CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
1.1.

Background
Starch is a carbohydrate (polysaccharide) which produced by green plants

through photosynthesis, and stored in tubers, seeds, stems, or fruits. Plants which
generally have a high starch content are cereals and tubers. However, many fruits
also have a fairly high starch content, one of them is banana.
The usage of starch is very knowledgeable both in people's daily life and in
the food processing industry. Natural starch (native starch) is causing some
problems related to the retrogradation, low stability and low durability paste. It
became the reason for the modification starch (Waliszewski et al., 2002).
Modified starch has been developed for a very long time and its application in the
food industry which is really significant today.
According to Zulaidah (2012), modified starch is starch which the hydroxyl
groups have been modified through a chemical reaction or by disrupting its
original structure. Certain starch treated with the aim of producing better
properties to improve the properties of the previous or to change some properties
of the previous or other properties.
Banana (Musa paradisiaca), the largest herbaceous plant in the world,
grown abundantly in many developing countries is considered to be one of the
most important sources of energy for people living in the humid regions of many
countries (Waliszewski, dkk., 2002). Banana has excellent nutritional content and
gives a quite high energy compared to other fruits. Bananas are rich in minerals
such potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, iron, and calcium (Munadjim, 1983).
The content of inulin (approximately 3%) found in bananas is also beneficial as a
natural prebiotic (Nuraida, 2011).
Bananas also have fairly high starch content is about 61-73% for this type of
banana: kepok, siam, uli and tanduk. High starch content in bananas is potential to
be modified and produce a modified starch which has prebiotic properties. Banana
modified starch called Resistant Starch (RS). The problems that arise are not
many people who know what RS is, especially with its benefits.

1.2.

Problem Identification
The problems that can be identified from this paper are:

1. How to modify the banana starch?

2. What are the types, characteristics and benefits of banana modified banana
starch, and its application in the food industry?
3. What are the benefits of modified banana starch for human health?
4. How to increase the amount of resistant starch type 3 (RS3)?
1.3.

Objectives
The purposes of writing this paper are:
1. Provide information about how to modify the banana starch.
2. Knowing the types, characteristics and benefits of modified banana starch,
and its application in the food industry.
3. Knowing the benefits of modified banana starch for human health.
4. Knowing how to increase the amount of resistant starch type 3 (RS3).

1.4.

Goals
The goals of writing this paper are to inform the readers about the

advantages of modified starch and resistant starch in food industries and for
human health compared with the native starch, in order that the readers can use
those starches in making products.
1.5.

Method of Writing
Method of writing is conducted with the literature review method. Literature

review method is directed to search through the data and documents, such as
written documents, images, and electronic documents which can support the
writing process.

CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Banana
Banana (Musa paradisiaca) is one of Indonesian horticultural products
which have high economic value because of its availability is not depending on
the season and the the price is affordable. The advantages of banana is as a source
of carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals are also supported by the harvested area
and the amount of production which always occupies the first position. Banana
productivity in Indonesia is fluctuating and rising, where in 2007 the level of
banana production is 5,454,226 tons, then in 2008 increased to 6,004,615 tons
(Munadjim, 1983).
Bananas have excellent nutritional content and provide high energy
compared to other fruits. Bananas are rich in minerals such potassium,
magnesium, phosphorus, iron, and calcium. The content of inulin (approximately
3%) found in bananas also act as a natural prebiotic. Besides inulin, bananas also
have a fairly high starch content is about 61-73% for kapok, siam, uli and tanduk
banana. High starch content in bananas is potential to be modified becomes RS
which also have prebiotic properties. Prebiotic effect is not just limited to the RS
which are naturally present in plant (RS1 and RS2), but also owned by the
physically and chemically modified starches (RS3 and RS4) (Munajdim, 1983).
Banana plants flowering at the age of 9-12 months after planting. Cutting
bunches conducted at the age of 80-110 days after flowering and usually at the age
of 110 days when the bananas color begins turn to yellow. Sizes, colors and
flavors of banana fruit varies depending on the variety. Moreover, growth of
banana plants affected by soil conditions, climate and way of maintenance. Based
on how it is used, bananas are classified into two categories, banana and plantain.
Banana is group of bananas are eaten in fresh form (ripe fruit), for example
ambon, raja sereh, raja bulu, susu, seribu, and others. Plantain is a group of
bananas are eaten after being processed first, for example uli, kepok, siam, kapas,
rotan, tanduk, and others (Munadjim, 1983).

