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Article
Sarah A. Moore
University of Arizona, USA
Abstract
In this article, I critically review important concepts in new geographies of waste. I focus on both the
conceptual frameworks that are used to examine issues concerning waste and the political possibilities
produced by understanding waste differently. By plotting a range of concepts of waste along two axes
positive versus negative definitions of waste, and dualist versus relational concepts of waste and society I
contextualize scholarship on waste within the broader discussion about the rematerialization of geography
and social science. Understanding when, how, and why waste matters provides a fruitful lens for examining
contemporary sociospatial processes.
Keywords
environment, garbage, materiality, nature society, waste
Corresponding author:
University of Arizona, Harvill Box 2, Tucson, AZ 85721,
USA
Email: samoore@email.arizona.edu
I Introduction
garbage has to be the poem of our time because
garbage is spiritual, believable enough
to get our attention, getting in the way, piling
up, stinking, turning brooks brownish and
creamy white: what else deflects us from the
errors of our illusionary ways, not a temptation
to trashlessness, that is too far off and,
anyway, unimaginable, unrealistic . . .
(Ammons, 1993)
After all, what is more material than garbage?
(Myers, 2005: x)
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II Plotting conceptualizations of
waste
In order to discuss how waste is conceptualized,
I plot emerging literature on waste along two
axes (Figure 1). The first axis (positivity-negativity1) refers to the degree to which a given
approach to waste argues for a specific nature
or character of waste that is important. Is there
an essential quality of waste itself (a positivity)
that matters to how it is valued or devalued and
in constraining or opening up its political potential? On the one side positivity waste is
imbued with meaning that may or may not be
pregiven, but is located largely within the object
itself. In these conceptualizations, waste is often
assumed to be a hazard (to environmental and
public health) or a remainder of prior social,
political, and economic processes. Concepts
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Moore
II
DUALIST
Hazard
Manageable Object
Commodity
Resource
Out of Place
Disorder
Archive
POSITIVE
NEGATIVE
Governable Object
Fetish
Filth
Abject
Risk
Vital Actant
RELATIONAL
III
IV
Figure 1. This is a schematic that highlights emerging literature on waste along two axes. The first axis (positivity-negativity) refers to the degree to which a given approach to waste argues for a specific nature or character of waste that is important. On the left side of the axis are concepts that imbue waste with a specific,
unique quality. On the right are concepts that do not define waste as having a specific meaning, but rather
as something that defies easy categorization. The second axis (dualist-relational) describes the degree to
which waste is defined as something that is separate from society. Concepts that fall above the axis tend
to portray waste and somewhat distinct entities that come into contact with one another through sociospatial processes. Concepts that fall below the axis view waste and society as mutually constitutive.
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III Conceptualizations in
quadrant I
In quadrant I (Positivity/Dualist) is work that,
on the whole, identifies waste as having a specific
characteristic that defines it and as something
that is largely external to society. The preponderance of research on waste in geography has
existed in quadrant 1 where waste is alternatively
viewed as hazard, commodity, resource,
object of management, or archive.
1 Waste as hazard
Geographers and others have long been interested in remedying the unjust distribution of
environmental and public health hazards
throughout society by addressing the uneven
disposal of hazardous and/or toxic materials,
including human and animal waste, in lowincome or minority neighborhoods (Bowen
et al., 1995; Bullard, 1993; Jewitt, 2011) and the
historical sociospatial processes that produce
marginalized populations and that create and
unevenly distribute environmental risks (cf.
Heiman, 1996; Pulido, 2000; Pulido et al.,
1996). While varied in approach and analysis,
such research has in common a definition of
waste as hazard as a point of departure (e.g.
Bjelland, 2006; Bourne, 2008; Buckingham
et al., 2005; Cutter and Solecki, 1996; Higgs
and Langford, 2009; Holifield, 2001;
Ishiyama, 2003; Kurtz, 2005, 2007; Maantay,
2006; Petts, 2005; Watson and Bulkeley,
2005; Wolsink and Devilee, 2009).
The concept of waste as hazard positions
waste as a lens for studying the uneven interand intranational distributions of waste disposal
facilities and social movements, gender and
racial politics, discourses of distributional
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Moore
2 Waste as resource
Reframing waste as a resource addresses part of
what is missed by thinking solely of waste as
hazard. Waste as resource provides a view into
such phenomena as: the impacts of formal recycling on the efficiency and sustainability of
municipal solid waste management (Chowdhury, 2009; Tsai, 2008); the behavioral determinants of participation in recycling (Ackerman,
1997; Barr, 2004, 2006; Barr and Gilg, 2006;
Ewing, 2001); informal recycling, scavenging,
and waste-picking and the recovery of materials
as a survival or livelihood strategy (Fahmi and
Sutton, 2006; Hayami et al., 2006; Huysman,
1994; Jarman, 1997; Moreno-Sanchez and Maldonado, 2006; Rouse, 2006); cooperative or
other organizational formations among scavengers (Castillo Berthier, 1990, 2003; DallAgnol and Fernandes, 2007; Nzeadibe, 2009);
the integration of informal recycling systems
with formal waste management (Gutberlet,
2008; Ngo, 2001; Sicular, 1992); and the uses
of animal and/or human waste as a fertilizer
(Harris, 1998; Janssen and Oenema, 2008;
Matless, 2001). These disparate literatures
have in common an emphasis on the myriad
ways that disposed items can be recovered by
re-entering formal cycles of economic production or reused in informal systems.
