a massively
shrunken H line which is now difficult to identify, particularly besides the now dominant
G-band (CH). Otherwise, no spectacular changes can be seen. However in highly resolved
spectra, significant intensity differences of individual lines would be detectable, particularly
within the blends.
Table 41 and 42: The Sun, spectra recorded from reflected daylight.
Our central star (G2V), with a surface temperature of approx. 5,800
K, is a normal Dwarf on the Main Sequence. On these tables the
Sun is documented with an overview spectrum (200L grating) and
three higher-resolved profiles in the blue, green and red domain
(900L grating). The Sun has a very low rotation speed of just below
2 km/s, which is usual for middle and late spectral types. The increased thickness of the convective shell generates strong magnetic fields with a considerable breaking effect on the stellar rotation. The image shows a picture in the H light by the SOHO satellite. Line identification: is based mainly on [80], [81], [59].
79
TABLE 40
C
H 6562.82
Ca l 6362
Fe l 5328
Fe l/Ca l 5270
D 1,2
b
Mg l 5183.60
Mg l 5172.68
Mg l 5167.32
Vindemiatrix Vir
G8 lllab
Ni l 5476.91
Fe l 5429.7
Fe l 5405
Na l 5895.92
Na l 5889.95
Ca l 5857
Muphrid Boo
G0 lV
Ca I 6161
Fe l/ Fe ll/Ti l
Fe l 4920
H 4861.33
Fe l/ Mn l 4754 - 58
Mg l 4703.98
Fe l/ Ti l 4668
Cr l/Fe l/Ni l 4646 - 49
Fe l
Fe l 4383.55
H 4340.47
CH 4299 - 4313
Fe l/Ca l 4526 - 29
Ca l/ Mn l/ Fe l 4452 - 64
Fe l 4405
Ti ll/ Fe ll 4550
Ca I 4226.73
CH /Fe l
Fe l
H 4101.74
CN/CH Absorption
I=0.4
Ca II 3968.47
Ca II 3933.66
I=0.5
K H
Fe l/Mg l/Co l 4058
TABLE 41
80
Telluric O2
Fe l 4768
Fe l/ Mn l 4754 - 58
Telluric H2 O
Ni l 4715
Mg l 4703.98
Fe l 4691
Fe l 4679
Fe l/ Ti l 4668
Fe l/Mn l 4709
Telluric O2
Fe l/Cr l 4655
Fe l 4638
Cr l/Fe l/Ni l 4646 - 49
H 6562.82
Fe l,ll/Ca l 4584 - 86
Ti l/Mg l 4572
Ti ll 4563.76
Ti ll/ Fe ll 4550
Ti l,ll 4534 - 36
Fe l/Ca l 4526 - 29
Cr l 4580.07
Ti l 4501.27
Fe l,ll 4490
Fe l 4482.25
D2 D1
Fe l 4494.57
Ti ll/Fel 4469
CH/ Cr l/ Sc ll 4375
CH/Cr l/ Mg l 4352
Fe l/CH 4325
CH 4299 - 4313
Ti l/Fe l/CH 4290 - 91
Ca I 4226.73
F
Fe l/ Ti l 4668
Fe l/ Mn l
Fe l/ V l 4128
Fe l 4109.81
Fe l/Ca l 4526 - 29
CO 4092.39
Ca l/ Mn l/ Fe l 4452 - 64
CN/CH Absorption
gG f e
Ca II 3968.47
Ti l/Fe l 3956
I=0.3
Ca II 3968.47
Ca II 3933.66
H 4101.74
Fe l 4084
Fe l 4071.74
Fe l/Mg l/Co l 4058
Fe l 4045
Fe l/Mn l 4030 - 33
Fe l 4005.25
Fe l 3996-98
Fe l 3983.9
H 4101.74
K H
Ca I 4226.73
H 4340.47
Sr ll 4077.71
Fe l 4063.6
Fe l/Sr ll 4216
Fe l 4202.03
Fe l 4188
FeI,II/ Ti I,II
Mg l 4167.27
Fe l 4154 - 57
Fe l 4143.87
Fe l 4132 - 34
Fe l/CO 4119
Ca II 3933.66
Fe l 3922.91
I=0.2
H 4861.33
CH 4299 - 4313
Fe l/CH 4271 -72

Fe l 4260.48
Fe l 4250
Fe l/CH 4236
Cr I 4254.3
CH 4201
Fe l 4383.55
G f
H 4340.47
Fe l/ Fe ll/Ti l
Mg l 4703.98
Fe l 4383.55
Fe l/Ca l 5270
Mg l 5183.60
Mg l 5172.68
Mg l 5167.32
Fe l 4415.13
Fe l 4404.75
Fe l 5328
Ca l/ Mn l/ Fe l 4452 - 64
Fe l 4443
Ca l 4434.96
Sun G2V
Na l 5895.92
Na l 5889.95
K H
Telluric O2
Fe l 5405
Fe l 4737
Fe l 5624.55
H 6562.82
Fe l/Sc ll 5658 - 59
TABLE 42
81
Fe l 5615.65
Fe l/Ca l 5601 - 03
Fe l/Ca l/Ni l 5587 - 89
Fe l 5572.85
Fe l 5555.71
Fe l,ll 5535
Fe l 5544
Mg l 5528.4
Ca l 5512.98
Fe l 5488
Ca l/Cr l/Fe l 5262-64

Cr l 5254.92
Fe l 5243
Fe l 5232.95
Magnesium
Triplet
Fe l 5216-17
Mg l 5183.60
Mg l 5172.68
Mg l 5167.32
Fe l 5148
Fe l 5108 - 10
Cr l/Ca l 5349
Fe l 5340 - 41
Fe l 5328
Cr l 5297 - 98
Fe l 5282 - 84
Fe l/Ca l 5270
Ca l 6169/70
Ca l 6162
Fe l 5250-51
Fe l 5227
Cr l 5206 - 08
Fe l 5192
Fe l 5139 - 42
Fe l 5125
Fe ll 5018.43
Fe l 5006
Fe l 4919-20
Fe l 4903.32
Ca l 6102.72
Fe l 5914.16
Na l 5895.92
Na l 5889.95
Fe l/Ti l 4982 - 84
Fe l 4939
Fe l 6137
Ca l 6122.22
Fe l 5099
Fe l 5079
Fe l 5065
Fe ll 5050 - 52
Fe l 5041
Fe l 5027 -28
Fe l/Ti l 5012 - 15
Fe l/Ni l 5000 - 03
Telluric O2
Ca l 5857
D2 D1
Fe l 5324.19
Fe l 5397.13
Fe l 5383.37
Fe l 5371.49
Sun G2V
Fe l 5405
Fe l 5393.17
Fe l 5429.7
Ni l 5476.91
Fe l 5463
Fe l 5446.92
Fe l 5434.23
Fe l 5424.07
b2 b1
Fe l 5455.61
Fe l 4957.6
Fe l 4946.39
Fe l /Ball 4934
Fe l 4910
H 4861.33
Cr ll 4848.24
Fe l 4872
Ni l 4855.41
Fe l 4840
Mn l 4823.51
Fe l 4800
Fe l 4772.82
Mn l 4766
Fe l 4891
Fe l 5753.38
82
18 Spectral Class K
18.1 Overview
The stars of the orange yellow shining K-class includes familiar names such as Pollux, Aldebaran, Arcturus, Hamal, Alphard, as well as the lighter, yellow bright orange component
of the famous double star Albireo A (K3 II).
18.2 Parameters of the Early to Late K-Class Stars

The following table shows the data exclusively for the Main Sequence Stars of the K-class,
Mass
M/M
0.8 0.6
Stay on main
sequence [y]
>20bn
Temperature
photosphere [K]
5,250 4,000
Radius
R/R
0.8 0.65
Luminosity L/L
0.42 0.10
Striking is also here the percental low mass range, which is covered by this class. All
K-class dwarfs stay longer on the Main Sequence than the estimated age of the universe of
some 13.7 billion years. This means that in the entire universe, not a single star of this
class is migrated to the Giant Branch! The luminosity of the K- Main Sequence Stars is so
low that they are only visible at relatively short distances. Therefore, all above listed "highlights" of this class are located on the Giant Branch. These massive stars were classified
much earlier during their former stay on the Main Sequence. Their parameters are therefore
far outside of the table values above. Here they spend only a relatively short time before
they explode as a SN or end up as White Dwarfs.
Only a few real K- Main Sequence Stars are visible with the
naked eye. In the northern sky the best-known is probably the
only 11 ly distant binary 61 Cygni, with a total apparent
brightness of just 4.8m and the spectral classes K5V and K7V
(see Table 52). The Wikipedia graphic shows the size of the
two K-class components compared to the Sun.
18.3 Spectral Characteristics of the K-Class

The temperature of this class is considerably lower than in the G-category, but still as high
as within the solar sunspots. Correspondingly, the spectra of the early K-class look still very
similar as in the whole G-category. The following chart shows in the blue short-wave domain the superimposed profiles of Pollux (blue) and Sun (green). Already Fraunhofer has
noticed the striking similarity of the two spectra.
83
On a glance, the two profiles look indeed very similar, although Pollux (K0 Illb) is a Giant
and the Sun (G2V) is still a Main Sequence Star. Apparently the trend continues that the
luminosity-related differences in the profiles become increasingly smaller towards later
spectral classes.
Within the G- and early K-subclasses apparently no spectacular changes of spectral characteristics take place. Considered more in detail, several differences in the line intensity and
in the shape of the continuum become visible. Now the spectral lines are mainly caused
due to neutral atoms or by simple diatomic molecules. The intensity of the neutral metals
continues to increase. The neutral calcium Ca l at 4227 has excelled the G-Band in the
class K5 (detail in Table 50 marked in red). The G-Band becomes now very faint and about
at K5 its even split into several discrete lines. The H-Balmer series is now very weak and
difficult to identify, except of the H- and the considerably shrunken H line. The Magnesium Triplet still appears quite prominently.
In the spectra of the later K-subclasses a remarkable break occurs and the similarity to the
solar spectrum gets increasingly lost. Since the class K5 and later, particularly in the long
wave-(red) part of the spectrum, titanium oxide (TiO) bands appear and start to overprint
the telluric H2O and O2 absorptions. Therefore already Father Angelo Secchi noticed Aldebaran (K5lll) as a transition star for the appearance of the impressive TiO band spectra.
In use are only the classes K1 - K5 and K7. K6, K8 and K9 have not yet been allocated. The
intensity maximum of the real continuum is shifted here into the red region of the visible
spectral range. The graph shows the theoretical continuum for a synthetic K4 III standard
star (Vspec/Tools/Library).

Table 50: Arcturus ( Boo) and Alterf ( Leo)
The development of the K-subclasses is demonstrated here by two superposed overview
Arcturus (37 ly), classified with K1.5 Ill Fe0.5, is an early K-star and stays on the Giant
Branch of the HRD. Its surface temperature is about 4,290 K.
The suffix indicates a relative underabundance of iron.
Compared to the Sun the &'/( ratio of Arcturus is only about
20% [506]. The graph shows the proportions of Arcturus
compared to the Sun. The apparent rotation speed is given in
[505] with <17km/s. Like Pollux also the spectrum of Arcturus
is very similar to that of the Sun. The main differences are in the
intensity of individual lines, as already pointed out above.
84
Alterf (320 ly) is a K5 III giant of the later K-class. Its surface temperature is 3,950 K, almost 340 K lower than that of Arcturus. The apparent rotation speed is indicated in [505]
with <17 km/s. Such low values are normal for late spectral types and have no detectable
effect on the spectra of this resolution.
Particularly the short-wave side of the Alterf profile is still dominated by discrete absorption
lines, which are mostly the same, as seen in the spectra of Pollux and Arcturus. However
the shape of the continuum in the yellow-red range is already similar to that of Betelgeuse
and Antares, albeit much less intense. This shows the beginning influence of the molecular
TiO absorption. At this spectral resolution, these absorption bands can be reliably identified
only in the near infrared part, close to the telluric A-line which is outside of the chart in Table 50. The following detailed spectrum of Aldebaran, however, shows complementarily
this section. With K5 lll this star has the same spectral class like Alterf. The spectrum
shows here clearly the absorption bands of titanium oxide TiO and calcium hydride CaH.
?
CaH 6921
TiO 7126
TiO 7088
TiO 7054
Telluric O 2 7186
CaH 6903/08
Telluric O 2
CaH 6750
TiO 6713
Table 51: Pollux ( Gem)

Pollux (34 ly) is classified as K0 Illb, an early K-star already established on the Giant Branch
of the HRD. Its surface temperature is about 4,770 K. The apparent rotation speed is given
in [505] with <17km/s. On this table Pollux is documented with an overview spectrum
(200L grating) and a higher resolved profile in the blue area (900L grating).
The line identification is based amongst others on [1], [5], [50], [52], [53], [55], [58], [59]
85
Ti I 6258-61
Ca I 6162
Na l 5895.92
Na l 5889.95
Ca l 5857
Alterf Leo
K5 lll
Fel 6358.7
D2 D1
H 6562.82
Arcturus Boo
K1.5 III Fe-0.5
TABLE 50
Fe l 5781/88
Fe l 5429.7
Fe l 5405
Fe l 5371.49
Fe l 5328
Mg l 5183.60
Mg l 5172.68 Magnesium
Mg l 5167.32 Triplet
Fe l 5125
Fe l 5083
Fe l 5041
Fe l/Ti l 5002-13
Ti l 4981.73
Ba ll 4934.1
Fe l 4919-20
Fe l 4889-91
Cr l 5297 - 98
Fe l 5227
Cr l 5204 - 08
Fe l/Ca l 5270
Fe l 5587
H 4861.33
Mn l 4783
Fe l/Mn l 4766 - 68
Fe l 4734
Mg l 4703.98
Fe l/ Ti l 4668
Cr l 4646
V l/Ca l 4580 - 94
Ti l/Fe l 4526 - 29
Fe l 4482 - 95
Fe l 4072
Fe l 4046
Ti l 4025
Ti l 3990 - 99
I=0.1
Ca II 3968.47
Ca II 3933.66
K H
Fe l 4144-48
H 4101.74
I=0.4
g G
Ca l/ Fe l 4455 - 59
Fe l 4427-35
Fe l 4405
Fe l 4383.55
H 4340.47
CH 4299 - 4313
Fe l/CH 4271 -72
Ca I 4226.73
CH /Fe l
Fe l
86
TABLE 51
Fe l/Mn l 4767 - 68
Fe l/ Mn l 4754-58
Fe l 4734 - 36
Ni l/Ti l 4715
Ti l 4710
Mg l 4703.98
Ti l 4682
Fe l 4679
Fe l/ Ti l 4668
Ti l 4656
Cr l 4646
Cr l 4638
H 6562.82
Fel 6358.7
Ca I 6161
Fe l/Cr l 4600 - 02
V l/Ca l 4586
Ti l/Mg l 4572
V l 4594
V l/Ca l 4580
Cr l 4565
Ti l/Ba ll 4552-54
Ti l 4533-36
Ti l/Fe l 4526 - 29
Ti l 4533 - 36
Na l 5895.92
Na l 5889.95
Pollux Gem
K0 lllb
Ti l/Fe l 4512 - 14
Fe l 4494.56
Fe l 5781
Fe l 4490
Fe l 4482.25
Ti ll/Fel 4469
Fe l 5587
Mg l 5530
Ti l 5514
Ni l 5476.9
Fe l 5429.7
Fe l 5397 - 06
Cr l 4359.6
Fe l 5328
Fe l 4325
Mg l 5183.60
Mg l 5172.68
Mg l 5167.32
CH 4299 - 4313
Ti l/Fe l 4290 -96
Cr l 4255.5
Fe l/Ti l 5002-13
Ti l 4982
Fe l 4958
Fe l 4938 - 40
Fe l 4889
Ca I 4226.73
CN 4179 - 97
Mg l 4703.98
Mn l 4784
Fe l/Mn l 4767 - 68
Fe l 4734 - 36
Fe l/ Ti l 4668
Cr l 4646
Fe l 4920.5
H 4861.33
V l/Ca l 4580 - 86
Ti l/Fe l 4526 - 29
Fe l
Fe l/Sr ll 4075-78
Fe l 4063.6
H 4340.47
Fe l
Fe l
Fe l 4404.75
CH 4299 - 4313
Fe l/Cr l 4271 -72

Ca I 4226.73
Fe l 4144-48
H 4101.74
Fe l/Mg l/Co l 4056-58
Fe l/Mn l 4084
Fe l 4071.74
Fe l 4045.81
Mn l 4030 - 36
Ti l/ll 4025
Mn l 4018.1
Fe l 4005.25
Fe l/Ti l 3998
Ti l 3989.58
Ti l 3989.76
Fe l 3983.9
I=0.4
Ca II 3968.47
Ca II 3968.47
Ca II 3933.66
Sr ll 4215.52
Fe l 4202.03
Fe l 4185
Fe I 4171-75
Mg l 4167.27
Fe l 4154 - 57
Fe l 4144-48
Fe l 4132 - 34
Fe l/Co l 4119
V l 4111.77 V l 4111.79
H 4101.74
Ca l/ Fe l 4455 - 59
Fe l 4427-31
Fe l 4383.55
Fe l/Cr l 4271 -72

Fe l 4260.48
Fe l 4250
Fe l/CH 4234-36
Ca II 3933.66
Fe l 3956.68
Al l 3944
I=0.2
Fe l 5099
Fe l 5080
Fe l 5041
Magnesium
Triplet
Fe l/Ca l 5270
Fe l 5227
Fe l/Cr l 4352-53
H 4340.47
Cr l 5298
Fe l 4415.13
Fe l 4404.75
Fe l/V l 4389-96
Fe l 4375
Fe l 4383.55
Fe l 5371
Ca l/ Fe l 4455 - 59
Fe l 4442-48
Fe l 4427-31
87
Table 52: Luminosity effects on spectra of the late K-class: Alsciaukat ( Lyncis) and
61 Cygni B.
61 Cygni B (11 ly) is the weaker of two binary components. With K7 V its classified as an
ordinary Dwarf on the Main Sequence. The surface temperature is some 4,120 K, its apparent rotation speed is <2km/sec. The two components belong to the few true Main Sequence Stars of the K-class which are spectroscopically accessible to moderate sized telescopes.
Alsciaukat (220 ly): This star with the jaw-breaking, Arabic name is classified with K7 lll,
and thus a Normal Giant. Its surface temperature is about 3,860 K. Its apparent rotation
speed could not be found. Its slight variability suggests that it stands just before a longperiod, Mira-type variable stage [506].
The comparison of the two equally normalised spectra shows in this section a similar profile shape for the different luminosity classes. In each section, however, clear differences
and even different lines are visible. The spectrum of Alsciaukat shows at this resolution
(according to BSA) clearly the splitting of the former Fraunhofer G -band into three discrete
absorption lines: Ti l ( 4301 and 4314) and Fe I ( 4308).
Table 53: Aldebaran ( Tau)
Complementary to Table 52 some higher-resolved detail spectra
of the K-star Aldebaran (66 ly) in the green and red region are
added here (900L grating). Aldebaran with K5 III represents the
later K-class and is established on the Giant Branch of the HRD.
Its surface temperature is about 4,010 K. The apparent rotation
speed is given in [505] with <17km/s. The graphic shows the
proportions of Aldebaran compared to the Sun.
88

Fe l 4891
TABLE 52
Ti l 4682
Fe l/ Ti l 4668
Ti l 4656
Cr l 4646
Cr l 4638
Cr l
Effect of the luminosity on spectra of the K-class
V l 4594
Ca l 4581/86
Mg l 4572
Cr l 4565
Ti l 4552-54
Ti l 4533-36
Ti l/Fe l 4526-29
Ti l/Fe l 4512-14
Fe l 4494.56
Fe l 4490
Fe l 4482.25
Ca l/ Fe l 4455/59
Fe l 4442-48
Ca l 4435.69
Fe l 4415.13
Fe l 4404.75
Fe l 4383.55
Fe l 4375
Cr l 4359.6
Cr l/Fe l 4352-53
H 4340.47
Fe l 4325.76
Ti l 4314
Fe l 4308
Ti l 4301
Cr l l/Fe l 4290/94
Fe l/Cr l 4272/75
Fe l 4260.48
Fe l 4251-54
Fe l/CH 4234-37
Ca I 4226.73
Sr ll 4215.52
Fe l 4198 - 02
Fe I 4171-78
Fe l 4144-48
Fe l 4132 - 34
Fe l/Co l 4119
V l 4111.79
H 4101.74
Fe l/Sr ll 4075-78
Fe l 4071.74
Fe l 4063.6
Fe l 4045.81
Mn l 4030 - 36
Ti l 4025
Fe l/Mn l 4084
61 Cygni B
Lyncis
Fe l 4727/37
Ni l/Ti l 4715
Ti l 4710
61 Cygni B K7 V
Fe l/Mn l 4767 - 68
Alsciaukat Lyncis
K7 lll ab
H 4861.33
89
TABLE 53
Na l 5895.92
Na l 5889.95
Cr l 5791
Fe l 5781
H 6562.82
Fe l 5763
Fe l 5753.38
Aldebaran Tau
K5 lll
V l 5727
Fe l 5698
Fe l/Sc ll 5658-59
Fe l 5624.55
Fe l 5615.65
Fe l/Ca l 5601-03
Fe l/Ca l/Ni l 5587-89
Fe l 5572.85
Fe l 5544/47
Mg l 5528.4
Fe l 5507
Fe l 5501
Ti I 6258/59/61
V I 6243
Ti l 5514
Fe l 5497
Fe l 5481
Ni l 5476.91
Fe l 5455.61
Fe l 5446.92
Fe l 5434
Fe l 5429.7
Ca I 6169/70
Ca I 6162
Ca I 6137
Ca I 6122.22
Cr l/Fe l 5410
Fe l 5405
Fe l 5397.13
Fe l 5390
Ca I 6102.72
Fe l 5371.49
Cr l 5346/48
Fe l 5340-41
Fe l 5328
Fe l 5324.19
Fe l 5303
Cr l 5298
Fe l 5282-84
Fe l/Ca l 5270
Fe l/Ca l/Cr l 5262-64
Fe l 5255
Fe l/Cr l 5247
Fe l 5242
Fe l 5232.95
Fe l 5307
Fe l 5250
Fe l 5227
Cr l 5204/08
Fe l 5192
Mg l 5183.60
Mg l 5172.68
Na l 5895.92
Na l 5889.95
Magnesium
Triplet
90
19 Spectral Class M
19.1 Overview
Some of the orange-red shining stars of the M-class are well-known names such as Betelgeuse, Antares, Mirach ( And), Scheat ( Peg), Ras Algheti ( Her), Menkar ( Cet), Tejat
Posterior ( Gem). Some late types of this class are long period variables such as Mira
(M7llle).
19.2 Parameters of the Early to Late M-Class Stars

The following table shows the data exclusively for the Main Sequence Stars of the M-class,
Mass
M/M
0.5 0.08
Stay on main
sequence [y]
>100bn
Temperature
photosphere [K]
3,850 2,600
Radius
R/R
0.63 0.17
Luminosity L/L
0.08 0.001
Striking is here the huge percental increase of the covered mass range compared to the
earlier classes A, F, G, K. The "late half of this class already touches the range limit of the
Brown Dwarfs, which are separately classified with L, T and Y (not be treated here). As the
K- also the M-Dwarfs stay longer on the Main Sequence than the estimated age of the universe of some 13.7 billion years. This means that in the entire universe, not a single star of
the M-class is migrated to the Giant Branch in the HRD! All with the naked eye visible Mtype stars are former class B to G Main Sequence Stars which spend here only a relatively
short time until the end of their Giant Stage. Their parameters are therefore far outside of
the table values above.
With the naked eye, no real M-type Main Sequence Stars are visible, although they provide
76% of the Suns near neighbours! The most famous and apparently brightest representative is in the southern sky Proxima Centauri with the spectral class M5 Ve. With a distance
of 4.22 ly its the very nearest neighbour to the Sun, but reaching an apparent magnitude of
only 11m! Therefore, it was discovered very late in 1915.
The graphic (Wikipedia) shows the proportion of Proxima
Centauri compared to the Sun. Its diameter was determined
with the HST to about 200,000 km. His life expectancy on
the Main Sequence is estimated to some
4 trillion years! Whether our universe then still exists in
whatever form must be answered by cosmological models.
19.3 Spectral Characteristics of the M-Class

The Fraunhofer H + K lines remain striking in the entire M-class. In addition to the H line
neutral calcium Ca l at 4227 and the sodium double line at about 5890/95, are the
dominant discrete absorptions, which are still visible at this resolution. The once prominent
G-band breaks now up in at least three discrete lines (BSA). The main features here are undoubtedly the huge absorption bands of titanium oxide TiO. Their intensity rises significantly towards the late subclasses, overprinting now thousands of neutral, atomic absorption lines which would otherwise visible here [1]. Although they show up already in the late
K-classes, they form here the unmistakable "Brand" of the M-category. Much less frequent
and with smaller intensity we find here a few absorption bands of CaH (calcium hydride)
and MgH molecules (magnesium hydride). In the late M-subclasses the lower temperature
91
allows even the formation of further diatomic molecules like vanadium oxide (VO) and molecular hydrogen H2.
The wavelengths of the absorption bands are defined by the most distinct edges the so
called band heads of the profile. As a result of this characteristic, saw tooth-shaped curve,
these edges are much more diffuse than discrete absorption lines, which show in theory
approximately a Gaussian bell shape. The wavelength values for the individual bands can
sometimes vary, depending on the source, up to 2 ! These absorption bands are therefore
totally inappropriate for a precise calibration of the spectrum, based on known lines. Only
the calibration with the lamp can meet here reasonable standards.
The intensity maximum of the real continuum is shifted here into the infrared range of the
spectrum. Therefore the telluric H2O and O2 absorptions in the red range of the spectrum
are almost completely overprinted by the stellar molecular bands. The graph shows the
theoretical continuum for a synthetic M5 III star (Vspec/Tools/Library). Due to the specific
radiation characteristics, influenced by the massive gaps in the continuum, the M class
stars are considerably far away from an ideal black body radiator.

Table 56: Antares ( Sco) and Ras Algethi ( Her)
The development of the M-subclasses is demonstrated here by two superposed overview
Antares (450 ly) is a Supergiant of the early M-Class with
M1.5 lab and the dominant component of a binary star
system. Its surface temperature is about 3,600 K. The
apparent rotation speed is given in [505] with <20 km/s.
The graphic shows the proportions of Antares, compared
to Arcturus and the Sun.
Ras Algethi (400 ly) is a multiple star system. The spectrum is dominated by the Supergiant classified as M5 II
and represents a later M-Type. As expected its surface
temperature of 3,300 K is lower than by the earlier classified Antares. Ras Algethi is smaller than Antares, but
also surrounded by a cloud of gas and dust. The line identification is based amongst others on [1], [5], [50], [52],
[53], [55], [58], [59], [61
TABLE 56
92
Telluric O2
TiO 7126
TiO 7088
TiO 7054
CaH 6903/08/21
Telluric O2
TiO 6815
TiO 6782
CaH 6750
TiO 6715
TiO 6681
TiO 6651
TiO 6569
H 6562.82
Ba ll/Ti l/Fe l/Ca l
TiO 6478
TiO 6384
TiO 6358
CaH 6390
TiO 6268
TiO 5998
TiO 5968
Na l 5895.92
Na l 5889.95
Ras Algethi Her

M5 Ib-Il
Ni l 5476.91
Fe l 5429.7
Fe l 5405
Fe l 5371.49
Fe l 5328
Cr l 5297 - 98
Fe l/Ca l 5270
Cr l 5204 - 08
Mg l 5167/72/84
Fe l/Cr l 5125
Fe l 5080
Fe l/Ti l 5012-13
Fe l 5002 - 08
TiO 5497
TiO 5448/51
TiO 5359
TiO 5308
TiO 5240
TiO 5167
TiO 5020
TiO 5003
Fe l/ Ti l 4668
Cr l/Fe l/Ni l 4646-49
V l/Ca l 4580 - 94
Ti l/Fe l/Cr l 4526 - 29
Ca l/ Fe l 4455 - 59
I=0.4
K H
Fe l/V l 4405
Fe l 4072
Fe l 4046
Ti l 4025
TiO 4955
TiO 4847
TiO 4804
TiO 4761-63
TiO 4704
TiO 4668
TiO 4626
TiO 4584
TiO 4548
TiO 4506
TiO 4462
TiO 4422
MgH 4780
Fe l/Mn l 4767 - 68
Ca II 3968.47
Ca II 3933.66
TiO 5668
TiO 5597/03
Magnesium
Triplet
Ba ll 4934.1
Fe l 4920.5
H 4861.33
Fe l 4383.55
H 4340.47
Fe l/Ti l 4301- 4314
Fe l 4251 - 54
Ca l 4226.73
Fe l 4198 - 02
Fe l 4171 - 78
TiO 5847
TiO 5814
TiO 5760
I=0.0
Antares Sco
M1.5 Iab-Ib
TiO 6180
TiO 6159
93
20 Spectral Sequence on the AGB

20.1 Evolution of the Stars on the Asymptotic Giant Branch (AGB)
The following simplified presented sequence is applicable for stars with 1 to 8, depending
on the source, even up to about 10 solar masses.
Red Giant Branch RGB
After leaving the Main Sequence the star moves in the HRD first up to the right on the Red
Giant Branch (RGB). In this phase, the hydrogen fusion zone grows outwards on a shell
around the increasing helium core. Thus the radius and the luminosity of the star dramatically increase, while the density and temperature of the atmosphere substantially decrease.
Horizontal Branch HB
The so-called helium flash stops abruptly this ascent on the RGB. This event is triggered by
the nuclear ignition of the helium core, which was formed during the RGB phase. From now
on by helium fusion and other highly complex nuclear processes, carbon and oxygen is
formed in the core of the star. As a result, the star first moves somewhat to the left and
down on the Horizontal Branch (HB).
Asymptotic Giant Branch AGB
In a later phase, the helium begins to "burn" within a shell around the core of carbon and
oxygen and in addition triggers now the hydrogen fusion in a further outer shell of the star.
This multiple or alternating shell burning process causes now the rise of the expanding
and unstable star along the AGB. At one solar mass the stellar radius reaches now some
1.5 AU and the luminosity is about 10,000 times that of the former Main Sequence Star.
Post AGB Phase
In the final stage these stars eject their outer shells as a Planetary Nebula (see sect. 28),
which is excited to the emission of light by the remaining, extremely hot core. These objects initially show similar spectra like Wolf Rayet Stars (sect. 9). Later on, they cool down
and end as White Dwarfs on the stellar "cemetery" in the lower part of the HRD. The following chart (excerpt from the HRD) shows schematically the Post-Main Sequence Evolution
for stars of about 1, 5 and 10 solar masses.
Effective Temperature K
30000
10000
-10
7000
Planetary
Nebula
Helium
Flash
10 M
-2
5M
Giants (II, III)
Horizontal
Branch
0
2
10 4
103
102
10
Luminosity relative to Sun
Planetary
Nebula
-6
-4
105
Supergiants I
-8
Absolute Magnitude M
4000
6000
1
6
Sun
White Dwarfs VII
10-1
8
O5
B0
A0
F0
G0
Spectral Class
K0
M0
94
20.2 The Spectral Sequence of the Mira Variables on the AGB

This sequence consists of stars in their unstable AGB phase, limited to the range of about
1 2 solar masses and the spectral class M as well as to some late K-types. This category
is for amateur astronomers not only interesting for photometric monitoring, but also in
terms of spectral analysis. The astrophysical context is still not fully understood and shown
here strongly simplified, mainly based on [2].
Once arrived on the AGB the star becomes unstable, as a result of the above mentioned
complex fusion processes. It starts now pulsating and pushing off a lot of material. Therefore most but not all of these stars, show now the behaviour of long-period Mira Variables.
Current theories postulate at this stage strong, so-called Thermal Pulses, which trigger
deep convective "dredge up" processes inside the star. As a result, carbon, and products of
the nuclear Sprocess, is conveyed to the stellar surface (e.g. barium, lithium, zirconium,
technetium, etc.). During its ascent on the AGB the star passes the following sequence of
spectral classes (schematic diagram):
M[e]
MS
SC
C
SC
>1
C/O Ratio
S
MS
1
<<1
Helium
Flash
M[e]
On this course the oxygen in the stellar atmosphere is not only bound by the formation of
metal oxides (eg TiO, ZrO, YO). The rest of it combines now with the rapidly increasing carbon mainly to CO molecules [1]. Thus the content of free oxygen gets now continuously reduced. Its expressed in this context as ratio of carbon to oxygen TU.
In the M(e) phase, at the bottom of the AGB, the stellar atmosphere is still oxygen-rich
W X 0.5. Here TiO absorptions still dominate the profile, usually associated with individual atomic emission lines. Therefore I added the index (e) to this class to distinguish it
clearly from the relatively stable, only hydrogen burning giants of spectral types K to M on
the RGB.
Within the MS to S class the stellar atmosphere increasingly shows an oxygen deficiency.
Therefore absorption of diatomic zirconium oxide (ZrO) displaces now more and more the
former dominating titan oxide bands (TiO). Within the spectral class S, the ratio becomes
W X 1 and therefore no more unbound oxygen exists in the stellar atmosphere.
Above the spectral class S the C/O ratio becomes W X > 1 . This creates a carbon excess,
which accumulates in a circumstellar cloud and dominates now impressively the star's
spectrum. Thus, in the intermediate SC -class, and increasingly in the following C- Class
moderately high resolved spectra only show absorptions of diatomic carbon molecules (CH,
CN, and C2). Increasingly here also show up atomic lines of Sprocess products, but also
impressive absorptions of Na I.
Once arrived at the top of the AGB the star ejects due to intense thermal pulses its outer
shell as a photogenic Planetary Nebula.
95
21 M(e) Stars on the AGB

21.1 Overview
The unstable M(e) stars on the AGB still have an oxygen-rich atmosphere (W X < 1 ) and are
usually long-period variable of type LPV (Long Period Variable) or Mira Variable. The period
of the brightness variation is in the order of about 100 to 1000 days. Prototype of this class
is Mira ( Ceti). This instability leads to shock waves in the stellar atmosphere, which expands and contracts by the rhythm of the brightness variations (radius up to a factor 2!).
As a result of this spectacular process the star loses continuously matter, as documented
by recent photographs of Mira. The star produces on its way through the galaxy an impressive trace of stellar material, which can be seen in the ultraviolet region on a length of
about 13 ly. This spectacular image was taken with GALEX (Galaxy Evolution Explorer,
NASA), recorded in August 2008: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/galex/.
21.2 Spectral Characteristics of the M(e) Stars on the AGB

Parallel to the "pulsations" of the stellar atmosphere, emission lines of variable intensity
appear in the spectrum, predominantly the short wave HBalmer lines on the blue side of
H. The maximum intensity mostly shows H (see Table 59). According to the Balmer decrement the H, H and H emissions are in fact much more intensive. But highly intense TiO
absorption bands overprint here completely H and H and strongly diminish H. According
to [1] this is evidence that the emission lines are formed in much deeper layers of the stellar atmosphere as the titanium oxide absorptions. The spectral type of the star itself is often
variable within the range of decimal subclasses. Apart from the emission lines no further
differences to a normal M- star can be detected in a moderately resolved spectrum.

