INSTITUT PENDIDIKAN GURU

KAMPUS TUANKU BAINUN

BUKIT MERTAJAM PULAU PINANG
PROGRAM IJAZAH SARJANA MUDA PERGURUAN
(TESL) PRIMARY EDUCATION

ELT METHODOLOGY
(TSL 3033)
NAME

: FATHUL JANNAH BINTI ABD HAMID

INDEX NO

: 2014302340037

IC NUMBER

: 930301-08-6022

PROGRAMME

: 6 PISMP (TESL/LGA/PSV)
JUN INTAKE 2014

TITLE OF PROJECT: FOLIO

LECTURER

: MADAM DAYANG

A. 1. Theories of language learning.

Behaviourism
Behaviours can be measured, trained, and changed.

John B. Watson
Behaviourism was established with the publication of Watson's classic paper
"Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It" (1913)

Types of Behavioural Learning

Experiments by the behaviourists identify conditioning as a universal
learning process.
Conditionings

Classical
conditioning

Instrumental or Operant Conditioning

1. Classical conditioning:
This conditioning was first described by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov,
in 1903 through his experiment on dogs. The general idea of Pavlovs
experiment is this:
Pavlov presented dogs with food to examine their salivary response.
He rang a bell just before serving the food.
At first the dogs did not salivate until the food is served.
However, when the bell was rung at repeated feedings, the sound of
bell alone caused the dogs to salivate.
2. Instrumental or Operant Conditioning:
Expanding on Watsons basic stimulus-response model, Skinner developed a
more comprehensive view of conditioning, known as operant conditioning.

 Skinners model was based on the premise that effective language behaviour
consists

of

producing responses (behaviours)

to

the

correct stimuli (situation).

When

a response is

followed

by

a reinforce (reward)

then

it

is conditioned to occur again.

Thus operant conditioning was used by Skinner to describe the effects of
the consequences of a particular behaviour on the future occurrence of the
behaviour.
Reinforcement and punishment are the core ideas of operant conditioning.

Humanism
Experience is the primary phenomenon in the study of human learning and
behaviour.

Abraham Maslow (Father of Humanistic Psychology)

Maslow's theory is based on the notion that experience is the primary

phenomenon in the study of human learning and behaviour.

He placed emphasis on choice, creativity, values, self-realization, all distinctively

human qualities, and believed that meaningfulness and subjectivity were more

important than objectivity.

For Maslow, development of human potential, dignity and worth are ultimate
concerns.

From Maslow's perspective, the drive to learn is intrinsic.

The purpose of learning is to bring about self-actualization.

Learning contributes to psychological health.

Maslow proposed other goals of learning, including:

discovery of one's vocation or destiny;

knowledge of values;
realization of life as precious,
acquisition of peak experiences,
sense of accomplishment,
satisfaction of psychological needs,
awareness of beauty and wonder in life,
impulse control,
developing choice,

 and grappling with the critical existential problems of life.

Cognitivism
Cognitive psychologists share with behaviourists the belief that the study of
learning should be objective and that learning theories should be developed
from the results of empirical research.
However, cognitivists disagree with the behaviourists in one critical aspect.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
By observing the responses that individuals make to different stimulus conditions,
cognitivists believe that they can draw inferences about the nature of the internal cognitive
processes that produce those responses.

Piaget emphasises on two main functions; one is organisation (or equilibrium).

Organisation refers to the fact that all cognitive structures are interrelated and

that any new knowledge must be fitted into the existing system.
It is the need to integrate the new information, rather than adding them on,
that force our cognitive structure to become more elaborate.

The second general function is adaptation.

Adaptation refers to the tendency of the organism to fit with its environment in

ways that promote survival.

It is composed of two terms; assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation is the tendency to understand new experience in terms of existing

knowledge.
Whenever we come across something new, we try to make sense of it, built
upon our existing cognitive structures.