2.2. Resistant Starch

RS includes the portion of starch that can resist digestion by human
pancreatic amylase in the small intestine and thus, reach the colon. The general
behaviour of RS is physiologically similar to that of soluble, fermentable fibre.
like guar gum. The most common results include increased fecal bulk and lower
colonic pH and improvements in glycemic control, bowel health, and
cardiovascular disease risk factors, so it has shown to behave more like
compounds traditionally referred to as dietary fibre (Fuentes-Zaragoza, et al.,
2011).
RS is the fraction of starch which is not hydrolyzed to D-glucose in the
small intestine within 120 min of being consumed, but which is fermented in the
colon. Many studies have shown that RS is a linear molecule of a-1,4-D-glucan,
essentially derived from the retrograded AM fraction, and has a relatively low
MW (1.2 _ 105 Da). RS is an extremely broad and diverse range of materials and
a number of different types exist. At present, these are mostly defined according to
physical and chemical characteristics (Sharma, et al., 2008 ; Haralampu, 2000).
A number of factors may cause starch to be resistant to digestion, including
the size of the starch-containing fragments (such as coarsely ground grains), the
structure and conformation of intact starch granules, and the formation of
retrograded crystallites as a result of processing and chemical modification. RS is
found in many common foods, including grains, cereals, vegetables (especially
potatoes), legumes, seeds, and some nuts (Goldring, 2004).
According to Fuentes-Zaragoza, et al. (2011), RS has been classified into
five general subtypes named RS1RS5, which are described below:
1. Type 1 (RS1) includes physically inaccessible starch that is locked
within cell walls and food matrixes, thus preventing amylolysis.
Milling and chewing can make these starches more accessible and
less resistant. RS1 is heat stable in most normal cooking operations,
which enables its use as an ingredient in a wide variety of
conventional foods.
2. Type 2 (RS2) is composed of native starch granules from certain
plants containing uncooked starch or starch that was gelatinized

poorly and hydrolyzed slowly by R-amylases (e.g., high-AM corn

starches). RS2 describes native starch granules that are protected
from digestion by the conformation or structure of the starch
granule. This compact structure limits the accessibility of digestive
enzymes (has low bioaccesibility), various amylases, and accounts
for the resistant nature of RS2 such as, ungelatinized starch. In the
diet, raw starch is consumed in foods like banana. A particular type
of RS2 is unique as it retains its structure and resistance even during
the processing and preparation of many foods. This RS2 called highAM maize starch.
3. Type 3 (RS3) refers to retrograded or crystalline non-granular starch
formed after cooking, like the starch found in cooked and cooled
potatoes, bread crusts, cornflakes, and retrograded high AM maize
starch. RS3 refers to non-granular starch-derived materials that resist
digestion. RS3 is of particular interest, because of its thermal
stability. This allows it to be stable in most normal cooking
operations, and enables its use as an ingredient in a wide variety of
conventional foods (Haralampu, 2000). During food processing, in
most cases in which heat and moisture are involved, RS1 and RS2
can be destroyed, but RS3 can be formed.
Storey et al. (2007) classified a soluble polysaccharide called
retrograded resistant maltodextrins as type 3 RS. They are derived
from starch that is processed to purposefully rearrange or hydrolyze
starch molecules, and subsequent retrogradation, to render them
soluble and resistant to digestion. This process results in the
formation of indigestible crystallites that have a molecular similarity
to type 3 RS but with a smaller degree of polymerization as well as a
lower MW, converting a portion of the normal alpha- 1,4-glucose
linkages to random 1,2-, 1,3-, and 1,4-alpha or beta linkages.
4. Type 4 (RS4) includes chemically modified or re-polymerized
starches (e.g., chain linkage altered dextrins, ethers, or esters) used
by food manufacturers to alter the functional characteristics of the

starch, and include starches which have been etherized, esterified, or

cross-bonded with chemicals in such a manner as to decrease their
digestibility. RS4 can be produced by chemical modifications, such
as conversion, substitution, or cross-linking, which can prevent its
digestion by blocking enzyme access and forming atypical linkages.
5. Type 5 (RS5) is an AM-lipid complexes starch, which is formed
from high AM starches that require higher temperatures for
gelatinization and are more susceptible to retrograde. In general, the
structure and amount of starch-lipid in foods depend on their
botanical sources. Also, Frohberg and Quanz defined as RS5 a
polysaccharide that consists of water-insoluble linear polyalpha-1,4glucan that is not susceptible to degradation by alpha-amylases.
They also found that the poly-alpha-1,4-D-glucans promote the
formation of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), particularly butyrate, in
the colon and are thus suitable for use as nutritional supplements for
the prevention of colorectal diseases.
From all types of RS, RS3 is the most interesting because this RS type can
retain the organoleptic characteristics of the food when the RS3 added to food.
The content of RS3 in food could be improved with some treatments, such as
autoclaving, treatment with enzymes, processing and fermentation. Heat treatment
using autoclaving method can increase the production of RS up to 9% (Sajilata, et
al., 2006). Different banana varieties have different levels of RS (Musita, 2009).
The yield of starch and resistant starch content of different varieties of bananas
can be seen in Figure 1.

