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Technology in Distillation
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Technology in Distillation
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The original document was Energy Conservation Seminars for Industry: Texas
Energy Conservation Program: Distillation Column Operations by J. E Sirrine Company.
Within the confines of HTML, the text has been converted to an approximation of
the material. At some points it is unclear in the original document if a typographic
change was made to organize the text or to simply make text fit better on a page. As
closely as possible, the organization of the material has been maintained. Very few
corrections have been made to the original text, even where errors may be present.
The intent has been to maintain the original document.
No warranty is made as to the accuracy of the material, the conversion to
electronic form, or to the applicability of the techniques discussed to any given plant.
Editorial comments added to the text are shown with text in [italics].
presented by
The Energy Utilization Department
of the
Texas Industrial Commission
410 East Fifth Street
Austin, Texas
(512) 472-5059
Gerald R. Brown, Executive Director
Lance E. dePlante, Manager
Energy Utilization Department
Prepared By
J. E. SIRRINE COMPANY Houston, Texas
For
TEXAS INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION
1978
DISCLAIMER
These materials were prepared as a result of work
sponsored by the Governors Office of Energy
Resources through funds provided by the Department
Energy. Neither the Texas Industrial Commission,
nor the sponsoring agencies, nor any of their
employees, nor any of their contractors, subcontractors, or their employees, makes any warranty,
expressed or implied, or assumes any legal liability
for the successfulness of the implementation of energy
conservation techniques described. References to
specific ideas, products, and services should not be
construed as endorsements. It is hoped that the information provided through these materials will be useful
in your efforts to explore opportunities available for
energy conservation.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ENERGY CONSERVATION MANUAL
DISTILLATION COLUMN OPERATIONS
PAGE
TITLE
DISCLAIMER
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
SECTION
1 - INTRODUCTION
1 - 1
SECTION
2 1
SECTION
2 1
2 1
2 - 3
3 1
3 1
3 1
3 3
3 4
3 9
3 11
3 13
PAGE
SECTION
4 - 1
4 - 1
B. COLUMN REVISIONS
4 - 5
4 - 5
4 - 7
4 - 7
(1) Introduction
4 - 7
4 - 9
4 -10
4 -11
4 -11
4 -11
4 -12
4 -12
4 -12
4 -13
4 -13
4 -15
4 -19
4 -21
(10) InterreboiLER
4 21
4 21
4 22
PAGE
D. USE OF VAPOR RECOMPRESSION AND HEAT PUMPS FOR
DISTILLATION
4 -24
(1) Introduction
4 24
4 25
4 26
4 27
4 28
4 33
4 37
6.1 Situations
4 37
4 38
4 40
4 41
4 41
4 42
4 43
4 44
4 46
4 49
4 50
4 51
4 54
4 54
14.2 Solution
4 -55
PAGE
(15) Work Problem Propane-Propylene Splitter With
Bottoms Vapor Recompression
SECTION
SECTION
4 60
4 61
4 64
5 ECONOMICS
5 - 1
5 2
(1) Profit
5 2
5 2
(3) Depreciation
5 3
5 5
5 5
5 6
5 6
5 6
5 7
5 8
5 9
D. STEAM ECONOMICS
5 11
E. COOLING WATER
5 13
F. COMPRESSED AIR
5 14
5 14
5 15
I. CONCLUSION
5 15
6 1
PAGE
SECTION
7 APPENDICES
7 1
7 1
7 6
7 10
7 14
ABSTRACT
the column. Capital intensive and complex systems using vapor recompression or heat
pumps are possible energy savers. These are covered in Section 4 along with heat
losses and column control.
For distillation processes, the energy used per pound of product is a simple
ratio for evaluating the performance of the program to reduce energy usage.
Similarly, an economic guideline is helpful in requesting management to make
decisions concerning capital investments. In Section 5, the concept of investment
equivalence to save a unit of energy is developed for use as an economic guideline.
The economic interpretations of several energy savings proposals are discussed.
Potential conflicts in placing a cost value on various steam pressures by
accountants compared to its value from a thermodynamic or energy level viewpoint
are discussed.
The appendices include reprints of technical articles pertinent to
distillation columns, a general energy savings checklist, a process energy
checklist, and the results of a sample work problem on vapor recommendation.
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
NO.
TITLE
PAGE
2 1
2 5
4 1
4 65
4 2
4 66
4 3
4 67
4 4
4 68
4 5
4 69
7 1
7 16
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
NO.
TITLE
PAGE
2 1
2 6
2 2
Depropanizer Unit
2 7
3 1
3 17
3 2
3 18
4 1
4 72
4 2
4 73
4 3
4 74
4 4
McCabe - Thiele Diagram for System with Intermediate Condenser and Reboiler
4 75
4 5
4 76
4 6
4 77
4 7
4 78
4 8
4 79
4 9
4 80
4 10
4 81
4 11
4 82
4 12
4 83
4 13
4 84
4 14
4 85
4 15
4 86
4 16
4 87
PAGE
4 17
4 88
4 18
4 89
4 19
4 90
4 20
4 91
4 21
5 1
4 92
5 17
5 2
5 17
5 3
7 1
5 18
Work Problem
7 17
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
Many words and phrases may have more than one meaning. In energy discussions,
the expression energy conservation is presently spoken with two meanings. The
original meaning is related to the first law of thermodynamics, which states that
energy is always conserved, never destroyed, but changes from one form and level to
another. Now that the United States is no longer endowed with new sources of low
cost energy fuels, energy conservation has taken on the meaning of reducing the
amount of energy used either increasing the efficiency of performing a certain
task, or using a substitute requiring less energy. Examples of conservation are the
use of higher efficiency air conditioning units, lighter weight automobiles, and
handwashing dishes.
In the chemical industry, the meaning of energy conservation includes
conserving the temperature level of the energy and in consequent the availability
of the energy to produce work. Since distillation processes require large amounts
of work and heat energy to perform the required separations, these processes are
prime areas for better energy utilization.
Many Americans are skeptical about the United States being in an energy
crisis. They say that energy is plentiful, but have they considered the cost to
produce it? Russell E. Train, formerly administrator of the EPA, made the following
comment in an address upon receiving the $150,000 Tyler Ecology Award:
...the artificially low prices for more conventional energy maintained
by subsidy and regulation. In 1976 the average weighted price of the
industrial use of energy per million Btu was $2.55,
1 - 1
whereas the average replacement cost---the cost of finding and producing new
energy resources---was $3.74. Thus, the replacement cost of natural gas is
now more than 70% above the average price, that of oil about 45% above, and
that of electricity nearly 40% above. Only in the case of coal did
replacement cost approximate actual price. Since our political processes have
so far proven unequal to the task of achieving more economically realistic
prices for energy, whether by taxes, pricing policy, or by deregulation, or
any combination of these, ...
If his costs are realistic, then the United States is living on previously
developed resources. When they are depleted, the cost of energy will soar.
If the decision is made by management to reduce the energy requirements
of the processes, it implies that long term profits or return on the companys
investment must not decrease. This economic viewpoint is a prerequisite to the
writing of any energy conservation manual.
This manual is divided into seven sections, it is assumed that the reader has
sufficient technical knowledge to understand the principles of heat transfer,
separation operations, and thermodynamics. After information is presented on how to
conduct an energy audit of the distillation process, energy saving ideas that
require minimal capital investments are given. Similarly, ideas for long term
capital investments are discussed. Finally, economics and the concept of investment
equivalence to save a unit of energy are detailed.
The appendices include copies of technical articles pertinent to distillation
processes. It also lists ideas on energy savings in general and specific to
distillation operations. It is the purpose of this manual to aid the chemical
company in reducing the energy requirements of the distillation units without a
reduction in profitability of the process.
1 2
SECTION 2
2- 1
should be in the process calculations. Values for fuel and steam usage should be
indicated on the process flow sheet. For example, if the design values showed
30,000 lbs per hr. of 75 psig saturated steam to produce 6000 lbs per hr of
product, the ratio of the pounds of 75 psig saturated steam to pounds of product is
5. If the condensate is not recovered, the energy usage is (1185 - 48)5 or 5685 Btu
per lb. If a competitor operated with the same ratio of steam to product, but
recovered the condensate at 200 F, his energy usage is (1185 - 188)5 = 4985 Btu
per lb. This is an energy saving of 12%.
Specifications of purchased equipment and their performance are valuable for
any plant study. They must be used with caution because revisions may have been
made since the original installation. If the changes were not documented (not
uncommon in small plants) or simply given verbally to the present unit supervisor,
you may not know that revisions occurred.
2-B. AUDIT OF ACTUAL PLANT OPERATION
After the background information is compiled and the energy information
extracted, the present energy usage of the unit should be determined. Plant
accounting records should be checked for present and past usage of steam, fuel,
electricity, etc. This information may be reported on a monthly basis on value
added sheets or production cost sheets. All values reported by accounting should
be considered questionable until they can be verified for accuracy. Instruments may
be broken. Flow meters may measure usage for more than one unit, and the flow split
guesstimated. If the guess was wrong, the estimated values recorded by accounting
are in error and could incorrectly bias your decision on a proposed energy
conservation project.
2- 2
2 3
Electric
motors
connected
to
instrument
air
and
plant
air
compressors
2 - 5
FIGURE 2-1
2 6
FIGURE 2-2
2 - 7
SECTION 3
Process units built prior to 1973, the year of the drastic rise in energy
costs, were generally designed on a low capital cost investment basis for maximum
rates of return. Energy saving equipment was included in the investment if it
obviously improved the return on investment. No extensive engineering was directed
at energy in the design phase.
In the current period of high energy costs, economics still dictates how much
energy a new plant design can conserve. But the incentive to expend more engineering time in the design phase to optimize the process with maximum energy conservation has increased. Likewise, there is the economic incentive to return to older
operating plants and retrofit them with additional energy saving equipment.
