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zi nRT
- - ...................................
(10.1)
Pi
Similarly, the gas volume at standard conditions is
Vsc=G=
zscnRTsc
.............................. (10.2)
Psc
Equating the number of moles of gas at initial reservoir conditions to the number at standard conditions and rearranging, we can
solve for the initial volume of gas at standard conditions:
231
Pi Vgi ZSCTSC
G = - - - - . .............................. (10.3)
Zi T
Psc
Assuming that the PV occupied by the gas is constant during the
producing life of the reservoir gives
Vgi =43.56Ahcp(1-Swi)' ................. . ...... (10.4)
G=43.56Ahcp(l-Sw;)
PizscTsc
o..y g ..
. ................. . (l0.5)
PscZi T
If we express the reservoir PV in barrels, Eq. 10.5 becomes
G=
7,758Ahcp(l-Sw;)
.......................... (10.6)
Bgi
5.02z;T
where Bgi
............... (l0.7)
Pi
........ (10.9)
Bg; )
, .............. (lO.lD)
Bga
5.02(0.860)( 180+460)
1.105 RB/Mscf.
2,500
Pi
7,758Ahcp(1-Sw;)
G=-----Bg;
(7,758)(1,000)(10)(0.20)(1-0.25)
1.105
10,531 X I03 Mscf=IO.5 Bcr.
Bga
Simple gas expansion is a very efficient drive mechanism. Even
though gas saturations at abandonment can be quite high, ultimate
recoveries of 80% to 90% ofthe original gas in place are routinely
achieved in volumetric gas reservoirs. The percentage of the original
volume of gas in place that can be recovered depends on the abandonment pressure, which usually is determined by economical rather
than technical considerations. Note that we developed Eq. 10.10
with the assumption that the initial connate water saturation does
not change. This assumption is valid in volumetric gas reservoirs
where the initial connate water saturation is immobile.
Example 1O.1-Calculating Original Gas In Place in a Volumetric Dry-Gas Reservoir. The following reservoir data were estimated from subsurface maps, core analysis, well tests, and fluid
samples obtained at several wells. Use these data with the volumetric method to estimate original gas in place. Assume a volumetric dry-gas reservoir.
= 2,500
psia.
1,000 acres.
180F.
cp
20%.
Swi = 25%.
h = lD ft.
zi = 0.860.
Pi
A
T
Solution.
I. First, calculate B gi . Zi was estimated with methods presented
in Chap. 1.
10.2.2 Dry-Gas Reservoirs With Water Influx. Many gas reservoirs are not completely closed but are subjected to some natural
water influx from an aquifer. Water encroachment occurs when
the pressure at the reservoir/aquifer boundary is reduced following gas production from the reservoir. Recall that we derived the
equation for a volumetric reservoir with the assumption that the
reservoir PV occupied by gas remained constant over the reservoir's productive life. However, in gas reservoirs with water influx, this PV decreases by an amount equal to the net volume of
water entering the reservoir and remaining unproduced. Therefore,
if we can estimate both the initial gas saturation and the residual
gas saturation at abandonment (i.e., the endpoint saturations), we
can use volumetric equations to calculate the gas reserves in a gas
reservoir with water influx.
Under these conditions, we consider the initial gas volume and
the remaining gas volume plus the volume of water that has entered the reservoir. Beginning with Eq. 10.8, the equation for the
cumulative gas production in terms of the initial and final water
saturations is
7,758Ahcp(l-Swi)
7, 758Ahcp(l- Swa)
.. .... (10.11)
Bga
In terms of the residual gas saturation, Sg" at abandonment, Eq.
1O.11 becomes
7,758AhcpSgr
........... (10.12)
232
Zi = O.S60.
Swi = 25%.
Pa = 750 psia.
h = 10 ft.
Za = 0.550.
Sgr = 0.35.
<I> = 20%.
T = 180F.
Ev = 100%.