Varieties
Figure 1. The yield of starch and resistant starch content of different varieties of
bananas (Musita, 2009).
2.3. Starch Modification
Starch has been widely used in food processing, both in use in the food
industry and the household scale industry. Starch which is used usually a of starch
without modification treatment (native starch). Although natural starch quite
flexible in its use, but has disadvantages that often inhibit its application in food
processing. Most natural starch produces starch suspension with a viscosity and
the ability to form gels that are not uniform (inconsistent). This is due to the
natural starch gelatinization profile is strongly influenced by climatic and
physiological condition of the plant so that the same type of starch do not
necessarily have the same functional properties (Zulaidah, 2012). According to
Widianingrum (2012), the main disadvantages are as follows: 1) Most of the
natural starch cannot stand the high temperature heating, 2) most of the natural
starch cannot stand under acidic conditions, 3) a natural starch cannot stand the
mechanical process (agitation), where the viscosity of starch will be decreased due
to stirring or pumping process, 4) a natural starch is limited in water solubility,
and 5) a natural starch gel prone to syneresis (separation of water from the gel
structure) due to starch retrogradation.
Natural starches are often modified to produce starch in accordance with the
conditions of processing. Starch modification is done to overcome the unfavorable
fundamental properties of natural starch so it can expand its use in food

processing and produces the desired characteristics of food products. Starch was
given particular treatment in order to have better properties to improve the
previous properties, especially the physicochemical and functional properties or to
change some other properties. Some of origin natural starch properties which can
be modified are gelatinization temperature, characteristics during gelatinization
process, warming, acidification and stirring durability, and retrogradation
tendency. Modification done at the molecular level with or without changing the
structure of the starch granules (Zulaidah, 2012)
2.4. Industrial Applications of Modified Starch
Starch plays an important role in the food processing industry and other
industries such the manufacture of paper, glue, textile, drilling mud, candy,
glucose, dextrose, fructose syrup, and others. In trading, there are two kinds of
starch, unmodified and modified starch. Starch which has not been modified or
regular starch is all kinds of starches which produced with basic processing plants
e.g. tapioca flour. According to Pudjihastuti (2010), a natural starch has several
problems when used as raw materials in the food and non-food industries. When
was cooked, starch takes a long time (needs high energy), also formed a hard
paste and less transparent. Besides, its too sticky and less resistant to acid
treatment. These constraints cause the natural starch is limited in its use in
industry. Though the source and starch production in our country is very
abundant, consisting of tapioca (cassava starch), sago starch, rice starch, tubers
starch, fruit starch (e.g. banana starch) and more sources of starch have not been
produced commercially.
On the other hand, industrial starch users want starch which have stable
viscosity both in high and low temperatures, have good resistance to mechanical
treatment, and the power coagulation resistant with acidic conditions and high
temperatures. Important properties desired of modified starch (which not owned
by natural starch) are: higher brightness (whiter starch), low retrogradation, lower
viscosity, gels formed more clear, gels texture formed more flabby, low tensile
strength, starch granule friable, higher gelatinization time and temperature, and
lower time and temperature needed to rupture (Pudjihastuti, 2010).

CHAPTER III
DISCUSSION
3.1. High-Resistant Starch Banana Characteristics
Bananas which are still green (unripe), hard textured, and was about 90 days
(3 months) from the flowering time, contain high amounts of resistant starch
compared with perfectly ripe banana (Waliszewski, et al, 2002). The biggest
carbohydrate component in banana is the starch in its flesh, will be hydrolized into
simpler sugars when banana is ripe through the process of respiration, so the
starch content decreased. Plaintain banana (consumed after cooked), such kepok,
tanduk, and janten bananas contain more starch than the banana fruit (consumed
directly) such as ambon, raja, muli, and other bananas. Banana starch content in
fresh plaintain banana ranged from 61.3 - 76.5% dry basis. If the starch content is
high, the resistant starch content will be higher. Medium size raw banana contains
about 4.7 grams RS2 (Nurhayati, 2010).
3.2. Banana Starch Modification Methods
According to Zulaidah (2012), there are several ways which can be used to
modify banana starch into resistant starch (RS), such as chemical, physical and
conventional modification. Chemical modification includes the addition of acid,
enzymatic hydrolysis, and cross-linking. Physical modification includes extrusion,
parboiling, steam-cooking, microwave irradiation, roasting, hydrothermal
treatment and autoclaving (Widianingrum, 2012).
3.2.1. Chemical Modification
3.2.1.1. Acid Treatment
Acid hydrolysis method is done by using a strong acid, which will
hydrolyze glycoside bonds which will shorten the chain of chemical bonds in
starch and starch molecular weight becomes lighter (Widianingrum, 2012). Acid
modified starch prepared by hydrolyzing starch with acid under gelatinization
temperature, at a temperature of about 52oC. Basic reaction includes cutting 1,4-glucosidic bonds from amylose and -1,6-D-glucosidic from amylopectin, so