Similarly, years ago, plant operators had been instructed to minimize off
specification production. They achieved this and reduced the amount of scrutiny and
effort needed to operate the unit by producing a purer product than necessary. This
results in an increase in energy usage. This section of the manual will cover
changes in plant operation with minimal capital investments to reduce the energy
required to produce one pound of product.
3-A. OPERATING PROCEDURE REVISIONS
Your operating procedures were probably written before the large increase in
energy cost drew attention to energy conservation as one primary objective. In
addition, the operators are probably using the procedures only as a guide and have
developed their own procedures based upon ease of operation.
3-A-1. Reducing the Reflux Ratio of Columns
The optimization of the reflux ratio of the distillation column can
3 - 1
produce significant energy savings. The investigation can start by checking the
operating manual and column performance specifications for the design conditions,
including the reflux ratio. If the design conditions are no longer valid due to
changes in feed composition or product requirements, it is recommended that a
vigorous distillation calculation be made. If the calculations are very difficult,
you can make use of commercial computer programs made available through various
computing service bureaus (see section 4-B). The design reflux should be compared
with the actual ratios controlled by each shift operator. The daily laboratory
analyses of the column products are compiled and compared with the design
specifications. If the column is operated at a reduced production rate, the design
reflux rate should be calculated for this reduced rate.
It is extremely difficult to change people, even more difficult when it
requires more work effort without visually seeing the results. If one operator was
found who operated the column at a lower reflux ratio than the others, you might
get the confidence of the operators by getting all the operators to maintain this
ratio. If you merely write a note in the unit's operating log leaving instructions,
you will probably not be successful in lowering the reflux ratio. You must work
closely with the superintendent, foremen, and operators instilling confidence as
you show the energy savings resulting from their efforts. If the operating department has monthly meetings for the supervisory people, you can use it as a forum to
present your objectives, how you plan to approach them, and request their support
and assistance. Later you can report progress and discuss problem areas.
3 - 2
Steam or fuel usage per pound of product can be tabulated daily along with
reflux ratio, product purity, etc. and compared with column performance before the
change. The savings in energy can be converted to a monetary value and reported to
the operating people. As an alternate you might represent the energy savings as
barrels of imported oil per year.
As the reflux ratio is reduced, a point will be reached at which the
operators are overworked and having difficulty in maintaining product purity. This
is the opportunity to show your concern to the operators by backing off on the
ratio.
3-A-2. Lowering Product Specifications
Sometimes, product specifications can be lowered. Who decided on the present
product specifications? Are they justifiable? For example, the sales group may have
had the product purity increased to justify selling more product and beating the
competitors. The buyer may require a purity in excess of his real needs. Higher
purity product requires more energy to be consumed per pound of product. Since the
sales department has probably expressed an optimistic opinion as to the value of
higher product specifications in the market place, an economic analysis based upon
their opinions would most likely say to make no specification changes. A better
approach may be to analyze the specification requirements for each type of user of
the chemicals and determine if the higher specification is required. A different
selling
technique
may
retain
the
customer
even
if
product
specifications
are
3 3
3 - 4
Hp =
(gpm)(TDH)(S)
(3960)(Ep)(E m)
Hp =
(160)(119)(1.0)
= 10.0
(3960)(0.465)(.95)
Hp =
(172)(129.5)(1.0)
= 17.4
(3960)(0.34)(.95)
Hp =
(172)(129.5)(1.0)
= 12.6
(3960)(0.47)(.95)
Thus, 17.4 - 12.6 or 4.8 Hp was conserved. In section 5 of this report, the
concept of investment equivalent for energy savings is developed. This is the
amount of capital that can be invested to save a unit of energy. If new impellers
were placed in the two pumps (one pump is the spare), the impellers would likely be
expensed (if the motors were changed, the new motors would probably be
capitalized). How long would it take to recover the expense of purchase and
installation of the two impellers if the pump operated at 172 gpm with 0.95 on
stream time? Assuming the cost of electricity at 3.0 cents per KWHr and the
replacement expense of $800, the payout is:
(X) (.95)(4.8)(.746)(.030)= $800
where X = hrs
X = 7839 hrs or 0.9 years
3 5
Hp =
(1500)(70)(1.0)
= 55.8
(3960)(0.50)(.95)
Hp =
(2)(575)(108)(1.0) (1100)(108)(1.0)
+
= 136.5
(3960)(0.45)(.95) (3960)(.50) (.95)
3 - 6
800
8
or 1000 gpm. An inexpensive
5
type butterfly valve with a manual lock positioner could be installed to throttle
the flow to 800 gpm, saving 200 gpm of cooling water.
If
cooling
water
system
operated
at
6000
gpm
and
50
psig
before
exchanger flows were throttled and 5000 gpm at 55 psig after the throttling,
3 - 7
the
how much energy was saved? Let us assume there is an improvement in efficiency from
0.50 to 0.52.
Horespower before change
Hp =
(6000)(50)(2.31)(1.0)
= 368
(3960)(.50)(.95)
Hp =
(5000)(55)(2.31)(1.0)
= 325
(3960)(.52)(.95)
Electrical savings
Savings
Even better savings may be gained by changing impellers, etc. to give 5000
gpm at 50 psig or less. If a process fluid is being cooled by cooling water to
lO0F, but a fluid temperature of 120F is acceptable, it may be possible to use
less cooling water or cooling water preheated by another source, thereby reducing
cooling water flow.
Flow of liquids through piping transfer lines is generally controlled by the
use of throttling valves. Past design practice has been to design the control valve
to take from 25% to 50% of the system pressure drop. This gives the control valve a
rangeability of approximately 50 to 1. The valve has converted work energy derived
from electricity into frictional heat. Most processes don't require this much
rangeability so a larger control valve with less pressure drop could replace the
original valve, the rangeability being reduced say to ll to 1. Of course, energy
savings can only occur if the pressure in the line is reduced, possibly by reducing
the diameter of the pump impeller. The electric motor should also be replaced with
one of lower horsepower that
3 - 8
meets power requirements. Just installing a new control valve will be useless as
the valve will throttle down until flow is controlled to the original point.
Shinskey, in the Control Systems Can Save Energy article graphically discusses
this energy saving idea.
3-A-4. Lowering Steam Usaqe
One of the most talked about energy wasters is steam leakage from bad steam
traps and leaking fittings. Steam traps are blamed for being inefficient or worn
out and causing as much as 10% of the generated heat from steam to be lost. Is this
true or just a sales method to sell more traps? It turns out that steam leaks cause
a significant energy loss.
Mr. Goyette, in his article Estimating the Costs of Steam Leaks, (see
appendix 7-C) shows the cost effect of steam leakage from various size holes (1/8,
1/16, and 1/32) in a 150 psig steam system. The cost was based upon incremented
steam costs. An example showed that a 1-inch union was found leaking at a loss of
$3000 per year. The repair cost was $50 or a six day payout. Of all the energy
savings steps that the Tenneco plant did, Mr Goyette said the single largest
contributor was steam-leak repairs. Steam traps will wear out. Armstrong Machine
Works claim that the inexpensive disk type steam trap wears out in 6 months and
should be replaced that frequently. If condensate is recovered, leaking traps can
cause an excessive return temperature and cause failure of the condensate return
pumps. Severe water hammer can occur as hot steam contacts condensate that has
cooled below the temperature of the steam.
The following steps are recommended for saving energy in your steam
3 9
3 10
3 11
procedure for heater adjustment is given on the last page of the article.
A target excess oxygen for the oxygen recorder with remote manual damper
control was given in the article as 4.0% for gas and 4.5% for oil firing. More
recently, manufacturers are indicating the oxygen can be controlled at 2%. The
decision to go this low must be based upon the risk of temporarily going below
stoichiometric conditions with possible explosion when the heater returns to excess
oxygen conditions. Based upon figure 1 of Mr. Woodards article, substantial
reductions in heat input are accomplished by this approach. This modification will
probably cost less than $5000, yet show considerable savings.
Recovery of Heat from Stack Gases
The amount of heat extracted from burning a fuel can be related to the flue
gas or stack temperature. The extracted heat is defined as the heat absorbed by the
process stream being heated and the losses from the furnace casing (generally
around 2%). Thus the percent heat extracted is:
Heat available in Btu/lb of fuel at the Flue Gas
temperature (FGI), divided by the Heat Content of the
Combustion Fuel in Btu/lb times 100.
The lower heating value (LHV) of the fuel is used for efficiency
calculations. The flue gas temperature depends upon the design condition of the
convection section of the heater and the physical condition of the convective
tubes. A reasonable FGT is the inlet process fluid temperature plus approximately
150 F. If your inlet fluid is at 300 F, the FGT is approximately 450. A check of
the FGT for your heater may show 500 F. Thus, your convective tube section may
have lost some of its heat transfer ability by loss of fins on the tubes. This
becomes a replacement expense.
3 - 12
3-B.
stream is slowly losing the amount of heat recovered because of fouling, when do
you shutdown? This decision can be based upon maximizing heat recovered or
minimizing the loss in profits. Three cases are described below:
Case 1---Decision based upon energy conservation
Given: An exchanger used to recover waste heat is rated at 11,000,000 Btu/Hr
when clean before fouling. This exchanger slowly loses its heat
transfer capability and the loss is estimated to be 10,000 Btu/Hr per
day. A 12 hour shutdown is required to replace the tube bundle.
Find: Frequency of shutdown to maximize the energy recovery. Assume a 3500
day period of time.