II
Eqs. 10.11 through 10.13 were derived with the implicit assumption that the volumetric sweep efficiency for gas is 100%. In fact,
water may displace gas inefficiently in some cases. Results from
early corellood studies 4 5 suggest that significant gas volumes can
be bypassed and eventually trapped by an advancing water front.
In addition, because of reservoir heterogeneities (i.e., natural fractures and layering) and discontinuities (i.e., sealing faults and lowpermeability shale stringers), the encroaching water does not sweep
some portions of the reservoir effectively, resulting in high residual gas saturations in these unswept areas and higher abandonment
pressures than for volumetric dry-gas reservoirs. To account for
the unswept portions of the reservoir, we introduce a volumetric
sweep efficiency, E v , into the volumetric equation. With Ev, Eq.
10.8 can be rewritten as
Solution.
I. First, calculate the gas FVF at initial and abandonment conditions. The gas FVF at initial conditions, calculated in Example
10.1, is Bgi = 1.105 RB/Mscf. The gas FVF at abandonment is
5.02(0.550)(180+460)
- - - - - - - =2.356 RB/Mscf.
750
2. The gas reserve at an abandonment pressure of 750 psia is
estimated with Eq. 10.16:
7,758Ah<l>(l-Sw;)
7,758Ah<I>(1-Swa)
Bgi
Bga
Gp = - - - - - - -
7,758Ah<I>(I-Swi)
+(1
BgiSgr
(1.105)(0.35)
Bga(l-Sw)
(2.356)(1-0.25)
---"'---"-- = 1- - - - - - - 0.781=78.1%.
F=I
Bgi(Sgr I
l-E v-+
.
Bga Sgi
Ev
................... (10.16)
Pi
(1.105)(0.35)
(2.356)(1-0.25)
1.105
7,758Ah<l>(I- S wi) [
Bgi
[I _
Bga
Gp =
= (7 ,75S)(I,000)(l0)(0.20)(I-0.25)
Example lO.3-Calculating Gas Reservoir and Recovery Factor for a Gas Reservoir With Water Influx. Using the same data
from Example 10.2, calculate the gas reserve and the gas recovery
factor if Sgr =35 % at Po =750 psia and Ev=60%.
A
Zi
Swi
Pi
Bgi
h
za
Sgr
Po
Bga
<I>
T
Ev
1,000 acres.
= 0.860.
25%.
2,500 psia.
1.105 RB/Mscf.
to ft.
0.550.
0.35.
750 psia.
2.356 RB/Mscf.
20%.
ISOF.
60%.
Solution.
I. Gp is calculated with Eq. 10.16.
Gp
7,758Ah<l>(l-Swi)
Bgi
t-Ev)l
Bgi (Sgr
I-Ev- - + - Bga Sgi
Ev
(7,75S)(I,000)(1O)(0.20)(1-0.25)
1.105
1.105(0.35 1-0.60)]
x 1 (0.60)-- - - + - - 2.356 0.75
0.60
172x 10 3 Mscf==7.2 Bcf.
233
w.,
T.mp..........
- +1-E
- -)
Bgi (Sgr
F=l- E v -
Bga
Sgi
Ev
Fig. 10.3-Phase diagram for a gas-condensate reservoir (after William D. McCain Jr. 's Properties of Petroleum Fluids,
Second Edition, Copyright Pennwell Books, 1990 3 ).
'Yw=
R1+
+R2+R3
Mo
=0.681
Similarly, for a two-stage separation system consisting of a highpressure separator and stock tank, the reservoir gas gravity is estimated with
=68.1 %.