10

the size of the starch molecules becomes smaller and increase the tendency to
form gels paste (Zulaidah, 2012).
According to Widianingrum (2012), in the early stages of acid modification
process, the amount of amylose or linear fraction increases, which indicates that
the acid hydrolyzes the end points of amylopectin branches in amorphous regions
which easily reached before hydrolyzes the crystalline section. It is proved by the
absence of starch granule swelling and starch do not lose its crystalline properties.
Amorphous part is composed of much amylose chains, while the crystals are
composed of much chains of amylopectin. Acid hydrolyzes the starch granules
amorphous parts faster, but the part which is tiered neat (crystalline) is slowly
hydrolyzed.
Acid modified starch have lower hot paste viscosity, larger retrogradation
tendency, cold starch paste viscosity ratio is lower than the hot starch paste,
granule which swell during gelatinization in hot water is lower, stability increase
in warm water under gelatinization temperature and alkaline numbers is higher. In
acid hydrolysis method, acid concentration, temperature, starch concentration and
reaction time may vary depending from the desired properties of starch. Amylose
molecules is easily breakable compared with amylopektin molecule so the acid
modification will lower amylose group. Compared with the original starch, acid
modified starch shows different properties, such viscosity reduction thus allowing
the use of starch in larger quantities, decrease the binding ability of iodine,
swelling reduction of granule during gelatinization, intrinsic viscosity reduction,
increase the solubility in hot water under gelatinization temperature, lower
gelatinization temperature, decrease osmotic pressure (molecular weight loss),
increase the viscosity ratio of hot against cold viscosity and increased absorption
of sodium hydroxide/NaOH (alkaline number is higher). But just as natural starch,
modified starch is insoluble in cold water (Zulaidah, 2012). Acid modified starch
reaction is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Acid modified starch reaction (Zulaidah, 2012).

11

3.2.1.2. Enzymatic Modification

This involves the exposure of starch suspensions to a no of enzymes
primarily including hydrolyzing enzymes that tend to produce highly functional
derivatives. Origin of this technique can be dated back to the times when glucose
syrup or high fructose corn syrup was produced. The enzymes amylomaltases(1,4-1,4 glucosyl transferases) found in eukarya, bacteria and archea
representatives, breaks an -1,4 bond between two glucose units to subsequently
make a novel -1,4 bond producing a modified starch that can be used in
foodstuffs, cosmetics, pharmaceutics, detergents, adhesives and drilling fluids. It
is also a good source of plant-derived substitute for gelatin except that it forms a
turbid gel whereas gelatin gels are transparent (Neelam, et al., 2012).
3.2.1.3. Cross-Linking Modification
Cross-linking reinforces the hydrogen bonds in the granule with chemical
bonds that act as a bridge between the starch molecules. Important factors in the
cross-linking reaction include chemical composition of reagent, reagent
concentration, pH, reaction time and temperature. Because the degree of crosslinking for food starch is very low, the extent of reaction and yield of cross-linked
starch are difficult to measure chemically; hence there is a need for physical
property measurement. When phosphorus oxy chloride (phosphoryl chloride,
POCl, MW153.3) is added to starch slurry under alkaline conditions (pH 812),
the hydrophilic phosphorus group immediately reacts with the starch hydroxyls,
forming a distarch phosphate (Neelam, et al., 2012).
Cross-linking alters, not only the physical properties, but also the thermal
transition characteristics of starch, although the effect of cross-linking depends on
the botanical source of the starch and the cross-linking agent. Decrease in
retrogradation rate and increase in gelatinization temperature has been observed
with cross-linked starch, and these phenomena are related to the reduced mobility
of amorphous chains in the starch granule as a result of intermolecular bridges
However, cross-linked starch has more pronounced syneresis than has native
starch because of ordered structure in the starch paste, thus resulting in a higher

12

degree of retrogradation (Neelam, et al., 2012). Cross-linking reaction is shown at

Figure 3.