Accommodation occurs when the new information is too complex to be integrated

into the existing structure.
This means that, cognitive structures change in response to new
experiences

Social constructivism
Emphasis is on the collaborative nature of learning and the importance of
cultural and social context.
All cognitive functions are believed to originate in, and are explained as
products of social interactions
Learning is more than the assimilation of new knowledge by learners; it was
the process by which learners were integrated into a knowledge community.
Believed that constructivists such as Piaget had overlooked the essentially
social nature of language and consequently failed to understand that learning
is a collaborative process.
There are eight characteristics that underline the constructivist learning environments
and are applicable to both perspectives.

Jonassen (1994)

1. Constructivist learning environments provide multiple representations of

reality.
2. Multiple representations avoid oversimplification and represent the complexity
of the real world.
3. Constructivist learning environments emphasize knowledge construction
inserted of knowledge reproduction.
4. Constructivist learning environments emphasize authentic tasks in a
meaningful context rather than abstract instruction out of context.
5. Constructivist learning environments provide learning environments such as
real-world settings or case-based learning instead of predetermined
sequences of instruction.
6. Constructivist learning environments encourage thoughtful reflection on
experience.
7. Constructivist learning environments "enable context- and content- dependent
knowledge construction."

8. Constructivist learning environments support "collaborative construction of

knowledge through social negotiation, not competition among learners for
recognition."

A. 2. Second language learning theories ( Krashens monitor model)

Acquisition- learning hypothesis

Language acquisition (an unconscious process developed through using
language meaningfully) is different from language learning (consciously
learning or discovering rules about a language) and language acquisition is
the only way competence in a second language can develop.
This acquisition-focused approach sees
communicative competence progressing
through three stages:

aural comprehension

early speech production

speech activities, all

fostering "natural"
language acquisition,
much as a child would
learn his/her native
tongue

Monitor hypothesis

 Explain the relationship between acquisition and learning.

While the learning system
The acquisition is the utterance initiator
performs the role of the
monitor or the editor.

Natural order hypothesis

Natural order is found in both language acquisition by children and adults alike. In
case of L2, natural order exists regardless of the acquirers L1.
Later findings show that this hypothesis is valid for other language acquisition
as well.

Input hypothesis

The Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not learning.

Speaking is and
a result
of acquisition
& NOT
cause.
If input is understood,
there
is enough of
it, theitsnecessary
grammar is
automatically provided.

Affective filter hypothesis

Learners with a low affective filter: high motivation, self-confidence, a good
image, and a low level of anxiety.
Are better equipped for success in SLA
Learners with a high affective filter: low self-esteem and a high level of

anxiety
Form a mental block
When the filter is high, it blocks language acquisition.
The low affective filter is desirable.

Implications of the hypothesis for teaching

 Students activities should be based on meaningful

communication rather than on form.
Input should be interesting and student needs based.
Input should contribute to a relaxed classroom
atmosphere.

Universal grammar
Description
It is a theory that suggests that some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the
brain, and manifest without being taught.

UNIVERSAL
GRAMMAR
ARGUMENTS

1.

Poverty of the
Stimulus.

2.Constraints and
principles cannot
be learned.

3. Patterns of
development are
universal.

Universal Grammar Arguments

1. Poverty of the Stimulus.
Children hear only a finite number of sentences.

 They are able to abstract the rules and principles of the language.
They produce an infinite number of possible sentences without any formal
training.
Ungrammatical

Grammatical acceptable

2. Constraints and principles cannot be learned.

Children are very young when acquiring L1.
They do not have the cognitive ability to understand the principles of grammar
as a system.
Because of innate capacity they are capable of producing correct grammar.
3. Patterns of development are universal
Children learn the various aspects of a language in a very similar order.
Brown (1973).
There is a very specific order of MORPHEME acquisition.
1. Present Progressive -ing
* Daddy jumping
2. Plural s
* Many books
3. Irregular past forms
* I run I ran

The sequence is quite fixed in order, but

All children learn in the same order, but

not in rate.

some take longer than others.