Gr =
............ (10.18)
133,3161'0
7,758Ahct>(1-S wi )
, ........................ (10.17)
Bgi
where Bgi is defined by Eq. 10.7. Because of the gas condensation at the surface, the surface and reservoir gas properties are different. Consequently, the use of Eq. 10.17 requires knowledge of the
gas properties at reservoir conditions. A laboratory analysis of the
recombined surface fluid production is the most accurate source
of these properties; however, in the absence of such an analysis,
we can estimate these properties using correlations of surface production data. These correlations are recommended for fluids in
which the total nonhydrocarbon components (i.e., CO 2 , H 2 S, and
N 2 ) do not exceed 20%.7
'Yw=
Rl +
.................. (10.19)
133,3161'0
+R3
Mo
If the molecular weight of the stock-tank liquid (i.e., the condensates produced at the surface) is unknown, we can estimate it
using either
5,954
Mo =
............................. (10.20)
or Mo=
42.431' 0
.............................. (10.21)
1.008-1'0
Accurate estimates of gas properties at reservoir conditions require that all surface gas and liquid production be recombined according to Eq. 10.18 or 10.19. However, gas production from
low-pressure separators and stock tanks often is not measured. Gold
et al. 7 developed correlations for estimating the additional gas production from the secondary separator and stock tank, Gpa , and the
vapor equivalent pf the primary separator liquid, Veq' These correlations, express~ in terms of generally available production data,
are presented in Chap. 1 and are used in Eq. 10.22 to estimate the
reservoir gas gravity:
'Yw=
..................... (10.22)
Rl + Veq
After the gas gravity at reservoir conditions is known, we can
use the method established previously to estimate the gas deviation
factor. Using this value, we can estimate the total original gas in
place with Eq. 10.17.
234
Because of condensation, some gas at reservoir conditions is produced as liquids at the surface. The fraction of the total initial gas
in place that will be produced in the gaseous phase at the surface is
fg=
+415
130.3
Rf
, ......................... (10.23)
=0.77.
132,800yo
Rf +----
Mo
where R f includes gas and condensate production from all separators and the stock tank. The fraction of the original total gas in place,
G r , that will be produced in the gaseous phase is
G=fgGr. .............................. . .... (10.24)
and the original oil (condensate) in place is
3. Using the method presented in Chap. 1, the pseudocritical pressure and temperature are estimated to be Ppe =655 psia and
Tpe =395R, With these pseudocritical values, calculate the pseudo reduced pressure and temperature, respectively:
Pi
5,500
Ppr=- =
Ppe
1.000fgGr
N ----"'---'-. ...... ...................... . (10.25)
288+460
---=1.89.
395
Rf
Finally, using the method in Chap. 1 to estimate the gas deviation factor at original reservoir conditions gives Zj 1.06.
4. The gas FVF at initial reservoir conditions is
5.20z;T
B gj =---=
Pj
Pi = 5,500 psia.
h=50ft.
T = 288F.
tjJ = 0.21.
A = 1,000 acres.
Swi = 0.32.
(5.02)(1.06)(288+460)
=0.72 RB/Mscf.
5,500
From Eq. 10.17, the total initial gas in place, which includes gas
and the gaseous equivalent of condensates, is
7,758Ah4>(l-Sw;)
Gr = - - - - - Bg;
(7,758)( 1.000)(50)(0.21)(1-0.32)
0.72
=76.9x
=8.40
655
10 6
Mscf=76.9 Bcf.
5. The fraction of the total initial gas in place that will be produced in the gaseous phase at the surface is
Rf
132.800yo
Rr+---Mo
where the total producing GOR is
Rf
Solution.
I. First, calculate the properties of the stock-tank oil (i.e., condensate). The specific gravity is
132,800yo
f =
Rf +
Mo
59,965
132,800(0.76)
59,965+----130.3
=0.99.
141.5
141.5
131.5+'YAPI
131.5+54.5
'Yo =
=0.76.
5,954
G=fgGr=(0.99)(76.9)=76.1 Bcf.
1,000fgGr
N=--""----Rf
130.3 Ibmllbm-mol.
54.5-8.811
2. For a two-stage separation system, use Eq. 10.19 to calculate
the gas gravity at reservoir conditions:
(1,000)(0.99)(76.9 x 10 6 Mscf)
59,965 scf/STB
= 1.3 x 10 6 STH.