A) At start of day l, heat transfer rate =
heat transfer rate is
B) Let C = number of repairs during the 3500 day period. The heat
recovered for any given day, X of the cycle is
EC =
3500
C
3500
)
C
1 x 104 3500
3500
3500
EC = 24[(11 x 10 )(
)
(
)] (12)(11 x 106 x
)
C
2
C
C
6
3 13
3500
3500 2
3500
EC = 1000 C { 24[(11,000)(
) 5(
)] 12[ 11,000 (
)10 ]}
C
C
C
3500
3500 2
3500
= 24000 C[(11,000)(
) 5(
) 5,500 5(
)]
C
C
C
3500
3500 2
= 24000 C[(10995)(
) 5(
) 5,500]
C
C
6.125 x 107
= 24000[ 3.848 x 107
5500C ]
C
61.25 x 103
6
3
= 24 x 10 ( 38.48 x 10
5.5C )
C
1
dE
= 24 x 106 [ 0 61.25 x 103 x(c 2) 5.5 ]
dC
61.25 x 103
0 =
5.5
C2
61.25 x 103
C2 =
= 11,136
5.5
3500
C = 105.5 cycles or
= 33 days / cycle
1055
ET = 8.96 x 1011 Btu
Case 2---Decision based upon maximum profit, production rate not affected.
Given:
61.25 x 103
24 x 10 ( 38.48 x 10
5.5C)(2 x 106) (10,000 + 20,000)(C)
C
61.25 x 103
3
= = 48( 38.48 x 10
5.5C) 30 x 103 C
C
6
3 - 14
ds
3
B)
= 48[ 0 61.25 x 10 ( c 2 ) 5.5] 30 x 103
dc
0 =
2.94 x 106
264 30 x 103
C2
C2 =
2.94 x 106
= 97.15
30 x 103
C = 9.86 cycles or
3500
days
= 355
9.86
cycle
61.25x103
C) ET = 24x10 ( 38.48x10
5.5C) = 7.72x1011 Btu
C
6
Case 3---Decision based upon maximum profit, production rate affected by loss of
heat transfer.
Given:
.05% per day. Each .05% loss in rate is $20 per day (20,000 x
24
x
12
.0005) in profits.
Find:
6
24 x 10(34.48
x 103
61.25
20 3500 2
x 103 5.5C)(2 x 106) (10000 + 20,000)C
(
)
C
2
C
= 48(38.48 x 103
61.25 x 103
1.225 x 108
5.5C) 30 x 103 C
C
C2
3 - 15
61.25 x 103
(1.225)(3)x 108
ds
B)
= 48[ 0
5.5] +
30 x 103
2
3
dc
C
C
0 =
2.94 x 106
3.68 x 108
3
264
30
x
10
+
C2
C3
3500
= 143 days
24.4
61.25x103
C) ET = 24x10 ( 38.48x10
5.5C) = 8.6x1011 Btu
C
6
SUMMARY
Btus total
No. of cycles
Days per cycle`
CASE 1
MAX ENERGY
CASE 2
MAX PROFIT
CASE 3
MAX PROFIT
8.96 x 1011
7.73 x 1011
8.6 x 1011
105.5
9.9
24.4
33
355
143
3 - 16
FIGURE 31
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CHARACTERISTIC AND SYSTEM CURVE
3 - 17
FIGURE 32
EXPANSION OF PUMPING SYSTEM
Pumping Efficiency
A or B at 750 gpm = 0.50
A or B at 575 gpm = 0.45
C at 1100 gpm = 0.50
500
1000
1500
2000
Flow - gpm
Two Pumps
Pumps AB New Impellers
New Pump C
3 - 18
2500
3000
Pumps ABC
System Curve
3500
SECTION 4
4 - 2
4 4
If heat can be withdrawn from a column to balance column vapor loads and
improve separation, the temperature level of the heat removed and made available
for exchange can be increased by designing at high circulating rates. The three
factors for designing circulating reflux systems are the number of systems, the
placement of the systems, and the circulation rate. These factors are described in
the Bannon and Marple article.
The heat recovery efficiency of your distillation columns can be checked for
possible
Network
improvements.
Simulator
This
program
can
be
done
available
on
by
the
using
the
computing
Elshout
service
Heat
Exchanger
bureau,
United
Computing Systems (UCS) or other similar programs. You can also develop your own
available heat curves. Using the exchangers available in the plant as well as new
exchangers, you may be able to hand calculate a fairly good heat recovery system
that is economically feasible.
4-B. COLUMN REVISIONS
Many options are available for conserving energy in distillation processes.
Mix, et al have outlined and also placed in tabular form guidelines for selecting
energy saving options. The more attractive options found in their table and article
are discussed below.
4-B-1. Additional or More Efficient Trays - According to Mix, et al, tray
changes are economically feasible if:
N2 2
4-B-1)
Where
ln
ln s
PR
< 150
R 1
S = Separation Factor
(xDLK)(xBHK)
(xBLK)(xDHK)
D = Distillate
B = Bottoms
LK = Light Key
HK = Heavy Key
x = Concentration, mole fraction
P = Column pressure in ATM
K = Reflux ratio R/RM
Before one proceeds, it is recommended that a rigorous distillation
calculation be performed on the existing column using the actual temperature,
pressures, compositions, etc. of the column. Distillation programs that have
been developed by Chemshare, Simulation Sciences, Phillips 66, and others for
simulating your column are available through various computing service
bureaus.
A plot can be made of the distribution of the various components tray
by tray. This plot may indicate the feed tray may be changed or additional
trays may be beneficial if entirely in the rectification or stripping section
of the column.
If equation 4-B-1 shows the column may benefit from more trays, you can
run several cases with reflux as the variable (heat load changes) and
determine the saving in energy.
4 6
You have the option of adding more trays or replacing existing trays
with more efficient type trays. For example, Kirpatrick, in his article, "M D
Trays Can Provide Savings In Propylene Purification", (see Appendix 7-C),
describes the design of propylene-propane splitters and the application of
trays with 13 spacings compared to the usual 18 to 24 spacing. With the
shorter spacing and more efficient design, a single column 13.25 ft in
diameter and 265 ft tall, using 196 M D trays was installed and producing
polymer grade propylene.
4-B-2. Additional Column Draw - Three possible column draw options are
pasteurization, intermediate product and intermediate impurity.
Pasteurization means the removal of light ends from the distillate by venting
off the accumulator and removing the distillate product several trays below
the top. Six criteria are listed by Mix, et al.
The intermediate product is considered when the temperature difference
between bottom and top exceeds l00F, and when the split of one key between
two products is desired. The intermediate impurity drawoff is useful for
removing impurity buildup under high reflux operations. The impurity flow
rate must be less than .01 times the feed rate in lb moles per hr, and the
relative volatility between the light and heavy key less than 1.5.
4-C.
4 - 7
(2)
(3)
(4)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
All heat sources from nearby equipment, condensers, etc. that can
be used by the distillation column for its re-boiler and feed
preheating duties. Note that some or all of the distillation
column reboiler duty can be supplied by a high temperature liquid
stream.
4 9
4 - 10
The ability to use the heat in the bottoms product will depend on its
requirements for downstream processing. If the product is required hot
downstream, it is impractical to cool it and then to reheat the bottoms
stream. If the stream does not need to remain hot, the following represent
possible uses of the bottoms liquid heat.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
4-C-2.2 Distillate Product - The options that apply to recovering heat apply
equally well to the distillate product. The opportunities of heat recovery
differ as the distillate product is at a lower temperature than the bottom,
and the distillate product may be a vapor, therefore containing a large
amount of heat in its vaporized condition.
4-C-2.3 Condenser Duty - The largest potential reject heat source of the
distillation column is the condenser. All this heat is available at
essentially a single temperature, and all the heat duty must be removed.
Possible uses of the condenser duty could be to supply heat to a neighboring
columns reboiler, to produce waste steam, or to heat large liquid streams at
low levels, such as supplying hot water for a building.
4-C-2.4 Reboiler Duty - The reboiler represents the largest heat input to the
distillation column. The reboiler requires heat at a
4 - 11
4 - 12
4 - 13
4 - 14
4 - 15
as each column is added. The two tower system saves 50% of the energy.
Another tower saves (50 - 33) or only 17%. A fourth tower will save
only 8.3%. So our writeup will deal with only the two column
arrangement.
The split tower system has a single reboiler and single condenser. The temperature difference between the reboiler and condenser
will be much greater than that of an ordinary column. This occurs
because the two columns each have their own temperature diffence to be
met from the top to bottom, and the driving force for the condenserreboiler must be supplied. As a result of this for the split tower
arrangement to work, the following factors must be present:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
The products must not be degraded by the highest temperature or frozen, or too viscous at the lowest temperature.
(5)
The heat source must be able to supply heat at a temperature above that of the reboiler.
(6)
4 16
4 - 17
4 - 18
tower can be mixed with the low pressure bottoms and flashed in the low
pressure tower. This would result in a uniform bottoms composition.
The split tower design offers a good possibility of energy savings with
a new installation. Where an existing column exists already, it would be
possible to increase capacity by adding another tower next to the existing
one and installing a new condenser-reboiler so that the existing column will
become one-half of a split tower arrangement. In cases where no capacity
increase is desired, but the column original size was such that two towers
were used, it may be possible to convert it to a split tower operation by
installing a more efficient column internal trays and by adding a condenserreboiler, new piping, and new instrumentation. The savings that can result
from a split tower design are very much afftected by the cost of energy to
the reboiler, so the true energy cost should be evaluated before using a
split tower.
4-C-8. Interreboilers, Intercondensers, and Feed Preheating The reboiler is
at the highest temperature of any part of the distillation column, therefore
it is the worst place to add heat as a high temperature (and therefore more
valuable) heat source must be used. Likewise, the condenser represents the
worst place to remove heat as its temperature is the lowest, and any
recovered heat will be of low value. If heat can be added at another part of
the column in place of heat added at the bottom, we can use a less valuable
heat source (i.e. lower pressure steam) or have a smaller heat exchanger
surface area due to the increased delta T available. In the case of the
condenser heat re-
4 - 19
jection being replaced by rejection at another part of the column, a smaller heat
exchange surface could be used, or the heat recovered (example waste steam
generation), or a refrigeration requirement for the condenser reduced. Thus if we
can shift some of the re-boiler or condenser duty to another part of the column, we
may be able to save money.