Table 59: A montage of two overview spectra (200L grating). Comparison of the M(e) star
Mira, (o Ceti, M7 IIIe, alternatively M5e9e [505]) and the ordinary M-Type star Ras Algethi ( Her, M5 II), which is still located on the RGB (see Table 56).
Mira A, probably one of the most popular variables, is steadily losing
matter to its binary partner, the white dwarf Mira B (VZ Ceti). It
shows an impressive brightness variation Vvar 3m 10m, with a period of about 331 days (LPV). In some cases it becomes much
brighter than 2.0m. Its spectacular variability was discovered in 1639
by Holwarda. The HST image (NASA) shows Mira in a phase with a
slightly oval shape. Thanks to its diameter of > 500M km, the star (by
interferometry) can still be recorded as a disc at a distance of about
300 ly!
Apart from some differences in the intensity of TiO bands, the emission lines H and H are
essentially the only spectral differences that distinguish the AGB star Mira from the RGB
star Ras Algethi. H is here in fact significantly more intensive than H what was already
explained above. The profile was recorded December 13, 2010 (JD 2455544.46), some
60 days after the maximum brightness, mV 4.1m (AAVSO).
TABLE 59
96
Mira
TiO 7126
TiO 7088
TiO 7054
Telluric O2
TiO 6815
TiO 6782
TiO 6715
TiO 6681
TiO 6651
TiO 6569
Ras Algethi Her

M5 Ib-Il
TiO 6478
TiO 6384
TiO 6358
TiO 6268
TiO 6180
TiO 6159
TiO 5998
TiO 5968
TiO 5847
TiO 5814
TiO 5760
TiO 5668
TiO 5597/03
TiO 5497
TiO 5448/51
TiO 5359
TiO 5308
TiO 5240
TiO 5167
TiO 5003/20
TiO 4955
TiO 4704
TiO 4668
TiO 4626
TiO 4584
TiO 4548
TiO 4506
TiO 4462
TiO 4422
H 4340.47
Ca l 4226.73
H 4101.74
Ca II 3968.47
Ca II 3933.66
Mira o Ceti
M7 IIIe, M5e M9e
TiO 4847
TiO 4804
TiO 4761-63
97
22 Spectral Class S on the AGB

22.1 Overview and Spectral Characteristics
The spectrum of a star is influenced on the further ascent along the AGB by:
the increase of carbon in the stellar atmosphere
the consequential decline of the oxygen content
dredged up Sprocess products (eg, zirconium, lithium, etc.)
This development changes at first the spectral type M(e) in to the intermediate class MS. If
at all, then only small differences are detectable here with moderate resolution spectrographs. However at higher resolution appear first signs of zirconium oxide (ZrO). within the
still dominant titanium oxide bands. The share of ZrO increases now continuously up to the
extreme types of the spectral class S, where ZrO almost entirely replaces the TiO absorption. In [2] this effect is explained with the higher affinity of ZrO to oxygen, and the greater
temperature resistance of this molecule. The dissociation energy of ZrO, (and also of LaO
and YO), is >7eV, in contrast to TiO <7eV.
22.2 The Boeshaar Keenan SClassification System

The spectral class S is specified with the following format. It forms a temperature sequence, analog to the normal M-giants on the RGB. Since all S-stars are already giants, a
luminosity class is usually not indicated.
SX/n(e)
X: stands for the temperature sequence of the M-class from 1 9 (some 3,8002,500 K).
n: C/O index on a scale of 1 10, estimated from the relative intensities of TiO and ZrO.
The C/O ratio itself can't be obtained directly from the spectrum. It can only be
estimated by means of the C/O index (table values according to Scalo, Ross)
(e) indicates that the spectrum sometimes shows emission lines.
This classification can be supplemented with characteristic elements/molecules showing
up in the spectrum. The following table shows the spectral class S between the intermediate classes MS an SC, based on [140] and [2], where also detailed classification details can
be found.
Spectral type
with C/O Index
Criteria for the C/O Index
~ C/O
Ratio
MXS
TiO still dominates, some signs for ZrO bands

are recognisable in highly resolved spectra
SX/1
TiO >> ZrO, YO
< 0.95
SX/2
TiO > ZrO
0.95
SX/3
TiO ZrO, YO intensive
0.96
SX/4
ZrO > TiO
0.97
SX/5
ZrO >> TiO
0.97
SX/6
ZrO very intensive, no TiO recognizable
0.98
SX/7 = SC X/7
ZrO weaker, intensive Na lines
0.99
SC X/8
No ZrO recognizable, intensive Na lines
1.00
SC X/9
Very intensive Na lines, C2 very weak
1.02
SC X/10 = C-N
Intensive Na lines, C2 weak
1.1
Comment
Transition class
from M(e) to S
Spectral class S
Transition class
from the S to
the carbon stars
98
22.3 Intrinsic and Extrinsic (Symbiotic) S-Stars

According to [2], this classification system does not explain the whole SClass and carbon
stars. Many non or only slightly variable Sstars, which lie often outside the AGB, show no
short-living and unstable 99Tc (technetium) isotopes in the spectrum hence called
"Tc - poor ". This affects at least 40% of all registered MS and S types [160]. A recent, still
debated scenario postulates a mass transfer, which brings the ZrO from a nearby companion star in to the stellar atmosphere. Therefore these special types are also called "extrinsic" or "symbiotic". Textbook example is the relatively bright and only slightly variable (mV
5.2m) BD Camelopardalis (Table 63). In fact, such objects are relatively hot and form components of close binary systems. These properties, as well as a low variability and the absence of 99Tc in the spectrum, are currently the main distinguishing characteristics of an
"extrinsic" S-class star. In such cases the spectral classification is sometimes supplemented by "symbiotic" or "extrinsic".
In contrast, the SType stars on the AGB show thermal pulses, are usually highly variable
and classified as "Tc - rich" or "intrinsic". Intrinsic means, that the elements and molecules,
responsible for the S-classification, are produced by the star itself.
22.4 Hints for the Observation of SClass Stars

On the AGB the stellar atmospheres meet the condition W X 1 only during a very short
period. Therefore Sclassified stars are very rare. For our galaxy, only some 1300 are registered [160]. In the amateur literature unfortunately Chi Cygni is very often proposed as a
showcase object of the SClass stars, whose brightness can reach up to 3.3m. Regrettably it has a very low C/O index, like all other bright Sstars. The disappointment is respectively great for beginners, when in low-resolution spectra, if at all, only weak signs of zirconium can be seen. But there are some members with a high C/O index, reaching a maximum brightness up to some 7m. At this stage they become recordable with slit spectrographs at guided telescopes of medium aperture, including R Cygni HD185456 and R
Geminorum HD 53791 further also R Lyncis HD 51610, U Cassiopeiae HD 4350, S Ursae
Maioris HD 110813 and V Cancri 70276. For the observation planning, the current brightness level for most of the variable S stars is displayed by AAVSO [507].

Table 61: For comparison, a montage of two broadband spectra (200L grating) is presented. M(e) star Mira (o ceti) (see Table 59) and the Sclass star R Cygni (S4/6e) with a
very high C/O Index = 6. The comparison of the two profiles shows impressively the transition from the spectral type M(e), dominated by TiO bands to an extreme Stype star which
shows ZrO absorptions only.
R Cygni, HD185456 (distance?), is strongly variable, according to AAVSO: Vvar 7.5m
13.9m, and shows a period of about 429 days (LPV). The maximal and minimal brightness
may differ considerably, compared between the individual periods. In the oxygen-rich Mira
atmosphere the prominent TiO bands are still dominating. In the profile of R Cygni, due to
the strong lack of oxygen, only impressive ZrO absorption bands, atomic lines of Sprocess
elements, as well as a strong Na I absorption can be seen. Following a number of other
physical effect (see [2]), the outer layers of the atmosphere become more "transparent" by
the extreme SClass. Therefore all emission lines of the H-Balmer series show up here
H however, significantly dampened compared to the law of the Balmer decrement. In the
Mira profile only H and H are in emission. The identification of the 99Tc I lines (marker for
the intrinsic type) at 4238, 4262 and 4297 is uncertain at this low resolution. The profile was taken on April 3, 2011 (JD 2455654.56) in the region of the maximum brightness
mV 7.5m (AAVSO) with the Celestron C8, 4x240 seconds. The detailed ZrO line identification was chiefly enabled by [141] - in second priority by [2].
99
TABLE 61
Fe ?
TiO 7126
TiO 7088
TiO 7054
ZrO 6988
ZrO 6933
Telluric O2
TiO 6815
TiO 6782
ZrO 6778/87
ZrO 6743
TiO 6715
TiO 6681
TiO 6651
TiO 6569
TiO 6478
H 6562.82
VO 6532
ZrO 6475/81/94
ZrO 6447/55
TiO 6180
TiO 6159
ZrO 6054/63
ZrO 6023/27
ZrO 5983
TiO 5998
TiO 5968
Na I 5890/96
ZrO 5860/70
ZrO 5839/49
TiO 5760
ZrO 5748/54
ZrO 5718/24
TiO 5668
TiO 5597/03
ZrO 5629
ZrO 5593
ZrO 5545/51
ZrO 5515
ZrO 5456/63
TiO 5497
TiO 5448/51
TiO 5359
TiO 5308
TiO 5240
ZrO 5404/07
ZrO 5375/79
ZrO 5332
ZrO 5298/5305
ZrO 5246
TiO 5167
TiO 5003/20
TiO 4955
TiO 4847
TiO 4804
TiO 4761-63
TiO 4704
TiO 4668
TiO 4626
TiO 4584
TiO 4548
TiO 4506
TiO 4462
TiO 4422
MgO 5007
H 4861.33
ZrO 4827
ZrO 4792
ZrO 4737
ZrO 4641
ZrO 4620
Sr I 4607
Ba II4554
ZrO 4471
H 4340.47
Tc I ?
Tc I ?
Ca l 4226.73
H 4101.74
ZrO 5539
ZrO 5485/90
ZrO 5432/37
R Cygni
S4/6e
Mira o Ceti
M5e M9e
TiO 6268
TiO 5847
TiO 5814
ZrO 6412/18
ZrO 6378/84
ZrO 6350
ZrO 6294
ZrO 6261
ZrO 6229
ZrO 6201
ZrO 6154
ZrO 6132/36
TiO 6384
TiO 6358
100
Table 62: A montage of three broadband spectra (200L grating) is presented to demonstrate the spectral development within the SClass. To optimise the clarity, only the prominent lines are labelled here.
Omicron1 Orionis (4 Ori) HD 30959, (540 ly).
This star, with an apparent magnitude of about 4.74m, is only slightly variable. With M3.2S
it forms the transition class between the M(e) and Stypes. Alternatively, the star is also
classified as S3.5/1. According to the very low C/O index ZrO is barely visible in this lowresolution spectrum. TiO bands here still dominate the profile.
Chi Cygni HD 187796, (340 ly).
With a classification of S6/1e (alternatively S7/1.5e), the C/O index is here only slightly
higher compared to Omicron1 Orionis. Thus the zirconium oxide absorptions can overprint
here the still dominant TiO bands only within a few small sections of the profile at
5298/05, 5375/79, 5839/49 and 6475/81/94 (blend with TiO 6478). This star shows
with Vvar 3.3m 14.3m, the highest brightness variation of all known variables period
length about 408 days (LPV).
R Cygni HD 185456.
As already shown in Table 61, the ZrO absorptions have fully overprinted here the TiO
bands, due to the high C/O Index.
Observation hint: R Cygni is easy to find. Its located just nearby of Theta Cygni, HD
185395 (mV 4.5m).
Table 63: Shows a montage of two broadband spectra (200L grating) to compare an intrinsic and an extrinsic Sclass star. Both stars have nearly the same spectral classification. Despite of some minor differences the two profiles run almost identically regardless
of the suspected different origin of the ZrO in the stellar atmospheres.
The intrinsic HR Pegasi, HD 216672, (970 ly), is only slightly variable Vvar 6.1m 6.5m
with a period of some 50 days (Type SR, semi-regular). It is classified as S4/1+ with a very
low C/O Index.
The extrinsic BD Camelopardalis, HD 22649, (510 ly), is only slightly variable mV 5.1m. It
forms a component of a close binary system, is classified as S3.5/2 symbiotic and therefore relatively hot.
R Cygni
S4/6e
TABLE 62
101
Chi Cyg
S7/1.5e
TiO 7126
TiO 7088
TiO 7054
ZrO 6988
ZrO 6933
Telluric O2
TiO 6815
ZrO 6778/87
ZrO 6743
TiO 6715
TiO 6681
TiO 6651
H 6562.82
TiO 6569
VO 6532
ZrO 6475/81/94
TiO 6478
ZrO 6378/84
ZrO 6350
TiO 6358
TiO 6180
TiO 6159
ZrO 6132/36
Na I 5890/96
ZrO 5839/49
TiO 5668
TiO 5597/03
4 Ori
M3.2S
TiO 5847
TiO 5814
ZrO 5718/24
ZrO 5629
ZrO 5545/51
TiO 5448/51
ZrO 5404/07
ZrO 5375/79
ZrO 5298/5305
ZrO 5246
TiO 5167
TiO 5003/20
TiO 4965
H 4861.33
TiO 4761-63
ZrO 4792
ZrO 4737
TiO 4626
TiO 4584
ZrO 4641
Sr I 4607
Ba II4554
ZrO 4471
H 4340.47
Tc I ?
Tc I ?
Ca I 4226.73
H 4101.74
102
TABLE 63
Telluric O2
TiO 6815
TiO 6715
TiO 6681
TiO 6651
TiO 6569
TiO 6478
ZrO 6475/81/94
TiO 6358
TiO 6180
TiO 6159
Na I 5890/96
TiO 5847
TiO 5814
TiO 5668
TiO 5448/51
TiO 5167
TiO 5003/20
TiO 4965
TiO 4761-63
TiO 4626
TiO 4584
BD Camelopardalis
S3.5/2 symbiotic
HR Pegasi
S4/1+
TiO 7126
TiO 7088
TiO 7054
103
23 Carbon Stars on the AGB

23.1 Overview and Spectral Characteristics
The final stage of the stellar evolution on the AGB is formed by the deeply red shining carbon stars, in most of the cases also Mira Variables or Carbon Miras. In the atmosphere of
a star, finally moving to the upper part of the AGB, the C/O ratio becomes W X > 1. This
results in a carbon excess which accumulates in a circumstellar cloud, dominating now impressively the star's spectrum. Thus, in the intermediate class SC, and increasingly in the
following CClass, moderately high resolution spectra show now predominantly absorptions of diatomic carbon molecules. In addition to CH and CN the so-called Swan bands due
to C2 are particularly striking discovered in 1856 by the Scot William Swan. (see also Table 110). Further visible are atomic lines of SProcess products and impressive absorptions
of Na I. Angelo Secchi was the first to discover that the intensity gradient of the C2 Swan
bands is reversed [
] in contrast to other molecular absorptions, such as titaniumand zirconium oxide. For this feature, he created the separate spectral class lV. (see appendix 34.3).
23.2 Competing Classification Systems

The phenomenon of carbon stars is still far from being fully understood (see e.g. [106]). For
the Sclass, in spite of ongoing disputes it exist a generally accepted and consistently applied classification system. However for the carbon stars the situation is still confusing
and unsatisfactory. The Revised MK-System 1993, propagated in most of the textbooks,
is applied obviously rarely. Its precursor from the 1960's, the so-called MKC system, however, very often! Surprisingly frequent one can see even classifications according to the
much older Harvard system, with the R and N classes.
23.3 The Morgan Keenan (MK) C System

This simple, old classification system is still very popular, both in many professional publications, as well as in most of the stellar databases. It uses the following format:
CX, n
X:
defines on a scale of 0 7, the position of the star in the temperature sequence.

This scale is temperature equivalent to the spectral classes from G4 to M4 (see
table below). The system appears to have been extended down to C9 (e.g. WZ Cas).
n:
This index rates on a scale from 1 5, the intensity of the C2 Swan bands. In
individual cases, appropriate supplements may be added, for example (e) for
emission lines, further also intensive lines of SProcess elements.
C0
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
G4-G6
G7-G8
G9-K0
K1-K2
K3-K4
K5-M0
M1-M2
M3-M4
4500
4300
4100
3900
3650
3450
This classification system squeezes the entire complex class of carbon stars in one sevenstage temperature sequence, supplemented just with one single intensity index!
Example: C 2,5 indicates a stellar temperature, equivalent to the spectral G9 K0, combined with very intense C2 Swan bands.
104
23.4 The Revised MK System 1993

In 1993, the old "C system" was revised to the "Revised MK System 1993" and adapted to
new findings [107]. It comprises five sub-classes (!), ordered by spectral symptoms
whose astrophysical background however remains widely unclear. Perhaps this could be
one reason why the acceptance of this complex system, even some 20 years after its introduction, seems to be still limited. The "Keenan 1993 system uses the following format:
CSub X n
Sub:
X:
n:
corresponds to the subclass of the carbon star according to the following table
defines the position of the star in the temperature sequence of the CClass. This
forms a parallel sequence to the spectral classes from G4 to M4 (see table)
Various indices as listed below.
Subclass
Supposed
status [106]
Criteria, spectral symptoms
Intrinsic
Intensive Swan bands (C2 ) in the blue part of the spectrum. Considerable
flux in the blue/violet area decreasing with lower temperatures. Later
types show weaker H Balmer lines, H line serves as a temperature
indicator. Sprocess elements show average intensity. Intensity of
12 13
C C Band head at 4737 is above average.
CN
Intrinsic
SProcess elements are exceptionally intensive. Early CN types show a

tendency to Merrill Sanford Bands (SiC2 silicon carbide).Strong, broad
and diffuse absorption, or even a barely detectable flux in the blue range
< 4400. Swan bands C2 weaker than with the CR types
CJ
Intrinsic
Very intensive Swan bands (C2) and CN absorptions, further Merrill Sanford bands (SiC2) and an infrared excess.
CH
Extrinsic
CR
CHd
Dominant CH absorptions in the blue/violet area. Fraunhofer G band at
4300 exceptionally- and SProcess elements above average intensive.

Hd indicates Hydrogen deficient. Hydrogen lines or CH absorptions weak
or even absent. CN and Swan bands (C2) above average intensive, very
often irregular R Crb Variables, showing sudden dramatic brightness
dips, due to veiling of the photosphere by circumstellar dust clouds.
CRSequence
CNSequence
CHSequence
Temperature equivalent
of the Main Sequence
~Temperature
range [K]
G4 G6
4500
CR0
G7 G8
4300
CR1
CN1
CH1
G9 K0
4100
CR2
CN2
CH2
K1 K2
3900
CR3
CN3
CH3
K3 K4
3650
CR4
CN4
CH4
K5 M0
3450
CR5
CN5
CH5
CR6
CN6
CH6
M1 M2
CH0
M3 M4
CN7
M5 M6
CN8
M7 M8
~2500
CN9
105
This classification can be supplemented with the following indices [107], [2]:
Index
Specification
C2 Index
Intensity of the molecular C 2 Swan bands Scale 1 5
CH Index
Intensity of the molecular CH absorption. Scale 1 6.
MS Index
Intensity of the Merrill Sanford Bands (SiC 2), Scale 1 5
J Index
Intensity ratio of the C2 molecular absorption with the Isotopes 12C13 C and
12 12
C C, Scale 1 5.
Elements
In some cases, for strong lithium and sodium lines index values are specified
Not included in this system is the still not understood class of the dC carbon dwarf stars
located on the Main Sequence.
23.5 Function of the Subclasses in the Evolution of Carbon Stars

Current professional publications provide a rather diffuse picture about the functions of
these subclasses within the evolution of carbon stars. Many details, so e.g. about the
"dredge up" processes, are obviously far from being fully understood. Further the theoretical modelling of "carbon atmospheres W X > 1 seems to be difficult.
Analog to the SClass also carbon stars on the AGB are referred as "intrinsic". Its assumed,
that the subclass CN, as well as the late representatives of CR, form the last development stage of the AGB sequence. These subgroups show a behaviour like M-giants with
very similar spectra. Furthermore they are also so-called "Low Mass Objects" with 3 solar
masses, typically show a mass loss and all of them are Variables.
Early representatives of CR Type shows in contrast, neither variability nor a significant
mass loss. Further they seem not to be AGB stars and show a behaviour like K-giants. One
of the discussed scenarios postulates a star on the Horizontal Branch (HB) with a helium
burning core. However it remains here a mystery how the formed carbon will be conveyed
to the surface. A further hypothesis is a former binary system whose masses fused into one
single star.
The position of the CJ class on the AGB is unclear. Its argued that these "Low Mass Objects" could be descendants of the CR class on the AGB.
The CH class seems to be "extrinsic". Most representatives are on the Horizontal Branch
(HB) and components of close binary stars. This suggests a mass transfer scenario similar
to the extrinsic SClass.
23.6 Merrill Sanford Bands (MS)

Already at the beginning of the 20th Century in spectra of certain carbon stars, in the range
of some 4640 to 5200, intensive absorptions attracted attention, which for a long time
could not be interpreted. The most intense band heads are at 4977, 4909, 4867, 4640
and 4581. These absorption bands are named after the two explorers, who first described
these in 1926. Not until 1956 Kleman could prove with laboratory spectra that these bands
are caused by SiC2 silicon carbide. For this purpose he heated silicon in a graphite tube up
to 2500 K.
P. J. Sarre et al. have also shown [109] that the Merrill Sanford Bands are generated in
cooler layers of the stellar atmosphere, far beyond the photosphere. Merrill Sanford Bands
are most common in the entire CJ and the early CN classes.
106

The majority of carbon stars is part of the sub-class CN, documented here with some examples. The spectral classes are here indicated in the old MKC system, according to Stephenson's 1989 catalog [500]. If available [107], also the classification, corresponding to
the Revised MK System 1993" is specified.
Table 64: A montage of three broadband spectra (200L grating) is presented to demonstrate the difference between the profiles of differently classified carbon stars.
WZ Cassiopeiae: HD 224855, spectral class C9,2 Li or C-N7 III: C2 2 Li 10.
J2000 RA: 00h 01 16
Dec: +60 21 19 Vvar +6.5 8.5m
WZ Cas (1,500 ly) is an extremely late classified, cool Supergiant
(2,500 K). Its the dominant component of a binary star system, impressively contrasting with its white-bluish shining companion star
(mV 8m, A0). Its located in the constellation Cassiopeia (image:
www.astro.sci.muni.cz/).
Besides the rather weak Swan bands (here classified with index value
2), this spectrum is dominated by the striking, almost fully saturated
(!) Na I line. Further by the impressive absorption of lithium Li I ( 6708), whose intensity is
rated here with 10. Therefore WZ Cassiopeiae is often called "Lithium star" [348]. According to [349] this intense Li l absorption line was the first evidence of Lithium outside the
solar system, found by McKellar 1941 a small but anyway interesting detail in the history
of science! Further the profile is dominated by CN- und C2-absorption bands and the HBalmer lines are barely recognisable here. The spectrum was recorded with the Celestron
C8 exposure: 3x85 sec. The line identification is based amongst others on [100], [104],
[110], [348], [349].
Z Piscium: HD 7561, spectral class C7,3 or C-N5 C2 4
J2000 RA: 01h 16 05 Dec: +25 46 10 Vvar max. +6.8m
This star is a Supergiant with a surface temperature of some 3,000 K and located some
1,500 ly distant in the constellation Pisces [105]. With C7,3 its classified earlier than WZ
Cas (C9.2). The carbon absorptions are here much more intense and the Na l line somewhat weaker, but still very impressive! Instead of the exceptional Lithium line ( 6708) the
undisturbed CN absorption at 6656 is visible here. The spectrum was recorded with DADOS 50m slit and the Celestron C8/ 3x60sec. The line identification is based amongst
others on [100], [104], [110], [348].
W Orionis: HD 32736, spectral class C5,4
J2000 RA: 5h 05 59
Dec: +1 11 27
Vvar max.+5.88m
The luminosity class of this carbon giant (some 700 ly distant), is difficult to determine
[506]. Merrill Sanford Bands are striking here. In the profiles of the two other, much later
classified carbon stars, these absorption bands of triatomic SiC2 silicon carbide are hardly
recognisable. The spectrum was recorded with DADOS 25m slit and Celestron C8/ 5x42
sec. The line identification is based amongst others on [100], [104], [110], [107], [109]
[348].
Table 64 A: W Orionis. Higher resolved spectrum (900L grating) in the wavelength domain
of the Merrill Sanford Bands. The line identification is based here additionally on [108].
Table 64 B: R Leporis, Hind's Crimson Star, HD 31996 spectral class C 7.6 e,
J2000 RA: 4h 59' 36" Dec: -14 48' 23" mV = var. max +5.5m
R Leporis is probably the most famous representative of the carbon stars, discovered in
1845 by John Russell Hind. With a distance of 1100 ly, and a temperature of about 2290,
it is located in the constellation Hare. It is almost equally classified as Z Piscium, except of
the index e, which documents that the H line appears in emission here.
107
Ca 6572
CN 6502
W Orionis
C 5.4
Li l 6708
CN 6656
Z Piscium
C 7.3
CN 6955
WZ Cassiopeiae
C 9.1
CN 6355
CN 6259
CN 6206
C2 6168
C2 6122
C2 6191
C2 6059
C2 6005
Na l 5895.92
Na l 5889.95
CN 5749
C2
C2
C2
C2
5636
5585
5541
5502
Ti l 5426.26
Mn l 5394.67
C2 4737
SiC2
SiC2
SiC2
SiC2
SiC2
SiC2
SiC2
4977
4957
4909
4867
4832
4807
4767
I=0.0
Ba ll 4934.1
Merill Sanford
Bands
Sc l 5301.94
CN 5255
Cr l 5206.04
C2 5165
C2 5130
CN 7119
W Ori
WZ Cas
CN 7283
Z Psc
TABLE 64
108
TABLE 64A
C2 /Sc l 5302
CN 5255
Fe I/Ni I/V II 5215-16

Fe I/Cr l/La II 5205
SiC2 5198
SiC2 5192
C2 5165
Merrill Sanford Bands
C2 5130
C2 5095-110
C2 5041
C2 5020
C2 5006
SiC2 4977
SiC2 4981
Ba ll 4934.1
SiC2 4909
SiC2 4867
SiC2 4851
SiC2 4832
SiC2 4807
SiC2 4767
SiC2 4750
C2 4737
I=0.0
Merrill Sanford Bands
W Orionis C 5.4
SiC2 4957
TABLE 64B
109
CN 7283
CN 7119
CN 6955
CN 6656
Ca 6572
H 6562.82
CN 6355
CN 6259
CN 6206
C2 6191
C2 6168
C2 6122
C2 6059
C2 6005
Na l 5895.92
Na l 5889.95
CN 5749
C2 5636
C2 5585
C2 5541
C2 5502
Ti l 5426.26
Mn l 5394.67
Sc l 5301.94
CN 5255
Cr l 5206.04
C2 5165
C2 5130
I=0.0
R Leporis Hinds Crimson Star HD 31996
C 7.6 e
CN 6502
110
24 Post AGB Stars and White Dwarfs

24.1 Position of Post AGB Stars in the Stellar Evolution
This section explains the final stage for stars with less than about 8 solar masses. This is
too light for a final SN explosion of type II. Only as a member of a binary system a White
Dwarf can become a SN type Ia by accretion of matter and finally exceeding its critical
Chandrasekhar mass limit (sect. 25).
24.2 Post AGB Stars

After the final AGB-stage as a carbon star it begins to repel its envelope as a planetary nebula. This stellar stage is called "post-AGB" and includes also the central stars of planetary
nebulae. Such a very early Post-AGB-Object (HD44179) is presented in sect. 28 as an exciting source of the protoplanetary nebula Red Rectangle (Table 85).
24.3 Spectral Features at Post AGB Stars

During the repulsion of its shell the star, now increasingly becoming hotter, performs an
impressive loop in the upper part of the HRD and passes on this "farewell tour" almost all
spectral classes (see chart sect. 20). In extreme cases, its temperature may reach far beyond 100'000K and the dying star can generate for a very short time even a Wolf Rayet-like
spectrum WRPN (sect. 28.3).
24.4 White Dwarfs

By pushing off of a planetary nebula, the star loses mass, the thermonuclear fusion processes inside the star extinguish and the remaining rest is finally reduced to an earth-sized,
extremely dense object, with an enormously strong gravitational acceleration at its surface.
Most of the White Dwarfs are composed of a "degenerate" carbon-oxygen core, the products of the previous helium fusion, and a thin shell of hydrogen and helium. The spectral
class sinks in the HRD to its lowest area of the White Dwarfs. The absorption spectrum is
produced here just by the remaining residual heat of the very slowly cooling stellar corpse.
Their absolute luminosity is now so low, that for amateurs only a few objects in the immediate solar neighbourhood are reachable, ie within a radius of about 50 light years. A corresponding list can be found in [262]. The nearest and brightest With Dwarfs are the companion stars Sirius B and Procyon B. Anyway, due to their close orbits around the Acomponents they are spectroscopically inaccessible for amateurs. Easiest to observe, visually and somewhat limited also spectroscopically, is 40 Eridani B (m V = 9.5) as a component
of a triple system, identified as a white dwarf not until 1910. Visually, this object was detected by William Herschel already 1783. The brightness of the remaining White Dwarfs
lies already within the range of magnitudes 12m 13m.
24.5 Spectral Characteristics and Special Features of White Dwarfs

The exorbitantly high gravitational acceleration at the surface causes, especially due to the
Stark effect of the interatomic electric fields (Kuiper 1939), extremely broadened absorption lines. This effect forms here the spectral "brand" and affects mainly the hydrogen
Balmer series. In addition, also lines of helium and calcium may appear. Due to the low
brightness the display of the finer absorption lines remains here reserved to high-resolution
spectrographs at large professional telescopes.
In astrophysics, the gravitational acceleration g is expressed as a logarithm to the base 10,
however strangely not in %8/9 ], but in [=8/9 ]. For Sirius B this value is log g = 8.57 , corresponding to some 371> 000> 000 =8/9 or 3710000 8/9 . Compared to just 9.81 8/9 on
earth, this is so extremely high, that the gravitational redshift, predicted by Einstein's Gen-
111
eral Theory of Relativity, becomes relevant even for amateurs [30]. The required work for
the light (photons) to escape the gravitational field of a White Dwarf, causes at H a red
shift of slightly <1, corresponding to a radial velocity of about 2040 km/s. This starspecifically different value must therefore inevitably be accounted for measurements of the
Doppler shift. The log g values of white dwarfs are in the range of approximately 79.
24.6 Classification System by McCook & Sion

The first letter of the classification is D, which means "Degenerate". The second letter indicates the primary spectroscopic characteristics [2], [261]. Besides the type DA the physical
background of most other subclasses is not yet fully understood.
DA
DB
DC
DO
DZ
DQ
Only Balmer lines; no He I or metals

He I lines; no H or metals present
Continuous spectrum, no lines deeper than 5% in any part of the spectrum
He II strong; He I or H present
Metal lines only; no H- or He lines
Carbon features, either atomic or molecular in any part of the spectrum
Additional letters and symbols may specify further effects and features:
P Magnetic white dwarfs with detectable polarisation
H Magnetic white dwarfs without detectable polarisation
X Peculiar or unclassifiable spectrum
E Emission lines are present
? Uncertain assigned classification
V Optional symbol to denote variability
d Circumstellar dust
C I, C II, O I, O II atomic species in spectra of hot DQ-Dwarfs
The classification digit, following this letter combination, specifies the effective temperature according to the formula:
= 50> 400/W*]99. ^S,S_
For rarely occurring temperatures above 50'400K the classification digit becomes less than
1.0 and is expressed for example as .9 .8 .7 etc.
Finally sometimes also the log g value of the gravitational acceleration is added. So the
classification eg DA 2.5_7.8 means a spectrum with hydrogen lines, of about 20'000K
and a gravitational acceleration at the surface of log , = 7.8.