235
Primary separator
Stock-tank gas
Stock-tank oil
Specific Gravity
of Surface Fluids
Field
Production
0.72
1.230
54.5API
59,550 scflSTB
415 scf/STB
1,050 STBID
Separator
Conditions
Pressure
Temperature
(psia)
(oF)
200
14.7
14.7
62
60
60
Pi (
Gp )
Pi
Pi
Zi
Zi
ZiG
Example 10.5-Calculating Original Gas in Place Using Material Balance for a Volumetric Dry-Gas Reservoir. Estimate the
original gas in place for the reservoir described below using the
material-balance equation for a volumetric dry-gas reservoir where
236
Gp
Geopressured
WealcWater
Drive
GBgi
Initial Conditions (p =
(G - Gp) Bg
pJ
pJ
G
where GB$; = reservoir PV occupied by gas at initial reservoir pressure, res bbl; (G-Gp ) = reservoir PV occupied by gas following
gas production at a pressure below the initial pressure, res bbl; and
/l Vp =change in reservoir PV occupied by gas at later conditions
due to water influx, res bbl.
Referring to Fig. 10.7, we can see that the change in reservoir
PV at some reduced pressure is affected not only by the volume
plz
(MMscf)
Gp
(psia)
(MMscf)
(psia)
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
0
2.460
4.920
7.880
11.200
0.80
0.73
0.66
0.60
0.55
0
2.460
4.920
7.880
11.200
5,000
4,795
4,545
4,167
3,636
Pi
Gp
237
6000
'--pi
5000
4000
'R
~
-~
co
3000
"'2000
1000
'"
,..-__............G
vp., Wp
""-
GBgi
~.
,
'"
I'
-----
G=~2IMMscf
Initial Conditions (p
=pU
Later Conditions (p
< pU
30
40
10
20
Cumulative Gas Production,Gp (MMscf)
50
Fig. 10.6-Graphlcal solution to the material-balance equation for a volumetric dry-gas reservoir, Example 10.5.
1 oPo
oPo
oro
ro oro
Olo
WI!
Fig. 10.7-Material-balance model showing reservoir PV occupied by gas at initial and later conditions for a dry-gas reservoir with water influx.
where the dimensionless variables are defined in terms of the aquifer properties. The dimensionless pressure for constant-rate conditions at the reservoir/aquifer boundary is
oJX)708kh( Pi - p)
.. (10.34)
Po=
Pj-P
Po
and for
in days.
0.OO633kt
cPP,Crr~
............................... (10.37)
van Everdingen and Hurst derived solutions to Eq. 10.33 for two
reservoir/aquifer boundary conditions-constant terminal rate and
constant terminal pressure. The water influx rate for the constanttenninal-rate case is assumed constant for a given period, and the
pressure drop at the reservoir/aquifer boundary is calculated. For
the constant-pressure case, the water influx rate is determined for
a constant pressure drop over some finite time period. Reservoir
engineers usually are more interested in determining the water influx than the pressure drop at the reservoir/aquifer boundary, so
~~ .......-=--_:::-1.
~'t
f~
>-
~Ps
-------------
IQ
II.!
ffi
~~ o
Fig. 10.S-Radial geometry for the van Everdlngen-Hurst 14
reservoir/aquifer model.
------------------2
3
TIME PERIODS
AP'
5
238
TABLE 10.4-PRESSURE HISTORY AT THE RESERVOIR/
AQUIFER BOUNDARY, EXAMPLE 10.6
Gas
Reservoir
p,
Time
(psia)
3,793
3,788
3,774
3,748
3,709
3,680
3,643
o
91.5
183.0
274.5
366.0
457.5
549.0
Aquifer
Time
(days)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
91.5
183.0
274.5
366.0
457.5
549.0
p
(psia)
0
15.1
30.2
45.3
60.4
75.5
90.6
3,793
3,788
3,774
3,748
3,709
3,680
3,643
!1Pn
(psi)
0
2.5
9.5
20.0
32.5
34.0
33.0
QeD(tDnl
0
10.1
17.0
23.1
29.0
34.5
40.0
and end of the period. Thus. for an initial aquifer pressure, Pi, the
average pressure during the first time period is PI 1/2 (Pi+Pl)'
Similarly, for the second time period. P2 = '12 ( p, + P2)' In general, for the nth time period, Pn Ih(Pn_1 +Pn)'
We can then calculate the pressure changes between time periods as follows.