Figure 3.Cross-linking reaction (Zulaidah, 2012).

3.2.2. Physical Modification
Physically modified starch treatment involves several factors such as:
temperature, pressure, and water content in starch. Starch granules can be totally
or partially modified. The principle of general physical modification is by heating.
When compared to chemical modification, physical modification tend to be more
secure because it does not use a variety of chemical reagents. Physical
modification treatment include: extrusion, parboiling, steam-cooking, microwave
irradiation, roasting, hydrotermal treatment and autoclaving. Most of the physical
modification methods mentioned may increase levels of the RS3. Steamingcooking method and is generally applied to the rice parboiling. Extrusion method
is the most popular method used to modify the functional characteristics of cereal
starch. The process uses high temperature, short time, and starch gelatinization
occurs in low water content (Widianingrum, 2012).
According to Adobowale, et al. (2005), hydrothermal-treatment method
consists of annealing and heat moisture treatment (HMT). The principle of
hydrothermal-treatment method is the use of water and heat to modify starch. On
annealing, the modification is done by using large quantities of water (more of
40%) and heated at a temperature below the gelatinization temperature starch,
while HMT performed using a limited amount of water content (18, 21, 24, 27%)
and heated at a temperature exceeds the gelatinization temperature. Hydrotermaltreatment method can change the starch gelatinization characteristics that increase

13

the gelatinization temperature, starch paste viscosity increases, and increases the
tendency to undergo starch retrogradation.
Other physical treatment is autoclaving-cooling method. According to
Sajilata et al (2006), the heating treatment using autoclaving-cooling method can
increase the production of the RS3 up to 9%. Autoclaving-cooling method
performed by suspending starch with the ratio of water addition is 1: 3.5 or 1: 5
(w / v). Furthermore, using the autoclave is heated at high temperatures. After
autoclaving, the starch suspension is stored at low temperature to occur
retrogradation. To increase levels of the RS3, the cycle is repeated. This
modification treatment called autoclaving-cooling cycling treatment
(Widianingrum, 2012).
3.3. Improving The Amount of RS3 in Banana
Increasing production of RS3 is by modifying the banana starch with
debranching and retrogradation process at different storage conditions and with
autoclaving-cooling.
3.3.1. Autoclaving-cooling
According Jenie, et al. (2012), autoclave heating and the addition of 0.2%
POCl3 can increase level RS3 and RS4, and can be utilized by Lactobacillus casei,
L. plantarum, Bifidobacterium bifidum and as a prebiotic in vitro. Autoclave
heating cause banana starch gelatinization and retrogradation in banana slices
during 24 hours of storage at room temperature ( 30C). Banana starch
gelatinization cause damage to the banana starch (changes in structure of
granules), resulting in degradation of starch content and amylose fraction leak out
causes the starch granules and dispersed in water. However, after retrogradation
phase, hydrogen bonds in amylose have dropped back to bind and form a new
structure (amorphous into crystalline structure) and stable. Debranching of
amylopectin increases RS levels significantly due to the linear molecule derived
from amylopectin has a role in retrogradation.

14

3.3.2. Debranching and Retrogradation at Different Storage Condition

The amount of RS was improved by debranching and retrogradation at
different storage condition. The banana starch after debranching and storing at
-18oC had the highest RS content, which can be used as a functional food with
high health benefits. The banana starches, which were gelatinized and retrograded
by autoclaving treatment and storing at the different temperatures without
debranching, had the C-type crystalline structures similar to the native starch.
However, the crystallinities of the debranched banana starches changed to the
typical B-type crystalline structure for all samples at different retrogradation
conditions. These results are due to the re-organization of the short linear chain
molecules during the retrogradation process (Hung, et al., 2013).
The degrees of crystallinity of the gelatinized starches stored at 4oC and
-18oC were significantly higher than that of the native starch or the gelatinized
starch stored at 25oC, whereas the degrees of crystallinity of the debranched starch
at different storage temperatures were significantly higher than that of the native
starch which is shown in Table 1. The native banana starch analyzed as eaten
sample had a high amount of RS (11.2%), which was higher than did cassava and
potato
Table 1. Degree of crystallinity of native and debranched banana starch.