Table 65: shows a montage with broadband spectral profiles (200L/mm) of three differently classified White Dwarfs, all normalised on the same continuum section. Depending on
the source consulted, here [260], the indicated spectral class may vary considerably.
WD 0644 +375:
GJ 246
Spectral class DA 2.3
Distance 50 ly [262]
m
J2000 RA: 06h 47' 38"
Dec: +37 30' 57" mV = 12.1
Besides the highly broadened hydrogen lines no further spectral features are visible here.
The equivalent width of the H line is here with 65 about 2.4x as large as by the already
impressive absorptions of the main sequence star A1Vm Sirius (27 ). The classification
digit (2.3) suggests here an effective temperature of about 22'000K. The spectrum was recorded with the 50m slit and the 200L grating. Exposure time: C8/DADOS/Atik 314L+:
1x1800 sec, 2x2 Binning Mode, 20C.
112
WD 0413 077:
40 Eridani B
Spectral class DAP 3.1
Distance 16 ly
J2000 RA: 04h 15' 22"
Dec: 07 39' 29" mV = 9.5m
Here again, the strongly broadened hydrogen lines are the most prominent spectral feature.
The equivalent width of the H line is here with 78 even about 3x as large as by the anyway impressive absorptions of the main sequence star A1Vm Sirius (27 ). Compared to
WD 0644 +375 this is caused here by the lower temperature of 40 Eridani B, which favours this type of absorption and may be estimated, in accordance with the classification
digit, to about 16'000K. The following figure shows the superimposed profiles of 40 Eridani
B (red) and Sirius (blue). It is striking that the broadening chiefly affects the H-and to a
lesser extent also the H line.
On Table 65 the H line at 40 Eridani B appears strongly deformed. Whether this effect is
caused by the strong magnetic fields (additional letter P in the classification) is not clear.
The figure on the right shows the B-component (mV = 9.5m) of
the triple star positioned at the lower end of the 50 m slit.
Thereby it was avoided that the spectrum has been contaminated by the nearby C-component (mV = 11.2m). The Acomponent (mV = 4.4m) is here the Guide Star at a comfortable
distance of 83". Recording: DADOS 50m slit, Celestron C8/
2x1800 sec.
Spalt
B
C
WD 0046 +051:
Van Maanen 2, Van Maanens Star
Spectral class DZ 8
J2000 RA: 00h 49' 10"
Dec: +05 23' 19" mV = 12.4
Distance 14 ly
Adriaan Van Maanen discovered this object in 1917 as the first stand alone White Dwarf.
This object has already been cooled down to about 6000K, a similar temperature range as
the solar photosphere. Its surface is possibly strongly contaminated with interstellar and
planetary particles (metals) [265]. Therefore at this resolution, just the two intense and
strongly broadened Fraunhofer H and K lines of ionised calcium Ca II can be seen here. Recording: DADOS 50m slit, Celestron C8/ 1x1800 sec.
White Dwarfs
H 3970.07
H 4861.33
H 4340.47
H 4101.74
Ca II 3968.47
Ca II 3933.66
H 6562.82
WD 0413 +077
WD 0046 +051
WD 0644 +375
WD 0046 +051 Van Maanen Star DZ 7
WD 0413 -077 40 Eridani B DA 4
WD 0644 +375 DA 2.5

113
TABLE 65
114
25 Supernovae
25.1 Phenomenon of Supernova Explosion SN
A supernova explosion totally destroys the star and
forms the definitive end point in its life. By this
cataclysmic runaway reaction an unimaginable
amount of energy is set free and almost the entire
stellar mass, initially with> 10,000 km/s, is distributed to the surrounding space. For comparison: the
detonation velocity of our most rapid explosives just
reaches ~ 8km / s (Nitropenta). As a result of such
an explosion, the interstellar matter (ISM) is enriched with heavy elements, which decisively influences the later formation of stars, planets and finally also of possible life. The diameter of old Supernova Remnants (SNR) may finally reach
up to some 100 ly, so eg the famous Cygnus Loop. Otherwise the diameter of the relatively
young Crab Nebula M1 is just about 11 ly (see sect. 28). The image (HST) shows the SN
1987A (SN type II) in the Large Magellanic Cloud (distance ~168'000 ly) about 20 years
after the apparent explosion time.
25.2 Labelling of Supernovae

Supernovae are labelled with the letters SN, followed by the year of discovery and an ongoing assigned letter, such as SN 2014 J. Since several hundred SN are discovered each year
with today's telescopes and automatic monitoring systems, after the first 26 events, the
assigning of double letters becomes necessary.
25.3 Classification of SN Types

SN are divided into the two main types, labelled with the roman numerals I and II. This
rough subdivision is very easy even for amateurs, since the spectra of SN type II show
emissions of the H-Balmer series and those of SN type I show none. This quite simple relation was discovered as early as 1941 by Rudolph Minkowski.
The characteristic lack of hydrogen in SN type I is caused by two very different scenarios,
and therefore the division into the sub-classes Ia and Ib / Ic is required:
Type Ia:
For stars with ~<8 M the hydrogen envelope is repelled as a Planetary Nebula.
So here all former main-sequence stars of spectral classes later than about B4B6 are concerned. What finally remains is a White Dwarf (sect. 24), which in
most of the cases consists mainly of carbon and oxygen.
Type Ib/Ic: For stars with ~>25 M [234] the hydrogen envelope is repelled as a Wolf
Rayet Nebula. So here roughly all former main-sequence stars of spectral class
O are concerned. What finally remains is an extremely hot Wolf Rayet Star (sect.
9), at which SN type Ib shows helium lines and SN type Ic shows none.
For the SN type II, with the characteristic hydrogen lines in the spectrum, it remains just the
huge middle mass range of ~825 M. Otherwise considering the spectral class this area
is rather small and concerns roughly all former main-sequence stars in the rough area of
just the early B- to the late O-class! A significant contribution to this theory stems from the
Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky in the 1960s.
SN show also a few outliers, which are not yet fully understood. Thus, e.g. in rare cases an
SN may start as Type II but end up as Type Ic [2]. Generally speaking for SN, by far not yet
all relationships are fully understood here.
115
25.4 Explosion Scenario "Core Collapse"

The core-collapse-SN forms the end of all stars with >8 M. This theory was proposed by
Fritz Zwicky in 1938. At the end of the giant stage, increasingly heavier elements are generated in the core of the star. Finally it will be fatal for the star, when it starts to produce
iron. For the formation of this, and all the following even heavier elements, the fusion processes consume energy. Thus, due to lack of radiation pressure, the core can no longer resist the gravitational forces and therefore it inevitably collapses. This initial implosion is
then quickly changing in to a cataclysmic explosion and at the very end it remains an extremely dense object with just a few km in diameter. Depending on the original stellar mass
either a neutron star or a black hole is formed. During the core-collapse, the very rare, extremely large stars of the Wolf Rayet type can further eject a highly intense gamma ray,
headed parallel to the stellar rotation axis (Gamma Ray Burst). In extreme cases it may occur a hypothetical Hypernova such is expected for Eta Carinae. The physical effects of the
shock wave within the expanding SNR are described in sect. 28.
25.5 Explosion Scenario "Thermonuclear Carbon Fusion"

This scenario is also called thermonuclear explosion and is exclusively limited to the
SN type Ia with an initial stellar mass of <8 M. As a member of a binary system, a White
Dwarf (sect. 24) by accretion of matter and finally exceeding the critical Chandrasekharmass limit (ca. 1.4 M), may explode as SN type Ia. However as an additional condition a
minimum rate for the annual accretion must be exceeded (`8/a']b > 1 10cd M ) [297],
otherwise mostly just recurrent Nova explosions occur. However, such much smaller events
are limited to the currently accreted material at the stellar surface, in which the star itself
will not be destroyed. But if all conditions are met, the degenerated electron gas can no
longer withstand the gravitational pressure and the stellar core, mostly consisting now of
carbon and oxygen (C/O), explodes. This cataclysmic event is caused by the sudden onset
of nuclear carbon-fusion, which is why SN Type Ia is sometimes also referred as Carbon
Detonation Supernova. Anyway in contrast to the Core-Collapse SN, SN Type Ia leaves no
residual object.
25.6 SN Type Ia Standard Candle

As already mentioned the SN type Ia exclusively occurs with White Dwarfs if they exceed by
accretion the "quasi standardised" critical Chandrasekhar-mass limit of about 1.4 M. Thus,
this way a more or less uniform amount of energy of about 10ef J is released [295]. Further,
both the photometric and the spectral profiles of such events are very similar. With
SN Type Ia the luminosity reaches the maximum after about 20 30 days, with an absolute
magnitude in the blue region of MB 19.5M [296]. These values remain within just a small
stray area and are, for SN explosions, clearly in the region of the top rankings, which is
bright enough to outshine an entire galaxy for several months. Due to this uniform appearance the SN Ia explosions serve also as indispensable "standard candles" for measuring the
entire observable universe.
For this purpose the core-collapse SN types are less useful, because the intensity of such
explosions depends strongly on the initial stellar mass. The absolute maximum brightness
lies here within a very large stray area of MB 15M to 21M, see [296, Fig. 2]. The extreme values are denoted here as sub luminous and over luminous [296].
25.7 Spectral Determination-Diagram for the SN Type

The following diagram is used for the spectroscopic identification of the SN type. In addition, the relevant explosion scenario, the type of the progenitor star, and finally the rough
order of magnitude for the original stellar mass are assigned here.
116
Not shown here are the subcategories of type II, which are determined photometrically by
the course of the light curve (see [2]). The light curve of Type II-P shows a plateau phase
after the maximum while the brightness of the Type II-L ~ decreases rather linearly. Another
Subtype II n shows narrow lines.
Spectral Features
No
Yes
Hydrogen ?
Yes
Si II at
No
6150 (1) ?
Yes
Progenitor
Star Before
Explosion
Explosion
Scenario
White Dwarf
with 1.4 M
Carbon
Fusion
[Solar
masses M]
He I at No
5876 (1) ?
M < 8M
Ia
II
SN
Type
8M< M <25M Red Giant
M >25M
Ib
Ic
(1)
Mass of
the
Original
Star
Wolf Rayet
Star
Core
Collapse
M >40M
These values are subjected to the Doppler shift and may vary
25.8 SN Type Ia Features in the Optical Spectral Range

The spectral features of SN type Ia are demonstrated here by the example of SN 2014 J. On
this topic exist, mainly by A. Filippenko and D. van Rossum, excellent and well readable
publications, even for advanced amateurs, (see bibliography sect. 40). With coloured
charts, based on model calculations, D. van Rossum impressively shows [291], which
highly complex blends form the SN type Ia-profiles. Both, the distinction between absorptions and emissions, as well as the determination of the real continuum-course, is extremely difficult here. So the relative Flux-calibration of the spectrum, with a standard star,
makes really sense here [30].
Accordingly, "absorptions" are consequently called "troughs" here and their equivalent
widths EW denoted as "pseudo-EW" [pEW] [291]. The ions, labelled here on the profile, are
only the detected (and in some cases merely suspected) main causes of such "structures".
Another quotation (just roughly transferred): "Apparent absorptions are often just random
gaps between two emissions".
117
Table 67: SN 2014 J, Type Ia, Host Galaxy M82

SN 2014 J was since decades the brightest supernova and reached about January 30th, 2014, the
maximum apparent brightness of m V = +10.5. It
was discovered by chance and surprisingly late not
until January 21st, on the occasion of a student
exercise at the University of London. The apparent
explosion date was subsequently determined from
pictures, taken by automatic surveillance systems,
to January 14th 2014 [292].
The picture on the right was taken by Roland Stalder at the Hubelmatt Observatory in Lucerne [711]
and shows in the crosshairs the SN 2014 J within the host galaxy M82 [711]. Here, on
January 31st, 2014, 17 days pe (post explosion), also the upper, red profile on Table 67
was recorded. It shows the usual SN Type Ia spectrum near the maximum brightness with
the typical two sulphur sinks (S II) at 5400, also called "W-absorption", and the prominent
silicon trough ("Silicon Valley") at 6150. The latter forms the key feature for the identification of the SN type Ia which allows also the rough estimation of the detonation velocity.
This huge Si II silicon absorption with the rest wavelengths of 6347 and 6371 appears
here impressively blue-shifted by about 200 to the range of 6150. Evaluated with the
spectroscopic Doppler law [30] it results a radial velocity of = h 9> 80078/9. A similar
value results also with the Doppler law [30], applied to the FWHM of the Si II-trough at
6150. A. Filippenko and D. Van Rossum [291] call this the "Si II-velocity".
Approx. 20 days later, ie 37 days pe, in the blue bottom profile, as expected, several Fe II
emissions are prevailing and suppressing for example the S II "W-absorption" at 5400.
However the impressive "silicon trough" is still present here showing still a comparable intensity. A striking feature of both profiles is the intense sodium Na I line, which is correspondingly interpreted by several publications as interstellar absorption within the apparently extremely dusty host galaxy M82. A. Filippenko analyses this line even as saturated
[292]!
The two relatively flux calibrated profiles [30] show a slight intensity-increase towards the
long-wave (red) direction. This is another strong evidence for the huge interstellar reddening because the "unreddened" model spectra [291] show the intensity peak in the UV
range.
Recording info Red Profile: January 31st, 2014: Hubelmatt Observatory Lucerne [711],
40 cm MFT Cassegrain, focal length 5550mm, DADOS with 200L/mm, 50m slit width,
Atik 314L+ 2x900s, 2x2 Binning.
Recording info Blue Profile: February 20 2014: Celestron C8, DADOS with 200L/mm,
50m slit width, Atik 314L+ 1x1800 sec, 2x2 Binning.
M82
Ca II
Si II
Mg II
Fe II
Fe III
Fe II
Fe II
Fe II
Fe III
Si II
Spectrograph: DADOS, Grating 200L/mm, Slit: 50m

Profiles relatively Flux calibrated
SN 2014 J
Fe II
S II
Na I
Si II
Fe II
31.1.2014 , 2030 UTC , JD 2456689.35 +17 pe

20.2.2014 , 2030 UTC , JD 2456709.31 +37 pe
Estimated first light SN 2014J: Jan. 14.75 UT ~JD 2456672.3

(Filippenko et al.)
pe = [days] post explosion
TABLE 67
Telluric O2 6870

118
119
26 Extragalactic Objects
26.1 Introduction
Its impossible with amateur equipment, to record spectra of single stars within external
galaxies. However its feasible to record composite spectra of galaxies and Quasars! In contrast to profiles of individual stars the composite (or integrated) spectra show the superposed characteristics of hundreds of billions individual star spectra. Using Doppler spectroscopy thus also the radial velocities, respectively the z-values of such objects can be
measured. Further by "edge on" galaxies the rough distribution of the rotation speed within
the galactic disk can be estimated [30].
On a professional level, this has been practiced successfully since the beginning of the
20th century and has contributed substantially to our present understanding of the universe. The first, who tried this with M31, was Vesto M. Slipher in 1912 at the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff Arizona. He was able to measure the blue shift of the spectrum and
derived a radial velocity of 300 km/s. Further he detected the rotation of this "nebula".
The fact that M31 is a galaxy outside the Milky Way was proved only later in the early
twenties. Further, he also noted that most of the other galaxies appear red shifted and thus
are removing from us. Lematre and Hubble used these shift measurements later for the
correlation with the distance (Hubble constant).
26.2 Morphological Classification

The characteristics of the spectra are partly correlated with the morphological types of galaxies. The following graph shows the so-called Hubble Sandage tuning-fork diagram.
Image: NASA/ESA
It is based on the former faulty hypothesis that this sequence should represent the evolution of galaxies, starting from the elliptical shape of E0 and ending with the spiral types Sc,
or SBc. Similar to the stellar spectral classes, we therefore call, unfortunately even today,
the elliptical as "early" and the spirals as "late" types. However, according to current knowledge, the elliptical galaxies represent rather the final stage, merged by a number of smaller
galaxies. During this process also the irregular stage Irr is passed through. Examples are
M82 and the Antenna Galaxy NGC4038/4039.
120
26.3 Spectroscopic Classification

The spectroscopic classification distinguishes these objects according to spectral features.
Already in the 1920ies it was recognised that such composite- or integrated spectra have a
similar information content like those of individual single stars. They also show profiles e.g.
with or without emission lines, chiefly depending on the kind and activity of the galactic nuclei. Such spectral profiles are powerful means to determine e.g. the content of stars, and
the development state of the galaxy [301].The relative similarity of the galactic composite
spectra to those of individual single stars, was also a convincing argument in the historical
dispute (mainly between H. Shapley and H. Curtis), that galaxies are not dust or gaseous
nebulae like M42 (see Tables 80/80A), but extremely distant, huge clusters of individual
stars!
In the second half of the 20th Century, classification systems have been developed, which
were based on the similarity with stellar spectral types. The so called Integrated Spectral
types of the galaxies were determined this way by W. Morgan, beginning with A, AF, F- and
ending by the late K-systems. The following correlations have been noticed [2]:
The later the stellar spectral type, with which the profile shows similarities, the stronger
is the galaxy centrally concentrated.
The elliptical classes E1 E4, remain still dominated by absorption features of later
spectral types. From here on however, the characteristic changes until the profiles of
the types Sc/SBc and Irr look similar to those of early spectral classes. Furthermore
emission lines show up here with increasing intensity.
The following table shows another, also rather rough classification system, based on the
presence, intensity and shape of emission lines. It also includes peculiar shapes such as
Seyfert Galaxies and Quasars, standing out by an extremely high core activity and therefore
belonging to the category of AGN (Active Galactic Nuclei). The core activity increases here
from top to down.
121
26.4 Rough Scheme for Spectroscopic Classification
Features Within the

Optical Spectral Range
Affected Objects and

Responsible Effects
Almost exclusively absorption

lines, sporadically weak emissions may show up
Mainly elliptical galaxies

with a rather old star inventory, low star formation rate and weakly active nuclei
M31, M33,
M81
By the majority absorption

lines. In the core region emission lines of weakly ionised or
neutral atoms as O I, N I and S
I. Possibly weak emissions of
ions with higher ionisation energy as He I, Ne II and O II.
Mainly types E0 SO
with a younger star inventory compared with absorption line galaxies.
Slightly increased core
activity.
M94, M104
Intensive H-emission lines, further just weakly may appear: [N

II] (6583), [S II] ( 6716/31)
and [O I] (6300), generally little or no absorptions
Colliding, gravitationally
interacting, or gas-rich
young galaxies with giant
H II regions and a correspondingly high rate of
star birth
M82,
NGC
4038/4039
Seyfert
Galaxy
Intensive and Dopplerbroadened H- and slim [O III]

emission lines, [N II], [S II], and
[O I] are intensive, generally
little or no absorptions
Central, supermassive
black hole with high
accretion rate
M77,
M106, NGC
4151
Intensive and extremely Doppler-broadened H- emission

lines
Central, supermassive
black hole with extremely
high accretion rate
3C273
Quasar
Blazars differ from quasars just by our perspective; here we look directly
into the synchrotron radiation of the jet matter.
Makarian
421
Blazar,
BL Lacertae
Object
Continuum spectrum of the

bright matter jet without any
spectral lines and irregular,
strong intensity fluctuations.
Spectral lines measurable only
in the very faint ambient galaxy
disk with large telescopes.
Galaxy Type
Absorption
line Galaxy
LINER Galaxy
Starburst
Galaxy
Examples
122
26.5 Absorption Line Galaxies

The principle of the absorption line galaxy is demonstrated here by the example of the Andromeda galaxy M31. In this type, star-like spectra appear almost with exclusively absorption lines.
Table 70: Absorption line Galaxy Andromeda M31/NGC224
The table shows heliocentric parameters according to NED [501], and Evans, N.W. Wilkinson (2000) [1] (Value including suspected dark matter).
Radial
Velocity
Redshift z
Distance
Morphology
Diameter
Mass 1
300km/s
0.001
2.6 M ly
Sb
141,000 ly
1.23 1012 M
Table 70 shows a composite spectrum of M31. The slit

Slit
axis of the DADOS spectrograph was adjusted nearly paraxis
allel to the apparently smaller cross axis of the galaxy,
since no rotation effects are intended to show here [30].
According to [301] composite spectra of the galaxy types
Sa Sb are dominated mainly by developed Giant stars.
As a matter of fact the pseudo-continuum of the recorded
M31 spectrum fits here best to that of a single star of the
late Gclass what is called Integrated Spectral Type. For a comparison, the M31 profile is
therefore shown here superposed with the pseudo-continuum of Vindemiatrix ( Vir).
M31 belongs obviously to the category of absorption line galaxies. The most dominant
common features are the Fraunhofer G-band, the Calcium Triplet, and the Sodium Double
Line (Fraunhofer D line). The H-Balmer lines are just very faintly visible in absorption. According to [301], this finding fits rather to elliptical galaxies (type E). For the type SaSb
also few emission lines, caused by a younger stellar population, may sporadically be recognisable. However this is not detectable in this spectrum of M31.
The profile was recorded in the Nasmith focus of the 90 cm CEDES Cassegrain Telescope in
Falera exposure: 3x340 sec. Clearly visible here is the expected blue shift of several Angstroms by the absolutely wavelength-calibrated M31 profile, compared to the relatively
calibrated spectrum of Vir, based on known lines.
26.6 LINER Galaxies

The very numerous so-called LINER galaxies form a kind of transition between absorption
lines and starburst galaxies. LINER means "Low-Ionisation Nuclear Emission-Line Region".
The spectral features of the galactic core region are emission lines of weakly ionised or
neutral atoms such as O I, N I and S I. Just weakly possibly appear emissions of highly ionised atoms such as He I, Ne II and O II. In contrast to the Seyfert galaxies (sect. 26.9), the
core at LINER galaxies is still relatively faint. Well-known examples are M104 (Sombrero)
and M94. Morphologically mainly the types E0 SO are concerned. This phenomenon, especially the origin of the involved ionisation processes is still subject of debate.
123
Table 71: LINER Galaxy M94

Heliocentric parameters according to NED [501] and [1]: Trujillo et al. [315].
RadialVelocity 63
Redshift h
Distance
Morphology
Diameter
Mass [1]
+308km/s
+0.0010
16.4 Mio ly
SA
67000 ly
6.5 1010 M
This typical "Face On" galaxy (Image: HST) has achieved

general awareness because its rotational behaviour can
apparently be explained without the currently hotly debated "dark matter". Both profiles of Table 71 have been
recorded in the integrated light at a time interval of 48
hours and (inevitably) with different slit positions relative
to the Galaxy. The upper, red profile may represent rather
the peripheral regions. Compared to M31 amazingly
many absorption lines can be identified here with almost
star-like shape. This composite spectrum shows strong
similarities with a stellar profile of the late F-class. Particularly striking here is one of their "brands" the comparable intensity of the G-band (CH
molecular), and the directly adjacent H line (sect. 16.3). This striking Line-double can exclusively be seen in the F-class. This also fits to the intensity of the two Fraunhofer Ca II
lines and the still rather modest absorption of the Magnesium triplet ( 5167 -. 5183).
Compared to M31 the entire H-Balmer series appear here very prominently and also all
other symptoms indicate a much younger star inventory in M94. The lower, blue profile may
represent rather the weakly active core of the galaxy. Some possible, unidentifiable emission peaks are marked here with red arrows. The most striking features, as the unique double peak emission at about 4507, are marked with red ellipses. For H it remains unclear,
whether we see here double-peak absorption or a shell core emission. Recording info:
C8/DADOS/Atik 314L+: 1x1800sec, 2x2 binning mode.
26.7 Starburst Galaxies

Starburst Galaxies are mostly colliding, gravitationally interacting, or young, gas-rich galaxies with giant H II regions and a correspondingly high star birth rate. Clearly overrepresented here are the irregular types, such as M82 or the Antenna Galaxy NGC
4038/4039. The most striking spectral features are intense emissions of the H-Balmer series, the virtual absence of absorptions, just weak emissions of [N II] (6583), [S II] (
6716/31), and possibly also [OI] (6300).
Table 72: Starburst Galaxy M82, Cigar Galaxy
Heliocentric parameters according to NED [501] and J.P. Greco, P. Martini et al. [1]
RadialVelocity 63
Redshift h
Distance
Morphology
Diameter
Mass [1]
+203km/s
+0.0007
12.6 Mio ly
Irr
47000 ly
~1010 M
124
The apparent chaotic structure of this galaxy can be attributed to gravitational interaction with the much larger
neighbouring galaxy M81, as well as effects of the specific perspective (Image: HST). M82 is a typical representative of the starburst galaxies with very few weak absorption lines. Na I is here most likely of interstellar origin, mainly within M82. Additional features include intense emissions of the H-Balmer series and probably
shock wave induced sulphur lines. The forbidden [OIII]
lines are here barely recognisable. Also striking is here
the double peak in the range of the H-emission (compare also Seyfert galaxy M77, Table
73). Compared with galactic emission nebulae (sect. 28) as well as M77, the excitation
level is very low here. The forbidden [OIII] line at 5007 shows here up just very weakly
and the H emission is much more intense compared to [N II] at 6583. Recording info:
C8/DADOS/Atik 314L+: 1x1800sec, 2x2 binning mode.
M82 is also the host galaxy of the brightest supernova since decades, SN2014j, type Ia
(see sect. 25, Table 67).
26.8 The phenomenon of AGN (Active Galactic Nuclei)

The AGN phenomenon in the subsequently described
Seyfert galaxies and Quasars is caused by so-called supermassive black holes, collecting vast amounts of matter from their surroundings and generating thereby exorbitant amounts of energy and intense X-ray radiation.
This process is accompanied by an accretion disk in the
equatorial plane and jets of matter which are ejected
parallel to the rotation axis of the object with almost the
speed of light (image: Wikipedia). Seyfert galaxies are the
largest group with AGN [307].
26.9 Seyfert Galaxies