Between the initial and first time periods.
t.PO=Pi-P,=Pi
1/2 (Pi+PI)
Ih(Pi-P,),
qD
... (10.38)
0.OO708kMp
1/2 (P n -2+Pn-l)
'12(Pn_' +Pn)
,I
p.
)(0.OO633k)I"
0.OO708kht.p
p.clr~
qDdtD
.'
\
1.119clhr~ t.p 0
q dt
W
We(tn)=B
i= 1
We = J qwdt .............. .
. ..... (10040)
B=
1.119clhr~( 3~)'
........................ (10.46)
I1p;=
We
l. 1I9c thr~ t. P
Thus, We
.......................... (10.42)
\.l19clhr~t.pQpD'""""'' .(10.43)
ro.9
and Pi-l =Po =initial pressure. Each I1Pi in Eq. 10.44 is multiplied by the dimensionless cumulative water influx, QpD' evaluated at a dimensionless time corresponding to the time for which I1Pi
has been in effect. For example. I1Pl will have been in effect for
the total productive life of the reservoir. so QpD will be evaluated
at (tl -OlD' In general, I1Pn will have been in effect for the time
period t-tn_I' so QpD that multiplies I1Pn will be evaluated at
(t-tn-1)D'
To simplify calculations, Tables E-4 and E-5 in Appendix E present values for dimensionless cumulative water influx as a function
of time for both infinite-acting and finite aquifers. 19 AlternativeIy, for the special case of infinite-acting aquifers, Edwardson et
al. 20 developed polynomial expressions for calculating QpD' These
expressions, Eqs. 10.48 through 10.50, depend on dimensionless
time:
239
n
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Time
(days)
We
(psia)
(RB)
0
91.5
183.0
274.5
366.0
457.5
549.0
3,793
3,788
3,774
3,748
3,709
3,680
3,643
0
11,471
62,898
191,374
436,219
781,237
1,212,890
(days)
p, at Reservoirl
Aquifer Boundary
(psia)
9
91.5
183.0
274.5
366.0
457.5
549.0
3,793
3,788
3,774
3,748
3.709
3,680
3,643
For 'D<O.OI,
QPD(1D)=2~.
tD =
............................. (10.48)
tjlp.clr~
QpD(tD) =
1.2838tJ' + 1.19328tD +0.269872tJ/2 +0.0085529418
tjlp.c l L2
................ (10.50)
We<1n) =B
voir/aquifer system given below. Assume an infinite-acting aquifer. The estimated properties of the aquifer are given below; Table'
10.4 summarizes the reservoir/aquifer pressure history.
................................ (l0.51)
tjI
p.
180.
275 md.
6x 10- 6 psia- I .
= 19.2 ft.
rr = 5,807 ft.
Solution.
I. Calculate Busing Eq. 10.46:
= 0.209.
= 0.25 cpo
k
ci
h
i=1
r;
r;
i=1
................................ (W.5i.)
In(tD)
tD=
, ............................... (10.37)
0.00633k1
QpD(tD) =
0.00633kt
B=
1.119tj1clhr~(-{}-)
360
B=1.I19tj1Clhr~C~)
......................... (10.46)
IlpI
For n=6,
IlP6 = Ih(P4 -P6)= lh(3,709-3,643)=33.0 psi.
(0.00633)(275)1
0.1651.
(0.209)(0.25)(6 x 10 -6)(5,807)2
240
For example, at t=91.5 days, lD=0.165(91.5)=15.1.
4. For each tD computed in Step 3, calculate a dimensionless cumulative water influx. Because we are assuming an infinite-acting
aquifer, we can use either Eqs. 10.48 through 10.50 or Table E-4.
For this example, we have chosen to use the equations.