Source: Hung, et al. (2013)

15

RS concentrations of the native, gelatinized and debranched starches are

given in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Resistant starch concentrations of native and debranched banana

starches at different storage conditions (Hung, et al., 2013).
3.4. Swelling Power
Swelling power is the starch ability to swell. The factors which affect are
amylose-amylopectin ratio, chain length, and molecular weight distribution
(Pudjihastuti, 2010). Swelling power of starch was reported to be inhibited by
amylose and lipids (Tester and Morrison, 1990). The swelling powers of the
banana starches were significantly lower than those of the cassava starches.
Banana starch had the swelling power and solubility close to those of sorghum
starch, but significantly lower than those of tapioca and potato starches (Kayisu,
et al., 1981). The interaction between starch chains within both the amorphous
and crystalline domains is responsible for the swelling power and solubility of
starch (Zhang, et al., 2005). The different amylase content, molecular weight
distribution, degree of branching, length of branches and conformation of the
molecules affected the swelling power and solubility of starch (Ratnayake, et al.,
2002). In addition, the amylose-lipid complexes or protein within granules is also
influenced in these properties (Hoover and Hadziyev, 1981). The swelling powers
of banana starches were also not significantly different when cooking at different
temperatures (Hung, et al., 2013).

16

According to Musita (2009), varieties of banana very significant effected on

water absorption and swelling power of banana resistant starch. Observation of
the water absorption of some varieties of banana resistant starch is presented in
Figure 5 and the swelling power in Figure 6.

Varieties
Figure 5. Water absorption of resistant starch from various varieties of bananas
(Musita, 2009).

Varieties
Figure 6. Swelling power of resistant starch from various varieties of bananas
(Musita, 2009).
3.5. Gel Capacity
Resistant starch of ambon, batu, kepok kuning, raja bulu, and tanduk
bananas cannot form gels at of 8% concentration, while at the same concentration,
the banana starch slightly form gels. This indicates that resistant starch from five
types of bananas are classified into RS2 (ungelatinized starch) (Haralampu, 2000).
Gels forming ability of the banana starch and resistant starch can be seen in Table
2.

17

Table 2. Gels forming ability of the banana starch and resistant starch.
Type of Banana

Banana Starch
1
2
3
Ambon
(*)
(*)
(*)
Batu
(*)
(*)
(*)
Kepok Kuning
(*)
(*)
(*)
Raja Bulu
(*)
(*)
(*)
Tanduk
(*)
(*)
(*)
(*) = slightly forms gels at 8% concentration.
(-) = Do not form gels at 8% concentration.
Source: Musita (2009)

Resistant Starch
1
2
3
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)

Starch consists of tiny droplets called granule. Starch which is generally

when dissolved in water (approximately 8-12% solution) and heated will undergo
a process called gelatinization which would increase the disintegration of granules
so the starch molecules will be more digestible. Starch consists of tiny droplets
called granule. Starch which is generally when dissolved in water (approximately
8-12% solution) and heated will undergo a process called gelatinization which
would increase the disintegration of granule so the molecules will be more
digestible starch. The results showed that the resistant starch which has been
isolated from banana starch after diluted with water (concentration 8%) and
heated to boil do not form gels but is viscous. Viscous properties of resistant
starch as a water-soluble dietary fiber that can inhibit the digestion and absorption
of carbohydrates in the small intestine. Condensed form will cause an
improvement to the thickness of the layer between food and the brush-border
surface in the small intestine, preventing the absorption of nutrients, including
glucose so the glycemic index value is low (Musita, 2009).
The ability of starch to form a gel can be influenced by the chemical
composition of starch itself such a comparison between the content of amylose
and amylopectin and also starch granule size (Tester, 1997). Starch with small
granule size will be more susceptible to gelatinization process. In addition, a
comparison between the amorphous and crystalline parts also affects the
gelatinization. The higher amorphous part of the starch will be more susceptible to
gelatinization process because amorphous part can absorb more water so starch
granules will swell and form gels. In the amorphous, amylose content of much
more than the content of amylopectin (Jane and Chen, 1992). Loesecke research