The principle of the Seyfert galaxy is demonstrated here by the example of M77.
Table 73: Seyfert galaxy M77/NGC1068
The table shows heliocentric parameters according to NED [501] and other sources [1].
Radial
Velocity 63
Redshift h
+1'137km/s +0.0037
Distance
Morphology
Diameter
Mass [1]
44 M ly
Sb / Sy2
115000 ly
~1.0 1012 M
Table 73 shows a composite spectrum of the core of M77. The

galaxy is classified as type Seyfert 2 (image: NASA/Wikipedia).
In the 1940ies Carl Kennan Seyfert (1911 1960) discovered
in the core of some galaxies intensive emission lines of the H
Balmer series with Doppler-broadenings of more than 1000
km/s.
In addition, emissions of forbidden transitions, such as [O III]
and [N II] can be detected. However, they cant substantially be
125
broadened, due to the shock sensitivity of the metastable initial states. In contrast to the
emission of the H-Balmer series, they are probably generated far away from the turbulent
core around the supermassive black hole, whose mass is estimated to be ~15 Million M
[Hubble ESA, Garching]. In contrast to the permitted lines they show therefore virtually no
intensity fluctuations.
Also remarkable are the double peaks at the H and the Ne III (3967) emission. B. GarciaLorenzo et al. [304] and other authors suggest here Doppler effects due to differently running streams of gas in the close vicinity around the black hole.
Seyfert galaxies are divided into:
Subclass 1 with strongly broadened lines, limited to the permitted transitions
Subclass 2 with only slightly broadened lines, limited to the permitted transitions
Generally it is now assumed, that this difference in classification is rather caused by effects
of different perspectives, see "Seyfert Unification Theory" [306]. Thus, at subclass 2, the
forming regions of the broad, permitted lines are possibly obscured by dust clouds and/or
an unfavourable viewing angle.
M77 shows one of the larger red shifts of the Messier
galaxies. In the region of the H line it is about 24
(h ; ). In the graph on the right, the scale and the blue
profile are based on the rest wavelength ; , calibrated
with known lines. The red profile is absolutely scaled
here with the calibration light; that on Table 73 refers
to the rest wavelength ; .
For obvious reasons the spectrum shows strong similarity to profiles of galactic emission nebulae, which
are presented in sect. 28. Accordingly, the excitation
class I can also be determined here. Already the He II
line at 4686 shows, that I must be I > 4. The criterion log (i-ji /" kk (eldl) ) results here in ~1.5, corresponding to an excitation class I 10 on the 12-step
Gurzadyan scale (sect. 28). This high excitation level is
also documented by the considerable intensity of the forbidden [O III] and [N II] lines, compared to the rather weak H-Balmer series. So here even [N II] (6583) surpasses clearly the
H emission. Comparable to the supernova remnant M1 (sect. 28), the sulphur [S II] doublet ( 6718/6733) is here also strikingly intense probably as well due to shock waveinduced excitation.
Veilleux and Osterbrock use in their classification scheme [307] inter alia the decadic logarithms of the intensity ratios [X ](fm) /(H and [ ](lfdn) /(o. According to Shuder
and Osterbrock (1981), the intensity ratio
[X ](fm) /(H > 3
applies as a rough criterion to distinguish Seyfert- from H II- or Starburst galaxies (compare
with M82, Table 72!).
The direct vicinity of the supermassive black hole appears in the center of Seyfert galaxies
almost star like and very bright, while the rest of the galaxy remains relatively dark. This
considerably simplifies the recording of the spectrum of M77 with an apparent magnitude
of V 8.9m. The spectrum from the core was recorded with the 25m slit and the 200L grating. Exposure time: C8/DADOS/Atik 314L+: 2x1200 sec, 2x2 Binning Mode, 20C.
126
26.10 Quasars
The Quasar Phenomenon
The term "Quasar" is derived from Quasi-stellar Object (QSO),
because these objects appear as point shaped light sources.
Maarten Schmidt discovered the first in 1963 at the coordinates of a corresponding entry in the mentioned radio source
catalogue (HST image: 3C273). It quickly became clear that
this object showed the largest Redshift, known at that time,
and therefore could impossibly be a star. In addition, the obtained spectra differed dramatically from stellar profiles and
appeared more like those of Wolf Rayet stars, Nova outbursts,
or even Supernova explosions. According to today's knowledge, Quasars are considered as
the most energetic and luminous version of galaxies with active nuclei (AGN). The center of
such an object always hosts a supermassive Black Hole which accumulates matter from the
surrounding galaxy by an accretion disk and ejects a jet with relativistic speed. Therefore,
Quasars are also strong sources of X-ray and some of them also of radio emission ("radio
loud"). The mass estimation of the Black Hole is still difficult and uncertain. The literature
shows strongly scattering values for example [311], proposing a mass of some 1 bn. M.
Their point shaped appearance can be explained by the enormous brightness of the nuclei,
which in most cases totally outshine the rest of their host galaxies. Apart from the episodically occurring Supernova explosions they are by far the most luminous objects in the universe.
Table 75: Quasar 3C273, details of the spectral profile
Preliminary remarks: Here follows a summary of my publication Quasar 3C273, Optical
Spectrum and Determination of the Redshift [36]. There, further information, as well as a
finder chart and details, about the recording of this object, can be found. The apparently
brightest Quasar 3C273 (mV 12.85m) in Virgo is often called the most distant object which
can still be seen with average amateur means, purely visually and without the use of astronomy cameras. The designation means the object number 273 in Ryle's third Cambridge
catalogue of radio sources from 1959.
Heliocentric parameters according to NED [501] and other sources [1].
Redshift [501]
Doppler Radial
velocity [501]
h = ;/;
63 = = h
+0.1583
+47469 km s-1
Relativistic Radial
velocity [500]*
63 3p = =
Distance
[bn. ly] [1]
(h + 1) 1
(h + 1) + 1
+43751 km s-1
2.4
*Remark: The value for the relativistic radial velocity is currently no longer included in [500]
Spectral features of 3C273

The spectrum is dominated by extremely broadened emissions of the H-Balmer series and
by forbidden [OIII] lines at 5007 and 4959, fusing here to a blend. Due to quantum mechanical reasons, the forbidden O III lines can't appear to be significantly broadened. It is
therefore discussed, whether the 5018 emission of the Fe II (42) multiplet ( 4923,
5018 and 5169), supplies the major contribution to the intensity of this emission [309],
[312]. This multiplet frequently appears in the spectra of Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN), as
well as in the profiles of Protostars (sees PMS sect. 14). Striking is the much lower intensity of the O III emission, relative to H. This observation is in contrast to the spectral pro-
127
files of active Seyfert-type Galaxies (Table 73), planetary nebulae and H II regions (sect.
28). This phenomenon has already been noted by the discoverers of Quasars in the
1960ies. Even today just hypotheses exist about this issue.
Undisputed is the Ne III emission at 3869. The other features are mostly broad-band
blends of different emissions, generated by various ions. This significantly complicates the
line identification [312]. Consequently, their exact composition is still unclear. Striking is a
broad emission between 4500 4700. J. B. Oke [313] suggested as the cause the He II
line at 4686 and numerous emissions of C III and N III - this in analogy with similar spectra of Supernovae and Wolf Rayet stars. In [312] it is assumed that the striking emission in
the range of 5870 is caused by He I at 5876. Under discussion is also the Na I doublet,
which in certain phases can be observed during Nova eruptions. Due to the extreme shock
sensitivity of the metastable initial states of the forbidden [O III] lines, and the very low
ionisation energy of Na I, these emissions must necessarily be generated at a considerable
distance to the supermassive Black Hole. An indication for the contraction process within
the accretion disk are the inverse P Cygni profiles in the area around 6100 - 6400, also
observable in the spectra of the much smaller disks around the T Tauri and Ae/Be- Protostars (see sect. 14).
The H emission is redshifted here so far (1017 ) that it coincides with the intense, telluric Fraunhofer A line. This is the cause why H appears split here [313]. This circumstance
complicates the determination of the Redshift, using this line, and seems at least to be one
of the reasons for the by far too low Balmer Decrement ("M /"N < 2.85) [313].
Because H appears split, the radial velocity in the vicinity of the Black Hole is estimated
here, using the FWHM of the Doppler-broadened and Gauss fitted H line. Info to the formula see [30], sect. 17. At such extreme line widths the correction of the instrumental
broadening can be neglected. It results in &J(? rs@tt@u5 "N 88. The radial velocity of the
matter, calculated with the Doppler principle results in:
&J(? rs@tt@u5 "N
63
= 5400 78/9
; "N
This is roughly within the strongly scattering literature values. For the jet however, based
on X-ray analyses, up to 70% of the light speed are postulated [308]. Anyway this feature is
for amateurs, in the accessible optical spectral range, neither detectable nor measurable.
Not only the brightness of the object can vary considerably (see AAVSO), also the spectral
characteristics can change dramatically within a short time, such as the half-width IJof
the H emission (for details see [36]). It also shows that this central region cant be indefinitely large, and according to www.hubblesite.org can therefore hardly exceed the diameter
of our solar system. 3C273 would certainly be a highly interesting candidate for a monitoring project. In addition to such considerations we should always be aware that these
changes, observed within a very short time, took place about 2.4 billion years ago, when
our earth was still in the Precambrian geological age!
Table 76: Quasar 3C273, Redshift
On this table, redshifted wavelengths are indicated, measured at Gaussian fitted lines and
related to the original wavelength scale, calibrated with a calibration light source [35]. The
amounts of redshift are not constant but, for a given radial velocity 63, proportional to the
rest wavelength ; of the corresponding spectral line. Therefore, the calculation of the hvalues for all evaluated lines must yield almost the same amounts. This is also a good final
test for the quality of the wavelength calibration.
In the field of astrophysics for such highly red shifted objects, the distance is usually directly expressed as h -value. It can easily be determined by the measured Redshift and re-
128
mains fully independent of assumptions for cosmological model parameters (eg ). Due to
the constant speed of light = = =+v9_, h is also used as a measure of time for the past.
h=
;
;
The h -value, measured and calculated from this profile, amounts to h = 0.158 and is consistent up to three decimal places with the literature value of +0.1583; for details see [30]
and [36]! The ; values allow the calculation of the radial velocity 63 with the usual Doppler
formula. With such high redshifts >1000 km/s, however, the relativistic formula (SRT)
should be used for 63 3p [16].
;
w+xx*'b y+b8z*]: 63 =
=
;
b'*]_S6S9_S=: 63 3p
(h + 1) 1
==
(h + 1) + 1
At redshifts of h > 0.1 increasingly dominates the cosmological expansion of the so-called
space-time lattice and the kinematic peculiar motion of galaxies plays virtually no more role
[30]. Because, however, the validity of both, the classical and the relativistic Doppler formula, is limited to kinematic processes, their advanced application on the cosmologic space
expansion is currently being rejected by most of the experts. 3C273, with h = 0.158, is already something beyond this limit. Therefore in this case, both, the expansion velocity of
the space as well as the distance should be calculated with accordingly parameterised
cosmological models, mostly based on the ART. Anyway, if these values are calculated nevertheless "conventionally", applying h = 0.158, it results for the "radial velocity":
63 = 47490km/s
63 3p = 43808km/s
With this "radial velocity" and applying the Hubble law, finally the distance of some 2 billion
ly can be estimated (accepted value some 2.4 billion light years). Further details see [30]
and [36].
129
26.11 Blazars and BL Lacertae Objects (BL LAC's)

The Blazar Phenomenon
The term "Blazar" is composed of the terms "BL Lacertae" and "Quasar", used also abbreviated as "BL Lac". Allegedly the term was coined in 1978 by Ed Spiegel at a congress on BL
Lacertae objects in Pittsburgh, on the occasion of a banquet speech. Basically, these objects differ from the quasars just by our perspective, ie here we look directly into the synchrotron radiation of the jet matter, which is ejected from the central black hole, parallel to
the rotation axis and almost with the speed of light.
Therefore, we observe here a highly intense, aperiodically fluctuating radiation with a

strong polarisation across the whole electromagnetic spectrum. Similar to the quasars,
these objects were first interpreted as blue variable stars. Not until 1968 their true nature
was first discovered at BL Lacertae. The spectra of these bright jets of matter typically
show no spectral lines, neither in emission nor in absorption. Therefore the red shift may
here only be measured at the comparatively very faint and diffusely appearing galaxy,
which is feasible just with large telescopes.
Table 77: Blazar Makarian 421 (Mrk 421)
Heliocentric parameters according to NED [501]
RadialVelocity. 63
Redshift h
Distance
Type
+9'000km/s
+ 0.030
400 Mio
ly
Blazar/BL LAC
With 400 million ly distance Makarian 421 is clearly the closest object of the category Blazar/Quasar. It is still orbited by a
small companion galaxy Mrk 421-5 (details see [314]). Atlas
Image: courtesy of 2MASS/UMass/IPAC Caltech/NASA/NSF.
The apparent brightness of the Blazar is indicated by CDS
[500] with mV 12.9m, almost the same value as for the quasar 3C273 (sect. 26.10). Anyway in most cases, the brightness is significantly weaker here, ie in the range between 13m
and 14m (see AAVSO). Thus for amateurs this object is much
more difficult to record, but otherwise very easy to find, because it is located in an eye-catching star pattern just nearby
to 51 UMa (mV = 6.0m). With amateur equipment from Mrk 421, only a jet spectrum, lacking
of any spectral lines, can be recorded, which of course does not allow any determination of
the redshift. Table 77 shows this profile, which just shows the telluric absorptions. Recording info: C8/DADOS, Grating 200L/mm, Atik 314L+ 1x1800sec, 2x2 binning.
130
26.12 List of Quasars Brighter than Magnitude 15m (DVAA)

The following table is an excerpt of the DVAA-List, containing Quasars brighter than Magnitude 18m [316]. The covered distance range here is 122 3'507 Mpc, z: 0.03 1.34.
Mag.
Object
Const.
RA
DEC
Type
Dist.
[Mpc]
12.8
12.9
12.9
13.0
13.1
13.7
13.8
13.9
13.9
14.0
14.2
14.2
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.4
14.4
14.4
14.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
14.6
14.6
14.6
14.6
14.6
14.7
14.7
14.7
14.7
14.7
14.7
14.9
14.9
14.9
14.9
14.9
14.9
15.0
15.2
15.2
1ES 1959+650
3C 273
MK 421
IRAS 01072-0348
MK 509
MK 501
MK 926
HE 1029-1401
MCG 11-19-006
1ZW 1
PG 1211+143
3C 371
KUV 18217+6419
PG 1351+640
1E 0754+395
MR 2251-178
TON 599
HS 0624+6907
MK 180
TON 951
IRAS 17596+4221
IRAS 21219-1757
MK 478
PG 1718+481
7ZW 118
MK 1298
2ZW 136
PG 1634+706
MK 304
1E 2124-149
1ES 0229+200
PG 0804+762
TON 1388
MS 03180-1937
OF-109
MK 1383
WAS 26
MS 15198-0633
MK 734
PKS 0219-164
HE 1211-1322
OP+313
DRA
VIR
UMA
CET
AQR
HER
AQR
HYA
UMI
PSC
COM
DRA
DRA
DRA
LYN
AQR
UMA
CAM
DRA
LYN
HER
CAP
BOO
HER
CAM
LEO
PEG
DRA
PEG
CAP
ARI
CAM
LEO
ERI
ERI
VIR
LEO
LIB
LEO
CET
CRV
CVN
19 59 59.9
12 29 06.7
11 04 27.2
01 09 45.1
20 44 09.7
16 53 52.2
23 04 43.5
10 31 54.4
15 19 21.6
00 53 34.9
12 14 17.7
18 06 50.7
18 21 57.3
13 53 15.7
07 58 00.1
22 54 05.9
11 59 31.9
06 30 02.4
11 36 26.5
08 47 42.5
18 01 09.1
21 24 41.7
14 42 07.5
17 19 38.4
07 07 13.2
11 29 16.7
21 32 27.8
16 34 29.0
22 17 12.2
21 27 32.4
02 32 48.6
08 10 58.5
11 19 08.8
03 20 21.2
04 07 48.5
14 29 06.6
11 41 16.1
15 22 28.8
11 21 47.1
02 22 00.8
12 13 46.3
13 10 28.7
+65 08 55
+02 03 08
+38 12 32
-03 32 33
-10 43 24
+39 45 36
-08 41 08
-14 16 52
+65 34 40
+12 41 36
+14 03 13
+69 49 28
+64 20 36
+63 45 46
+39 20 30
-17 34 55
+29 14 45
+69 05 04
+70 09 28
+34 45 05
+42 21 44
-17 44 46
+35 26 23
+48 04 13
+64 35 59
-04 24 08
+10 08 19
+70 31 33
+14 14 21
-14 46 48
+20 17 17
+76 02 43
+21 19 18
-19 26 31
-12 11 36
+01 17 06
+21 56 22
-06 44 41
+11 44 19
-16 15 17
-13 38 52
+32 20 44
BL
QSO
BL
QSO
QSO
BL
QSO
QSO
QSO
QSO
QSO
BL
QSO
QSO
QSO
QSO
QSO
QSO
BL
QSO
QSO
QSO
QSO
QSO
QSO
AGN
QSO
QSO
QSO
QSO
BL
QSO
QSO
QSO
QSO
QSO
QSO
QSO
AGN
QSO
QSO
QSO
0.05
0.16
0.03
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.05
0.09
0.04
0.06
0.09
0.05
0.3
0.09
0.1
0.07
0.73
0.37
0.05
0.06
0.05
0.11
0.08
1.08
0.08
0.06
0.06
1.34
0.07
0.06
0.14
0.1
0.18
0.1
0.57
0.09
0.06
0.08
0.05
0.7
1.13
1
183
584
122
210
137
130
183
329
172
236
325
199
1035
336
365
262
2203
1254
180
247
206
427
296
2996
303
232
244
3507
259
221
518
380
649
394
1815
329
244
322
191
2128
3084
2813
131
TABLE 70
Vindemiatrix
G8 lllab
Na l 5890/96
M31
Comparison of Spectra: Galaxis M31 vs. Vindemiatrix G8 lllab
H 6562.82
Magnesium Triplet
5167 - 84
H 4861.33
G-Band CH 4299 4313
Fraunhofer H + K
TABLE 71
Telluric O2 6870
H 6562.82
Scale: Rest-wavelength 0
Redshift z = +0.0010
Two Profiles, recorded at different dates and with different slit positions
LINER Galaxy M 94 NGC 4736
Telluric O 2
Na I 5889/95
Fe l/Ca l 5270
Mg l-Triplet
5167. - 5183
H 4861.33
H 4340.5
CH 4299 - 4313
Ca II 3968.47
Ca II 3933.66
132
133
TABLE 72
[N II] 6583.6
H 6562.82
[S II] 6717/31
H 6562.82
H 4861.33
Scale: Rest-Wavelength 0
Starburst Galaxy M 82 NGC 3034
Na I 5889/95
[O III] 5006.84
H 4861.33
H 4340.5
134
TABLE 73
[S II] 6717/31
[N II] 6583.6
H 6562.82
Criterion log (IN1+N2 /IHe II (4686)) 1.5

Excitation class E10
[O I] 6300.2
[O III] 5006.84
[O III] 4958.91
H 4861.33
He II 4685.7
Classification lines
Seyfert Galaxy M 77 NGC 1068
Scale: rest wavelength 0
[N II] 6548.1
H 4340.5
[Ne III] 3967.47

[Ne III] 3868.76
0.6
1.0
[O lll] 5006.84 / 4958.91

Fe II (42) 4923/5018/5169
H 4861.33
He II 4686 [8] ?
C III / NIII [8] ?
H 4340.47
H 4101.74
H 3970.07
Ne III 3868.74
Rest wavelenght 0
Red shifted, calibrated original scale
tellur.
Telluric Fraunhofer A
H 6562.82
tellur.
Inverse P Cygni
Profiles
TABLE 75
DADOS: Grating 200L mm-1, 50m slit, recorded may 26, 2012 with Atik 314L+ -10C, 5x1200s
The indication of the wavelength is provided in rest wavelength 0
The profile is normalised to the continuum Ic = 1, the intensity on the level of the wavelength axis is Ic = 0.6
Quasar 3C273 Line Identification

135
Na I 5889/95 [7] ?
He I 5876 [7] ?
0.6
1.0
646
H 4748
683
H 5023
771
Red shifted, calibrated original scale
H 5632
H 7580
TABLE 76
1017
DADOS: Grating 200L mm-1, 50m slit, recorded may 26, 2012 with Atik 314L+ -10C, 5x1200s
The indication of the wavelength, determined with Vspec at Gaussfits, is provided red shifted on the
original scale. The profile is normalised to the continuum Ic = 1, the intensity on the level of the
wavelength axis is Ic = 0.6.
Quasar 3C273, Redshift of the Hydrogen Balmer Lines

136
Scale: Rest-wavelength 0
Blazar Makarian 421

Redshift z = + 0.0300
Radial Velocity 9000km/s
TABLE 77
Telluric O2 6870

137
138
27 Star Clusters
27.1 Short Introduction and Overview
Star clusters are formed by compacted stellar accumulations within or in the vicinity of galaxies. Most of the members of such clusters have evolved from a common gas cloud, and
have therefore about the same age. The individual clusters show a wide dispersion with respect to density, age, and number of stars. Basically, star clusters can be divided in to the
following two main categories with completely different properties.
27.2 Open Clusters

Such clusters show an irregular shape and usually contain a few hundred (eg Pleiades) up
to at most a few thousand stars (eg, H and Persei). The internal gravitational forces of
such clusters are usually too weak to hold together their stars for more than at most a few
hundred million years. One of the few exceptions is the very dense M67, whose age is estimated to about 4 billion years. The typical diameters of open star clusters are relatively
similar: eg Hyades: 15 ly, M67: 26 ly and Pleiades: 14 ly. Very small accumulations, just
consisting of a few stars and showing a common direction of movement, are referred as
"associations". Today, more than 1000 Open clusters are registered, which are distributed
over the entire visible region of the Milky Way. The observation of extragalactic open clusters, eg in M31, remains reserved to large professional telescopes.
27.3 Globular Clusters

They differ from the open clusters in almost all aspects:
they are strikingly spherical

they are "packed" much denser
they are all significantly older
they contain up to several hundred thousand stars
their typical diameter is more than 10 times larger
The typical distance between the stars in the outskirts of globular clusters is about 1 ly. In
the core area these interspaces can even shrink roughly to the diameter of the solar system! Typical diameters of the comparatively much larger globular clusters are at
M2: 182 ly, M3: 180 ly, M5: 178 ly, M13: 145 ly.
In the center of individual globular clusters (eg, M15) intermediate-mass black holes of a
few thousand solar masses have been detected. This shows a certain similarity with dwarf
galaxies. Currently in the Milky Way about 150 globular clusters are known. They all orbit
the galactic center at a distance of about 130,000 light years, forming a halo this way.
Thus, these objects could even be referred as "extra-galactic" if they would not be tightly,
gravitationally bound to the Milky Way. However, it seems certain that their enormous high
age of about 12 billion years, is about the same as that of the entire Milky Way, ie slightly
younger than the universe with 13.7 billion. In contrast to the open clusters the high density and internal gravitational forces, allow the structure of globular clusters virtually an arbitrarily long life. The observation of extragalactic globular clusters, eg in M31, remains reserved to large professional telescopes.
27.4 Spectroscopic Analysis of Star Clusters

In contrast to the galaxies, in which amateurs are not able to record individual stars but
only composite spectra in the integrated light, here both, the open- and, with some restric-
139
tions, also the globular clusters, allow the analysis of the brighter individual stars. In the
professional field, multichannel spectrographs allow the simultaneous recording of up to
several 100 profiles. Main objective here is mostly the determination of the metal abundance # "[&'/(] (sect. 4.7). This value allows direct conclusions about the age of a star
cluster. The stars of the first generation, somewhat oddly called Population II, were created
with the birth of the Milky Way 12 billion years ago, where the interstellar matter was still
dominated by hydrogen, helium and lithium. The enrichment with heavier elements took
place only later by matter from SN explosions or repelled planetary nebulae. This enriched
material generated later on the metal-rich second star generation, similarly confusing
called Population I, to which belongs also our Sun. The most efficient way for the determination of the #- value, has proven the analysis of the Ca II calcium triplet in the near infrared at 8542, 8498 and 8662. This process is abbreviated called as CaT. The empirical
relationship between the metallicity # and the summed EW- values of the mentioned Ca II
absorptions has been refined over the last 25 years and outlined in numerous publications,
such as [325 327].
27.5 Spectroscopic Age-Estimation of Star Clusters by Amateurs

The described CaT-method is too demanding for most amateurs. So, for example, the Ca II
calcium triplet is located in the infrared range, somewhat outside the reach of most amateur equipment and frequently contaminated by blends with other absorptions. In [30] sect.
14.6, a simple method is presented, based on the correlation between the duration of stay
on the main sequence MS and the spectral class of a star. It is based on:
The assumption, that the individual stars of such clusters have been formed at about the
same time from a common gas- and dust cloud
The known relation: The earlier classified (or more massive) the star, the shorter the
lifetime
The quintessence: Within a stellar sample, the duration of the stay on MS for the earliest spectral class determines very roughly the age of the cluster.
At the so called Turn off Point the star reaches on the MS its earliest possible spectral class. Then it moves within the HRD to the
top right of the giant branch, showing thereby significantly later
classifications. The table to the right shows, how the stay of later
classified stars on the MS increases dramatically.
The table to the right shows that for later classified stars the stay
on the MS increases dramatically [405]. Starting from the late Gclass it even exceeds significantly the present age of the Universe
of 13.7 billion years. Such data are a rough guide only. Based on
model calculations they often show (source-dependent) a considerable spread.
Example: If within a cluster a larger spectral sample yields an
early A-type as the earliest classification, its age can roughly be
estimated to 350 500 million years. Any earlier classified MS
stars of types B and O, are much more short-lived and thus either
already exploded in a SN or migrated in the HRD to the top right
of the giant branch (see [30], sect. 14.6).
Spectralclass
Stay on MS
[Years]
O7
6 Mio.
O9
8 Mio.
B0
12 Mio.
B1
16 Mio.
B2
26 Mio.
B4
43 Mio.
B6
95 Mio.
A0
350 Mio.
A5
1.1 bn.
F2
2.7 bn.
G2
9.4 bn.
K0
23 bn.
In professional fields, such studies are often carried out photometrically in the system.
The major disadvantage is that these measured magnitude values always appear reddened
by interstellar matter and need first of all to be adjusted with appropriate models. In the table of sect. 38, the assignment of "de-reddened" magnitudes to the corresponding
140
spectral class can be found. Anyway as the first option for amateurs remains clearly the
spectroscopic age-estimation based on the spectral class.
27.6 The Pleiades - Analysis by Individual Spectra

The approximately 390 light years distant Pleiades (M45) are so nearby, that this object
appears more as a small constellation, rather than an open cluster. With the unaided eye,
we see here just the brightest 6 up to max. 10 stars which astonishingly belong all to the
middle to late B-Class. Their visibility depends mainly on the seeing and the current brightness of the Be-star Pleione.
Star
name
Flamsteed
No.
HD No.
Apparent
brightn.
Abs. [*]
brightn.
Spectr.
Class
Remarks (CDS)
Alcyone
25 Tau ()
23630
~2.87m
2.74
B7 IIIe
Be- and Multiple star
2.00
B8 III
Binary star system
Atlas
27 Tau
23850
~3.63
Electra
17 Tau
23302
~3.7m
1.84
B6 IIIe
Be Star
1.83
B8 III
Binary star system
Maia
20 Tau
23408
~3.87
Merope
23 Tau
23480
~4.18m
1.58
B6 IVe
Variable Cep Type
Taygeta
19 Tau
23338
~4.3m
1.31
B6 IV
Binary star system
0.58
B8 V ne
Be Star
Variable
Pleione
28 Tau
23862
~5.09
Celaeno
16 Tau
23288
~5.46m
0.28
B7 IV
18 Tau
23324
~5.64m
+ 0.01
B8 V
23432
+ 0.05
B8 V
Asterope
21 Tau
~5.76
Variable
[*] Abt/Levato [328], other data CDS [500]

Image: Pleiades labelled with Flamsteed numbers (M. Huwiler)
28
27
18
21
25
20
19
23
16
17
141
Overall, the cluster contains about 500 stars. According to a study by Abt and Levato [328],
the brightest 50 stars of M45 spread over the various spectral classes as follows:
B: 17, A: 24 and F: 9. The remaining stars are classified as type F or later. Anyway it is still
an enigma, why in this rather small cluster the number of massive stars, classified in the
range of the middle to late B-Class, exceeds by orders of magnitude their expected average
incidence of just some 0.125% (see sect. 6.4)! The famous reflection nebulae are not, as
originally believed, the remaining "birth shells" of the brighter stars but rather a galactic gas
cloud, which is randomly located in the trajectory of M45.
Tables 78A and B:
Both tables impressively show the very similar spectra of the 10 brightest stars within
M45. The middle to late B class can be recognised here mainly due to the relatively intense
Balmer lines in combination with the very weak Ca II absorptions at 3933.66 (sect. 10).
Striking features of all profiles are also the small emission humps in the continuum at ~
5840 and ~ 5350. Further visible here is the increase in intensity of the H-Balmer lines between the classes B6 to B8.
Table 78A shows a montage of those four spectra, which are classified to show emission
lines (index e). Three of them are even classified as Be-stars (CDS). However in March
2014, just two of them showed intensive emission lines and Merope, 23 Tau, a very weak
filling-in in the core of its H absorption. As the only one the Be- star Pleione shows in its
profile coarser absorptions between the H-Balmer lines. Recording info: C8/DADOS, Grating 200L/mm, Atik 314L+, average 1x60sec, 2x2 binning.
27.7 Age estimation of M45

The earliest main sequence (MS) classification is here B8. All earlier B types have already
migrated to the giant branch. According to the table in sect. 27.5 this yields an age of some
more than 100 million years. The accepted value is in the range of 100 130 million years.
Cecilia Payne Gaposchkin (see sect. 7) discovered in M45 several White Dwarfs. This
would mean that some stars of the middle to late B-type with < 8M, have already repelled
Planetary nebulae. Under debate is the hypothesis, if in exceptional cases, also early B stars
with > 8M, could end up as White Dwarfs. If such stars would lose sufficient matter, during the Giant- or Post AGB Phase, their mass could sink this way below the Supernova limit.
27.8 Globular Clusters Analysis by Integrated Spectra

Due to their enormous distances of about 25,000 40,000 ly the brightest individual stars
of globular clusters reach at most an apparent magnitude of mv 11m (eg. at M5 and M13).
Thus for an individual star analysis with an 8-inch telescope only the few brightest specimens could be recorded with a slit spectrograph. Therefore recommendable for amateurs is
the recording of the composite spectrum in the integrated light, as it is applied also for the
galaxies in sect 26. Due to the very old stellar inventory almost exclusively absorption lines
can be seen here. With such spectra a so-called "Integrated spectral class" [330] can be
determined, and this way, by analogy with the open clusters, the age of the cluster can be
estimated.
In the professional field [331], these profiles are also compared with synthetic model spectra and the Turn Off Point is determined, inter alia, by means of the Balmer lines. According
to [331] the integrated light-spectra are obtained here by sweeping over the cluster to prevent, that the profile is determined by the stars of just one particular cluster zone. Due to
the relatively short focal lengths and the relatively inaccurate autoguiding, such an action is
not necessary at the amateur level. Anyway when recording the spectra in Table 79, the
image was slightly defocused in order to avoid any disproportionate influence of individual
stars.
142
A still unsolved enigma is posed by single blue stars of earlier spectral type, the so-called
"Blue Stragglers" (BSS). Such short-lived objects can be detected mainly in the central regions of all known globular clusters and don't fit at all into the picture of an extremely old
cluster. There are discussed several hypotheses one of which is that due to the high density of the central cluster zones, such "blue stragglers" could be generated by the fusion of
two or more red giants.
Table 79:
This table impressively shows the very similar integrated spectra of M3, M5 and M13. Not
identifiable remain here, in the profile of M13, just the intensive absorptions at ~ 6600
(artefacts?). Well defined and recognizable are here the Balmer lines, the two Fraunhofer
Ca II absorptions, as well as, surprisingly intense and well defined, the molecular CH band.
Very easy is here the rough determination of the integrated spectral type with about F6 F7. The striking "brand" of the F-class is the combined appearance of the CH absorption at
4299 4313 and the directly adjacent H line (sect. 16). The decimal subclass is derived
here from the nearly equal intensity of these two absorptions. The applied exposure time
with the C8 was here 1200s in the 2x2 binning mode.
27.9 Age Estimation of M3, M5 and M13

Applying this rather simple method with the middle to late F-class, it results here a somewhat too young age for the clusters of just about 6-7 bn. years (sect. 27.5). With 12 bn.
years the accepted value is clearly higher.
M3: Image HST
Central part of M13: Image HST
Central part of M5: Image HST
Open Cluster M45 Pleiades
H 4861.33
H 4340.47
H 4101.74
He I 4025.5
H 3970.07
Ca II 3933.66
H8 3889.05
H9 3835.38
17 Tau B6 IIIe
Merope 23 Tau B6 IVe
Electra
Alcyone 25 Tau B7 IIIe
Pleione 28 Tau B8 Vne
Bright Stars with emission line classification
TABLE 78A
H 6562.82
Telluric O2

143
Na I 5890/96
Interstellar
Open Cluster M45 Pleiades

H 4861.33
H 4340.47
H 4101.74
He I 4025.5
H 3970.07
Ca II 3933.66
H8 3889.05
H9 3835.38
20 Tau B8 III
Maia
18 Tau B8 V
Asterope 21 Tau B8 V
27 Tau B8 III
Atlas
Celaeno 16 Tau B7 IV
Taygeta 19 Tau B6 IV
Bright Stars with absorption-lines
TABLE 78B
H 6562.82

144
Telluric O2
145
??
TAFEL 79
H 6562.82
Globular Clusters M3, M5, M13
H 4861.33
H 4340.47
CH 4299 - 4313
H 4101.74
Ca II 3968.47
Ca II 3933.66
M13 NGC 6205
M3 NGC 5272
M5 NGC 5904
Na I 5890/96
146
28 Emission Nebulae
28.1 Short Introduction and Overview
Reflection nebulae are interstellar gas and dust clouds which passively reflect the light of
the embedded stars. Emission nebulae however are shining actively. This process requires
that the atoms are first ionised by hot radiation sources with at least 25,000K. The density
of the nebulae is so extremely small that on earth it can be generated only as the best ultrahigh vacuum. In [30], sect. 22, these processes are explained more in detail. The requirements for the development of emission nebulae are mainly met by the following astronomical object classes.
28.2 H ll Regions
Textbook example is the Orion Nebula M42 (Photo: NASA).
Here extremely hot stars of the O- and early B class ionise
in addition to helium, oxygen and nitrogen primarily hydrogen atoms of the surrounding nebula. This requires UV photons, above the so-called Lyman limit of 912 and corresponding to an ionisation energy of >13.6 eV. This level is
only achievable by very hot stars of the O- and early B-Class.
Such H II regions tend to have a clumpy and chaotic structure
and may extend over dozens of light years. They show a high
star formation rate and can still be detected even in distant
galaxies. The reddish hue is caused by the dominant H emission.
28.3 Planetary Nebulae PN The Most Significant Subgroup of Emission Nebulae

In the central part of these much higher energetic objects are
mostly extremely hot white dwarfs with up to > 200,000K.
This is the final stage of stars at the end of the AGB (sect. 20
23) with originally <8 solar masses. They ionise the atoms
of their rather slowly expanding former stellar envelopes
(some 20-40 km/s). Photo: NGC 6543 Cats eye nebula
(NASA). About 10% of central stars show similar spectra in
the final stage like Wolf Rayet stars, and thus have WRclassifications (WRPN).Their absolute magnitude however is
considerably lower. PN often show an ellipsoidal shape, in
some cases with a regular fine structure. The reasons for the
numerous other existing forms are only partially understood.
28.4 Protoplanetary Nebulae

They form the precursors of planetary nebulae. They are
excited by the so-called post AGB stars former carbon
stars, ie Mira variables at the upper end of the asymptotic
giant branch AGB, just beginning to repel their envelops
(sect. 23). They are still not hot enough to excite higher ionised emission lines such as [O III]. Textbook example is the
Red Rectangle Nebula in the constellation Hare (Table 85).
147
28.5 Supernova Remnants SNR

SNR show a striking filamentary structure. The main part of
the ionisation energy is provided here by the collision of
the rapidly expanding stellar envelope (a few 1000 km/s)
with the interstellar matter. Photo: M1 Crab Nebula
(NASA). In the center of SNR the remaining Neutron Star or
Pulsar emits a wind of relativistic electrons with nearly
light speed. It is deflected or slowed by magnetic fields
within the plasma or electric fields around the ions. Such
energy transformations are compensated by emitted photons, causing broadband Synchrotron- or Bremsstrahlung,
predominantly in the X-ray domain.
28.6 Wolf Rayet Nebulae WR

The shells around the high energy Wolf-Rayet Stars are excited in a similar way, but anyway much less intensive,
such as the Crescent Nebula NGC 6888 (Table 87) or
Thors Helmet NGC 2359 (Table 88). The picture on the
right, by ESO, shows the Carina Nebula NGC 3372 with the
ionising source WR 22.
28.7 Common Spectral Characteristics of Emission Nebulae

Besides of the chemical composition the local state of the plasma is determined by the
power of the UV radiation as well as the temperature and density of the free electrons. By recombination the ions recapture free electrons which subsequently cascade
down to lower levels, emitting photons of well defined discrete frequencies (fluorescence
effect). According to the Plank formula: I = , the frequency of the emitted photon
[nu:] is exactly proportional to the energy difference I between the levels, of the downward electron transition. For these reasons, emission nebulae generate, similar to a gas
discharge lamp, predominantly quasi monochromatic light, not as a continuum, but rather
as several discrete emission lines. Accordingly effective are therefore specifically designed,
narrow band nebula filters. With the exception of SNR, emission nebulae show only a very
faint continuum radiation.
Since the main part of the light is concentrated on a few, more or less intense emission
lines, these objects can be still detected even at extreme distances. The brightest [O III]
lines become photographically visible just after very short exposure times. In all types of
emission nebulae physically the same ionisation processes are responsible for the line formation, albeit with very different excitation energies. This explains the very similar appearance of the spectra. The graph below shows a section of the emission spectrum of M42
with two noticeable features:
148
1. The intensity ratio of the brightest [O III] lines is always: (5007)/(4959) 3.