In Recovering Resources Recycling Citizenship: Urban Poverty Reduction in Latin
America, for example, Jutta Gutberlet (2008)
demonstrates the necessity of reconceptualizing
waste as a resource and the implications of such
a reconceptualization for understanding urban
development in poor metropolitan areas of Brazil. While waste scavengers make significant
contributions to the economies of such areas,
the informal settlements in which many of the
scavengers live are affected by the negative
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Moore
5 Waste as archive
In contrast to the above, waste as archive is a
source of knowledge about contemporary geographies of production, consumption, and waste
management practices. To garbologists, like
Rathje and Murphy (2001: 4), landfills are
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IV Concepts in quadrant II
While the preponderance of work on waste in
geography and other social sciences has
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Moore
V Quadrant 3
Concepts of waste that propose a more or less
essential character of waste that is internally
related to society are located in quadrant 3. This
includes work that proposes waste as filthy, disgusting material whose affective qualities make
it imperative that it be removed from sight/smell.
For many authors, this need to get rid of waste is
generative of social practice and space.
1 Waste as filth
As Hawkins and Muecke argue, waste can
touch the most visceral registers of the self it
can trigger responses and affects that remind
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10
2 Waste as risk
3 Waste as fetish
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Moore
11
VI Quadrant IV
In this final quadrant is work that pays less
attention to a specific quality inherent to waste
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12
2 Waste as actant
In contrast to the above, researchers who focus
on waste as an actant largely reject a governmentality framework as too focused on epistemological concerns and ignorant of the
ontological status of the thing itself. In their
review article on waste and policy, Gregson and
Crang (2010) argue that waste can be viewed as a
hybrid in the Latourian sense. It operates its
influence through networking with human and
non-human others. Focusing on industrial
wastes, they argue that waste is a vital inorganic
actant in a thoroughly networked world. This
approach accounts for the material properties of
waste while eschewing, at least in part, the ontological stability of non-human others.
Gregson and Crang follow Bennett (2004:
349), who uses the term thing-power materialism to propose a speculative onto-story of
how the non-human flows around and through
humans. As part of an assemblage, waste in this
account becomes thoroughly constitutive of the
socionatural order including such important
geographic phenomena as scale (Bickerstaff
and Agyeman, 2009). As part of an immanent
plane of becomings, waste actively constructs
networks of agencement, shaping the material
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Moore
13
3 Waste as abject
The third concept in quadrant 4, waste as
abject, is also concerned with the boundaries,
both created and exceeded by waste. Waste
here is thoroughly constitutive of subjects
who must expel it in order to survive. Waste
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14
I view the concepts discussed as largely complementary in their attention to the kinds of politics
historically enabled by keeping waste out of site,
enforcing order, and the implementation of sanitation and hygienization policies globally. Further, because work on waste in geography and
social science, based on all of these concepts, is
growing, I think it is less useful to identify a best
or preferred trajectory than to highlight the work
that each concept can do.
Synthesis or reduction of these concepts is
less productive than revelling in the parallax
gap between concepts of waste where opportunities to disturb the smooth running of things
abound. Revelling in this gap calls for continued
intra- and interdisciplinary engagement that
takes as its starting point not a specific concept
or definition of waste, but rather the way that
this parallax object escapes and exceeds any one
perspective. While such efforts are sometimes
hindered by (sub)disciplinary concerns and
training, as well as institutional interests, taking
seriously how waste constitutes researchers
desires for less exclusionary (and polluting)
sociospatial orders despite methodological,
epistemological, and even ontological divides
is a crucial starting point for collaboration.
Garbage is, then, not only the poem of our time,
but also an exemplary object through which to
forge cooperative research, because, after all,
what else deflects us from the errors of our illusionary ways, not a temptation to trashlessness,
that is too far off and, anyway, unimaginable,
unrealistic (Ammons, 1993).
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any
funding agency in the public, commercial, or notfor-profit sectors.
Notes
1. This should not be considered a normative distinction
between waste as good and waste as bad. Rather, it is a
distinction between concepts that rely on specific (inherent) characteristics in waste versus those that do not.
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15
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