18

results (1950) shows the proportion of amylose 20.5% and amylopectin 79.5% on
fresh banana fruit. Resistant starch of ambon, batu, kepok kuning, raja bulu, and
tanduk bananas are suspected have high crystalline portion and amylopectin
content of many that it is difficult form gels.
Gonzlez-Soto, et al. (2006) showed banana starch gelatinization
temperature is higher than corn starch and starch mango, yaiu 76.3 0,06oC and
enthalpy of 11.8 0.64 J/g. According to Lii and Chang (1991), banana starch
gelatinization temperature is relatively high compared with the starch of tubers,
suspected due to the relatively high phosphorus content (0.05 to 0.07 mg / g),
phosphorus was suspected esterificated with starch granules so strengthen the
structure of starch granules.
3.6. Health Benefits of Banana Resistant Starch
3.6.1. Prebiotic
Prebiotics are utilized to promote the survival of probiotics. Prebiotics are
nondigestible carbohydrates that are not absorbed in the intestine, such as RS. RS
is not absorbed in the small intestine; it provides the colonic microbiota with a
fermentable carbohydrate substrate. It has been suggested that RS promotes a
higher proportion of butyric acid than other indigestible carbohydrates. Butyrate
constitutes a major energy substrate for the colonocytes and is associated with
benefits in relation to colonic health. They travel to the colon where they promote
the growth of specific advantageous microbiota (probiotics) by supplying food or
energy, while simultaneously influencing the microbiotas gene expression. Starch
processing can increase its prebiotic properties (Fuentes-Zaragoza et al., 2011).
The possible applications of RS such as prebiotic constituents in functional food
formulations could be summarized (Charalampopoulos, et al., 2002):
1. as fermentable substrates for growth of probiotic microbiota, especially
lactobacilli and bifidobacteria
2. as dietary fibre promoting several beneficial physiological effects
3. as encapsulation materials for probiotic in order to enhance their
stability.

19

Scientific interest upon RS has increased significantly during the last

decades, mostly due to its capacity to produce a large amount of butyrate all along
the colon. Butyrate has been observed to have a range of effects on cell
metabolism, differentiation, and cell growth as well as inhibition of a variety of
factors that underlie the initiation, progression, and growth of colon tumors. RS
III is fermented by the microbiota in the colon, and it indicates that it may have
health benefits such as modifying lipid metabolism and reducing the risk of colon
cancer (Champ, et al., 2003).
3.6.2. Disease Prevention
RS may be beneficial in disease prevention, including modulation of
glycaemic index (GI), diabetes, cholesterol lowering capability and weight
management (Zhang, et al., 2005; Sajilata, et al., 2006). As RS passes through to
the large intestine where it is bacterially fermented, it lowers the colonic pH as the
resultant short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are produced and absorbed. The three
main SCFAs produced are acetate, propionate and butyrate (Sajilata, et al., 2006;
Birkett and Brown, 2007). Butyrate is commonly in high concentrations and is the
main energy substrate for colonic cells; it regulates intestinal cell function and
growth by repressing tumor cells and reducing the proliferation of colonic
mucosal cells, which is a risk factor in carcinogenesis. Acetate and propionate are
energy sources for the body, and are thought to play a role in carbohydrate
(glucose) and lipid metabolism, particularly in the liver, muscle and adipose
tissue, and influence weight management (Thakorlal, et al., 2010).
Evidence is increasing with regards to an inverse relationship between
starch intake and colon cancer. Butyrate is thought to be associated with lower
incidences of colon cancer and a lack of butyrate may increase the risk of some
colonic pathologies and inflammatory diseases. RS also acts as a laxative as it
reduces intestinal transit time and increases faecal bulk and can be used in
products for celiac disease. Recently RS has been classified as a prebiotic, as it
beneficially affects the host by selectively stimulating the growth and activity of
the microflora in the colon, and thus improving the hosts health (Sajilata, et al.,
2006).

20

Since RS is slowly digested, it influences the rate at which glucose is

released. Slow release of glucose evokes a small increase in blood glucose
(hypoglycemic effect) as it is metabolized five to seven hours after consumption,
whereas normally cooked starch is digested immediately. This slow digestion
reduces postprandial glycemia and insulinaemia (decreasing blood glucose,
insulin and epinephrine levels). RS also has the potential for increasing the period
of satiety by reducing the rate of gastric emptying and plays a role in providing
improved metabolic control in non-insulin dependent type II diabetes (Bjork,
2006). Hypocholesterolaemic effects of RS diets have been reported. Such diets
noticeably increase the feces size, pool and absorption of SCFAs and lower
plasma cholesterol and triglycerides. The hypocholesterolaemic properties suggest
the use of RS in foods can improve cardiovascular health (Sajilata et al., 2006).
In weight management, RS has two main roles with regards to energy
metabolism and metabolic control (Birkett and Brown, 2007). Firstly, the
digestible energy available from RS is reduced in comparison with a readily
digestible starch and hence lowers caloric density. Secondly, the lower glucose
and insulin impact of RS causes changes in lipid metabolism that favors lower
lipid production, storage and increase fat burning. Important consideration is
required in both choice of food and in the selection of specific ingredients to assist
with targeting weight management regimes and improving overall health. RS is a
versatile option for formulating high quality foods with added health benefits
(Thakorlal, et al., 2010).
3.7. Food Industrial Applications of Banana Resistant Starch
3.7.1. As Texture Improvers
Several studies have been carried out on the potential use of modified
starches as texture improver in the food industry. It can provide crispness of
crackers and biscuits, viscosity breakdown resistant for can foods, desired
chewiness for certain foods and improvement in the quality of extruded products.
3.7.1.1. Crispy Snack