2. The intensity ratio between the hydrogen lines, called Balmer Decrement D, represents
the quantum-mechanically induced intensity loss of these lines in the direction of decreasing wavelength. Detailed description see [30], sect. 20.
H 4861.33
Olll 4958.91
H 6562.82
Olll 5006.84
Important for astrophysics is the intensity

ratio w = ((o)/((H). The theoretically calculated value for thin gases is w 2.85.
The steeper the curve, the greater is the selective interstellar extinction (reddening) of
light by dust particles, what in Photometry is
called red colour excess. As a result, the
lines at shorter wavelengths are increasingly
shown too short. Most of the galactic PN,
reachable for amateurs, show values of
w 3.0 3.3 [203]. Therefore, for a rough
determination of the excitation class this effect can be neglected, especially as the diagnostic lines are relatively close together (see below). However, there are stark outliers
like NGC 7027 with D 7.4 [14]. For extragalactic objects w becomes > 4, which in any
case requires a correction of the intensities ("Dereddening") [204].
28.8 Emission Line Diagnostics and Excitation Classes

Since the beginning of the 20th Century numerous methods have been proposed to determine the excitation classes of emission nebulae. The 12-level revised Gurzadyan system
[14], which has been developed also by, Aller, Webster, Acker and others [204, 205, 206]
is one of the currently best accepted and appropriate also for amateurs. It relies on the
simple principle that with increasing excitation class, the intensity of the forbidden [O III]
lines becomes stronger, compared with the H-Balmer series. Therefore as a classification
criterion the intensity sum of the two brightest [O III] lines, relative to the H emission, is
used. Within the range of the low excitation classes E: 14, this value increases strikingly.
The [O III] lines at 4959 and 5007 are denoted in the formulas as - and .
For low Excitation Classes E1 E4:
i-ji /"N
Within the transition class E4 the He II line at 4686 appears for the first time. It requires
24.6 eV for the ionisation, corresponding to about 50,000K [202]. That's almost twice the
energy as needed for H II with 13.6 eV. From here on, the intensity of He II increases continuously and replaces the now stagnant H emission as a comparison value in the formula.
The ratio is expressed here logarithmically (base 10) in order to limit the range of values for
the classification system:
For middle and high Excitation Classes E4 E12:
log(i-ji /" kk (eldl) )
The 12 I-Classes are subdivided in to the groups Low (I = 1 4), Middle (I = 4 8) and
High (I = 8 12). In extreme cases 12+ is assigned.
Low
IClass
i-ji /"N
149
Middle
High
I Class log(i-ji / eldl )
I Class log(i-ji / eldl )
E1
0 5
E4
2.6
E9
1.7
E2
5 10
E5
2.5
E10
1.5
E3
10 15
E6
2.3
E11
1.2
E4
>15
E7
2.1
E12
0.9
E8
1.9
E12+
0.6
28.9 Remarks to the Determination of Excitation Classes and Recording of Spectra

The determination of the low E classes 14 is easy, since the H line, compared to the
[O III] emission, is relatively intense. At level E4 the He II line ( 4686) starts very weak, requiring very low-noise spectra, and a strong zoom into the intensity axis.
Quite easy to record are spectra from the very small, disc-shaped and blue-greenish shining
PN. Thus they are very quickly to localize within a stellar group and the exposure time for
the bright representatives takes only a few minutes (200L reflection grating). The brightest
[O III] line appears often just after a few seconds on the screen (eg NGC 6210). The intensity of the lines is here integrated along the very short, exposed part of the slit. But along
this very short appearing diameter the individual lines show considerably different intensities. Furthermore, during long exposure times, small
changes in the slit position with respect to the nebula are to observe as
a result of inadequate seeing and/or guiding quality. Tests have shown
that several spectra of the same object may show significantly different
results including for the Balmer Decrement. Anyway the influence on
the excitation class was observed as quite low! The picture shows the
small sliver of the Spirograph Nebula (IC 418) on the 25 m slit (PHD
Guiding). Between the green autoguiding cross and the slit the bright
central star is visible.
By contrast the large appearing nebulae as M27 and M57 require, with the C8 and the
Meade DSI III, at least 2030 minutes of exposure time (without binning) and a totally
cloud- and haze-free section of the sky. But they allow a selective recording of spectra
within specific areas of the nebula, and to gain an intensity curve along the quite long exposed part of the slit. In this case, tests with several spectra of the same object showed
consistent results. More detailed information on this topic, as well as remarks to the correction of the raw profiles, can be found in [30] sect. 20 and 21.
150
28.10 The Excitation Class as an Indicator for Plasma Diagnostics

Gurzadyan (among others) has shown that the excitation classes are more or less closely
linked to the evolution of the PN [14], [206]. The study with a sample of 142 PN showed
that the E-Class is a rough indicator for the following parameters; however in the reality the
values may scatter considerably [13].
1. The age of the PN
Typically PN start on the lowest E- level and subsequently step up the entire scale with
increasing age. The four lowest classes are usually passed very quickly. Later on this
pace decreases dramatically. The entire process takes finally about 10,000 to > 20,000
years, an extremely short period, compared with the total lifetime of a star!
2. The Temperature of the central star
The temperature of the central star also rises with the increasing E-Class. By repelling
the shell, increasingly deeper and thus hotter layers of the star become "exposed". At
about E7 in most cases an extremely hot White Dwarf remains, generating a WR-like
spectrum. This demonstrates impressively the table of the PN in sect. 35. Hence, for
[K] the following rough estimates can be derived:
E-Class
E1-2
E3
E4
E5
E7
E8-12
[F]
35,000
50,000
70,000
80,000
90,000
100,000 200,000
3. The Expansion of the Nebula

The visibility limit of expanding PN lies at a maximum radius of about 1.6 ly (0.5parsec),
because from here on the dilution becomes too great [202]. With increasing E-class,
also the radius of the expanding nebula is growing. Gurzadyan [206] provides mean values for 5 [ly] which however may scatter considerably for the individual nebulae.
E-Class
E1
E3
E5
E7
E9
E11
E12+
5 [*a]
0.5
0.65
0.72
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
28.11 Emission Lines identified in the Spectra of Nebulae

The appearance and intensity of emission lines in the spectra of the individual Nebulae are
different. Therefore here follows a compilation with identified emission lines from Plasma
Recombination Lasers in Stellar Atmospheres [200] and Frank Gieseking [202]. So-called
"Forbidden lines" are written within brackets [].
Ne III 3869 [Ne III] 3967.5 He I 4026.2 [S II] 4068.6 H 4101.7 C II 4267.3 H 4340.5
[O III] 4363.2 He I 4387.9 He I 4471.5 He II 4541.6 [Mg I] 4571.1 [N III] 4641] He II 4685.7
[Ar IV] 4740.3 H 4861.3 He I 4921.9 [Olll] 4958.9 [Olll] 5006.8 N l 5198.5 He II 5411.5
[Cl lII] 5517.2 [Cl lII] 5537.7 [O I] 5577.4 [N II] 5754.8 He I 5875.6 [O I] 6300.2 [S III] 6310.2
[O I] 6363.9 [Ar V] 6434.9 [N II] 6548.1 H 6562.8 [N II] 6583.6 He I 6678.1 [S II] 6717.0
[S II] 6731.3 [He II] 6890.7 [Ar V] 7006.3 He I 7065.2 [Ar III] 7135.8 He II 7177.5 [Ar IV] 7236.0
[Ar IV] 7263.3 He l 7281.3

Because spectra of emission nebulae barely show a continuum, the profiles in the following
tables are slightly shifted upwards to improve the visibility of the scaled wavelength axis.
The presentation of the following objects is sorted according to ascending excitation
classes. For most of the PN, the problem of distance estimation is still not really solved. The
information may therefore vary, depending on the sources up to >100%! Correspondingly
inaccurate are therefore also the estimated diameters of the nebulae!
151
By pushing off the envelope and the progressive exposing of increasingly hotter, inner
stellar layers, central stars of PN may generate spectra, simulating substantially more massive and luminous stars. This applies, for example, for all O-, early B- and WRclassifications! However the progenitor stars of planetary nebulae are limited to maximum
8 solar masses, corresponding to the middle B class.
Table 80
Orion Nebula M42, NGC1976
Object type: HII region
Excitation class: E1
T80 shows the emission spectrum of M42 (approx. 1400 ly) taken in the immediate vicinity
of the trapezium 1 Orionis. Main radiation source is the C- component, a blue giant of the
rare, early spectral type O6 (see Table 3) with a temperature of approx. 40,000K [207]. Together with the other stars of the early B-Class, it is capable to excite the surrounding nebula with the criterion value i-ji /"N 5 up to the border area between the classes E1
and E2. The H line is here just slightly surpassed by the [O III] ( 4959) emission. Due to
the enormous apparent brightness the object is spectrographically easy accessible and requires only modest exposure times. (10x30 seconds).
Table 80A Orion Nebula M42
Intensity profiles within the central part of the nebula
T80A shows for the [O III] (5007) and H emission lines the intensity profiles along the
entire length of the slit array (some 2.5 ly), within the central region of the nebula (Photo
M42: HST). The ratio of these intensities demonstrates indirectly the course of the excitation class. Thanks to the linear arrangement of the three slits, DADOS allows for 2dimensional appearing objects an improvised "Long-slit" spectroscopy, which enables to
gain spectral information, combined with the spatial dimension. These profiles have been
generated with Vspec and 1D-spectral stripes, rotated by 90 with the IRIS software. On
the narrow bridges between the individual slits the intensity curve is supplemented with
dashed lines. After recording of the spectra in each case a screenshot of the slit camera
was taken to document the exact location of the slit array within the nebula.
The different width of the three slits (50/25/30 m) plays a little role for this purpose,
since just the intensity course is recorded and IRIS averages anyway the gray values within
the whole slit width. The slit array was positioned on two places within the central part of
M42 and approximately aligned in the North-South direction. The western section runs
through the C- component of the brightest Trapezium star 1 Orionis C (Table 3) and ends
at the so called Orion Bar. The eastern section runs along the Schrter-Bridge, through the
Sinus Magnus and finally also the impressive Orion Bar, southeast of the Trapezium. The
intensity scales of the profiles are normalised on the spectral peak value of [O III] = 1 within
the Orion Bar and the peak of H on the local ratio there of [O III]/H 2.5.
Striking is the dramatic increase of intensity within the area of the Trapezium and in the
huge ionisation front of the Orion Bar. The latter marks the end of the ionised H II region or
the so called Strmgren Radius. At the end of this transition zone the nebula is heated up to
just several 100 K, by the remaining UV photons with energies <13.6 eV which, below this
Lyman limit, could not be absorbed by the ionisation processes within the H II area. Outside
this transition zone follow chemically increasingly complex molecular clouds [404].
Also remarkable is the sharp drop of the intensity within the dark cloud in the Sinus Magnus
and the slight increase in the range of the Schrter Bridge. The C- component of 1 Orionis
produces here about 80% of all photons [223]! Without it, only a much smaller part of the
nebula would be ionised, i.e. the corresponding Strmgren Radius Rs would be significantly
shorter. Calculated for a relatively "dense" gas (relative to H II regions) of 103 cm-3 and an
O6 star with 43,600K yields Rs 3 ly (0.9pc). For B0 stars this value drops to Rs 1.2ly
(0.36pc) [404]. The lower the density of the nebula the greater will be the Strmgren Radius, because comparatively lesser photons will be absorbed within the same route.

Table 81
Spirograph Nebula IC 418
Object type: PN
152
Spectrum of IC 418 (approx. 2500 ly). The central star has here a
temperature of only 35,000K [207]. It is still unstable, highly variable within short periods of time and therefore just able to excite
this nebula with the criterion value i-ji /"N 2.8 to the lowest
class E1 (Gurzadyan: E1 [206]). This is still lower than in the H II
region M42. Further H here even outperforms the intensity of
[O III] ( 4959). Accordingly, the PN stage must be still very young
and also the diameter of the ionized shell is estimated to just 0.2
ly [207]. The complex spirograph pattern in the nebula is still not
understood. Exposure time with the C8 is 3x170 seconds. Photo: HST.
Table 82
Turtle Nebula NGC 6210
Object type: PN
Spectrum of NGC 6210 (approx. 6500 ly). The central star has
here a temperature of approx. 58,000K [207] and is classified as
O7f. It excites this nebula with the criterion value i-ji /"N 14
slightly below the threshold of class E4 (~consistent to Gurzadyan: E4 [206]). In the spectrum appears here, only very weak, the
He II line ( 4686). In some cases, this line can also be emitted
directly from the central star [206]. Exposure time with the C8 is
4x45 seconds. Photo: HST.
Table 83
Saturn Nebula NGC 7009
Object type: PN
Spectrum of NGC 7009 (approx. 2000 ly). The central White

Dwarf has a temperature of approx. 90,000K [207]. It excites this
nebula with the criterion value log(i-ji /" kk (eldl) ) 1.9
up to the class E8. (Gurzadyan: slightly different: E7 [206]). The
blue profile is strongly zoomed in the intensity to make the weaker
lines visible. Striking are here, despite the high excitation class,
still intense H emissions and a too low Balmer decrement of D
<2.8, (possible influences sect. 28.7). This PN is the first whose
expansion could be detected photographically. [202]. Exposure
time with the C8 is 7x240 seconds. Photo: HST.
Table 84
Ring Nebula M57, NGC 6720
Object type: PN
T84 shows the emission spectrum of M57 (approx. 2300 ly) approximately in the center of
the Ring Nebula. The central White Dwarf has a temperature of approx. 150,000K [207]. It
excites this nebula with the criterion value log(i-ji /" kk (eldl) ) 1.4 up to the class
E10 (consistent to Gurzadyan: E10 [206]).
Accordingly weak are here the hydrogen lines relative to [O III]. The H line here just
reaches parity with the weaker [N II] ( 6548) emission. The much stronger [N II] ( 6584)
line however is the second-most intense emission behind [O III] ( 5007). Therefore the
reddish colour within the ring of M57 predominantly originates from [N II] instead of the by
far weaker H line.
The broadband spectrum (left) was taken with the 90cm CEDES Cassegrain Telescope in
Falera, slit width: 25m, exposure time 5x340 seconds. This was obviously too short to
show the weak classification line He II ( 4686). However, this was later achieved with the
C8, the low-resolution 50m slit and an exposure time of 3x1270 seconds (excerpt of the
153
spectrum to the right). This reflects the high effort, required for these large appearing PN
(in this case 86"x72"). Typical for this high excitation class are the old age of about 20,000
years, and the large extent of the nebula of about 1.4 ly.
Table 84A M57, Intensity profile along the longitudinal axis of the Ring Nebula
T84A shows for the strongest emission lines [O III] and [N II], the intensity profile along the
entire 50m slit, positioned on the longitudinal axis of the Ring Nebula. This profile has
been generated with Vspec and a 1D-spectral stripe, rotated by 90 with the IRIS software.
Table 85
Red Rectangle
Nebula HD44179
Object type: Post AGB Star/

Protoplanetary Nebula
Excitation class: very low,

can't be determined quantitatively with sect. 28
This highly interesting object, discovered not until 1974, is a

protoplanetary nebula which is located at a distance of about
2'300ly in the constellation Monoceros. With an apparent magnitude of Vvar= ~+9.02m the so called Post-AGB-Star has just left
the last carbon-star-stage on the AGB and begins now to repel
its envelope as a planetary nebula. In amateur telescopes the object is visible just as a star. Only large professional telescopes
show the small bi-cone-shaped nebula. Image HD44179: by
HST. The object is a spectroscopic binary. By repelling its envelope, the ex-carbon star has
changed its spectrum radically and presents itself now as spectral type, depending on the
source, in the range of a B8 to A0 giant. This would correspond to an effective temperature
of about 10'000K. However, for the Post AGB component just 7500 8000K are assumed
[eg 208]. The corresponding ionisation energy is still by far too low for an ionisation of the
nebula, so here just the hydrogen H-and the sodium D1/D2 lines appear in emission.
Highly-resolved spectra show here the Na I emissions with double peaks, what is interpreted as a combination of perspective- and Doppler effects, caused by the bipolarly occurring mass loss [208]. In such spectra C2 Swan emissions testify from the former stage as a
carbon star [209]. The slim hydrogen absorptions indicate a photosphere or rather a
pseudo-photosphere of low density.
Table 86
M1, NGC 1952
Object type: SNR
Excitation class: E >5
T86 shows the emission spectrum of the Supernova Remnant (SNR) M1 (approx. 6300 ly).
The 50m slit runs in ~NS direction through the central part of this young SNR. The causal
SN type II was observed and documented in 1054 by the Chinese. Today, the diameter of
the expanding nebula reaches approximately 11 ly.
Vesto Slipher in 1913 recorded the first spectrum of M1. At that time he already noticed a
massive split up of the most intense emission lines. Unaware of the nebula expansion, he
interpreted this spectral symptom incorrectly as the newly discovered Stark effect caused
by the interaction with electric fields. 1919 exposed R.F. Sanford, the M1 spectrum with
the 2.5m Hooker Telescope, and at that time the "fastest" film emulsions, while no fewer
than 48 hours! The result he describes sobering as "disappointingly weak", a well clear indication that even today this cant be really a beginner object. The expansion of the nebula
was found not until 1921 by C.O. Lampland, by comparing different photographic plates!
With the C8, a 200L grating and an Atik 314L+ camera, cooled to 20C with 2x2 binning
mode, after all still 2x30 minutes were needed to record a spectrum of passably acceptable
quality. As an annoying side effect of the long exposure time, light pollution and airglow
(Table 96) was recorded in a comparable intensity to the signal of M1, despite a quite
154
passable rural sky with a visible magnitude of maximum about 45m. This disturbing spectrum was therefore recorded separately, just outside the nebula, and afterwards subtracted
with Fitswork from the M1 signal.
This apparently almost 1,000 years old expanding shell is meanwhile diluted to such an extent, that it has become optically transparent. This show also the redshifted peaks of the
split, well shaped emission lines, often appearing of similar intensity like the blue-shifted,
but in some cases however significantly weaker.
The chart at right explains the split up of the
emission lines due to the Doppler Effect. The
parts of the shell which move towards earth
cause a blue shift of the lines and the retreating ones are red shifted. Thereby, they
are deformed to a so-called velocity ellipse.
This effect is seen here at the noisy [O III]
lines of the M1 spectrum below the 50m
slit, on the top the 25m slit.
O III
Direction
earth
At this low resolution the red-shifted peak of the [O III] ( 4959) emission forms a blend
with the blue-shifted peak of the [O III] ( 5007) line. Due to the transparency of the SNR,
with the split up of , as already shown in Table 2 and in [30], the total expansion velocity
of the matter can be determined, related on the diameter of the shell (here, about
1800km/s). The radial velocity is obtained finally by halving this value. The radial velocity of
this young SNR yields just below 1000 km/s about 50 times higher than in PN.
By contrast, the envelopes of Wolf Rayet stars (Table 5), P Cygni (Table 13/13A) and to an
extreme extent also of Novae and Supernovae are so dense that we see only the hemisphere of the expanding shell, heading towards the earth. In these cases we measure directly the radial velocity, applying the Doppler formula.
Even more spectral symptoms show that SNR are a special case within the family of the
emission nebula. In the center of the nebula (Profile B), due to synchrotron and
Bremsstrahlung processes (see [30]) a clear continuum is visible, which is very weak in the
peripheral regions of the SNR (A). The latter profile was even slightly raised to make here
readable the labelling of the wavelength axis. In contrast to the SNR it is difficult to detect a
continuum in the spectra of PN and H II regions.
The line intensities of the profiles B1, 2 were adapted relative to the continuum heights
(/ ), to become roughly comparable with those of profile A. Apparently in profile A and B
the emissions in the range around 6500 are of similar intensity. However, in the peripheral area of the nebula (profile A), the [O III] lines around 5000 are several times stronger.
Obviously the conditions for forbidden transitions are here much more favourable than in
the vicinity of the high-energy pulsar, the stellar remnant of the SN explosion. This statement is relativised by the uncertainty, whether and to what extent the rudimentary subtraction of light pollution has affected the course of the continuum.
Due to shock wave induced collisional-excitation the strikingly intense sulphur doublet (
6718/33) becomes clearly visible. This feature is only weak in PN and almost completely
absent in H II spectra. This also applies to the [O I] line at 6300. Anyway at this resolution
it can hardly be separated from the [O I] airglow line at the same wavelength (see sect. 31).

Table 87
NGC 6888 Crescent Nebula
Object type: WR-Nebula
155
T87 shows the emission spectrum of the Crescent NebN

ula NGC 6888, located in the constellation swan (some
4700 ly). The picture (Wikipedia/Hewholooks) shows
W
the nebula WR 136, the location of the recorded spectrum within the shock front, and the position of the imWR136
age detail on Table 87.
Origin and ionising source of NGC 6888 is the Wolf
Rayet star WR 136, which is described in sect. 9, Table
6. In the previous giant stage, the star has already repelled a part of its gas shell. After the transition to the
WR stage, about 30,000 years ago [240], the mass loss
intensified dramatically to about 105 to 104 M per year [236] and the stellar wind accelerated to more than 1000 km/s. This violent stellar wind collides with interstellar matter
and the gas layer, which was repelled earlier during the former giant stage of the star. This
process generates an elliptically shaped shock front, expanding with some 75 km/s [240]
to currently ~16 x 25 ly [237]. Similar to the SNR, this shock front is chiefly responsible for
the ionisation and also for the fluffy pattern of the Crescent nebula. Within WR Nebulae,
these processes apparently run much less violently as within SNR. For comparison; the
shock wave of M1 expands with ~1000 km/s. Anyway, this object is still some 30 times
younger than NGC 6888. In WR nebulae also a central pulsar or neutron star is missing,
which in SNR generates a permanent, relativistic electron wind, combined with the effects,
described in Table 86.
The repelling of the hydrogen shell happens at the very beginning of the Wolf Rayet stage.
Accordingly, later on, hydrogen can hardly be detected anymore in the spectra of WR stars
(sect. 9). With a dynamic age of about 30,000 years [240], WR 136 just passed some 10%
of the entire, estimated WR sequence of ~200,000 years [237].
The spectrum was recorded with the 25m slit and the 200L grating, just west of the star
HD 192182 and within the outer shock front of the nebula. A continuum cannot be found
here. The profile in Table 87 was shifted just slightly upwards, to make visible the labelling
of the wavelength axis. In contrast to M1 the degree of excitation of the plasma is E1 and
therefore very low. The H emission is even more intense than the [O III] line at 4959.
Certainly, this can also be attributed to the advanced age of the nebula. In addition to the
typical hydrogen- and O III emissions, only neutral helium He I, as well as forbidden lines of
ionised nitrogen [N II] can be observed. The forbidden sulphur doublet [S II] at 6718/33,
a characteristic feature for shock waves, barely rises here above the continuum noise level.
With the C8 and the camera Atik 314L+, cooled to -20 C, after an exposure time of 2x30
minutes in the 2x2-binning mode, a slightly noisy, but for this purpose anyway useful profile
resulted. On all shots, the separately recorded light pollution and the airglow (Table 96) had
to be subtracted (Fitswork). Under the prevailing conditions, the nebula remained invisible
in the flip mirror, even with help of the O III filter. The slit of the spectrograph was positioned on the selected nebula-filament with help of the field stars pattern.

Table 88
NGC 2359 and WR 7
Object type: WR-Nebula
156
The Wolf Rayet star WR 7 in the constellation Great Dog is

the ionising source for the well known emission nebula
NGC 2359 Thor's Helmet. Picture on the right: NGC 2359
(ESO B. Bailleul). Table 88 shows both, the spectrum of
the nebula as well as the ionising WR star with spectral
type WN4. It is equally classified as WR 133 on Table 5. In
contrast to the latter, however, the profile of WR 7 is not
imprinted by the absorption of a close companion star. It
shows therefore the uncontaminated He II Pickering series, similar to WR 136 (type WN6) on Table 6 (see. sect.
9.6). However, WR 7 is classified earlier (type WN4) and
thus somewhat older and already hotter than WR 136.
Whether this is the cause for the significantly higher excitation class of E3, measured at a comparable location within the outer shock front, cannot
be clarified here. The somewhat older NGC 2359 with an extension of about 30 light years
is slightly larger than NGC 6888 with about16 x 25 ly. The distance to NGC 2359 is about
15,000 ly and thus about 3 times as large as to NGC 6888 (see sect. 9.6). This nebula is
therefore somewhat fainter. Recording data and corresponding details see Table 87.
28.13 Distinguishing Characteristics in the Spectra of Emission Nebulae

Here, the main distinguishing features are summarised again. Due to the synchrotron and
Bremsstrahlung SNR show, especially in the X-ray part of the spectrum, a clear continuum.
X-ray telescopes are therefore highly valuable to distinguish SNR from the other nebula
species, particularly by very faint extragalactic objects. For all other types of emission nebulae the detection of a continuum radiation is difficult.
In the optical part of SNR and to some extent also in WR spectra, the [S II] and [O I] lines
are, relative to H, more intense than at PN and H II regions, due to additionally shock wave
induced collision ionisation. The [S II] and [O I] emissions are very weak at PN and almost
totally absent in H II regions [204].
In SNR the electron density is very low, ie somewhat lower than in H II regions. It
amounts in the highly expanded, old Cirrus Nebula to about 300 cm-3. By the still young and
compact Crab Nebula it is about 1000 cm-3 [204]. By PN, gets highest and is usually in
the order of 104 cm-3 [204]. In the H II region of M42, is within the range of 1000
2000 cm-3 [224]. The determination of and from the line intensities is presented in
[30].
In H II regions, the excitation by the O- and early B-class stars is relatively low and therefore
the excitation class remains in the order of just approx. E = 1-2. Planetary nebulae usually
pass through all 12 excitation classes, following the evolution of the central star.
In this regard the SNR are also a highly complex special case. By very young SNR, eg the
Crab Nebula (M1), dominate higher excitation classes whose levels are not homogeneously
distributed within the nebula, according to the complex filament structure [222]. The diagnostic line He II at 4686 is therefore a striking feature in some spectra of M1, ([222] and
Table 86).
157
Criterion IN1+N2 /H 5 Excitation class E1
TABLE 80
[N ll] 6583.6
H 6562.82
He I 5876
[O lll] 5006.84
[O lll] 4958.91
Orion Nebula M42
H 4861.33
H 4340.47
158
TABLE 80A
Trapezium
1 Ori C
Pons
Schrteri
~ 1.6
Sinus
Magnus
1 Ori C
Intensity Profiles [O III], H

Trapezium Area
Intensity
2 Ori A
[O III]
H
Trapezium
Orion Bar
Intensity Profiles [O III], H

Sinus Magnus
Intensity
[O III]
Pons Schrteri
Sinus Magnus
H
Orion Bar
Nebula Sectors
159
[Ar III] 7135.8

He I 7065.2
TABLE 81
[S II] 6717 / 31
He I 6678.1
[N ll] 6583.6
H 6562.82
[N ll] 6548.1
[O I] 6300.2
[N ll] 5754.8
[O lll] 5006.84
Criterion IN1+N2 /H 2.8 Excitation Class E1
Spirograph Nebula IC 418
He I 5876
[O lll] 4958.91
H 4861.33
He I 4471.5
H 4340.47
H 4101.74
160
TABLE 82
[O lll] 5006.84
[O lll] 4958.91
Criterion IN1+N2 /H 14 Excitation Class E3
Turtle Nebula NGC 6210
H 4861.33
He II 4685.7
[N ll] 6583.6
H 6562.82
He I 5875.6
[CI III] 5517.3
[O lll] 5006.84
[O lll]4958.91
H 4861.33
He II 4685.7
H 4340.5
[Ne III] 3869
161
TABLE 83
[N ll] 6583.6
Criterion log (IN1+N2 /IHe II (4686)) 1.9 Excitation class E8
Saturn Nebula NGC 7009
H 6562.82
He I 5875.6
[O lll] 5006.84
[O lll] 4958.91
H 4861.33
[Ar IV] 4740.3

[Ar IV] 4711.34
He II 4685.7
[N III] 4641
He I 4471.5
[O lll] 4363.2
H 4340.5
H 4101.74
[Ne III] 3967.47
[Ne III] 3868.76
162
[O lll] 5006.84
[O lll] 4958.91
Criterion log (IN1+N2 /IHe II (4686)) 1.4 Excitation Class E10
Ring Nebula M57
H 4861.33
He II 4685.7
[S ll] 6732.7
[S ll] 6718.3
[N ll] 6583.6
H 6562.82
[N ll] 6548.1
[O l] 6363.88
[O l] 6300.23
[O l] 5577.4
[O lll] 5006.84
[O lll] 4958.91
H 4861.33
TABLE 84
163
TABLE 84A
Ring Nebula M57

Longitudinal section through
M57. The 50m slit of DADOS is
approximately aligned with the
longitudinal axis of the nebula.
With Vspec the Intensity profiles
of the strongest emissions [O III]
and [N II] are generated along
the entire length of the slit. The
scales of the two profiles are
normalized on the peak value of
[O III] =1, proportional to their
line intensity in the spectrum.
[N II] chiefly generates the
reddish yellow edge part of the
nebula, [O III] mainly produces
the turquoise-blue color in the
center of the Nebula (Photo:
HST).
Intensity Profile [O III] 5007
Intensity Profile [N II] 6584
TABLE 85
Telluric O2 6870
H 6562.82
Telluric O2
Red Rectangle Nebula HD44179
Na l 5889/96
H 4861.33
H 4340.47
H 4101.74
H 3970.07
H8 3889.05
H9 3835.38
164
165
[S ll] 6732.7
[S ll] 6718.3
30
41
B2
TABLE 86
[N ll] 6583.6
H 6562.82
Excitation class E > 5
50 Spalt
B
W
N
He I 5875.6
28
31
[O lll] 5006.84
[O lll] 4958.91
B1
SNR M1 / NGC 1952
[O I] 6300.23
H 4861.33
He II 4685.7
166
TABLE 87
[S ll] 6718/33
[N ll] 6583.6
H 6562.82
HD192182
WR136
[O I] 6300.2
Criterion IN1+N2 /H 3.3 Excitation class E1
Crescscent Nebula NGC 6888, Type Wolf Rayet (WR136)
[N ll] 6548.1
[O lll] 5006.84
[O lll] 4958.91
H 4861.33
He I 5876
167
TABLE 88
W
N IV 7102- 29
[S ll] 6718/33
[N ll] 6583.6
He ll 6890.9
H 6562.82
[N ll] 6548.1
WR 7
Telluric O2
He ll 6683.2
NGC 2359
[O I] 6300.2
He ll 5411.52
He l 5015.68
N V 4933/44
He ll 4859.32
C lV 5801-12
Criterion IN1+N2 /H 12
Excitation class E3
WR 7 HD 56925 WN 4
NGC 2359 Thors Helmet with WR 7, HD 56925
He ll 6560.1
[O lll] 5006.84
He ll 4685.7
N V 4603/19
He ll 4541.59
[O lll] 4958.91
H 4861.33
He ll 4338.67
He ll 4199.83
He ll 4100.04
168
29 Reflectance Spectra of Solar System Bodies

29.1 Overview
The objects in our solar system are not self-luminous, and visible only by reflected sunlight.
Therefore, with exception of comets, these spectra always show, not surprisingly, the absorption lines of the Sun. On the other hand the spectral continua of the reflected profiles
are overprinted, because certain molecules, e.g. CH4 (methane), in the atmospheres of the
large gas planets, are reflecting or absorbing the light differently strong within specific
wavelength ranges (wavelength-dependent albedo). Already 1871, Angelo Secchi had discovered these dark, at that time not identifiable bands. This was achieved not until 1930 by
Rupert Wild and Vesto Slipher.