The reboiler duty can be reduced by using one or more inter-reboilers and
feed preheating. The condenser duty can be reduced by use of intercondensers and
feed precooling (i.e. condensation of a vapor feed). Note that if we hold the total
heat duties constant, and use interreboilers and intercondensers, then the number
of trays in the column will have to be increased at the top and bottom sections,
although the column cross-sectional area can be reduced. The key to proper use of
feed preheating and interreboilers is to make sure the reboiler duty goes down
correspondingly with the increased auxilliary duty, hold overall energy use
constant while less valuable energy can be used.
The effects of using interreboilers, feed preheating, and inter-condenersers
on separation can be seen easily on the simple McCabe-Thiele diagram of Figure 4-4.
The different liquid-to-vapor ratios are found for the use of an interreboiler and
plotted on the diagram. The extra theoretical trays can be counted. The location of
the new trays in the column is obvious. The new vapor rates in the different column
sections can be used to find the required cross-sectional areas of the sections of
the column.
4 - 20
4 - 21
4 - 22
for using a circulating reflux is to reduce the vapor load in the upper
column. As lighter lower molecular weight components predominant towards the
top without a circulating reflux the gas volume will increase, resulting in
the need for a larger cross-section.
R. P. Bannon and S. Marple in their paper (See Appendix 7-C) suggest
that there be at least as many circulating refluxes as side draws (See Figure
4-5). The objective in this case is to minimize the draw tray liquid
spillover down the column. Spillover flow needs to be 10% or so to allow for
control variations. If spillover occurs, it means that we are removing heat
at a lower temperature than is necessary. Two situations are suggested for
the placement of the pumparounds removal and return trays. One is that the
liquid reflux and the side draw are taken from the same tray, with the
returning cooled liquid being added several trays higher, under the next
sidedraw. The other is to have the liquid removed at a lower tray, and then
returned to the tray just below the sidedraw. For the second case the
temperature is maximized as a low tray is used. As we are attempting to
remove heat at as high as temperature as possible, the refllux flowrate
should be large so that its return temperature is as high as possible. Both
the initial removal and final return temperature are important in determining
the temperature at which we can recover heat.
By using a circulating reflux we reduced the amount of reflux in the
upper trays. This results in a requirement for more trays to maintain the
same separation. Since the vapor flowrate is also reduced in the upper
section, we will have as a result a slimmer, taller column.
4 - 23
4-D.
The
qC = (R + DL)(H VAP). Definitions of the nomenclature are found on Table 45, Nomenclature of Section 4-B.
4 25
The bottoms liquid needs a reboiler to provide vapor reflux (RV). The
reboiler duty for vapor reflux needed is equal to vapor reflux RV times the
heat of vaporization for the bottom liquid, so heat duty =
R V(HVAP). Normally
the bottoms product will be removed as a liquid, but if needed the bottom
product can be vaporized also, giving the total heat duty as
qh = (R V + BV)HVAP .
As can be seen most of the heat used in distillation is added, qh at TBL
and removed, qc, at TOV. The reflux requirement results in qc and qh being
reasonably close, but as TBL > TOV the column needs external input to operate.
An ordinary column has a separate condenser and reboiler. The condenser
running on the overhead vapors rejects the heat into an external heat
transfer fluid. The fluid can be cooling water, air, chilled brine, boiling
refrigerant, or boiling water producing waste steam. The conventional case
would be using cooling water to absorb the heat given off in the condenser.
In this case the heat is lost. The reboiler boiling the bottoms liquid
requires an external heat input from a heat transfer fluid. Possible fluids
include steam (condensing anywhere from 0 to 600 psig), condensing dowtherm
vapor, molten salts, burning natural gas, a hot liquid stream, or hot water.
A conventional column will use valuable steam to supply the needed heat. An
example of a conventional column can be seen in Figure 4-6.
4-D-3 - Vapor Recompression - A distillation column driven by a vapor recompression cycle differs. In a vapor recompression cycle, the condensing and
reboiling are supplied in a single exchanger (the condenser-reboiler).
4 26
(2)
The bottom liquid pressure can be reduced in the condenserreboiler, so that bubble point is at a low enough temperature
below TOV to provide the wanted
4 - 27
Note that a flash tank is added when the overhead vapors are compressed
to avoid returning superheated liquid to the top of the column where it will
flash. In the other case where bottoms are compressed, the Superheated vapors
from the bottoms liquid are of no importance.
4-D-4. - Heat Pump - A heat pump uses a separate condenser and reboiler as
does an ordinary column. However, heat is transferred from the condenser to
the reboiler in a manner similar to that of vapor recompression. An isolated
heat transfer fluid is boiled in the condenser, compressed, and condensed in
the reboiler. (See Figure 4-8). The characteristics of the vapor
recompression cycle are retained by the heat pump cycle, but an additional
exchanger and an extra
(2)
(3)
(4)
4 - 28
q h + qc = Wideal
Wideal
T Tc
= h
qh
Th
This equation is the famous Carnot equation for efficiency. It is
known that the maximum amount of work that can be done by any process
for a given amount of heat at Th is the Carnot efficiency
Th Tc
.
Th
< 1
Wideal
T Th
= c
qc
Tc
W
W
< ideal
qh
qh
The Carnot cycle is totally reversible. Therefore the work can be
input to transfer heat from the cold source to the hot source.
Rearranging the equations results in:
qh = W q c
qh
T Th 1
Th
=(c
) =
Wideal
Tc
Th Tc
qc
Tc
=
Wideal
Tc Th
qc
qh
=
Wideal
Wideal
qh
q h
=
+ 1
Wideal
Wideal
4 29
This means heat can be moved by work. As in the Carnot cycle for
work, it turns out that the maximum heat, qc, that can be transferred
between Tc and Th by a given amount of work. Wideal is given by the Carnot
cycle.
qcmax
W
qc
Wideal
qc
qc
qc
(real process < max =
(Carnot efficiency)
W
W
Wideal
From now on we will refer to all q/w, heat/work ratios in the absolute
value terms, or:
qc
qh
+ 1 =
Wideal
Wideal
qh
Th
=
Wideal
Th Tc
qc
Tc
=
Wideal
Th Tc
qh
qc
T
/
= h
Wideal
Wideal
Tc
The work imput will be done to the system by an external source, heat
flow qc will be removed at Tc and heat flow qh will be supplied to the higher
temperature Th.
4 30
For a real process there will be efficiency losses. For this case of
heat movement by work, there are two efficiency losses to be worried about.
m = The efficiency losses that do not cause heat to the cycle. This is
best exemplified by the driver losses, for example, an electric motor loss or
a steam turbine loss do not add heat to the process, so we get the following
equations:
(Note that Wideal will be expressed for a flowrate qc)
Wideal
= m x p
W
Wideal = m x p x W
qh = qc + m x W
qh = qc +
Wideal
p
qc
Tc
=
Wideal
Th Tc
x p x Tc
qc
= m
W
(Th Tc)
qc
qc
/
= m x p
W
Wideal
4 - 31
x p x Tc
q
qh
= c + m = m + m
W
W
Th Tc
qh
qc
1
Tc
1
=
+
=
+
Wideal
Wideal
p
Th Tc
p
qh
qh
/
= m x p
W
Wideal
Potentially large heat/work ratios are possible which means much heat
can be transferred for a little work. For the case of a constant heat
difference (Th Tc) of l00F the heat/work ratios will increase with
increasing temperatures.
At Tc = 40F,
qc
Tc
460 + 40
=
=
= 5
Wideal
Th Tc
100
qh
qc
=
+ 1 = 6
Wideal
Wideal
At Tc = 540F,
qc
= 10
Wideal
At Tc = 1040F,
qc
= 15
Wideal
At Tc = 1540F,
qc
= 20
Wideal
qh
= 21
Wideal
4 32
qc
460 + 40
=
= 5
Wideal
140 40
At Th = 90F, Th Tc = 50F,
qc
= 10
Wideal
At Th = 60F, Th Tc = 20F,
qc
= 25
Wideal
At Th = 45F, Th Tc = 5F,
qc
= 100
Wideal
TEX as part
difference plus the delta T across the condenser-reboiler. The Tc = TOV where
the overhead vapor is compressed,
expanded.
qc
TOV
TOV TEX
=
or
Wideal
TBL TOV + TEX
TBL TOV + TEX
qh
TBL + TEX
TBL
=
or
Wideal
TBL TOV + TEX
TBL TOV + TEX
4-D-5.2 - The Refrigeration Cycle - Vapor recompression uses a refrigeration
cycle rather than a Carnot cycle for heat transfer be tween the two sources
at Tc and Th. A refrigeration cycle consists of 4 steps.
4 33
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
The refrigeration cycle therefor absorbs heat at Tc, releasing the heat
at Th, only two pressure levels Pc and Ph are met (other than within the
compressor). The refrigeration cycle is not reversible and is less efficient
than a Carnot cycle between the two temperatures. Figure 4-9 demonstrates
temperature-enthalpy processes for the two cycles.
Let us work out a simple example of a refrigeration cycle. Water is the
working fluid. The water will boil at 212F absorbing heat and reject heat at
230F. The pressure of saturated water at 212F = 14.698 psia, at 230F the
pressure is 20.78 psia. Assume no inefficiencies other than that
characteristic of the fluid and refrigeration cycle.
Water boils at 212F forming vapor. Assume we have 1 lb of vapor. The work
needed to compress it from 14.698 psia to 20.78 psia is:
4 34
P2 k k 1
k
Work =
x P1 x V1 x ( )
1
k 1
P1
952.17 BTU
qh
970.34 BTU
26.24
qc
212 + 460
=
= 37.3333
Wideal
230 212
qh
= 37.2222 + 1 = 38.3333
Wideal
4 - 35
qc
= 36.287
W
qh
= 36.9794
W
qc
qc
/
= .971974
W
Wideal
qh
qh
= .96468
/
W
Wideal
This shows 3% efficiency is lost by the refrigeration cycle for this case.
The characteristic of the refrigerant heat transfer fluid used is
important on efficiency. The following list gives the desired characteristics
listed in rough order of importance.