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
DEVICE
Set of common grammatical
rules.
UNIVERSAL
GRAMMAR

B. Read up and write short notes/ graphic organisers on the following topics/ subtopics:

3. Approaches, Methods, and Techniques

a. ELT Methods

There are many methods of teaching languages. Some have had their heyday
and have fallen into relative obscurity; others are widely used now.

Many methods have been proposed but this presentation will cover only four
major methods i.e:

GrammarTranslation
method

Direct
Method

Audio-lingual
Method

Silent Way

Suggestopia

Community
Language
Learning

Total
Physical
Response

Communicat
ive Approach

Task-Based
Learning

Lexical
Approach

Eclectic
Approach

Lexical Approach
Description of the method
"Lexis is the basis of language.
Grammatical mastery is not a requirement for effective communication.
Any meaning-centered syllabus should be organized around lexis rather than grammar.
and that mastery of the grammatical system is a prerequisiteforeffectivecommunication.
."

---Michael Lewis (1993)

Background

It is a language teaching method published by Michael Lewis in 1993

Giving importance the insight of the language lexicon

Lexis is the basis of language

The lexical approach concentrates on developing learners' proficiency with

lexis, or words and word combinations.

Lexis plays the central role

Alternative approach to traditional grammatical approach

Chunks,

minimal

pairs,

collacations,

lexical

units

are

the

specific

characteristics of this approach

Principles

The key principle of a lexical approach is that language consists of

grammatical zed lexis, not lexicalized grammar.

In other words, lexis is central in creating meaning, grammar plays a

secondary role in managing meaning.

When this principle is accepted, the logical implication for teachers is

that we should spend more time helping learners develop their stock of
phrases, and less time on grammatical structures.

Techniques
o The building blocks of language learning and communication are not
grammar, functions or some of unit of planning but teaching lexis with the help
of chunks and collocations.

What is chunk?

'Lexical chunk' is an umbrella term which includes all the other terms.

What are collocations?

Collocation is a pair of lexical content words commonly found together

Lexical Chunks (that are not collocations)

by the way
up to now
upside down
If I were you
a long way off
out of my mind

Lexical Chunks (that are collocations)

totally convinced
strong accent
terrible accident
sense of humour
sounds exciting
brings good luck

LEXICAL UNITS

Binomials ( e.g. Knife and fork)

Trinomials ( e.g. Cool, calm and collected)

Idioms ( e.g. To rain cats and dogs )

Similes ( e.g. As white as snow . )
Connectives ( e.g. Finally, to conclude )
Conversational gambits ( e.g. Guess what )

Krashens suggestion:

Others suggestion:

emphasis on reading and listening

making classroom laboratory

Bahns suggestion:

no direct translational equivalence for teaching of lexical items

in EFL

Strengths & Limitations

Encountering new learning items

Noticing lexical chunks or collocations

Noticing similarities, differences, restrictions and examples

Acquisition is based not on the application of formal rules

No linear syllabus can adequately reflect the nonlinear nature of

acquisition

It lacks full characterization of an approach

Lack of a detailed learning theory

Teachers Roles

The talk of the teacher as a major source of learner input ( This is the same
with the Natural Approach)

To understand and implement the methodology which is based on stages

composed of;
-Task
-Planning
- Report

To create an operative environment(where students operate effectively)

To help the learners manage their own learning after operation

abandon the idea of the teacher as a knower and concentrate instead of

the idea of the learner as discoverer. (Willis 1990)

Students Roles

The analyzer of real life language samples based on his or her own
explanations

To observe, classify and make generalizations

Making use of computers

Implications for syllabus design

To get students to become aware of, use and to eventually master these
meaning-filled, multi-word chunks, collocations and fixed utterances.
To help learners to notice for themselves how language is typically used
Language is learnt by an increasing ability to break down wholes into parts.
Grammar is acquired by a process of observation, hypothesis and
experiment.
We can use whole phrases without understanding their constituent parts.
Acquisition is accelerated by contact with a sympathetic interlocutor with a
higher level of competence in the target language

SYLLABUS

Structural syllabus is used.