According to their characteristics the planetary reflectance spectra are distributed here to
three tables, and compared with the continuum of the sunlight. All profiles (200L grating)
have been recorded at an elevation of some 30 40 above the horizon and are equally
normalised to unity.
29.3 Reflectance Spectra of Mars and Venus

Table 90:
The extremely dense atmosphere of Venus generates on the surface a pressure of about 90
bar, ie approximately 90 times as high as on Earth. It consists of about 96% carbon dioxide
(CO2). The remaining shares are mainly nitrogen (N2), water vapour (H2O), and sulphur
compounds in the form of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4). The extremely
thin atmosphere of Mars consists similar to Venus, to about 96% of CO2, but here under a
surface pressure of only 0.006 bar, i.e. <1% of the value on the surface of the Earth. Here
particularly the rocky surface of the planet might determine the reflectance properties. In
the displayed range the spectra neither of Venus nor Mars show significant deviations from
the shape of the Suns spectral continuum. In higher resolved spectra, of course experts
can recognise and analyse differences.
29.4 Reflectance spectra of Jupiter and Saturn

Table 91:
The outer atmosphere of Jupiter consists of about 89% hydrogen and10% helium, the rest
mainly of methane and ammonia. These gases have hardly any influence on the reflectance
characteristics (continuum course), in contrast to the small rest which mainly consists of
methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3).
Saturn's outer atmosphere is composed slightly different. It consists of about 93% hydrogen and only close to7% of helium. Further some traces appear of methane, ammonia and
other gases. Impressive to see here are, concentrated in the near-infrared range, the very
broad methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3) absorption gaps in the spectral continuum. In this
wavelength domain, these differences appear most pronounced in the areas of 6200 and
7300.
29.5 Reflectance spectra of Uranus, Neptune and Saturn-Moon Titan

Table 92:
The atmospheres of Uranus and Neptune show a similar composition like Jupiter and Saturn. Due to the much greater distance from the Sun their temperatures are so low that a
majority of components, such as ammonia and methane, are below their specific freezing
169
point. Thus Uranus and Neptune are also called "ice planets". Their reflectance spectra are
strikingly similar. At Uranus however, the absorptions are much more intense.
Compared with the gas planets Jupiter and Saturn, these effects generate here different
reflectance spectra with much more intense absorptions, which additionally appear even in
the short-wave region [380]. These absorptions are generally responsible for the bluish
colour of the outer two ice planets.
Titan, with a diameter of 5,150 km, is after Ganymede the second largest planet in the solar system, but the only one who has a dense atmosphere, chiefly consisting of nitrogen.
Anyway the surface and outer mantle of the moon consist of ice and methane hydrate.
Similar to the Earth, Titan has a liquid cycle, but working here with methane instead of water. Similar to Jupiter and Saturn the corresponding absorptions are limited here on the
long-wavelength (red) section of the spectrum.
In the reflectance spectra of Table 92, the absorptions of the solar spectrum are hardly recognisable.
29.6 Comet C/2009 P1 Garradd

Table 94:
Comets, like all other objects in the solar system, reflect the sunlight. However on its
course into the inner solar system core material increasingly evaporates, flowing out into
the coma, and subsequently into the mostly separated plasma- and dust tails. The increasing solar wind, containing highly ionised particles (mainly protons and helium cores), excites the molecules of the comet. Thus the reflected solar spectrum gets more or less
strongly overprinted with molecular emission bands, chiefly due to vaporised carbon
compounds of the cometary material. The most striking features are the C2 Swan bands,
above all, the band heads at 5165, 5636 and 4737 (see also sect. 32.2 and the comments on Table 110). Further frequently occurring emissions are CN (cyan) at 4380 and
3880, NH2 (Amidogen Radicals), and C3 at 4056. In 1910 the discovery of cyan in the
spectrum of comet Halley caused a worldwide excitement, because by the traversing of the
comet-tail the formation of hydrocyanic acid in the Earth's atmosphere was feared.
Sometimes also Na I lines can be detected. Only slightly modified is the solar spectrum, recorded from sunlight, which has been exclusively reflected by the dust tail. A comprehensive catalog of cometary emission line can be found in [210] and additional data also in
[110].
All these facts and the associated effects create complex composite spectra. The influence
of the possible components depends primarily on the current intensity of the core eruptions, as well as on our specific perspective, regarding the coma, as well as the plasma- and
dust tail.
In Table 94, the coma profile of C/2009 P1 Garradd is presented, taken on November 17
2011, 1730 GMT. Exposure time with the C8: 3x900s. Shown is a montage of the comet
profile together with the C2 Swan bands, generated with a butane gas burner. This comparison clearly shows that in this spectrum of comet Garradd only two of four C2bandheads at 5165 and 4715th are visible. The missing two are overprinted by molecular CH, CN and NH2 emissions. Absorptions of the solar spectrum are hardly recognisable
here. This became clear by a test superposition of the comet profile and the solar spectrum.
At the bottom of Table 94 the influence ranges of different molecules on the emissions of
the spectrum are presented, according to the Tables of [210]. Those are based on spectral
profiles, which were obtained with a high-resolution Echelle spectrograph (R ~ 40,000). It
is noticeable that, apart from some isolated emissions, overlapping of the influence regions
can barely be found.
170
Telluric H 2O
H 6562.82
Venus (CO2, N2)
Mars (CO2 ,Gestein)
Telluric O2
Sun (daylight)
Reflection spectra of Mars and Venus compared to the daylight
Telluric O2
Na l 5980/96
Magnesium
Triplet
H 4861.33
TABLE 90
Saturn (H2, He, CH4, NH3)
CH4
Jupiter (H2, He, CH4, NH3)
NH3
Sun (Day Light)
CH4
Telluric O2
CH4
Telluric O2 Telluric H2 O
Reflectance Spectra of Jupiter and Saturn compared to the Day Light

171
TABLE 91
H 6562.82
Na l 5890/96
Magnesium
Triplet
H 4861.33
Uranus (H2, He, CH4, NH3)
CH4
CH4
CH4
Na l 5890/96
CH4
Neptune (H2, He, CH4, NH3)
Saturn-Moon Titan
CH4
NH3
CH4
CH4
CH4
CH4
Telluric O2 Telluric H2O
Reflectance Spectra of Uranus, Neptune and Saturn-Moon Titan

TABLE 92
Telluric O2

172
H 6562.82
Magnesium
Triplet
H 4861.33
C2 4715
C2 4685
C3
C3 4056
CN 3880
NH2
C2
NH2
C2 5165
C2 5130
Hg I 4358.34 telluric
CH 4315
CH
CN
C3
C3
Influence zones of the individual

molecule emission bands [210]
C2
C2
NH2
C2
P1 Garradd
NH2
Air GlowO 2 6300 / H2O
CN CH
C2 /CH 4383/85
C3
C2 4737
NH2/C2
Butane Torch
(November 17, 2011, 1730 GMT)
TABLE 94
CN
Swan Bands
Coma-Spectrum Comet C/2009 P1 Garradd

173
NH2/C2
Air Glow O2 5577
174
30 Telluric Molecular Absorption

Table 95: Overview on the most dominant absorptions caused by the earths atmosphere.
Between approx. 6,200 7,700 it literally swarms with molecular H2O- und O2 absorption bands, caused by the earths atmosphere. Few of them appear in the form of discrete
lines even beyond 5,700, unfortunately pretending the presence of stellar absorptions.
On Table 95 the solar spectrum within the domain of 6,800 7,800 is shown (900L
grating). These features appear here so impressively that Fraunhofer has labelled them with
the letters A and B. At that time he could not know that these lines do not originate from
the Sun, but arise due to absorption in the earths atmosphere.
For astronomers, they are only a hindrance, unless they need fine water vapour lines of
known wavelength to calibrate the spectra. These "calibration marks" are generated by
complex molecular vibration processes, appearing as a very broad scattered absorption
swarm. The atmospheric physicist deduces from the H2O absorptions moisture profiles of
the troposphere. The O2 bands (Fraunhofer A and B) allow him conclusions about the layer
temperatures of the atmosphere [180].
For the "average amateur" important is just the awareness, that the line identification
within this area requests great caution. In most of the cases only the H line overtops unambiguously the jungle of the telluric absorption lines and bands. This is particularly the
case for the early spectral classes, where the maximum of the stellar radiation occurs in the
ultraviolet or blue part of the spectrum. Exceptions are here Wolf-Rayet and Be-stars and
those which show mass loss due to strong P Cygni profiles. In the latter two cases, at least
the helium line He l at 6678 can additionally be identified.
Stars of the late K and all M-classes, as well as the carbon stars, predominantly radiate in
the infrared part of the spectrum. Therefore particularly intense titanium oxide (TiO) absorption bands are capable to overprint these telluric lines. Further the reflection spectra of the
large gas planets show mainly here the impressive gaps in the continua of their spectral
profiles.
These telluric bands and lines can be reduced to a certain extent with a relatively large
effort e.g. by subtraction of synthetically produced standard profiles of the telluric lines
(see Vspec manual) and further by comparison with profiles of standard stars.
Dazu eignet sich auch die Spektralklasse A0, welche in diesem Sektor nur wenige und sehr
schwache, stellare Linien zeigt. Very suitable for this purpose is the spectral class A0 which
shows just few and very weak stellar lines within this range.
Complicating facts are the influences by weather conditions, elevation angle of the object
etc. For further information refer to [180], [181]. Moreover, there is a highly recommended
freeware program by Peter Schlatter, which allows the almost complete extraction of H2O
lines [554].
Table 95A: Telluric H2O absorptions around the H line
These H2O lines (Vspec database) are useful for the calibration of high-resolution spectra
particularly around the H line. As an orientation aid these are shown at two highly resolved spectral profiles (R~20,000) with different spectral classes scorpii, B0.3 IV and
the Sun, G2V, recorded with the SQUES Echelle spectrograph [600].
Tafel 95B: Telluric O2 absorptions of the Fraunhofer A- and B-Band
Highly resolved profiles, recorded with the SQUES Echelle spectrograph [600]. The line
identification and the according wavelengths are based on [182].
I= 0.2
H2O Absorption
7168 - 7394
Fraunhofer B
O2 Absorption
6867 6944
Most significant spectral absorptions due to the earth atmosphere
TABLE 95
7594 7684
Fraunhofer A
O2 Absorption

175
TABLE 95A
176
6612.53
6605.92
6602.4
6599.324
6594.361
6588.59
6586.596
6583.6
6580.786
6574.847
6568.806
6572.072
6564.196
6560.499
6548.622
6547.705
6545.781
6543.907
6542.313
6536.72
G2V
B0.3 IV
6534
6532.359
6530.598
Sun
scorpii
Recorded with the SQUES Echelle Spectrograph
Telluric H2O Absorptions at H Line
6558.149
6557.171
6553.785
6552.629
6523.656
6519.45
6516.57
6514.74
6512.01
6508.59
6504.22
6497.56
6495.86
6494.39
6492.92
6490.79
6489.13
6488.04
6561.106
TABLE 95 B
K I 7698.979
7696.868
7695.836
177
H2O/O2
H2 O
H2 O
H2O/O2
H2O
7683.800
7682.756
7671.670
7670.600
7665.944
7664.872
7660.454
7659.370
6919.002
6918.122
6914.090
6913.200
6909.431
6908.534
7655.182
7654.094
6905.023
6904.117
7650.135
7649.035
6900.868
6899.954
7645.312
7644.200
7640.707
7639.585
6896.965
6896.037
7636.328
7635.192
6893.309
6892.369
7632.168
7631.016
7628.225
7627.054
6889.903
6888.948
7624.500
7623.288
7620.996
Ni I 7619.21
7616.146
7615.061
7613.194
7612.060
6886.743
6885.754
6883.833
6879.928
6879.041
7610.455
7607.933
7606.767
7605.635
7604.453
7603.556
7602.346
7601.697
Blend
7597.438
Blend
7595.235
Blend
6877.637
6876.715
6875.590
6874.653
6873.798
6872.247
Blend
6869.887
7594.507
Blend
Blend
6872.843
7609.302
Scorpii: Fraunhofer B Band O2 Absorption
6924.164
6923.286
7677.618
7676.563
Sun: Fraunhofer A Band O2 Absorption
According: Fine Structure of the Red System of Atmospheric Oxygen Bands, H. D. Babcock and L. Herzberg
Telluric O2 Absorptions: Fraunhofer A and B
SQUES Echelle Spektrograph
7690.217
7689.177
178
31 The Night Sky Spectrum

31.1 Introduction
Mainly due to light pollution and airglow the night sky is significantly brightened and the
astronomical observations thereby seriously hampered.
The light pollution is mainly caused by street lamps and other terrestrial light sources. The
light is chiefly scattered by molecules and particles in the Mesopause (altitude approx. 80
100km).
The airglow is produced during the day in the atmosphere by photoionisation of oxygen as a
result of solar UV radiation and chemical reaction chains. At night recombination takes
place, causing emission lines at discrete frequencies. Really striking here are only two of
the O I lines at 5577.35 and 6300.23. The latter is visible just under a very good night
sky, and therefore lacking in the spectrum of Table 96. Airglow however includes also the
rotational and vibrational bands of OH molecules in the near infrared range, detected in
1950 by A. B. Meinel. Further influence, particularly over the continuum of the night sky
spectrum, has the diffuse galactic light (DGL), the integrated starlight (ISL) and the reflected zodiacal light (ZL). The latter may also contribute elements of the solar spectrum.
(www.caltech.edu)
31.2 Effects on the Spectrum

Depending on the quality of the night sky, at long to very long exposure times the emissions
of airglow and light pollution can disturbingly superimpose the recorded signal of the examined object, example see M1, Table 86 and 96. The effects of airglow to the spectrum are
much less harmful than the light pollution, which can consist of dozens of emission lines,
depending on the type of terrestrial light sources in the wider surroundings, as well as meteorological factors. Under a perfect night sky, only the airglow is visible in the spectrum.
31.3 Countermeasures
For long term exposures of two-dimensional appearing objects like nebulae, helps the recording of the night sky spectrum in the immediate vicinity of the examined object (with the
same exposure time). This must then be subtracted from the object spectrum, eg with Fitswork. For point-like appearing objects, the light pollution can be subtracted together with
the sky background (eg IRIS).
31.4 Comments to Table 96

This night sky spectrum was recorded to clean the disturbed spectrum of M1 (Table 86). It
was taken at my home (Rifferswil Switzerland) about 610m above sea level, under a rather
moderately good rural sky with a limiting magnitude of about 45m and an elevation angle
of approximately 50. For such long exposures (30 Minutes) the C8 was equipped with a
long dew cap to reduce the influence of scattered light from the surrounding area. The
lighting of the residential area consists of gas discharge lamps, of which some but not all
spectral lines appear in the spectrum. Major roads with sodium vapour lamps are some
100m distant without a direct line of sight. As the most harmful source of pollution in literature consistently high-pressure sodium vapour lamps are referred, since they produce a
bell-shaped emission around the Fraunhofer D Lines 5890/96 D (see also Table 104).
This feature can hardly be effectively filtered out without impairing of the wanted signal.
Not surprisingly the famous sky contamination act (La Ley del Cielo), affecting the islands
of Tenerife and La Palma, severely limits the use of high-pressure sodium vapour lamps
[190]!
179
Night Sky Spectrum

Rifferswil Switzerland
OH Meinel Bands: Molecular

Rotational- and Vibrational Bands
TABLE 96
6115 Ar II / Xe II
Na I 6154/65
High-Pressure
Sodium Vapor
Na I 5890/96
HG I 5790
HG I 5770
Na I 5683/88
Hg I 5460.75
Xe II 5419.15
O2 Lines
M1 Spectrum
M1 Spectrum +
Light Pollution
[O I] 5577.35 Airglow
Hg I 4358.34
[O I] 4802 ?
180
32 Terrestrial Light Sources

32.1 Spectra of Gas Discharge and Calibration Lamps
Gas discharge lamps play a key role for astronomers. They can be useful, for example to
calibrate the spectral profiles - but also represent a disturbing source e.g. by light pollution
from the road- and municipal lighting. For beginners they are also useful exercise objects to
study the spectra particularly during cloudy nights. Further spectra and info to calibration
light sources see [32], [34], [35], [508].
Unfortunately, gas discharge lamps are operated with relatively high voltage. This requires,
especially for outdoor operation, ie minimal electrical knowledge of relevant safety measures such as isolation transformers, GFCI devices, or DC/AC Power Inverters (ie 12V
DC/230V AC).
Table 101: Neon glow lamps
The orange glowing neon glow lamps are used as indicator lights, e.g. for stoves, flat irons,
connection plug boards etc. They produce a large number of emission lines, mainly in the
red region of the spectrum. Their wavelengths are known with high accuracy. These properties make them very popular as calibration lamps among the amateurs. The disadvantage is
that the intense lines are limited to the red region of the spectrum. Further they can only be
operated with mains voltage of 230V, therefore posing a safety risk and requiring specific
electrotechnical safety measures. With very long exposures, especially in the green area
further emissions will appear, but coupled with the disadvantage that the most intense
neon lines in the red range of the spectrum become oversaturated at low to moderately
high-resolution spectrographs. Such lines can therefore no longer be used for calibration
purpose within the same profile. For the calibration of broadband spectra (red to blue) or
higher-resolved profiles within the blue range, low cost solutions according to Tables 106
108, or even better [35] are preferred. In the professional sector or on the senior amateur
level, relatively expensive hollow cathode lamps are used, producing a fine raster of eg
iron-argon or thorium emission lines.
Table 102: Energy saving lamp ESL Osram Sunlux
Amateurs often use ESL as a complement to the neon lamps, which are limited to the red
part of the spectrum. These lamps contain several gases and substances performing different tasks among other things, fluorescent substances, usually so called rare earth metals.
The mixture depends largely on the colour, the lamp should produce. Anyway for calibration
purposes useful are only the intense lines of the auxiliary gases, e.g. Argon (Ar), Xenon (Xe),
and Mercury (Hg). Unfortunately, some of these line positions are located very close together and are therefore difficult to distinguish, such as Ar II (6114.92) and Xe (6115.08).
Table 103: Xenon strobe tube
Better-suited for the broadband calibration of profile graphs, is the spectrum of a xenon
strobe light, e.g. kit K2601 from Velleman. This kit is designed primarily as position lamp
for model aircraft as well as for lighting effects on stages, dance floors, in shop windows
etc. The flicker frequency for the calibration purpose must be adjusted to the maximum and
the lamp requires some 15 seconds warmup time to produce accurately the specified lines.
This lamp generates some 50 useful lines, distributed over the entire range from the near
infrared to violet (about 8,000 3,900). In the infrared domain further emissions are
available, but not documented here. Most emission lines are produced by xenon. However
the shortwave-end of the spectrum is dominated by lines of rare earths. The xenon tube
gets very hot during operation. Further it requires also mains voltage of 230V. Therefore an
appropriate housing is needed.
181
Table 104: High pressure sodium vapour lamp for street lighting
This lamp is widely used for street lighting. The sodium generates light in the domain of the
Fraunhofer D1, and D2 line. Due to the high gas pressure its not a real monochromatic
light. The continuum, as a result of pressure and collision broadening, as well as self absorption effects, shows a bell-like shape. Added auxiliary gases, for example Xenon, can
produce some discrete lines in the spectrum.
Table 105: High power Xenon lamp
Such high pressure gas discharge lamps are used for lighting of stadiums, position lamps
on mountain tops etc.
The line identification in Table 102 108 is based on Vspec (Tools/Elements/elements), as
well as on data sheets from the lamp manufacturers.
Table 106: Glow Starter ST 111 from OSRAM, (480W, 220V240V)
Another alternative for broadband calibration and detailed analysis in the blue range of
spectra are modified glow starters for fluorescent lamps. They contain a small gas discharge lamp, which is not used there as light source but as a bimetal switch. For our special
purpose it must be wired with a series resistor (details see [34]). OSRAM declares the
composition of the gas with hydrogen H and argon Ar. The light output in the blue range of
the spectrum is relatively weak and may require somewhat longer exposure times. For
110V mains, appropriate starters may be used also from other suppliers. The necessary series resistors must be determined by tests. The current must be limited to the extent, that a
reasonable light output is achieved without closing the bimetal switch. In the case of
ST111 40-80W, ~24 k was evaluated. Rainer Ehlert from Mexico tested the 110V type
Fulgore and evaluated the same resistor value!
Table 107:
Glow starter RELCO SC480, in addition to argon and hydrogen, contains also neon and helium. Thus in the optical spectral calibration about 270 lines are available, which is even
sufficient for the calibration of high-resolution Echelle spectra. An according line atlas, recorded with the DADOS- and SQUES spectrographs, can be found in [35]. Caveat: The
Model RELCO SC422 (110V) contains Argon only!
Table 108: Glow starter Philips S10
Contains neon and xenon. These elements form many blends in the red part of the spectrum. In the blue part appear some intensive lines, generated by dopants and alloy materials.
Practial note to the calibration in order to avoid transmission errors:
If data from any table of this atlas are used for wavelength calibration, they can be copied
with ctrl c from the pdf file and transferred to the Vspec calibration field with shift insert.
5852.49
7032.41
5881.89
5944.83
5975.53
6030.00
6074.34
6096.16
6143.06
6163.59
6217.28
6266.49
6304.79
6334.43
6929.47
6382.99
6402.25
6506.53
6532.88
6598.95
6678.28
6717.04
Spectrum Neon Glow lamp
7173.94
7245.17
7438.90
TABLE 101
7488.87
7535.77
8082.46
8136.41

182
Spectrum ESL Osram Sunlux
TABLE 102
183
TABLE 103
184
Xe 8061.34
Xe 7967.34
Xe 7887.4
K2601
Xe 6182.42
Xe 7642.02
Xe 6097.59
Xe 6051.15
Xe 6036.2
Xe 7393.79
Xe 5934.17
Xe 7119.6
Xe 6976.18
Xe 5893.29
Xe 5875.02
Xe 6882.16
Xe 6827.32
Xe 5824.8
Xe 6728.01
Xe 6668.92
Xe 6595.01
Xe 5751.03
Xe 6469.7
Xe 5699.61
Xe 5667.56
Xe 6318.06
Xe 5616.67
Xe 6182.42
Xe 5531.07
Xe 5472.61
Xe 5460.39
Xe 5438.96
Xe 5419.15
Xe 5372.39
Xe 5339.33
Xe 5292.22
Xe 5261.95
Xe 5191.37
Xe 5125.7
Xe 4807.02
Xe 5080.62
Xe 5028.28
Xe 4988.77
Xe 4971.71
Xe
Lines lacking wavelength

indications are not fit for
calibration purposes
Spectrum of the Xenon Strobotube 27 WS
Kit: Velleman
Xe 7284.34
Xe 5976.46
Xe 4843.29
Xe 4828.04
Xe 4734.15
Xe 4673.7
4624.9 Ce?
4525.31 La?
4501.52 Cs?
4384.43 Cs?
4193.8 Ce?
4080 Ce?
3952.54 Ce?
High pressure sodium vapor lamp
TABLE 104
185
TABLE 105
Xe: Xenon
Y: Yttrium fluorescence material
Zr : Zirconium (Getter material)
Tm: Thulium (activation of the luminescent substance)
Dy: Dysprosium (color optimization emission spectrum)
Ne: Neon
Sc: Scandium (color optimization emission spectrum)
Xenon high power lamp

Position lamp on the summit of Mt. Rigi

186
187
TABLE 106
Blend
Ar 4764.78
Ar 7635.11
Ar 7383.98
Ar 7272.94
Ar 4657.9
Ar 7067.22
Ar 4609.57
Ar 7147.04
Ar 6965.43
Ar 4589.89
Ar 6871.29
Ar 4579.35
Ar 6752.83
Ar 4545.05
Ar 6677.28
H 6562.85
Ar 4510.73
Ar 4481.81
Ar 4474.76
Ar 4448.88
Spectrum Glow Starter OSRAM ST 111 4-80W
Blend
Ar 4426.0
Ar 4400.99
Ar 4379.67
Ar 4370.75
Ar 4348.06
H 4340.47
Ar 4300.1
Ar 4277.53
Ar 4259.36
Ar 6416.31
Grating: 200L/mm
Grating: 900L/mm
Ar 4735.91
Ar 4726.87
Ar 6172.28
Ar 6032.13
Ar 5606.73
Ar 5495.87
Ar 4237.22
Ar 4228.16
Blend
Ar 4190.71
Ar 4158.59
Ar 4131.72
Ar 4965.08
H
4861.33
Ar 4764.87
Ar 4103.91
Blend mit H
Ar 4072
Ar 4052.9
Ar 4042.89
Ar 4013.86
Ar 3994.79
Ar 3979.36
Blend
Ar 3928.6
Ar 4806.02
Ar 4657.9
Ar 4609.57
Ar 4545.05
Ar 4510.73
Blend
Blend
Ar 4277.53
Ar 4200.67
Ar 4158.59
Ar 4072.0
Blend
188
Blends
TABLE 107
Ar 7147.04
Ar 7067.22
Blend
Spectrum Glow Starter RELCO 480 4-80W 220-250 Grating: 200L/mm
Ar 6965.43
Ne 6929.47
Ar 6871.29
Ar 6752.83
Ne 6717.043
Ar 6677.28
Ne 6598.95
H 6562.85
Ne 6532.88
Ne 6506.53
Ne 6402.25
Ne 6382.99
Ne 6334.43
Ne 6304.79
Ne 6266.49
Ne 6217.28
Ne 6163.59
Ne 6143.06
Ne 6096.16
Ne 6074.34
Blend
Blend
Blend
Blend
Ne 5852.48
Ne 5764.41
Ar 5606.73
Ar 5558.70
Ar 5495.87
Ne 5400.56
Ar 5187.74
Blend
Ar 4965.08
Ar 4879.86
Ar 4806.02
Ar 4764.87
Blend
Ar 4657.9
Ar 4609.57
Blend
Ar 4545.05
Ar 4510.73
Blend
Ar 4426.00
Blend
Blend
Ar 4277.53
Ar 4200.67
Ar 4300.1
Blend
Ar 4158.59
Ar 4131.72
Blend
Ar 4072.0
Blend
Ar 3946.1
Blend
Ar 3850.58
189
TABLE 108
Ne 7245.17
Blend
Xe 7119.6
Ne 7032.41
Ne 6929.467
Blend
Ne 6717.04
Ne 6678.28
Blend
Xe 6512.83
Spectrum Glow Starter Philips S10 Grating: 200L/mm
Blend
Ne 6334.43
Xe 6270.82
Blend
Blend
Ne 6030.0
Blend
Ne 5852.48
Ne 5764.41
Xe 5401.0
Xe 5339.33
Xe 5292.22
Xe 5260.44
Xe 5191.37
Xe 4916.51
Xe 4843.29
Xe 4807.02
Xe 4734.15
Xe 4462.19
Xe 4330.52
Xe 4213.72
190
32.2 Spectra of Gas Flames

Table 110: Swan Bands in comparison to the following spectra:
butane gas torch, comet Hyakutake and carbon star WZ Cassiopeiae
The Swan Bands, already described in sect. 23, are of great importance for astrophysics.
They are generated e.g. in the cool atmospheres of carbon stars as absorption bands and in
the comets of the solar system as emission bands. Molecular band spectra are generated
by complex rotational and vibrational processes of heated molecules [3]. The required excitation energy to generate Swan Bands is relatively low. Therefore this spectral detail can be
easily simulated by the intense combustion of hydrocarbons with do it yourself equipments
from the hardware store!
Table 110 shows the Swan Bands, generated with a butane torch. The wavelengths of the
most intensive band heads are 6191, 5636, 5165, 4737 and 4383. Further a number of
fainter C2 absorptions are still recognisable, with wavelengths according to [110]. Some of
these lines are also visible in the profiles of the carbon stars in Table 64.
In this table, spectra of the butane gas flame (C4H10), comet Hyakutake and the carbon star
WZ Cassiopeiae (excerpt from Table 64) are superposed. The shape of the Hyakutake profile (March 28, 1998) was transferred to and accordingly scaled up in the drawing from an
ESO/Caos project http://www.eso.org/projects/caos/.
Striking are the amazingly similar emission spectra of the comet Hyakutake and the butane
gas flame within the domain of the C2 Swan bands! Thats why for both cases the same
physical process is taking effect. WZ Cassiopeiae shows the Swan Bands in absorption instead of emission. Therefore the shape of this profile runs inversely to the others.
The line identification is based amongst others on [110], [210].
Tests with acetylene flames (C2H2), carried out in the workshop of Urs Flkiger, yielded
similar results (Photo below).
191
TABLE 110
Butane
torch
C2
C2
C2
C2
5636
5585
5541
5502
C2 5165
Comet Hyakutake
Swan Bands
C2 5130
WZ Cassiopeiae
carbon star
Swan Bands: Butane torch, Comet Hyakutake and WZ Cas
C2 6191
C2
C2
C2
C2
4737
4715
4698
4685
C2 /CH 4383/85
CH 4315
CH 3900/3880
192
32.3 Spectra of Terrestrial Lightning Discharges