(1)
(2)
(3)
TEX
4 36
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
4-D-6. Vapor Recompression 4-D-6.1 Situations - A number of different situations can exist for a
vapor recompression setup. The location of the main compressor in the
overhead or bottoms gas stream is only one of the problems. The status
of the feed, distillate, and bottoms product as to whether they are
vapor or liquid makes a difference. For a vapor recompression system
with overhead vapor compression, this is a need to avoid the hot liquid
from the condenser-reboiler from flashing upon entering the
distillation column. This can be done either with a flash tank
returning vapor to the overhead stream, or an exchanger can be used to
cool the liquid below the flash temperature. Every column will require
either an auxiliary reboiler or condenser to correctly match its heat
balance. Both these auxiliaries may be added and oversized, so as to
control the equipment. In the case of a refrigerated column the method
of refrigeration is of interest.
4 - 37
Figure 4-10, 4-11, and 4-12 will give an idea as to the number of
possibilities of different setups. Figure 4-10 is for a heat pump.
Figure 4-11 and 4-12 show four individual cases, I A and B, and II A
and B that indicate a desirable or optimum setup for the given
situation. Cases I A and B deal with the situations met in a hot column
where heat is costly (steam supplied for example) and cooling is done
by water or air. Cases II A and B deal with a different situation where
there is a cold column which operates at refrigerated conditions,
making cooling valuable.
4-D-6.2 Auxiliary Heat Transfer Equipment - A vapor recompression
column will need auxiliary equipment to perform the necessary balancing
of the condensing and reboiling duties of the distillation column. In
addition, the column is controlled by these auxiliaries. The following
general situations of heat duty could be met.
(1) The vapor recompression cycle is used for only part of the
heat duty for either the condenser or reboiler, say 50%. For this case
a large conventional condenser and reboiler will be used as the
auxiliary. Essentially we would have a conventional distillation
column, with great control over it, but with a significant portion of
the heat load carried out by the high efficiency vapor recompression
cycle. This hybrid column will have most of the advantages of both a
conventional column and a vapor recompression column.
(2) One of the duties, either the condensing or reboiling duties,
will be in great excess. In this case only one item, a large auxiliary
condenser or reboiler will be needed. The auxiliary item will control
the column and balance its heat duties.
4 - 38
(3) The condensing and reboiling duty requirements are close and
the great portion of the heat load is carried by the vapor
recompression cycle. A separate small auxiliary reboiler and auxiliary
condenser would both be added. This will allow control of the column
and some flexibility.
A system with a separate heat pump cycle will experience similar
problems, although the auxiliary equipment will be interfaces with the
heat pump fluid, not directly to the column.
A column operating at refrigerated temperatures permits special
uses for the auxiliary equipment. If excess cooling is available from
the vapor recompression cycle, then it may be possible to use this
valuable cooling to chill water or cool some other item. Excess cooling
is not expected in most cases, but excess heat needs to be removed from
the column. A conventional heat pump refrigeration system may be used
to provide the cooling, but there are a number of other possibilities.
The bottoms vapor can be compressed by an auxiliary compressor to where
it condenses at ambient temperatures, using the bottoms liquid as the
heat transfer fluid just as a heat pump refrigeration system would. In
this situation it is desirable to have the compressor in the overhead.
This leaves the condenser-reboiler operating at a higher temperature
than the other case, and the bottom vapors leaving the reboiler are
then in a good position to be compressed by an auxiliary compressor.
Note that the entire condensing and reboiling loads are carried by the
condenser-reboiler, and the auxiliary equipment are not parallel to the
condenser-reboiler as in the case of higher temperature operations.
4 - 39
recompression cycle will require a driving work source. The compressor work
requirement is expected to be sizeable in most cases. The compressor and its
driver will be located near the column to avoid long pipelines for the vapor
stream entering and leaving the compressor. Thus, we can have one of a number
of local power sources. Among the possible driver sources are:
(1)
An electric motor.
(2)
(3)
(4)
A diesel engine.
(5)
4 - 40
A steam turbine, say 75% efficient, will probably be the most efficient
driver overall, where the excess high pressure steam exists and the low
pressure steam is needed. A part of the plant's steam plant costs should be
charged to the turbine.
4-D-6.4 Insulation of Columns Using Vapor Recompression or Heat Pumps The insulation required for the column and its associated equipment
will vary with the situation for a vapor recompression system. For the case
of hot operation of the column where the condenser duty is in excess, no
insulation is needed for stopping heat flow, although legal requirements and
other needs may require a small amount of insulation on exposed surfaces.
Where the column is hot and extra reboiler duty is needed, the column should
be insulated like a conventional distillation column.
For a column operated at cold temperatures, insulation will probably be
required to prevent moisture freezing on the lines and heat flows into the
column. The amount of insulation required will again be related to whether
excess cooling is available or extra cooling is needed. The refrigeration
cost will determine the optimum thickness.
In general a small amount of insulation is expected to be needed, to
protect against ambient conditions, but that the thickness used is expected
to be somewhat less than that of a conventional column.
4-D-6.5 Vapor Recompression for Interreboilers, Other Columns - Vapor
recompression, transferring heat from a colder source to a hotter sink can be
used at any point. For example, if a column has intercondensers and
interreboilers, these items can be used as part of a vapor recom-pression
cycle just like an overall column recompression cycle can be used.
4 - 41
The heat duties will need careful balancing when unusual points are used.
Note that the temperature difference between the inner units will be lower
than that across the overall column, and vapor recompression may be favorable
for inner units even though the top to bottom difference is too large to be
favorable for the overall vapor recompression.
The inner units may be joined in any fashion. An interreboiler can be
interfaced with the overhead condensing vapor; an inter-condenser to an
interreboiler or the bottoms product reboiler.
The vapor recompression cycle can be used for other columns, the
overhead vapors of one column compressed and condensed to boil the bottoms of
another column. The total heat duties will probably not be very close in
these cases, meaning lots of auxiliary heat transfer equipment will remain.
4-D-7. Reasons For Conversion of an Existing Column - There can be a number
of reasons why it is desired to switch an existing conventional column to a
vapor recompression cycle.
A.
at
lower
pressure,
if
desired,
where
the
lower
to
be
needed,
therefore
less
heat
duties,
increased
4 - 42
B.
C.
D.
The heat source (i.e. steam) used by the current column may be
needed elsewhere, or excess high pressure steam is available for
driving turbines. The vapor recompression cycle replacing the old
system may improve the overall integration of utilities in the
entire plant.
E.
4 - 43
A.
B.
The control system for the existing column may prove usable for
the vapor recompression column, and complete replacement needed.
C.
D.
E.
For the case of the existing column, it may be best to put only part
(say 50%) of the overall condenser and reboilers duty on the vapor
recompression cycle. This allows much heat to be saved, but leaves the
existing reboiler and condenser in place and operating the column. Note that
an all new condenser-reboiler, compressor, and driver, will be needed for the
partial conversion use.
4-D-9 Advantages of Vapor Recompression - The advantages of vapor
recompression are:
(1)
(3)
4 - 45
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(2)
4 - 46
are required.
(3)
b.
The
will be much higher than that allowed across the condenserrebolier as its heat/work efficiency drops with increasing
The
TEX will be
4 47
column.
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
Altering the column for reuse to operate for a new situation will
be more difficult than with a conventional column, as the vapor
recompression system will probably need to be replaced.
(10)
4 - 48
system.
Overall, by swtiching to vapor recompression one gains energy
efficiency at the cost of greater mechanical complexity and flexibility loss.
Capital costs for vapor recompression will probably be greater than a
conventional case, but it depends on the situation and what all is taken into
account in economic changes.
4-D-11. Advantanges and Disadvantages of the Heat Pump - Heat pump driven
systems are similar to vapor recompression systems. Most of the advantages
and disadvantages are the same as compared to a vapor recompression system.
Disadvantages and advantages as compared to a vapor recompression column are:
(1)
Two separate vessels are required for the condenser and reboiler.
Also each vessel has two
T across the
Overall, the key to use of a heat pump will be the opportunity to use a
better and isolated heat transfer fluid, against the cost of the extra heat
exchanger surface.
4 - 49
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
4 - 50
(1)
(2)
When the column can be operated with cooling water for the
condenser and waste heat (1 ATM or less steam) for the reboiler.
4-D-13. Procedure for Vapor Recompression Evaluation - After the design and
economics are developed for a conventional column, the guidelines for
considering vapor recompression are reviewed. If vapor recompression appears
feasible, then:
(1)
Study the conventional design and find its basic utility costs.
See if refrigeration is needed, or if a high value heat source is
used. Compare this heat cost with the cost of work energy
(electricity or high pressure steam). The resulting work
cost/heat cost ratio will give a minimum heat/work ratio
aimpoint.
(2)
q
Wideal
TBL
TOV
TOV + TEX
4 - 51
from this. The new column needs to be sized, and a new reflux
ratio assigned. Rework the ideal heat/work ratio of Part (2)
remembering to take into account the changed heat duties for the
condenser and reboiler.
(4)
Study the heat duties of the condenser and reboiler, and design a
vapor recompression system to work for this system. Place the
compressor in the overhead or bottom vapor line, and put in an
auxiliary unit for heat balancing.
(5)
Assume the actual heat to work ratios are 70% less than the ideal
heat to work ratio. In symbols, this is
qc
qc
= 0.7
W
Wideal
(6)
(7)
Find the costs of heat exchanger surface, and compare this with
the capital and utility charges for the compressor and its
driver. Using the heat/work ratio of 70% ideal find the optimum
4 - 52
TEX .
Study the heat duties of the condenser and reboiler, and see how
possible changes in the feed and product states effect the
balancing. Attempt to minimize the addition of an expensive head
flow such as refrigeration or steam.
(10)
(11)
Work out the entire system, using the actual fluids, equipment
efficiencies, and heat flows. Fix the auxiliary requirements.