( Also called as lexical
syllabus )

Teaching vocabulary and

grammar

Procedure:

Introduction of chunks
Practice of chunks
Accumulation of chunks
Use of chunks and collocations

Eclectic Approach
Description of the method
Eclecticism involves the use of a variety of language learning activities, each of which
may have very different characteristics and may be motivated by different underlying
assumptions.

Larsen-Freeman (2000) and Mellow (2000)

Introduction
The use eclecticism is due to the fact that there are strengths as well as
weaknesses of single theory based methods. Reliance upon a single
theory of teaching has been criticized because the use of a limited
number of techniques can become mechanic.
The students, thus, cannot get benefits of learning. Relativism i.e. to
emphasize the context of pedagogical situations is also criticized
because it leads towards dissimilarities rather than similarities between
teaching contexts.
The use of eclecticism does not mean to mix up different approaches
randomly.
There must have some philosophical backgrounds and some
systematic relation among different activities. Usually it is recommended
to mix structural approaches with communicative use of language.
In the move away from teachers following one specific methodology, the
eclectic approach is the label given to a teacher's use of techniques and
activities from a range of language teaching approaches and
methodologies.
The teacher decides what methodology or approach to use depending on
the aims of the lesson and the learners in the group. Almost all modern
course books have a mixture of approaches and methodologies.

Principles
The term principled eclecticism to describe a desirable, coherent, pluralistic
approach to language teaching.
an eclectic approach allows language teachers "to absorb the best techniques
of all the well-known language-teaching methods into their classroom
procedures, using them for the purposes for which they are most appropriate.
to prioritize important principles,
to discover additional principles,
to use the principles to create a teacher's own personal theory of learning
and teaching.

The use of methods and approaches were adjusted to the teaching-learning needs.
Since it was combination, each theory will have its strengths and weaknesses.

Strengths & Limitations

The main criticism of the eclecticism is that "it does not offer any guidance on
what basis and by what principles aspects of different methods can be
selected and combined."

Strengths
Adjust present technologies education to the environment so that learning will
not become boring.
Learning should be fun and
innovative due to the unique
nature and capabilities of each
child.
Weaknesses
May lead to confusion because there are too many views expressed in an
eclectic explanation
Because
the
different
approaches are very different
from each other it is difficult to
combine them to make one new
theory

Teachers Roles

Teacher consider as a facilitator: who facilitates the learner.

Teacher consider as a guide: who guides the students.
Teacher consider as a slightly higher rank official: who uses his authority to
conduct the class and make the process of teaching and learning systematic.

Students Roles

Learner is seen by us as the centre of teaching learning activities.

Learners participation is very important.
Teacher will always try to involve the learners.
As well as the learner's role in class should be cooperative and they will be
allowed to communicate, self-correct each other and ask questions about the
substance provided for teaching learning activities.

Role of teacher

Role of learners

Roles
resources/materials

of

Teacher have an almost Learners

should

be The eclectic approach is

free choice in deciding given the opportunity to to

how many communicative respond
activities

they

variety

of

to formats-classroom

engage their experience in a discussion, individual drill

students in doing.
Teacher

critically

use

particular class.

are

in workbooks, computer

always Learners should learn

based instruction

thinking of the best way for from each other, not The material consist of
their students

simply

Teacher combine different

strength

from

from

teacher.

the text-based

learning

strategy

different

philosophies most of the

time, use their own unique
theory, creative and vision
Teacher

plays

and

communicates with child

Teacher

need

to

be

creative in using different

approaches to capture the
learning

interest

and

curiosity of the learners.

Implications for syllabus design

Syllabus has a broad range of functions.
First, in language centred-approach, syllabus becomes the generator of
the materials.

Second, in skills centred-approach, syllabus provides opportunities for

learners to employ and evaluate the skills and strategies necessary in

target situation.
Third, in learning centred-approach, syllabus is used in a more dynamic
way in order to enable methodological considerations, such as interest,
enjoyment, learners involvement, to influence the content of the entire
course design.

The use of eclectic approach in course design will affect the function and the
choice of syllabus. This will lead to the types of syllabus used in the course.