Already since the beginning of the Spectroscopy in 19th century it was attempted to gain
spectra of lightning discharges. At the beginning of the 20th Century, also well-known astronomers have been involved, like Pickering and Slipher [708]. Further information and
references see also [33].
The following figure shows the spectrum of a lightning that has hit the ground in a distance
of approximately 220 m from the observer. Martin Huwiler filmed this event through the
closed window pane with a Canon G1X and a 300L mm-1 transmission grating, mounted in
front of the camera lens.
Table 111: Lightning spectrum recorded via cloud reflection

For this, the C8 telescope with the DADOS spectrograph and the Atik 314L+ was built up at
night in the living room. It pointed through the closed window on the approaching thunderstorm at the western horizon. Three shots of each 180 seconds in the 2x2 binning mode
have been processed. Per image the integrated light of some 5-10 lightning discharges
could be recorded. Since the cloud base was very low, on all shots the light pollution had to
be subtracted.
The idea to gain lightning spectra this way, originates from none other than Vesto M.
Slipher. With the same intention, he directed on the evening of July 24 1917 his spectrograph at the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff to a thunderstorm, which raged in a distance of
about 10 km above the south slopes of the San Francisco Peaks [708].
Striking here is the very intense CN emission at approximately 3900. According to [707]
this is a characteristic feature for discharges with relatively long-lasting currents, generated
mainly by the type of "Cloud-to-Ground Lightning and causing a high fire risk. Therefore in
the 1980ies, it was even discussed in the U.S. to detect this spectral feature with satellites,
as an early warning criterion for possible forest fires [707]. Anyway on all my shots, with
the integrated light of several lightning strikes, this CN emission appeared in comparable
intensity.
Otherwise, most of the lines of the lightning spectrum are rather complex, broad blends of
OII, NII, OI, NI as well as emissions of the H-Balmer series. The raw profile is wavelength
calibrated only.
193
TABLE 111
O I 7157
O II 6721.35
O II 6640.9
H 6562.83
N I 6482 - 84
N I 6441 - 57
C8, DADOS: Grating 200L mm-1, Slit width 25m 4.8.2012

Atik 314L+ -2C, 3x180s, 2x2 Binning (ca. 30 Lightning strokes)
Lightning Cloud Reflection
O I 6156- 58
OI
N I 6008
N II
NI
N I / N II
N II 5670- 90
N I 5616- 23
N I 5560- 64
N II / OI
N II 5171 -99
N II 5001 - 07
N I 4915
H 4861
N II/O II
N I / O II
H / N I / O II
N I / N II / OI
H /N II / O II
O II 3910 - 26
CN 3871 ?
N II 4041 - 44
N II 3995
OI
194
33 Spectral Classes and Values of Important Stars

Stars of the spectral classes O, B, A, F, G, K, M observable from Central Europe:
Spectral
class
Luminosity
class
Appar.
magn
O8
09
O9.5
III
lll
lb
ll
V
3.5
2.8
2.1
2.2
3.7
la
lVe
V
la
lV
V
lV
V
V
ll-lll
lb
lll
lll
lV
lV
lV
la
llle
lll
lll
lVe
V
lll
llle
IIpe
la
V
lllp Hg Mn
Ve
lll
lll
Ve
lll
IVp Mn Hg
lll
1.7
2.5
2.8
2.1
2.3
2.6
2.9
3.4
1.0
2.0
2.9
3.2
1.6
2.8
2.0
3.4
2.5
3.0
3.2
3.7
4.2
1.4
1.7
2.9
3.4
0.1
2.1
2.6
2.9
3.9
3.6
B0
B0.5
B1
B2
B3
B5
B6
B7
B8
B9
3.2
2.1
3.2
6 sin S
[km/s]
130
94
87
300
24
82
181
153
46
159
36
59
28
59
3
201
19
45
259
31
215
282
329
71
215
33
65
41
276
39
212
68
56
76
Bayer designation
Proper
name
Ori A
Ori
Ori A
Ori A
Ori A
Meissa
Nair al Saif
Alnitak
Mintaka
Ori
Cas
Sco
Ori
Sco
Sco
Per
Ori
Vir
CMa
Per
Cep
Ori
Peg
Sgr
Cas
CMa
Per
Dra
17 Tau
23 Tau
Leo
Tau
Tau
Lyr
Ori
Per
Crv
Cmi
20 Tau
27 Tau
Cyg
Sgr
And
Lyr
Alnilam
Saiph
Dschubba
Acrab
Adid
Algiebbah
Spica B
Mirzam
Menkib
Alfirk
Bellatrix
Algenib
Nunki
Segin
Aludra
Aldhibah
Electra
Merope
Regulus
Alnath
Alcyone
Sheliak
Rigel
Algol
Gienah Corvi
Gomeisa
Maia
Atlas
Albireo B
Alpheratz
Sulafat
195
6 sin S
[km/s]
Spectral
class
Luminosity
class
Appar.
magn
A0
Va
p Cr
lV
Vm
V
V
V
la
Vm
lV
V
lll-lV
V
0.0
1.8
1.9
-1.46
1.9
2.4
3.8
1.25
2.9
1.9
2.1
2.8
3.4
39
96
21
173
Vir
lV
V
lll
lll-lV
V
V
lll
lll
2.6
2.6
2.1
2.7
0.8
2.4
3.0
3.8
181
79
219
113
242
246
139
141
Leo
Ari
Oph
Cas
Aql
Cep
Boo
Her
Zosma
Sharatan
Ras Alhague
Ruchbah
Altair
Alderamin
Seginus
lae
lll
lV
V
lll-lV
lV-V
lb
lb-ll
lV
la
lb
V
3.0
3.4
3.5
2.8
2.3
0.4
1.8
2.0
3.4
1.9
2.2
3.6
29
84
111
Aur A
Leo
Gem
Vir
Cas
CMi
Per
Umi
Tri
CMa
Cyg
Vir
Alanz
Adhafera
Wasat
Porrima
Caph
Procyon
Mirfak
Polaris
Mothallah
Wezen
Sadr
Zavijah
lV
lb
lll
ll
V
V
lb-lla
lb
ll
lll3e
llla
2.7
2.9
0.1
3.0
-26.75
-0.27
2.8
3.0
2.7
0.1
2.8
Boo
Aqr
Aur
Leo
SOL
Cen A
Dra A
Aqr
Crv
Aur A
Her
Muphrid
Sadalsuud
Capella B
Raselased
Sun
Rigil Kentaurus
Rastaban
Sadalmelik
Kraz
Capella A
Kornephoros
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A7
A9
F0
F2
F5
F6
F8
G0
G1
G2
G5
G7
15
38
32
13
37
121
70
6
18
17
93
28
20
3
13
18
<17
1.9
13
<17
<17
<19
Bayer designation
Proper
name
Lyr
UMa
Gem
CMa A
Gem A
UMa
Aqr
Cyg
Gem B
Aur
Leo
Lib A
Vega
Alioth
Alhena
Sirius A
Castor A
Merak
Albali
Deneb
Castor B
Menkalinan
Denebola
Zubenelgenubi
Heze
Spectral
class
Luminosity
class
Appar.
magn
G8
lb
lll Fe l
G8
lllab
3.0
3.5
3.5
2.8
K0
lllb
llla
llla
ll - lll
III Fe-0.5
III Ca-1
IIIb CN1
lll
IIIa
ll
ll
lll
III Ba0.5
lll
lll
V
lllab
V
1.1
1.8
2.2
2.4
-0.0
2.0
2.7
2.8
2.7
2.7
3.1
2.1
3.5
0.9
2.2
5.2
2.2
6.1
llla
lll
lll
la-lb
llla
Ia-Iab
lll
lll
lllab
lll
lb - ll
llle
2.1
3.1
2.7
1.0
2.4
0.5
2.5
3.3
2.9
3.4
3.1
3-10
IIIa Ba0.3 Fe-0.5
K1.5
K2
K3
K4
K5
K7
M0
M0.5
M1.5
M1-2
M3
M5
M7
196
6 sin S
[km/s]
Bayer designation
Proper
name
<17
<19
<17
<17
Gem
Boo
Boo
Vir
Mebsuta
<17
<17
21
Gem
Uma
Cas
Boo
Boo
Ari
Ser
Oph
Sgr
Aql
Cyg A
Umi
Cnc
Tau
Dra
61 Cyg A
Lyn
61 Cyg B
Pollux
Dubhe
Shedar
Izar
Arcturus
Hamal
Unukalhai
Cebalrai
Kaus Media
Tarazed
Albireo A
Kochab
Altarf
Aldebaran
Eltanin
And
Uma
Oph
Sco
Peg
Ori
Cet
Gem
Gem
Vir
Her
Cet
Mirach
Tania Australis
Yed Prior
Antares
Scheat
Betelgeuse
Menkar
Propus
Tejat Posterior
Auva
Ras Algethi
Mira (variable)
<17
<17
<17
<17
<17
<17
<17
<17
<17
<2
<2
<20
Nekkar
Vindemiatrix
Alsciaukat
Lower case letters of the Greek alphabet
Alpha
Beta
Gamma
Delta
Epsilon
Zeta
Eta
Theta
Iota
Kappa
Lambda
My
Ny
Xi
Omikron
Pi
Rho
Sigma
Tau
Ypsilon
Phi
Chi
Psi
Omega
197
34 Required Ionisation Energies for the Individual Elements

This table shows the required energies [eV], which are needed for the ionisation of a certain element, starting from the ground state v = 1. Source: [201].
Z
Required excitation energy [eV] to reach the following ionisation stages

Element ll
lll
lV
V
Vl
Vll
Vlll
lX
1 H
13.6
2 He
24.6
54.4
3 Li
5.4
75.6
122.5
4 Be
9.3
18.2
153.9
217.7
5 B
8.3
25.2
37.9
259.4
340.2
6 C
11.3
24.4
47.9
64.5
392.1
490.0
7 N
14.5
29.6
47.5
77.5
97.9
552.0
667.0
8 O
13.6
35.1
54.9
77.4
113.9
138.1
739.3
871.4
9 F
17.4
35.0
62.7
87.1
114.2
157.2
185.2
953.9
10 Ne
21.6
41.0
63.5
97.1
126.2
157.9
207.3
239.1
11 Na
5.1
47.3
71.6
98.9
138.4
172.2
208.5
264.2
12 Mg
7.6
15.0
80.1
109.2
141.3
186.5
224.9
265.9
13 Al
6.0
18.8
28.4
120.0
153.7
190.5
241.4
284.6
14 Si
8.2
16.3
33.5
45.1
166.8
205.1
246.5
303.2
15 P
10.5
19.7
30.2
51.4
65.0
230.4
263.2
309.4
16 S
10.4
23.3
34.8
47.3
72.7
88.0
280.9
328.2
17 Cl
13.0
23.8
39.6
53.5
67.8
98.0
114.2
348.3
18 Ar
15.8
27.6
40.7
59.8
75.0
91.0
124.3
143.5
19 K
4.3
31.6
45.7
60.9
82.7
100.0
117.6
154.9
20 Ca
6.1
11.9
50.9
67.1
84.4
108.8
127.7
147.2
21 Sc
6.5
12.8
24.8
73.5
91.7
111.1
138.0
158.7
22 Ti
6.8
13.6
27.5
43.3
99.2
119.4
140.8
168.5
23 V
6.7
14.7
29.3
46.7
65.2
128.1
150.2
173.7
24 Cr
6.8
16.5
31.0
49.1
69.3
90.6
161.1
184.7
25 Mn
7.4
15.6
33.7
51.2
72.4
95.0
119.3
196.5
26 Fe
7.9
16.2
30.7
54.8
75.0
99.0
125.0
151.1
27 Co
7.9
17.1
33.5
51.3
79.5
102
129
157
28 Ni
7.6
18.2
35.2
54.9
75.5
108
133
162
29 Cu
7.7
20.3
36.8
55.2
79.9
103
139
166
30 Zn
9.4
18.0
39.7
59.4
82.6
108
134
174
31 Ga
6.0
20.5
30.7
64
198
35 Bright Planetary Nebulae sorted by Excitation Classes

This table shows the Planetary Nebulae up to apparent magnitude 11m, sorted by excitation class E,
according to Gurzadyan et al [206]. The temperatures of the central stars are from J. Kaler [207], the
spectral classes from CDS / SIMBAD [500], magnitudes from Karkoschka or Wikipedia.
Central Star
Spectral Temperaclass
ture Teff [K]
Catalogue
Popular Name
Constellation
App.
mag.
1
2
2
2
IC418
IC2149
IC4593
IC4776
Spirograph Nebula
Hare
Charioteer
Hercules
Archer
9m3
10m6
10m9
11m5
2
3
4
4
4
IC4997
IC3568
NGC6210
NGC6790
NGC6891
Archer
Giraffe
Hercules
Eagle
Dolphin
11m5
11m5
8m8
10m5
10m5
5
5
7
7
7
NGC6543
NGC6803
NGC6884
NGC7009
NGC6572
Cats Eye
Dragon
Eagle
Swan
Water Bearer
Serpent Bearer
8m1
11m4
10m9
8m3
9m0
O7+WR
80,000
Of+WR
87,000
90,000
100,000
7
8
8
8
9
NGC7293
NGC1514
NGC1535
NGC3587
NGC3132
Helix Nebula
Water Bearer
Bull
River
Great Bear
Sails
7m5
10m9
10m6
9m9
8m2
DA0
DB8
9
9
9
9
10
NGC6886
NGC6741
NGC3242
NGC3918
NGC7662
Arrow
Eagle
Fem Water Snake
Centaur
Chained Maiden
11m4
11m0
7m7
8m5
8m3
10
10
10
10
10
NGC7027
NGC6853
NGC2438
NGC650
NGC6818
Swan
Fox
Puppis Stern
Hero
Archer
8m5
7m5
10m1
10m1
9m3
10
10
10
11
11
NGC6302
NGC6720
NGC2392
NGC6826
NGC2818
11
12
12+
12+
NGC7008
NGC1360
NGC246
NGC4361
Turtle
Saturn Nebula
Blue Racquetball
Owl Nebula
South. Ring Nebula
Phantom Streak
Ghost of Jupiter
Blue Snowball
Dumbbell Nebula
Small Dumbb. Nebula
Bug Nebula
Ring Nebula
Eskimo Nebula
Blinking Planetary
Scorpion
Lyre
Twins
Swan
Compass
Swan
Furnace
Sea Monster
Crow
9m6
8m8
9m1
8m8
8m2
10m7
9m4
10m9
10m9
O7fp
O7.5
35,000
35,000
O7f
49,000
57,000
58,000
76,000
110,000
168,000
180,000
90,000
110000
invisible
DO7
160000
155000
150000
65000
100000
199
36 Terminology of the Spectroscopic Wavelength Domains

Terminology for wavelength domains is used inconsistently in astrophysics [2] and depends
on the context. Furthermore many fields of astronomy, various satellite projects etc. often
use different definitions.
Here follows a summary according to [2], [11] and Wikipedia (Infrared Astronomy). Given
are either the center wavelength of the corresponding photometric band filters, or their
approximate passband.
Optical region UBVRI 3300 10,000 (Johnson/Bessel/Cousins)
Center wavelength
[m]
0.35
0.44
0.55
0.65
0.80
[]
3,500
4,400
5,500
6,500
8,000
Astrophysical wavelength
domain
Required instruments
U Band
B Band
V Band
R Band
I Band
Most optical telescopes
(UV)
(blue)
(green)
(red)
(infrared)
Further in use is also the ZBand, some 8,000 9,000 and the YBand, some
9,500 11,000 (ASAHI Filters).
Infrared region according to Wikipedia (Infrared Astronomy)
Center wavelength
[m]
[]
1.25
1.65
2.20
3.45
4.7
10
20
200
10,250
16,500
22,000
34,500
47,000
100,000
200,000
2,000,000
Astrophysical wavelength domain
Required instruments
J Band
H Band
K Band
L Band
M Band
N Band
Q Band
Submilimeter
Most optical- and dedicated

infrared telescopes
Some optical- and dedicated
infrared telescopes
Submilimeter telescopes
For ground based telescopes mostly the following terminology is in use []:
Far Ultraviolet (FUV):
Near Ultraviolet (NUV):
Optical (VIS):
Near Infrared (NIR):
Infrared or Mid-Infrared:
Thermal Infrared:
Submilimeter:
<3000
3000 3900
3900 7000
6563 (H) 10,000
10,000 40,000 (J, H, K, L Band 1 4 m)
40,000 200,000 (M, N, Q Band 4 - 20m)
>200,000 (200 m)
200
37 Positions of the Atlas-Stars in the HRD

This diagram shows the positions of the stars in the HRD, which are documented in the atlas. Not included are the spectral classes S and C on the Asymptotic Giant Branch, since
their distances and absolute magnitudes are very difficult to determine. These stars are located in an area, somewhat above Mira and with comparable variability. In this area, also
the M-giants Antares, Betelgeuse and Ras Algethi can be found. However their masses are
much bigger and they will end up as SN and not by the emission of a PN.
Stellar Temperature [K]

50000 25000
10000
7500
6000
4900K
3500
2400
WR Stars
-8
Super Giants - Ia
P Cygni
1Ori
C
68 Cygni
-6
Rigel
Deneb
Alnitak
Mintaka
Super Giants - Ib
Alnilam
Cas Sco
Tau
Spica
Gienah Corvi
Sagittarii
-4
-2
Mirfak
Absolute Magnitude [Mag]
HD44179
R Mon
Regulus
Giants - III
Cas
Vega
Castor
Sirius A
Altair
Porrima
Ras Algethi
Bright Giants - II
Plejades
Antares Beteigeuze
Adhafera
Caph
Aldebaran
Leo Alterf
Arcturus
Vindemiatrix
FU Ori
Alsciaukat
Pollux
Subgiants - IV
Procyon A
Mufrid
T Tau
Sonne
6
61 Cygni A
8
WD0644+375
10
61 Cygni B
40 Eridani B
12
Van Maanen 2
14
16
3
F
Spectral Class
201
38 Assignment of Spectral Classes to the BV Colour Index

According to Fitzgerald [371], the table below shows the allocation of unreddened star colours, given in the photometric Johnson B-V colour index, to the corresponding spectral and
luminosity classes.
V
IV
III
II
Ia
IV
III
II
Ia
O5
-0.32
G0
0.60
0.63
0.64
0.73
0.82
O6
-0.32
G1
0.62
0.63
0.69
0.80
0.85
O7
-0.32
G2
0.63
0.64
0.77
0.87
0.88
O8
-0.31
G3
0.65
0.66
0.85
0.87
0.92
O9
-0.31
-0.31
-0.31
-0.31
-0.28
G4
0.66
0.68
0.88
0.87
B0
-0.30
-0.30
-0.30
-0.29
-0.24
G5
0.68
0.70
0.90
0.87
1.00
B1
-0.26
-0.26
-0.26
-0.24
-0.19
G6
0.72
0.92
0.91
1.04
B2
-0.24
-0.24
-0.24
-0.21
-0.17
G7
0.73
0.94
0.95
1.10
B3
-0.20
-0.20
-0.20
-0.17
-0.13
G8
0.74
0.82
0.95
0.99
1.14
B4
-0.18
-0.18
-0.18
-0.11
G9
0.76
0.90
0.98
1.02
1.16
B5
-0.16
-0.16
-0.16
-0.14
-0.09
K0
0.81
0.91
1.01
1.06
1.18
B6
-0.14
-0.14
-0.14
-0.12
-0.07
K1
0.86
0.99
1.09
1.14
1.20
B7
-0.13
-0.13
-0.12
-0.12
-0.04
K2
0.92
1.16
1.29
1.23
B8
-0.11
-0.10
-0.10
-0.10
-0.01
K3
0.95
1.26
1.40
1.42
B9
-0.07
-0.07
-0.08
-0.06
0.00
K4
1.0
1.43
1.42
1.50
A0
-0.01
-0.02
-0.03
0.00
0.02
K5
1.15
1.51
1.45
1.60
A1
0.02
0.00
0.01
0.03
K7
1.33
1.53
A2
0.05
0.06
0.05
0.05
K9
1.37
1.55
1.58
1.64
A3
0.08
0.09
0.09
0.06
M0
1.37
1.57
1.58
1.65
A4
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.08
M1
1.47
1.60
1.59
1.65
A5
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.10
0.10
M2
1.47
1.60
1.59
1.65
A7
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.14
0.13
M3
1.47
1.60
1.60
1.67
A8
0.27
0.26
0.26
0.14
M4
1.52
1.63
A9
0.30
0.29
0.28
0.14
M5
1.61
1.65
F0
0.32
0.30
0.32
0.15
M6
1.64
1.49
F1
0.34
0.33
0.32
0.15
M7
1.68
1.50
F2
0.35
0.37
0.36
0.18
M8
1.77
1.50
F3
0.41
0.39
0.39
F4
0.42
0.42
0.42
F5
0.45
0.44
0.43
F6
0.48
0.46
0.46
F7
0.50
0.50
0.48
F8
0.53
0.53
0.52
F9
0.56
0.57
0.18
0.38
0.26
0.55
1.62
1.75
202
39 Appendix
39.1 Constellations
Constellation
Latin genitive
Abbr
ev.
Andromedae
Antliae
Apodis
Aquarii
Aquilae
Arae
Arietis
Aurigae
Bootis
Caeli
Camelopardalis
Cancri
Canum Venaticorum
Canis Maioris
Canis Minoris
Capricorni
Carinae
Cassiopeiae
Centauri
Cephei
Ceti
Chamaeleontis
Circini
Columbae
Comae Berenicis
Coronae Australis
Coronae Borealis
Corvi
Crateris
Crucis
Cygni
Delphini
Doradus
Draconis
Equulei
Eridani
Fornacis
Geminorum
Gruis
Herculis
Horologii
Hydrae
And
Ant
Aps
Aqr
Aql
Ara
Ari
Aur
Boo
Cae
Cam
Cnc
CVn
CMa
CMi
Cap
Car
Cas
Cen
Cep
Cet
Cha
Cir
Col
Com
CrA
CrB
Crv
Crt
Cru
Cyg
Del
Dor
Dra
Equ
Eri
For
Gem
Gru
Her
Hor
Hya
Hydri
Hyi
Indi
Ind
Proper name
Chained Maiden
Air Pump
Bird of Paradise
Water Bearer
Eagle
Altar
Ram
Charioteer
Herdsman
Engraving Tool
Giraffe
Crab
Hunting Dogs
Great Dog
Lesser Dog
Sea Goat
Keel
Seated Queen
Centaur
King
Sea Monster
Chameleon
Compass
Dove
Bernice's Hair
Southern Crown
Northern Crown
Crow
Cup
Southern Cross
Swan
Dolphin
Dolphinfish
Dragon
Little Horse
River
Furnace
Twins
Crane
Hercules
Clock
Female Water
Snake
Male Water
Snake
Indian
Constellation
Latin genitive
Abbr
ev.
Proper name
Lacertae
Leonis
Leonis Minoris
Leporis
Librae
Lupi
Lyncis
Lyrae
Mensae
Microscopii
Monocerotis
Muscae
Normae
Octantis
Ophiuchi
Orionis
Pavonis
Pegasis
Persei
Phoenicis
Pictoris
Piscium
Piscis Austrini
Puppis
Pyxidis
Reticuli
Sagittae
Sagittarii
Scorpii
Sculptoris
Scuti
Serpentis
Sextantis
Tauri
Telescopii
Trianguli
Trianguli Australis
Tucanae
Ursae Maioris
Ursae Minoris
Velorum
Virginis
Lac
Leo
LMi
Lep
Lib
Lup
Lyn
Lyr
Men
Mic
Mon
Mus
Nor
Oct
Oph
Ori
Pav
Peg
Per
Phe
Pic
Psc
PsA
Pup
Pyx
Ret
Sge
Sgr
Sco
Scl
Sct
Ser
Sex
Tau
Tel
Tri
TrA
Tuc
UMa
UMi
Vel
Vir
Lizard
Lion
Lesser Lion
Hare
Scales
Wolf
Lynx
Lyre
Table Mountain
Microscope
Unicorn
Fly
Carpenter's Square
Octant
Serpent Bearer
Hunter
Peacock
Winged Horse
Hero
Phoenix
Painter's Easel
Fishes
Southern Fish
Stern
Mariners Compass
Reticle
Arrow
Archer
Scorpion
Sculptor
Shield
Serpent
Sextant
Bull
Telescope
Triangle
Southern Triangle
Toucan
Great Bear
Lesser Bear
Sails
Maiden
Vulpeculae
Vul
Fox
Volantis
Vol
Flying Fish
39.2 Periodic Table of Elements
203
204
39.3 Some Excerpts of Historical and up to date Spectral Atlases

The very first Spectral Atlas was written by Father Angelo Secchi at the Vatican Observatory, illustrating his classification system. Many sources call him therefore "Father of the
modern astrophysics. The tables with the hand drawn spectra are taken from the german
translation of his book Die Sterne, Grundzge der Astronomie der Fixsterne (1878). Courtesy by Martin Brunold [705].
205
Excerpt from An atlas of stellar spectra, with an outline of spectral classification, Morgan, Keenan,
Kellman 1943 [50].
Excerpt from the Bonner Spektralatlas (out of print), 1975, Waltraut Carola Seitter (Collection Martin
Brunold). The presentation of the spectra is here strictly ordered by luminosity classes (here la).
206
Excerpt from Revised MK Spectral Atlas for Stars earlier than the Sun
W.W. Morgan, H.A. Abt, and J.W. Tapscott, (1978)
Excerpt from A Digital Spectral Classification Atlas
R.O. Gray, (2000)
207
39.4 Instruments
Telescope:
Celestron C8, aperture 8 inch, focal length some 200 cm

Mount: Equatorial, Vixen Sphinx SXD
Spectrographs: DADOS, Baader Planetarium [603], reflexion grating 200 and 900L/mm,
Slit width: 25, 35, 50m, 4000 900
Dispersion with Atik 314L+:
2.55 /Pixel
SQUES Echelle, Eagleowloptics Switzerland [600], 20000
adjustable slit width: ~15 - 90m
Dispersion with Atik 314L+: 0.18 /Pixel
Cameras:
Location:
Atik 314L+, Meade DSI II and III,

Rifferswil, Switzerland
Elevation: 610m above sea level
Below: Some spectra of Deep Sky Objects have been recorded with the CEDES Cassegrain
Telescope of the Mirasteilas Observatory in Falera, Switzerland: aperture 90 cm, focal
length 900 cm, and Nasmith focus. For more details refer to [706].
Martin Huwiler (left), technical head of the observatory.
Finally sincere thanks are given to Martin Huwiler, for his valuable collaboration and support, as well as to the successful Asteroid hunter Jose de Queiroz for his kind hospitality
during our stay!
208
40 Bibliography and Internet

Literature
[1] James Kaler, Stars and their Spectra
[2] Richard Gray, Christopher Corbally, Stellar Spectral Classification, Princeton Series in
Astrophysics
[3] Keith Robinson, Spectroscopy, The Key to the stars
[4] Stephen Tonkin, Practical Amateur Spectroscopy
[5] Waltraut Carola Seitter, Atlas for Objective Prism Spectra Bonner Spektralatlas, Astronomisches Institut Bonn, Duemmler Verlag 1970/1975. Out of print today, but recently available as
Download: http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=bonner%20atlas
[6] H.A. Abt, A.B. Meinel, W.W. Morgan, J.W. Tapscott, 1968. An Atlas of Low Dispersion Grating
Stellar Spectra, Out of print.
[7] N. Houk, N. Irvine, D. Rosenbush, Univ. Michigan 1968. An Atlas of Objective-Prism Spectra, Out
of print.
[8] Ginestet, N.; et al. 1992. Atlas de Spectres Stellaires, Standards de Classification MK, / Observatoire Midi-Pyrenees, Out of print.
[9] Jack Martin, A Spectroscopic Atlas of Bright Stars, Springer Verlag 2010
[10] Erich Karkoschka, Atlas fr Himmelsbeobachter, 3. Auflage, Kosmos Verlag
[11] Brian D. Warner, Lightcurve Photometry and Analysis
[12] Ken M. Harrison, Astronomical Spectroscopy for Amateurs, Springer Verlag 2010
[13] J.-P. Rozelot, C. Neiner et al, Astronomical Spectrography for Amateurs, EDP Sciences: EAS
Publication Series, Volume 47, 2011.
[14] G.A. Gurzadyan, 1997, The Physics and Dynamics of Planetary Nebulae,
[15] David F. Gray, 2005, The Observation and Analysis of Stellar Photospheres,
[16] Fritz Kurt Kneubhl, Repetitorium der Physik, Teubner Studienbcher Physik, Kap.
Relativistischer Doppler-Effekt der elektromagnetischen Wellen
[17] Erik Wischnewski, 2013, Astronomie in Theorie und Praxis, 6. Auflage
[18] Ken M. Harrison, 2011, Astronomical Spectroscopy for Amateurs
Articles by the Author and Reviews to the Spectroscopic Atlas

[25] Richard Walker, Die Fingerabdrcke der Sterne Ein Spektralatlas fr Amateurastronomen, June/July 2012, Interstellarum No. 82
[26] Urs Flckiger, Kostenfreier Spektralatlas, April 2011, Sterne und Weltraum
[27] Thomas Eversberg, Spektralatlas fr Astroamateure von Richard Walker, VDS Journal fr Astronomie, III/2011
[28] Richard Walker, Das Spektrum des Quasars 3C273, Orion 5/13
209
Internet Links
Author
The following scripts on the subject (some of them in german) are downloadable under this link:
http://www.ursusmajor.ch/astrospektroskopie/richard-walkers-page/index.html
[30] Analysis and Interpretation of Astronomical Spectra, Theoretical Background and Practical
Applications for Amateur Astronomers
[31] Practical Aspects of Astronomical Spectroscopy
[32] Kalibrierung von Spektren mit der Xenon Stroboskoplampe
[33] Atomic Emission Spectroscopy with Spark- or Arc Excitation, Experiments with the DADOS
Spectrograph and Simple Makeshift Tools
[34] Kalibrierung von Spektren mit dem Glimmstarter ST 111 von OSRAM
[35] Glow Starter RELCO SC480 Atlas of Emission Lines
[36] Quasar 3C273, Optical Spectrum and Determination of the Redshift
Spectral Atlases and Commented Spectra
[50] An atlas of stellar spectra, with an outline of spectral classification, Morgan, Keenan, Kellman
(1943): http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/ASS_Atlas/frames.html
[51] Revised MK Spectral Atlas for Stars earlier than the Sun W.W. Morgan, H.A. Abt, and J.W. Tapscott, (1978), Yerkes Observatory, University of Chicago and Kitt Peak National Observatory
http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/March02/Morgan/frames.html
[52] Digital Spectral Classification Atlas von R.O. Gray, (2000):
http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Gray/frames.html
[53] Moderate-resolution spectral standards from lambda 5600 to lambda 9000 von Allen, L. E. &
Strom, K. M: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1995AJ....109.1379A
[54] Paolo Valisa, Osservatorio Astronomico Schiaparelli, Varese.
http://www.astrogeo.va.it/astronom/spettri/spettrien.htm
[55] An atlas of low-resolution near-infrared spectra of normal stars
Torres Dodgen, Ana V., Bruce Weaver:
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993PASP..105..693T
[56] Contemporary optical spectral classification of the OB stars - A digital atlas : N. R. Walborn, E.L.
Fitzpatrick (1990) http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1990PASP..102..379W
[57] An Atlas of yellow-red OB Spectra N. R. Walborn (1980),
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1980ApJS...44..535W
[58] A Standard Stellar Spectral Sequence in the Red/Near Infrared Classes: K5 to M9, Kirkpatrick et
al. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1991ApJS...77..417K
[59] The Interactive Database of Spectral Standard Star Atlases.
http://alobel.freeshell.org/
http://spectra.freeshell.org/SpectroWeb_news.html
[60] UCM: Librerias de espectros estelares
http://www.ucm.es/info/Astrof/invest/actividad/spectra.html
[61] Spectral Synthesis of TiO Lines, J.A. Valenti et al.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998ApJ...498..851V
Sun
[80] Highly resolved solar spectrum, Bass2000
http://bass2000.obspm.fr/download/solar_spect.pdf
210
[81] NSO Digital Library NSO, Solar Spectral Atlases

ftp://vso.nso.edu/pub/atlas/visatl/
Carbon Stars
[100] A Moderate Resolution Spectral Atlas of Carbon Stars, Cecilia Barnbaum, P. Keenan et al.
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1996ApJS..105..419B
[101] A High Resolution Spectral Atlas of Carbon Stars, Cecilia Barnbaum,
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1994ApJS...90..317B
[102] The Chemical Composition of the Rare J-Type Carbon Stars, Carlos Abia et al.
http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/astro-ph/pdf/9912/9912025v1.pdf
[103] Near-Infrared Spectra of 29 Carbon Stars, Simple Estimates of Effective Temperature, Masuo
Tanaka et al. http://pasj.asj.or.jp/v59/n5/590508/590508.pdf
[104] Radial Velocity Distribution and Line strengths of 33 Carbon Stars in the Galactic Bulge, 1991,
D. Tyson et al. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1991ApJ...367..547T
[105] Carbon Stars, Hydrostatic Models and Optical/Near Infrared Interferometry, S. Schneiderbauer, 2008, Univ. Vienna, http://othes.univie.ac.at/1627/1/2008-10-13_9940129.pdf
[106] Understanding Carbon Star Nucleosynthesis from Observations, 2003, C. Albia et al.
http://www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view_file&file_id=AS03021.pdf
[107] Revised MK Classification of the Red Carbon Stars, 1993, P. Keenan
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1993PASP..105..905K
[108] Photometric and Spectroscopic Investigation of a New Carbon Star in the Auriga Region,
1978, M. Vetesnik, Brno University http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1979BAICz..30....1V
[109] SiC2 in carbon stars: Merrill Sanford Absorption Bands between 4100 and 5500A, P. J. Sarre
et al. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/2000MNRAS.319..103S
[110] Band-Head Wavelengths of C2, CH, CN, CO, NH, NO, O2, OH and Their Ions, L. Wallace 1962
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1962ApJS....7..165W
Spectral Class S
[140] Spectral types of S and SC stars on the revised MK system, 1979, Keenan, & Boeshaar
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1980ApJS...43..379K
[141] Molecular Spectra of pure S-Stars, 1978, S. Wyckoff, R.E.S. Clegg
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978MNRAS.184..127W
Evolution AGB Stars
[160] On the evolution and properties of AGB stars, 1993, Martin Arnold Theodoor Groenewegen,
University Amsterdam http://dare.uva.nl/, enter 103726 in the search field
Telluric Absorptions
[180] High Resolution Spectral Atlas of Telluric Lines, G. Catanzaro, Universita die Messina.
http://webusers.ct.astro.it/gca/papers/telluric.pdf
[181] A Method of Correcting Near-Infrared Spectra for Telluric Absorption. W. D. Vacca et al.
http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/346193
[182] Fine Structure of the Red System of Atmospheric Oxygen Bands, H. D. Babcock and L. Herzberg http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1948ApJ...108..167B
Light Pollution and Airglow
[190] Measuring Light Pollution on La Palma, Chris R. Benn, Isaac Newton Group, Spain
http://www.starlight2007.net/pdf/proceedings/C_Benn.pdf
211
[191] The High-Resolution Light-polluted Night-Sky Spectrum at Mount Hamilton, California, T. G.