(12)
With the actual system, work out its true economics. At this
point, the superior system, vapor recompression or conventional
column should clear.
Now we can design throughly to obtain the optimum system.
(13)
(14)
4 - 53
(16)
(17)
(18)
4 - 54
The feed is a saturated liquid, the overhead will be taken as vapor, bottom
product as liquid. The compressor efficiency is assumed 85%, electric drive
motor of 90% efficiency. In the first example, the overheads will be assumed
to be compressed. A
4 - 55
The pressure at the bottom is 45 psia for the 50 - 50 mixture. After solving
by iteration using the average of propylene and propane pure pressures, we
get a bubble point temperature of 2.8F at the bottom of the column. The
enthalpies of the various streams (pure propylene and mixed propylenepropane) at these temperatures and pressures are found from an enthalpy
chart. The enthalpies of the propylene-propane mixture are found by assuming
each component is separate and multiplying by its mole fraction.
Much information about the streams can be seen by inspection. The top
of the column is at - 9F, 40 psia, 100% propylene, so the reflux liquid to
this (stream 4) is at this temperature, pressure. The overhead vapor stream 2
splits into streams 12 and stream 6. Stream 10, leaving the flash tank, is in
equilibrium with stream 4 so it is also at -9F, 40 psia. The bottom of the
column is at 2.8F, 45 psia, 50-50 propylene-propane, this bottoms liquid is
stream 3. Streams 9, 13, and 7 come directly from the bottoms stream
therefore they have the same temperature-pressure data. The vapor reflux at
the bottom is stream 5, which is also at 2.8F, 45 psia, 50-50 mixture. This
stream is a combination of streams 11 and 15. Note the bottom reboilers
merely change the bottoms liquid to vapor, without changing the temperature
or pressure.
At this point the key items missing are the pressure of the vapor
leaving the compressor, the mass flow of the flash vapor, and the mass flow
to the bottoms liquid to the condenser-reboiler. From our problem statement
we know that
4 - 56
qc
= 208.547 Btu
14.18
Wmin =
Wideal
= 272.610 Btu
(.85)(.90)
qc
= 14.18 x .85 x .9 = 10.85
W
The refrigeration cycle is less efficient than the Carnot cycle, so
more work than this will be used.
Returning to the problem, we need to perform the flash tank
calculation. We know the pressures and temperature of the involved streams 4,
8, & 10, and the flowrate (400) of stream 4.
Let
k =
cp
cp R
= 1.29
V1 =
ZRT
= 116.1 Ft3 / lb mole
P
k 1
= 0.22481
k
P2
72.4
=
= 1.81
P1
40
1 Btu = 778 ft lb
Ideal Work Equation for Compression
P k 1
k
V1 = (
)P1 V1 ( 2 ) k 1
k 1
P1
(40 x 144)(116.1)
1.810.22481 1
(0.22481)(778)
WI
= 641.8 Btu / lb mole
.85
Wcomp
0.9
Note that the compressor inefficiencies are counted in the exit gas
enthalpy, the motor loss is not.
Enthalpy of gas leaving compressor (Stream 14)
Enthalpy in + compressor work = 11311 + 641.8 = 11,953 Btu/lb mole
For a pressure of 72.4 psia this enthalpy corresponds to a temperature
of 51F.
Total work electrical energy
309,946 Btu
qc
2,957,200
=
=
W
309,946
qc
qc
9.54
/
=
x 100 = 67.3%
W
Wideal
14.18
Extra losses, over compressor & motor inefficiencies
9.54/10.85 = 87.9%, 100 - 87.9 = 12.1%
The load across the condenser-reboiler, is
qc = flow (enthalpy out-enthalpy in)
= 434.63 (4507-11,953) = -3,236,255 Btu
qh = -qc =
3,236,255 Btu
4 - 59
At this point we should note that qh for the total reboiling = 3,432,060
Btu, qh = 3,236,255 Btu so that we have to add energy in the small auxiliary
reboiler. The difference will be made up in the small reboiler as is
expected, flow (13,15)
(enthaply out-enthaply in) =
26.24 (11757-4296) =
309,946
= 3,099 Btu/lb mole feed split for electric power.
100
4-D-15. Work Problem Propane-Propylene Splitter with Bottoms
Vapor Compression. In our example of the propane-propylene splitter we worked
on the case of compression of the overhead bottom. Work the same column using
the same assumptions but with bottoms vapor compression. Note that a
desuperheater is added in the vapor return. This is used merely for
mathematical purposes, in a real column the superheated vapors would be
returned directly to the column. The starting point is shown by figure 4-15
and Table 4-3.
To save time, the obvious relationships and enthalpies have been
included on Figure 4-16 and Table 4-4. These values are the simple result of
stream equalities, and the enthalpies which are read from the chart.
The problem will be to find the work required for this case, and compare
overall results with that of the overhead recompression example. The solution is
found in Appendix 7-D.
Data needed k = 1.22, Z = 0.96
Figures 4-17, 4-18, 4-19 and 4-20.
4 - 60
4 - 62
and save energy. Operation of columns at the lowest pressure without flooding
the column or overloading the condenser, had been practiced by Mr. Lupfer on
hundreds of columns. Shinskey (Appendix 7-C), Skrokov (Appendix 7-C), and
Fauth and Shinskey (Appendix 7-C) have also discussed the benefits of
operating the columns pressure as low as feasible. In the Fauth article, the
floating pressure control was part of an advanced control system for a
typical gas plant depropanizer. Of the total cost reduction of $1269 per day
by using the control system, $345 was attributed to energy savings by the
floating pressure control systems.
The floating control systems operation is discussed in the Shinskey and
Fauth article. Although the cost of the instrumentation for floating the
pressure is low, column temperatures can no longer be used for control
because they will vary with pressure. Thus, other control devices such as
analyzers, or pressure compensated temperature measurements are required.
Shinskey made the following comment in his article on Control Systems Can
Save Energy:
At first, operators are skeptical of floating-pressure control they
feel more comfortable with constant pressures and temperatures. When its contribution to energy savings is pointed out, they are generally willing to try
it. After a brief trial period, they learn that it does not interfere with
quality control, and even increases production capacity; soon it becomes
accepted. Yet at each installation and with each new application, the concept
of floating specifications needs to be sold again.
Benefits as high as a 30% reduction in energy usage are reported by
Shinskey, so the floating pressure control system deserves serious
consideration.
4 - 63
TABLE 4-1
PROCESS DATA FOR COLUMN IN FIGURE 4-13
Stream Number
Vapor, lb moles
460
460
60
Liquid, lb moles
100
500
400
40
Pressure, psig
43
40
45
40
45
40
45
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.2
0.5
0.5
0.5
Temperature, deg F
4 - 65
FIGURE 4-2
PROCESS RESULTS FOR COLUMN IN FIGURE 4-14
Stream Number
Vapor, lb moles
460
460
60
Liquid, lb moles
100
500
400
40
434.63
Temperature, deg F
-9
2.8
-9
2.8
-9
2.8
22.8
Pressure, psig
43
40
45
40
45
40
45
72.4
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.2
0.5
0.5
0.5
97
268.2
97.1
93.1
270.5
268.8
97.1
107.1
101
102.2
276.1
102.2
4082
11,311
4086
3918
11,383
11,311
4086
4507
4454
4507
12,132
4507
4156
11,311
4296
3918
11,757
11,311
4296
4507
Stream Number
10
11
12
13
14
15
Vapor, lb moles
34.63
433.76
434.63
434.63
26.24
Liquid, lb moles
433.76
26.24
Temperature, deg F
2.8
-9
2.8
-9
2.8
51
2.8
Pressure, psig
45
40
45
40
45
72.4
45
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
97.1
268.8
270.6
258.8
97.1
284
270.5
102.2
275.1
102.2
270.5
4086
11,311
11,383
11,311
4086
11,953
11,757
4507
12,132
4507
4296
11,311
11,757
11,311
4295
11,953
11,757
4 - 66
TABLE 4-3
PROCESS DATA FOR COLUMN IN FIGURE 4-15
Stream Number
Vapor, lb moles
460
460
60
Liquid, lb moles
100
500
400
40
Temperature, deg F
-9
2.8
-9
2.8
-9
2.8
Pressure, psig
43
40
45
40
45
40
45
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.2
0.5
0.5
0.5
4 - 67
TABLE 4-4
PROCESS DATA FOR SPLITTER IN FIGURE 4-15
Stream Number
Vapor, lb moles
460
460
60
400
Liquid, lb moles
100
500
400
40
Temperature, deg F
-9
2.8
-9
2.8
-9
2.8
-9
Pressure, psig
43
40
45
40
45
40
45
40
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.2
0.5
0.5
0.5
97
268.8
97.1
93.1
270.5
268.8
97.1
268.8
101
102.2
275.1
102.2
4082
11,311
4086
3918
11,383
11,311
4086
11,311
4454
4507
12,132
4507
4156
11,311
4295
3918
11,757
11,311
4296
11,311
Stream Number
10
11
12
13
14
Vapor, lb moles
Liquid, lb moles
Temperature, deg F
2.8
Pressure, psig
45
0.5
0.5
0
2.8
2.8
2.8
45
45
45
45
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
97.1
97.1
97.1
270.5
102.2
102.2
102.2
275.1
4086
4086
4086
11,383
4507
4507
4507
12,132
4296
4296
4296
11,757
4 - 68
TABLE 4-5
NOMENCLATURE OF SYMBOLS USED IN SECTION 4
NOMENCLATURE FOR SECTION 4-B
k
- Reflux rate
Rm
(xDLK )(xBHK )
(xBLK )(xDHK )
Subscripts
D
- Distillate
- Bottoms
Sub-subscripts
LK
- Light key
HK
- Heavy key
BV
cp
cv
4 - 69
DL
cp
cv
PBL
PC
Ph
POV
qc
qc
qh
- The heat flow to or from a hot source, or the heat duty of the
reboiler in a distillation column.
qh
4 - 70
PV
Tc
Th
TOV
WIDEAL
- Compressibility factor.