21

Sanz, et al. (2008) had done some tests of using resistant starch known as
RS3 as part of non pre-frying batter for fried squid rings. After frying, the batter
crust hardness and fragility were significantly increased with more intense browngold color. It was found that good batter performance during the manufacturing
process without pre-drying depends on the successful development of thermo
gelling property of methyl cellulose (MC). They observed that RS3 did not
interfere with the above process as well as did not affect the viscoelastic
properties significantly. RS3 was suggested to be used in fried batter food prepared
by a process
without pre-frying (Abbas, et al., 2010).
3.7.2. For High Nutritional Claim
Resistant starch is claimed as a functional fiber since it allows high fiber
nutritional claim and is well suited for food applications. It is starch that escapes
digestion in the small intestine of healthy individuals. Resistant starch is
considered the third type of dietary fiber, as it can deliver some of the benefits of
insoluble fiber and some of the benefits of soluble fiber. It has many advantages
compared to traditional source of fiber due to it smaller crystallites which has low
water-holding capacity, small particle size and bland flavor (Sajilata and Singhal,
2004). Commercial resistant starch is a special high-amylose starch that has been
modified by biochemical or physical processing to maximize its total dietary fiber
content (Abbas, et al., 2010).
3.7.2.1. Slow Digestible Cookies
Saguiln, et al. (2007) used resistant-starch rich powder (RSRP) prepared
from autoclave-treated linnerized banana starch in the making of slow digestible
cookies. The chemical compositions, rate of starch digestion in vitro and the
acceptance of RSRP-cookies made from different formulations were determined
along with control cookie and white bread as reference. The best formulation that
corresponds to a wheat flour:RRSP ratio of 15:85 was found to possess a lower
glycemic index of 60.53 when compared with the control cookies (77.62) based
on the prediction of hydrolysis index (HI). The hydrolysis curve is shown in

22

Figure 7, while the hydrolysis index (HI) and predicted glycemic index (GI) of the
products is shown in Table 3.

Figure 7. Average hydrolysis curves of: RSRP*-cookie (), control cookie (),
white bread used as reference () (Saguiln, et al., 2007).
Table 3. Hydrolysis index (HI) and predicted glycemic index (pGI) of cookies
with diverse resistant starch-rich powder levels (RSRP).

Source: Saguiln, et al. (2007)

In conclusion, the usage of resistant starch-rich powder (RSRP) from
banana starch can produced a bakery product with moderate available starch and
slow release of carbohydrate features. The use of nutraceutical ingredients, such
as RSRPs, may be useful in the development of new products for consumers
sectors with reduced caloric and glycemic requirements (Abbas, et al., 2010).
3.7.2.2. Resistant Starch Muffin
Baixauli, et al. (2008) studied the effect of replacing wheat flour with
resistant starch on the quality of muffins. The volume, height and the number and
area of gas cells in the muffins were decreased when resistant starch was used.
Viscosity and the elastic properties of the muffin batter decreased as the flour was
increased. Replacement by more than 10% resistant starch contributed to the
decrease in the structural elements provided by wheat flour. Based on baking

23

performance of the final baked products it was suggested that incorporation of

extra ingredients that could raise the protein level into the formula, are likely to
increase the elastic properties of the muffin batter during the heating process in
the presence of high resistant starch (Abbas, et al., 2010).

24

CHAPTER IV
CONCLUSION
The modified starch has many advantages compared with natural starch.
Modified starches have such properties more resistant to heating, acidification and
stirring, and affect the characteristics during gelatinization process. Banana starch
can be modified to be resistant starch (RS) which has a lot of benefits for human
health, especially as prebiotics and prevent various diseases, and and can be used
as a raw material for functional food. Banana which has a high content of RS is an
unripe banana.
Modification of starch can be done chemically and physically. From the
various methods of modification of starch, there are four of the most suitable
methods to modify banana starch: the addition of acid, enzymatic hydrolysis,
crosslinking (chemistry), and autoclaving-cooling (physical). Swelling power of
RS is low when compared with cassava starch, so the products are made from
resistant starch is not going to swell, but the health benefits are high. In the food
industry, RS can be served as a texture enhancer and to make food products with
high nutritional demands or low calorie. Banana resistant starch can be processed
into some food products, such as crispy snacks, slow digestible cookies and
muffin.

25

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