Slanger P. C. Cosby et al. 2003: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003PASP..115..869S
[192] Where the shadows lie The dark skies of Chile, Ferdinando Patat ESO,
http://www.eso.org/~fpatat/science/skybright/zenit/zenit_paper.htm
Planetary Nebulae and Emissionsline Objects
[200] Emission Lines Identified in Planetary Nebulae, Y.P. Varshni, et al., 2006 Univ. Ottawa
http://laserstars.org/
http://laserstars.org/data/nebula/identification.html
[201] Gallery of Planetary Nebula Spectra, Williams College
http://www.williams.edu/astronomy/research/PN/nebulae/
http://www.williams.edu/astronomy/research/PN/nebulae/legend.php
[202] Planetarische Nebel, Frank Gieseking, 6 articles, SUW 1983.
[203] Balmer Line Ratios in Planetary Nebulae, Osterbrock et al., Univ. Wisconsin 1963
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nphiarticle_query?1963ApJ...138...62O&defaultprint=YES&filetype=.pdf
[204] 3D Spektrofotometrie Extragalaktischer Emissionslinienobjekte, Dissertation J. Schmoll, AIP
http://www.aip.de/groups/publications/schmoll.pdf
[205] An Evaluation of the Excitation Parameter for the Central Stars of Planetary Nebulae, W. A.
Reid et al, Univ. Sydney 2010 http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/arxiv/pdf/0911/0911.3689v2.pdf
[206] Excitation Class of Nebulae an Evolution Criterion? G. A. Gurzadyan, A.G. Egikyan, Byurakan
Astrophysical Observatory 1990 http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1991Ap%26SS.181...73G
[207] The Planetary Nebulae, J. Kaler, http://stars.astro.illinois.edu/sow/pn.html
[208] Spectroscopic Analysis and Modeling of the Red Rectangle, Univ. Toledo, J. D. Thomas 2012,
https://etd.ohiolink.edu/ap:10:0::NO:10:P10_ACCESSION_NUM:toledo1341345222
[209] C2 Emission Features in the Red Rectangle ... N. Wehres, et al. 2010
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010A%26A...518A..36W
[210] A HighResolution Catalogue of Cometary Emission Lines, M.E Brown et al. 1996 Caltech
http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/comet/echelle.html
[220] Optical Spectra of Supernova Remnants, Danziger, Dennefeld, Santiago de Chile 1975,
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1976PASP...88...44D
[221] Optical and Radio Studies of SNR in the Local Group Galaxy M33, Danziger et al. 1980, ESO
http://www.eso.org/sci/publications/messenger/archive/no.21-sep80/messenger-no21-7-11.pdf
[222] Emission-line spectra of condensations in the Crab Nebula, Davidson 1979
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979ApJ...228..179D
[223] ISM and Star Formation, The Orion Bar, Harvard Astronomy 201b/2011
http://ay201b.wordpress.com/2011/05/01/the-orion-bar/
[224] Complex ionized structure in the theta-2 Orionis region, J. R. Walsh, Univ. Manchester, 1981
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1982MNRAS.201..561W
Wolf Rayet Stars
[230] C lV 5806 in Wolf Rayet Stars, Anne B. Underhill
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1988PASP..100.1269U/0001269.000.html
[231] Atlas for Wolf-Rayet Stars, Harvard Center for Astrophysics
https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/~pberlind/atlas/htmls/wrstars.html
[232] The VIIth catalogue of galactic WolfRayet stars, Karel A. van der Hucht
www.astrosurf.com/luxorion/Documents/wrcat.pdf
212
[233] Spectral Classification of Wolf-Rayet Stars, W.A. Hiltner, R.E. Schild, 1965 Chicago
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1966ApJ...143..770H
[234] Physical Properties of Wolf-Rayet Stars, Paul A. Crowther,
http://www.stsci.de/wr140/pdf/crowther2006.pdf
[235] WR stars with the O VI 3811, 3834 A emission doublet. A.M. Cherepashchuk, D.N Rustamov,
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1990Ap%26SS.167..281C
[236] Chapter 11, Pre-supernova evolution of massive stars, lecture University of Bonn
www.astro.uni-bonn.de
[237] The Interaction of NGC 6888 and HD 192163 With the Surrounding Interstellar Medium
Cappa, C. E et al. http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1996AJ....112.1104C
[238] HST Observations of the Wolf-Rayet Nebula NGC 6888, Brian D. Moore et al
http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0003053
[239] Non-LTE spectral analyses of Wolf-Rayet stars: The nitrogen spectrum of the WN6 prototype
HD 192163 (WR136), W.-R.Hamann, et al, http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994A&A...281..184H
[240] Suzaku Observations of the Prototype Wind-Blown Bubble NGC 6888, Svetozar A. Zhekov
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1012.3917
[241] Chandra Detects the rare Oxygen Type WolfRayet Star WR 142 and OB Stars in Berkeley 87
Kimberly R. Sokal et al. http://arxiv.org/abs/1004.0462
[242] TheWO stars IV. Sand 5: a variableWO star?, V.F. Polcaro et al.
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1997A%26A...325..178P
[243] Discovery of a WO Star in the Scutum-Crux Arm of the inner Galaxy, Janet E. Drew et al.
http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0403482.pdf
Be Stars
[250] High and intermediate-resolution spectroscopy of Be stars, J. Chauville et al. A&A 2002
http://www.aanda.org/index.php?option=com_article&access=standard&Itemid=129&url=/articles/
aa/abs/2001/42/aa1599/aa1599.html
[251]: Spectra of the Brightest Be stars and Objects Description, A. Miroshnichenko, University of
North Carolina, www.astrospectroscopy.de/Heidelbergtagung/Miroshnichenko2.ppt
[252] Summary of Experiences from Observations of the Be-binary Sco, A. Miroshnichenko, University of North Carolina, www.astrospectroscopy.de/Heidelbergtagung/Miroshnichenko1.ppt
[253] Properties of the Scorpii Circumstellar Disk from Continuum Modeling, A. Miroshnichenko et
al.: University of North Carolina,
http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/A_Miroshnichenko_Properties_2006.pdf
[254] High resolution emissionline spectroscopy of Be Stars, Reinhard W. Hanuschik, Astronomisches Institut Universitt Bochum.
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1986A%26A...166..185H
[255] V/R Variations of Binary Be Stars, S. Stefl et al. ESO 2007
http://www.arc.hokkai-s-u.ac.jp/~okazaki/Meetings/sapporo/361-0274.pdf
[256] The Optical Counterpart of the X-ray Transient RX J0117.6-7330R. Soria:, Siding Spring Observatory Coonabarabran, Australia http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1999PASA...16..147S
[257] Spektroskopische Beobachtungen der H- und der He I 6678-Emission am Doppelsternsystem
Scorpii, E. Pollmann: http://www.bav-astro.de/rb/rb2009-3/151.pdf
White Dwarfs
[260] A New Look at the Local White Dwarf Population J. B. Holberg, E.M. Sion et al. 2007
http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-3881/135/4/1225/pdf/1538-3881_135_4_1225.pdf
[261] The Spectroscopic Classification of White Dwarfs: Unique Requirements and Challenges, J.
Liebert, E.M. Sion 1994, http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1994ASPC...60...64L
213
[262] The Determination of the Local Density of White Dwarf Stars J.B. Holberg, E.M. Sion et al.
http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0102120.pdf
[263] A Spectroscopic Survey and Analysis of Bright, Hydrogen-Rich White Dwarfs, A. Gianninas et
al. 2011, http://arxiv.org/abs/1109.3171
[264] The Gravitational Redshift of 40 Eridani B, Jesse L. Greenstein, Virginia Trimble, 1972
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1972ApJ...175L...1G
[264] The Mass and Radius of 40 Eridani B from HIPPARCOS: An Accurate Test of Stellar Interior
Theory, H.L. Shipman et al. http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/488/1/L43
[265] Element Abundances in Cool White Dwarfs II. Ultraviolet Observations of DZ White Dwarfs, B.
Wolff et al. http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0204408v1.pdf
[266] The Spectra of White Dwarfs, Beverly T. Lynds 1956,
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1957ApJ...125..719L
Herbig Ae/Be Stars
[270] Spectrophotometry of R Monocerotis, K.H. Bhm et al. 1976, University of Washington
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1976A%26A....50..361B
[271] Spectroscopy of R Monocerotis and NGC 2261, Alan Stockton et al. Univ. of Hawai 1974,
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1975ApJ...199..406S
[272] Toward Understanding the Environment of R Monocerotis from high Resolution Near-Infrared
Polarimetric Observations, M.A. Jolin et al. Universit de Montral, 2010
http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/721/2/1748/fulltext/apj_721_2_1748.text.html
[273] Iron Emission Lines in the Spectra of Herbig Ae/Be stars Viewed through Their Proto-Planetary
Disks. C.A. Grady et al. 183rd AAS Meeting, Washigton DC
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1993AAS...183.4109G
[274] Spektroskopische Variationen des Herbig Ae/Be Sterns HD 163296. Diploma Thesis Stefan
Noll, University Heidelberg 1999,
http://www.lsw.uni-heidelberg.de/projects/hot-stars/Diplom_Noll.pdf
[275] Carbon Monoxide Observations of R Monocerotis, NGC 2261 and Herbig Haro 39: The Interstellar Nozzle. J Canto et al. Univ. Mexico 1980.
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1981ApJ...244..102C
T Tauri Stars
[280] Spectra of T Tauri Stars, A. McKay
http://astronomy.nmsu.edu/
[281] Understanding Stellar Birth Through the Photometric and Spectroscopic Variability of T Tauri
Stars, MW Eastwood, N. Mahmud, C.M. Johns, Rice University Houston Texas 2011,
http://www.as.utexas.edu/ugrad_symposium/?a=3
FU Orionis Stars
[286] The FU Orionis Phenomenon, Lee Hartmann, Scott J. Kenyon, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for
Astrophysics 1996, www.ifa.hawaii.edu/~reipurth/reviews/hartmann.ps
[287] The Periodic Spectroscopic Variability of FU Orionis, Stacie L. Powell et al. 2012
http://arxiv.org/abs/1209.0981
[288] Vernderungen im Spektrum von FU Orionis, P. Wellmann 1951
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1951ZA.....29..154W
[289] Models of the Spectral Energy Distributions of FU Orionis Stars, N. J. J. Turner et al. 1996
http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/480/2/754/
[290] Line Structure in the Spectrum of FU Orionis, P.P. Petrov, G.H. Herbig
http://arxiv.org/abs/0806.4053
214
Novae and Supernovae

[291] The Nature of the Si II 6150, Ca II HK, CA II IR-Triplet, and other Spectral Features in Supernova Type Ia Spectra, Daniel R. van Rossum 2012, http://arxiv.org/pdf/1208.3781.pdf
[292] Estimating The First-Light Time of the Type IA Supernova 2014J in M82, A. Filippenko et al.
http://arxiv.org/pdf/1401.7968.pdf
[293] Optical Spectra of Supernovae, A. Filippenko et al.
http://www.astrouw.edu.pl/~nalezyty/semistud/Artykuly/annurev.astro.35.1.309_ss.pdf
[294] Optical Spectra and Light Curves of Supernovae, A. Filippenko et al.
http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0307138v1.pdf
[295] Entfernungsmessung mit Supernovae, Skript Uni Regensburg, Otto Eberhardt 2008
http://www.physik.uniregensburg.de/forschung/wegscheider/gebhardt_files/skripten/Entfernungsbest.pdf
[296] A Comparative Study of the Absolute Magnitude Distributions of Supernovae, Dean Richardson
et al. http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0112051v1.pdf
[297] Supernovae-Explosionsmechanismen, Victoria Grinberg 2006,
http://pulsar.sternwarte.uni-erlangen.de/wilms/teach/lavilla06/07_grinberg.pdf
Extragalactic Objects
[300] Caltech: Spektralatlasses for extragalactic Objekts
http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/catalogs.html
[301] A Spectrophotometric Atlas of Galaxies, Robert C. Kennicutt, Steward Observatory
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...79..255K
[302] Aktive Galaxien, Quasare, Schwarze Lcher, Vorlesung Universitt Potsdam 2005
www.mpia-hd.mpg.de/home/jahnke/lectures/gqs_05/introduction1.pdf
[303] Active Nuclei and their Host Galaxies: Observations of Seyfert Galaxies, 2008, S. Harrold, J.
Kajubi www.pas.rochester.edu/~advlab/reports/harrold_kajubi_astro2.pdf
[304] Spectroscopic Atlas of the Central 24x 20 of the Seyfert 2 Galaxy NGC 1068, B. GarciaLorenzo et al. http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/518/1/190/
[305] Spectral classification of emission-line galaxies from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, 2009,
F. Lamareille et al.:
Part I http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009arXiv0910.4814L,
Part II: http://arxiv.org/abs/1105.0488
[306] Testing the Seyfert Unification Theory: Chandra HETGS observations of NGC 1068, P. M. Ogle
et al. http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0211406
[307] Spectral Classification of Emission Line Galaxies, 1986 S. Veilleux, D. Osterbrock
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987ApJS...63..295V
[308] M. J. Avara, Precision X-Ray Spectroscopy of 3C273 Jet Knots, MIT 2008
http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/44464/297176629.pdf?sequence=1
[309] B.M. Peterson et al. Are Forbidden Lines Present in the Optical Spectrum of the QSO 3C 273?
Ohio State University 1984 http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1984ApJ...283..529P
[310] B.M. Peterson et al. Central Masses and Broad-Line Region Sizes of Active Galactic Nuclei. II.
A Homogeneous Analysis of a Large Reverberation-Mapping Database. The Astrophysical Journal
2004 http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0407299
[311] S. Paltani, M. Trler: The mass of the black hole in 3C273, 2005 Marseille, Geneva
http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0502296
[312] A. Boksenberg et al. New Spectrometric Results on the Quasar 3C273, 1974, University London http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1975MNRAS.172..289B
215
[313] J.B. Oke: The Optical Spectrum of 3C273, CALTECH 1964

http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965ApJ...141....6O
[314] Markarian 421s Unusual Satellite Galaxy, Peter W. Gorham et al.
http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/9908077v3.pdf
[315] Unveiling The Nature of M94S (NGC4736) Outer Region: A Panachromatic Perspective
I. Trujillo et al. http://arxiv.org/pdf/0907.4884v1.pdf
[316] DVAA Quasar List, sorted by Magnitude
http://dvaa.org/AData/DVAA_Quasars_Appendix_B_Magnitude.pdf
Star Clusters
[325] Deriving Metallicities from Calcium Triplet Spectroscopy in Combination with Near Infrared
Photometry, F. Mauro, G. Da Costa et al. http://arxiv.org/pdf/1401.0014v1.pdf
[326] The Infrared Ca II Triplet as a Metallicity Indicator of Stellar Populations, T. Idiart et al
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1997AJ....113.1066I&defaultprint=YES&filetype=.pdf
[327] Deriving Metallicities from the Integrated Spectra of Extragalactic Globular Clusters Using the
Near Infrared Calcium Triplet, C. Foster et al. http://arxiv.org/pdf/1002.1107v2.pdf
[328] Spectral Types in the Pleiades, H. A. Abt, H. Levato, Kitt Peak, 1977
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1978PASP...90..201A
[329] Definition of the Pleiades Main Sequence in the HR Diagram, C.S. Hansen Ruiz, F. Van Leeuwen, http://www.rssd.esa.int/hipparcos/venice-proc/poster03_05.pdf
[330] The Integrated Spectral Types of Globular Clusters, W. Morgan 1956
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1956PASP...68..509M
[331] A Library of Integrated Spectra of Galactic Globular Clusters, R. P. Schiavon et al. 2005,
https://www.noao.edu/ggclib/ms.pdf
Monographs
[340] Time-series Analysis of Line Profile Variability in Optical Spectra of Orionis, Gregory B.
Thompson http://etd.ohiolink.edu/sendpdf.cgi/Thompson%20Gregory%20Brandon.pdf?toledo1249511358
[341] Spektralatlas P Cygni, O. Stahl, Landessternwarte Heidelberg
http://seds.org/Maps/Stars_en/Spectra/pcyg.html
[341a] The Spectrum of P Cygni 1964, L.S. Luud, Academy of Science Estonian SSR 1964
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1967SvA....11..211L
[341b] Of the Spectrum and Nature of P Cygni, Maart de Groot, Astr. Inst. Nederlands, 1968
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1969BAN....20..225D
[342] Christian Buil: Vega Spectrum Atlas, a full commented spectrum
http://astrosurf.com/buil/us/vatlas/vatlas.htm
[343] O.C. Wilson: The Wolf-Rayet Spectroscopic Binary HD 190918, Mount Wilson 1948
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1949ApJ...109...76W
[344] A Study of the moderately wide Wolf Rayet Spectroscopic Binary HD190918, A. Underhill et
al. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1994ApJ...432..770U
[345] Lesley A. Morgan 1971: The Emission Line Spectrum of the Orion Nebula
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nphiarticle_query?1971MNRAS.153..393M&defaultprint=YES&filetype=.pdf
[346] S. V. Marchenko et al.: The unusual 2001 Periastron Passage in the Clockwork Colliding
Wind Binary WR 140, http://www.stsci.de/wr140/pdf/marchenko2003.pdf
[347] Multi Frequency Variations of Wolf Rayet System HD193793, P.M. Williams et al. 1989
http://esoads.eso.org/abs/1990MNRAS.243..662W
216
[348] Spectral Analysis of a Peculiar Star WZ Cassiopeiae, Masanori Hirai, University of Tokyo,
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1969PASJ...21...91H
[349] The 6708 resonance line of Li I in the spectrum of the N-type variable star WZ Cassiopeiae,
McKellar 1941, http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1941Obs....64....4M/0000004.000.html
[350] Cyclic variability of the circumstellar disk of the Be star Tau, S. Stefl et al., ESO,
http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/arxiv/pdf/0907/0907.2250v1.pdf
[351] Visual/infrared interferometry of Orion Trapezium stars: preliminary dynamical orbit and aperture synthesis imaging of the 1 OrionisC system, S. Kraus, Y. Y. Balega et al. 2006,
www.skraus.eu/papers/kraus.T1OriC.pdf
[352] Spectrum variability of 68 Cygni, an O(f) star at the center of a ring nebula, V. I Alduseva, A. A.
Aslanov et al. 1982, http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1982SvAL....8..386A
Spectral Classes and Photometry
[370] Intrinsic Colors of Stars in the Near Inrared, Jorge R. Ducati et al. 2001
http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/558/1/309/fulltext/
[371] The Intrinsic Colours of Stars and Two-Colour Reddening Lines, M. Fitzgerald, 1970
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1970A%26A.....4..234F
Planetary Reflectance Spectra
[380] Limb polarization of Uranus and Neptune II, F. Joos and H. M. Schmid, ETHZ, 2006
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007A%26A...463.1201J
[381] Backyard Spectroscopy and Photometry ofTitan, Uranus and Neptune, R. Lorenz et al. 2002
http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/~rlorenz/amateur.pdf
Lectures and Practica
[400] Versuchsanleitung zum Astrophysikalischen Praktikum, Grobe Klassifikation von Sternspektren, Kiepenheuer Institut: http://www.kis.unifreiburg.de/fileadmin/user_upload/kis/lehre/praktika/sternspektren.pdf
[401] F. Royer: Rotation des toiles de type A, Vorlesung Ecole dAstronomie de CNRS
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996udh..conf..159R
[402] Vorlesung Astrophysik, Max Planck Institut Mnchen:
www.mpa-garching.mpg.de/lectures/TASTRO
[403] Vorlesung Astrophysik, Astrophysikalisches Institut Potsdam
http://www.aip.de/People/MSteinmetz/classes/WiSe05/PPT/
[404] Astrophysics graduate course 25530-01 Lecture 6 and 7, Univ. Basel
http://phys-merger.physik.unibas.ch/~cherchneff/Site_2/Teaching_at_UniBasel.html
[405] Stellar Birth and Middle Age, Lecture Univ. of Northern Iowa, S. M. Morgan
http://www.uni.edu/morgans/astro/course/Notes/section2/new7.html
Databases
[500] CDS Strassbourg: SIMBAD Astonomical Database
http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/
[501] NASA Extragalactic Database (NED)
http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/
[502] The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System,
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/index.html
[503] NIST Atomic Spectra Database:
http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/ASD/lines_form.html
[504] Simulated emission spectra for all elements
http://bmauclaire.free.fr/astronomie/spectro/simulation/noblet/index2.htm
217
[505] The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed. (Preliminary Version) (Hoffleit+, 1991)
Datenzugang ber http://www.alcyone.de/search_in_bsc.html
[506] James Kaler http://stars.astro.illinois.edu/sow/sowlist.html
[507] AAVSO, American Association of Variable Star Observers http://www.aavso.org/
[508] Spectral Atlas Central, Atlas of Calibration lines, National Optical Astronomy Observatories
NOAO http://www.noao.edu/kpno/specatlas/
Spectrographic software
[550] IRIS: Webpage of Christian Buil
http://www.astrosurf.com/buil/
[551] Vspec: Webpage of Valerie Dsnoux
http://astrosurf.com/vdesnoux/
[552] RSpec: Webpage of Tom Field
http://www.rspec-astro.com/
[553] MIDAS, ESO
http://www.eso.org/sci/software/esomidas//
[554] Spectro Tools: Freeware program by Peter Schlatter for the extraction of the H2O lines
http://www.peterschlatter.ch/SpectroTools/
Spectrographs and Cameras
[600] SQUES Echelle Spectrograph, Eagleowloptics Switzerland,
http://www.eagleowloptics.com/
[603] DADOS Spectrograph, Baader Planetarium, Germany:
http://www.baader-planetarium.com/pdf_download.htm
[605] Shelyak Instruments: http://www.shelyak.com/
[606] Datasheet Sony Chip ICX285AL:
http://www.datasheetcatalog.org/datasheet/sony/a6803068.pdf
[607] SBIG Spectrograph DSS-7, http://ftp.sbig.com/dss7/dss7.htm
General links
[700] Isabelle A. Grenier: The Gould Belt, star formation and the interstellar medium
http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/astro-ph/pdf/0409/0409096v1.pdf
[700a] 3D Evolution of the Gould Belt, Christophe Perrot , Isabelle Grenier
http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0303516
[701] Gene Smith, University of California, San Diego, Astronomy Tutorial, Stellar Spectra
http://cass.ucsd.edu/public/tutorial/Stars.html
[702] H.A. Abt: New Data on A-Type Disk stars, The Astrophysical Journal 2007,
http://iopscience.iop.org/0067-0049/174/2/499/pdf/0067-0049_174_2_499.pdf
[703] H. M. Qiu et al.: The Abundance Patterns of Sirius and Vega, The Astrophysical Journal 2001
http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/548/2/953/pdf/0004-637X_548_2_953.pdf
[704] U.K. Gehlich: Differential Fine Analysis Sirius versus Vega, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 1969
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1969A%26A.....3..169G
[705] Martin Brunold, CH-Abtwil http://www.astrolabe.ch/index.aspx
[706] Mirasteilas, Observatory, Falera http://www.sternwarte-mirasteilas.ch/
[707] Absolute Spectral Irradiance Measurements of Lightning from 375 to 880 nm, R. E. Orville and
R. W. Henderson: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984JAtS...41.3180O
218
[708] Vesto M. Slipher, The Spectrum of Lightning, Bulletin No. 79, Lowell Observatory Sept 1917,
Flagstaff Arizona http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1917LowOB...3...55S
[709] Robin Leadbeater's observatory
http://www.threehillsobservatory.co.uk/
[710] Dr. Erik Wischnewski, http://www.astronomie-buch.de/
[711] Hubelmatt Observatory, Astronomical Society of Lucerne (homepage in German language)
http://luzern.astronomie.ch/
[730] The Real Starry Sky, G. Ledrew, Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, Vol. 95
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001JRASC..95...32L

Amateur PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Amateur PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Spectroscopic Atlas for Amateur Astronomers

Spectroscopic Atlas for Amateur Astronomers

Directory of Tables ................................................................................................... 10

Selection, Processing and Presentation of the Spectra..................................... 14

Selection of Spectra ............................................................................................................................. 14

Terms, Definitions and Abbreviations ................................................................... 17

Parameters and Identification of the Stars ...................................................................................... 17

The Fraunhofer Lines ............................................................................................... 19

Overview and Characteristics of Stellar Spectral Classes ................................ 20

The Temperature Sequence ............................................................................................................... 20

Appearance of Elements and Molecules in the Spectra .................................... 25

Spectral Class O........................................................................................................ 26

Wolf Rayet Stars ....................................................................................................... 33

Spectral Class B ........................................................................................................ 41

Spectroscopic Atlas for Amateur Astronomers

Parameters of the Early to Late B-Class Stars................................................................................. 41

LBV Stars .................................................................................................................... 48

Be Shell Stars ............................................................................................................ 56

PMS Protostars ......................................................................................................... 59

Spectral Class A ........................................................................................................ 65

Spectral Class F ........................................................................................................ 72

Spectral Class G........................................................................................................ 77

Spectral Class K ........................................................................................................ 82

Spectroscopic Atlas for Amateur Astronomers

Commented Spectra ............................................................................................................................ 83

Spectral Class M ....................................................................................................... 90

Spectral Sequence on the AGB .............................................................................. 93

Evolution of the Stars on the Asymptotic Giant Branch (AGB) ..................................................... 93

M(e) Stars on the AGB ............................................................................................. 95

Spectral Class S on the AGB ................................................................................... 97

Overview and Spectral Characteristics ............................................................................................ 97

Carbon Stars on the AGB ......................................................................................103

Overview and Spectral Characteristics ..........................................................................................103

Post AGB Stars and White Dwarfs ......................................................................110

Position of Post AGB Stars in the Stellar Evolution ......................................................................110

Phenomenon of Supernova Explosion SN ......................................................................................114

Spectroscopic Atlas for Amateur Astronomers

SN Type Ia Features in the Optical Spectral Range ..................................................................116

Extragalactic Objects .............................................................................................119

Star Clusters ............................................................................................................138

Short Introduction and Overview .....................................................................................................138

Emission Nebulae ...................................................................................................146

Short Introduction and Overview .....................................................................................................146

Remarks to the Determination of Excitation Classes and Recording of Spectra ....................149

Reflectance Spectra of Solar System Bodies ....................................................168

Reflectance Spectra of Mars and Venus ........................................................................................168

Spectroscopic Atlas for Amateur Astronomers

Telluric Molecular Absorption ..............................................................................174

The Night Sky Spectrum ........................................................................................178

Terrestrial Light Sources .......................................................................................180

Spectra of Gas Discharge and Calibration Lamps ........................................................................180

Spectral Classes and  Values of Important Stars .................................194

Required Ionisation Energies for the Individual Elements ..............................197

Bright Planetary Nebulae sorted by Excitation Classes ...................................198

Terminology of the Spectroscopic Wavelength Domains ...............................199

Positions of the Atlas-Stars in the HRD ..............................................................200

Assignment of Spectral Classes to the BV Colour Index ...............................201

Bibliography and Internet......................................................................................208

Spectroscopic Atlas for Amateur Astronomers

Change log of the atlas versions

Update of the Document Title and Introduction

Spectroscopic Atlas for Amateur Astronomers

Spectroscopic Atlas for Amateur Astronomers

Spectral Classes and Values of Important Stars .................................194