4 - 71
FIGURE 4-1
HEAT AVAILABILITY AND REQUIREMENTS FOR CRUDE TOWER
Temperature, F
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
100
200
300
400
500
Enthalpy X Mass Rate, M Btu/hr
GO Product
Residuum
Crude
4 - 72
Overhead
Reflux
600
700
FIGURE 4-2
HEAT CASCADING DISTILLATION TRAIN
4 73
FIGURE 4-3
SPLIT TOWER ARRANGEMENT
4 - 74
FIGURE 4-4
McCABE-THIELE DIAGRAM FOR SYSTEM WITH INTERMEDIATE CONDENSER AND REBOILER
4 - 75
FIGURE 4-5
CIRCULATING REFLUX OR PUMPAROUND TOWER
4 - 76
FIGURE 4-6
EXAMPLE OF CONVENTIONAL
DISTILLATION COLUMN,
NO SIDE DRAW
4 - 77
FIGURE 4-7
VAPOR RECOMPRESSION
4 78
FIGURE 4-8
EXAMPLE OF HEAT PUMP
SYSTEM
4 79
FIGURE 4-9
THE REFRIGERATION AND CARNOT CYCLES
4 80
FIGURE 4-10
COLUMN USING VAPOR RECOMPRESSION
4 81
FIGURE 4-11
HOT COLUMNS WITH VAPOR RECOMPRESSION
CASE IA, EXCESS CONDENSER DUTY, HEAT IS EXPENSIVE, COOLING IS CHEAP
4 82
FIGURE 4-12
REFRIGERATED COLUMNS WITH VAPOR RECOMPRESSION
CASE IIA EXCESS CONDENSER DUTY, COOLING IS EXPENSIVE, HEAT IS CHEAP
4 83
FIGURE 4-13
PROPANE PROPYLENE SPLITTER
4 84
FIGURE 4-14
RESULTS OF EXAMPLE OF PROPANE PROPYLENE SPLITTER
4 85
FIGURE 4-15
SPLITTER WITH BOTTOMS VAPOR COMPRESSION
4 86
FIGURE 4-16
SPLITTER OF FIGURE 4-15 WITH DATA
4 87
FIGURE 4 - 17
VAPOR PRESSURE OF OLEFIN HYDROCARBONS
4 88
FIGURE 4-18
VAPOR PRESSURE OF NORMAL PARAFIN HYDROCARBONS
4 89
FIGURE 4-19
ENTHALPY TEMPERATURE DIAGRAM FOR PROPYLENE
Enthalpy - btu/lb
350
300
250
Saturated vapor
200
150
Saturated liquid
100
50
0
-100
-50
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Temperature - deg F
Pressures - psia
Sat
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
4 90
700
800
900
1000
1500
2000
3000
4000
400
FIGURE 4-20
ENTHALPY TEMPERATURE DIAGRAM FOR PROPANE
Enthalpy - btu/lb
450
400
350
Saturated vapor
300
250
200
Saturated liquid
150
100
50
0
-100
100
200
300
400
Temperature - deg F
Pressures - psia
Sat
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
4 91
700
800
900
1000
1500
2000
3000
5000
500
FIGURE 4-21
CONTROL OF COLUMN REFLUX TO MAXIMIZE PROFIT AND ENERGY CONSUMPTION
4 - 92
SECTION 5
ECONOMICS
5 - 1
5 - 2
and profits to decrease just to save energy? Thus, management should have
economic guidelines to evaluate energy savings proposals.
5-A-2. Net Back.
The definition of net back depends upon your companys accounting
procedures. It may be defined as the total price of products sold to your
customers less all the transportation costs to deliver the product from the
plant to the customers. Another definition is: Instead of subtracting out all
the transportation costs, use the part of the transportation costs that your
company pays that exceeds the cost of transportation from the nearest
competitor to the customer. Net back is also considered as the total price of
products sold to your customers less all selling and transportation costs. At
the plant site, the operating people have no control over transportation and
selling costs, so for your plant's economic decisions, the last definition
seems best.
5-A-3. Depreciation.
Depreciation is the reduction in value of physical assets (i.e. plant
equipment due to physical deterioration, technological advances, economic
changes, etc.) that leads to retirement of the physical asset. For tax
purposes, depreciation is different from true physical deterioration in
determining if the additional equipment can be purchased and installed for
energy savings and be attractive to management. Let us assume you estimate
the company must buy $100,000 in plant installed equipment for your energy
saving idea. The company must use its money to make the installation. It has
converted capital as money to capital as equipment. When this equipment is
operated, it deteriorates from use. Your personal car does the
5 - 3
same thing. When you try to resell it or trade the car in, its value has been
reduced. Additional money must be supplied to buy a newer equivalent car. The
money deposited in a savings bank stays the same, but the money represented
by investments in equipment (car) disappears as the equipment is used and
ages.
In the business world, a company recovers this loss in capital money by
pricing its product to compensate for this disappearance. If the bank
returned only half of your money deposited in their bank, but did give you 5%
interest per year on your deposit, your decision would be to not deposit it
there. For example, if $10.000 was deposited at 5% in a bank for four years,
you receive $500 each year in interest or 4 x 500 = 2000, but you are
returned only $5000 of your $10,000 deposit. You now have $7,000 or a $3,000
loss. Would a company be in business long if it were unable to charge enough
for its product to maintain its capital (money or equipment) assets? For tax
purposes, the Internal Revenue Service recognizes depreciation as a cost. The
IRS has set guidelines on the life of the capital equipment. Various
accounting methods distribute cost over the official life. Note that under
the current inflationary, economic conditions, the replacement cost of
equipment is much higher than the depreciation recovered.
If the Internal Revenue makes a company depreciate a specific piece of
equipment over a ten year period, but the equipment is still installed and in
service after the ten years, what penalty does the company pay? There is no
penalty because the accounting sheets will no longer show the equipment, but
the company can continue to use it.
5 - 4
5 - 5
5 - 6
into account the time value of money. For example, if a company had the
following two processes with a life of two years to consider:
Investment
Process 1
Process 2
$1,000,000
$1,000,000
Cash
1st year
900,000
lO0,O00
Generated
2nd year
200,000
1,000,000
TOTAL
$1,100,000
$1,100,000
Which one would you select? Wouldn't you want the cash returned as early as
possible? The cash of $900,000 in Process 1 could be reinvested in a new
process during the second year, while Process 2 is finally generating the
cash to invest in the third year. Thus, money has a time value. When the
economic life is longer (say 9 years), the decision may not be apparent and
thus a mathematical computation is made based upon the amount of the
investment that is not returned at the end of each year during its estimated
economic life. Your accounting or engineering department should be able to
perform these calculations. Management will probably require a detailed
evaluation which is placed on a standard form for review and approval.
5-A-9. Return on Investment (R.O.I.)
This is the ratio of the yearly profits averaged over the life of the
investment to the original investment. The original investment includes
working capital. In the example under Discounted Cash Flow let us assume
each process made $50,000/1,000,000 x 100 = 5% each year. Over the life of
the processes, they generated $100,000 in profit and recovered the $1,000,000
in the investment before the processes became technically obsolete and were
torn down.
5 - 7
5 - 8
5 - 9
Let us assume the process unit has a rated design capacity of 10,000,000 lbs
per year. Fixed costs are $500,000 per year, variable costs .10 per ton and selling
price of $.225 per lb. Figure 5-1 is a graph of the economics of this process
showing the revenues and the costs to produce the product. Figure 5-2 shows the
effect of production rate on profits for this ideal process.
Referring to Figure 5-1, the fixed costs (FC) are shown as a horizontal line
since fixed costs do not vary with production. Variable costs are dependent upon
production and the curve is a straight line increasing with production at the rate
of $.10 per lb. The total cost curve is the sum of TC and VC. It is still a
straight line, but displaced from zero by $500,000. Since the revenues are $.225
per lb, the revenue curve is straight and rises at the rate of $.225 per lb
produced (sold).
Although profits and losses are shown shaded in Figure 5-1, Figure 5-2 gives
a better picture. The break even point is the production point where there is no
profit or losses. What is this production tonnage in Figures 5-1 and 5-2?
In the real world, the TR curve is not a straight line. Revenues from the
customers may vary with location from the plant or sales can increase if the
selling price decreases.
Fixed costs in the real world may vary with production. For example, at
production, the unit may operate five out of seven days so labor is reduced and
maintenance costs decrease. At high production rates, additional labor may be
added. Greater costs are incurred during a scheduled maintenance shutdown in
returning the process back in to operation faster.
5 - 10
Variable costs may not be the same per lb of product because raw material
costs may increase if yield (lbs of product per lbs of raw material) decreases as
production exceeds design conditions. Figure 5-3 shows an example of a real world
process unit.
5-D. STEAM ECONOMICS
Steam may be produced from boilers within a plant or obtained from a process
that produces steam with the heat generated during the reaction steps. The value of
the steam depends upon the fixed and variable costs to produce and deliver. In the
special case of all steam generated from a process, fuel is not required. In this
case, the equivalent investment to save fuel for steam generated from a process has
little meaning. This steam should be used as efficiently as possible and should be
used before steam from regular boilers is used.
If the steam condensate from exchangers is not contaminated, it has energy
value due to its hot temperature and because it does not need boiler water feed
treatment (an energy consuming step). Thus, return of condensate has an energy
investment equivalence.
In section 4-D-5.1, the Carnot cycle was reviewed and compared with heat
pumps or vapor compression systems on distillation columns. A Carnot cycle
determines the maximum fraction of heat that can be converted to work. In the real
world, thermal and mechanical inefficiencies plus non ideal fluids prevent
attainment of the Carnot efficiency. Even so, the maximum utilization of energy can
occur when the energy is at its highest temperature level. Steam at 450 psig is
more valuable than 25 psig steam because more of the heat can be converted to work.
However, plant accounting systems may fail to recognize this.
5 - 11
In the AIChE Series on Process Energy Design for Energy Conservation, Mr. Dan
Steinmeyer proposed that the accounting use the following equation for determining
the value of energy:
VT = Cp
Where
(T TR )
(T TR )
EM + (1 EM
)VR
T
T
VT
Cp
TR
EM
VR
It is very doubtful accountants will accept this approach, but the engineerd
can use this concept. Benefits include the maximization of energy utilization, as
well as the economics aspects.
5-E. COOLING WATER
Energy is required for cooling when water cooling towers or air coolers are
used. Examples are the pumps to transport the water, the fans to pull air through
the cooling tower or air cooler, and blowdown treatment for cooling towers.
Cooling water may be a fixed, variable, or both fixed and variable cost from
the energy viewpoint. The fan on a cooling tower may run all the time, regardless
of production rate. Maybe the circulating pumps handle the same flow rate and head
regardless of production load. To make a variable energy usage, the cooling fan
could be made two speed and pumping varied with demand if the velocity in exchanger
tubes does not go below a velocity that causes abnormal fouling of the tubes.
5 - 13
plant
personnel
are
continually
requesting
additional
air.
Although
energy
usage for compressed air is small compared to the entire process, energy required
per cubic foot of air compressed is high. It is also a fixed energy item. It varies
little with production. Savings may be obtained by operating at a lower discharge
pressure, eliminating instruments that continually bleed off high volumes of air
for control purposes in a different design, eliminating the use of air to cool hot
bearings (a temporary solution that extends into days), etc.
5-G. VACUUM PUMPS AND STEAM EJECTORS
If your process includes steam ejectors, you should consider the option of
replacing the ejectors with mechanical vacuum pumps. According to the article,
Selecting a Vacuum Producer (see appendix 7-C), mechanical vacuum pumps are more
efficient energy users (8 to 10 times) than steam ejectors. In Figure 3 of the
article, steam ejectors have an economic advantage for a certain range of vacuum
and air loading, and vacuum pumps for the other ranges studied. If Figure 3 shows
your ejector vacuum and loading is in the section where the mechanical vacuum pump
is better economically, you should estimate the cost to replace your ejector and
the energy saved. If this is equal or less than the plant's investment equivalent
for energy, the recommendation should be given to management for action.
Energy usage for ejectors or vacuum pumps should be held at a minimum by (1)
maintaining vacuum unit in good condition (2) operating at the optimum vacuum and
(3) eliminating system air leaks.
5 - 14
5 - 15
economically attractive to make the investment because of the age of the plant and
remaining lifetime. Yet, in a new plant design, it would be justified. Most likely,
you will find that the energy usage in your existing unit will be higher than a new
unit even with your energy saving steps. The design engineer today can spend more
time to optimize and reduce energy usage of new process installations because the
relative cost of energy has increased to the point where it is profitable to do so.
In summary, this manual has attempted to describe how to make energy saving
investigations and presented you with the concepts of investment equivalence for
energy, fixed energy usage, variable energy usage, energy usage per unit of
production, and the relative value of Btus (electricity versus high pressure steam
versus low pressure steam). This knowledge should permit energy saving investments
to be made in your plant based upon sound economic principals.
5 - 16
FIGURE 5-1
REVENUE AND EXPENSE VARIATION WITH PRODUCTION
IDEAL CASE
FIGURE 5-2
VARIATION OF PROFIT WITH PRODUCTION
5 17
FIGURE 5-3
REVENUE AND EXPENSE VARIATION WITH PRODUCTION
REAL CASE
5 - 18
SECTION 6
BIBLIOGRAPHY, WITH ABSTRACTS
6 - 1
SECTION 7
APPENDICES
Lighting System
a.
b.
Some areas can use less lighting. Examples are parking and
storage areas. Are you using more lighting than required?
(2)
Operators may fail to turn off lighting only required for night
operation. A control system for turning on and off lights at
desired times will save energy.
(3)
(4)
c.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(2)
7 1
2.
b.
(2)
(3)
(4)
(8.0 6.2)
x 100
8.0
or 20% in electrical expense.
3.
(2)
(3)
(4)
Electrical Energy
a. Electric motors
(1)
7 - 2
b.
4.
(2)
(3)
Electrical System
(1)
(2)
Power Company charges are generally based upon peak demand loads.
If plant is not operating at full capacity due to slow sales,
maybe the production units can be staggered in operation to keep
the electrical demand uniformly low. This minimizes electric
company charges.
Utilities
a.
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
7 - 3
b.
c.
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
For air coolers, check fins for plugging. Check fan blades. Check
control system.
7 - 4
d.
(7)
(8)
Refrigeration Systems
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
7 - 5
APPENDIX 7-B
PROCESS ENERGY CHECKLIST
1.
General
a.
b.
c.
Are foremen and operators sufficiently skilled and trained to incorporate energy conservation techniques in their job duties?
2.
Column Operation
a.
b.
Can column operating pressure be allowed to float with ambient conditions with subsequent reduction in reflux and reboiler heat duty?
c.
When column is operated at production rates below the economic production rate, is reflux flow reduced to maintain same reflux ratio and
lower reboiler heat duty?
d.
3. Column Revisions
a.
7 - 6
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
4.
b.
5.
Steam
a.
b.
c.
d.
Have the steam distribution systems been checked for leaking fittings
and connections and repaired?
e.
f.
Have all steam traps been checked for leaks, proper installation and
size? Have necessary repairs been completed?
6. Heat Recovery
7 - 7
a.
b.
c.
Can excess heat from other process units within the plant be used in
this process unit?
d.
e.
7.
b.
Can control valves be resized for less rangeability, but still maintain
required system control? Benefits are reduced pressure drop and power
loss across the new, larger control valve.
c.
Are two pumps being operated in parallel when design was for one pump?
Change impellers or pumps to return to one pump operation.
8.
Production Expansion
a.
7 - 8
b.
9.
Miscellaneous
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Has efficiency of fired heaters been checked and compared with design?
Does convective section need replacement?
f.
7 - 9
SECTION 7
APPENDIX C REFERENCES - TECHNICAL ARTICLES
Carleson, Gil, Curves Help Choose Pumps For Parallel Operation, Plant
Engineering, July 24, 1969, pp. 60-62. (Reprint attached)
Geyer, G. R., Distillation Modifications Conserve Energy, Oil and Gas Journal,
May 22, 1978, pp. 95-98. (Reprint attached)
Gunther, Arnold, New Distillation Approach, Chemical Engineering, Sept. 16, 1974,
pp. 140-144.
7 - 10
Goyette, Jack, Estimating the Costs of Steam Leaks, Chemical Engineering, January
16, 1978, pp. 166.
Hitz, R. L., Energy Loss Characteristics of Drip and Tracer Steam Traps,
Armstrong Machine Works.
Hitz, Richard, Engineering Economics Drip and Tracer Steam Trappings, Armstrong
Machine Works, 9-2-76.
Huang, F. & R. Elshout, Optimizing the Heat Recovery of Crude Units, Chemical
Engineering Progress, July 1976, pp. 68-74.
Huff, George A., Selecting a Vacuum Producer, Chemical Engineering, March 15,
1976, pp. 83-86.
7 - 11
Shinskey, F. G., Control Systems Can Save Energy, CEP, May 1978, pp. 43-46.
7 - 12
Woodard, A. M., Reduce Process Heater Fuel, Hydrocarbon Processing, July 1974,
pp. 106-108. (Reprint attached)
7 13
[The following reprints were attached to the original version at this point. These
are not included as they are copyrighted material. They can be obtained from
many libraries or the publishers.]
Armstrong Machine Works, Engineering Economics, Drip and Tracer Steam Trapping
SECTION 7
APPENDIX D
Work Problem Solution to 4-F-15
so
-2,957,200 Btu
P2 k k 1
1
( )
P1
WI =
k
P1V1
k 1
V1 =
ZRT1
, T1 = 431R, P1 = 23.6, z = 0.96
P1
1
1
(23.6 x 144)(188)
0.18033
788
( 45 )0.18033 1
23.6
Wcomp =
562.1
= 661.3 Btu / lb mole
.85
7 14
Welectric =
661.3
= 734.8 Btu / lb mole
.9
304,746 Btu
200,775 Btu
7 15
TABLE 7-1
RESULTS FOR SPLITTER IN FIGURE 7-1
Stream Number
Vapor, lb moles
460
460
60
400
Liquid, lb moles
100
500
400
40
Temperature, deg F
-9
2.8
-9
2.8
-9
2.8
-9
Pressure, psig
43
40
45
40
45
40
45
40
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.2
0.5
0.5
0.5
97
268.8
97.1
93.1
270.5
268.8
97.1
268.8
101
102.2
275.1
102.2
4082
11,311
4086
3918
11,383
11,311
4086
11,311
4454
4507
12,132
4507
4156
11,311
4295
3918
11,757
11,311
4296
11,311
Stream Number
10
11
12
13
14
Vapor, lb moles
414.75
414.75
26.91
Liquid, lb moles
414.75
18.34
26.91
Temperature, deg F
2.8
-29
23
2.8
2.8
2.8
Pressure, psig
45
23.6
45
45
45
45
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
97.1
2643
278
97.1
97.1
270.5
102.2
266
283
102.2
102.2
275.1
4086
11,122
11,700
4086
4086
11,383
4507
11,731
12,474
4507
4507
12,132
4296
11,426
12,087
4296
4296
11,757
7 16
FIGURE 71
WORK PROBLEM
7 17
[The following reprints were attached to the original version at this point. These
are not included as they are copyrighted material. They can be obtained from many
libraries or the publishers.]
Carlson, G. Curves help choose pumps for parallel operation. Plant Engineering,
July 24, 1969: 60-62.
Distillation modifications conserve energy. Oil and Gas Journal, May 22, 1978: 9394.
Woodard, A. M. Reduce process heater fuel. Hydrocarbon Processing, July 1974: 106108.