The value of tD determines which equation to use. For example, at 91.5 days (n=I), ID=15.1, so we use Eq. 10.49.
i-I
We(IDj)=
I:
qDn(tDn+I-IDn)+
n=O
I:
qDn(tDn+l-tDn)
n=i
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ....... (10.55)
j
or We(tDj)=We(tDi) +
I:.
n=l
QpD(tD) =
1.2838t; + 1.19328tD +0.269872152 +0.00855294tJ
1+0.616599t; +0.04130081D
Using the convolution integral, 14 we also can express the cumulative water up to the jth interval as a function of variable
pressure:
I:
.6.PiQpD(tn- t i-I)D
1=1
For example, at n = 1
I
We(tDl)=B
I:
Il.PiQpD(t1 -ti-l)D
i=1
dil
We(tDn)=B
" ID]
W e(IDj) =B \
B.6.Pn-Wen-IpD(tDn)
"
PD{tDn)-tDn-1PD(tDn)
. . . . . . . . . . . .. . ................ (l0.58)
where Band ID are the same variables defined previously for the
van Everdingen-Hurst method. The subscripts nand n-I refer to
the current and previous timesteps, respectively, and
Il.P n =Paq.i -P w .............................. (l0.59)
PD is a function of tD and for an infinite-acting aquifer, can be
=454.3[(2.5)( 10.1)]
370.529tlf
PD(tD)
=1l,471 RB.
Similarly, for n=6,
+ 137.582tD +5.69549152
328.834+265.488t; +45.2157tD+t52
.... (10.60)
W e(tD6)=B
I:
.6.PiQpD(t6- t l-I)D
PD(tD) =
716.441
'8
1,212,890 RB.
............................... (10.61)
Eqs. lO.6O and 10.61 model infinite-acting aquifers; however,
Klins et al. 21 developed similar polynomial approximations for
both infinite and finite aquifers.
We should stress that, unlike the van Everdingen-Hurst technique,
the Carter-Tracy method is not an exact solution to the diffusivity
equation, but is an approximation. Research conducted by Agarwal,6 however, suggests that the Carter-Tracy method is an accurate alternative to the more tedious van Everdingen-Hurst calculation
technique. The primary advantage of the Carter-Tracy method is
the ability to calculate water influx directly without superposition.
The Carter-Tracy method, which also is applicable to infiniteacting and finite aquifers, is illustrated with the following calculation procedure and Example lO. 7.
I. First, calculate the van Everdingen-Hurst parameter B for radial flow,
B=
\.119t/>cchr~
C:) .........................
(10.46)
j -\
I:
iP
+ 270.0381D +71
We(tDj)
n=O
241
(days)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
91.5
183.0
274.5
366.0
457.5
549.0
tl.Pn
0
15.1
30.2
45.3
60.4
75.5
90.6
tOn-l
tOn -tOn - 1
(psi)
port On )
Po,(t on )
0
0
15.1
30.2
45.3
60.4
75.5
0
15.1
15.1
15.1
15.1
15.1
15.1
0
5
19
45
84
113
150
0
1.83
2.15
2.34
2.48
2.59
2.67
0
0.0296
0.0155
0.0105
0.0080
0.0064
0.0054
For example, at n
0.OO633kt
(10.37)
<pJ.l.Ctr~
I,
AP2=Paq.;-P2=3,793-3,774
0.00633kt
, ." ............. , .............. (10.51)
tD=
<PJ.l.ctL2
4. For each tD computed in Step 3, calculate a PD and a PD"
For infinite-acting radial aquifer, we can use Eqs, 10.60 and 10.61
to calculate PD and PD' respectively:
370.529t;
PD(tD)
+ 137.582tD+5.69549t612
328.834+265.488t; +45.2157ID+1612
... (10.60)
and PO(ID) =
716.441
+270.038tD+71
0.00633kt
tD=---<pJ.l.c,r;
(0.00633)(275)t
----------=0.165t.
(0.209)(0.25)(6 X 10 -6)(5,807)2
370.529t;
+ I 37.582tD+5.69549t612
328.834+265.488t; +45.2157ID+t612
We also can use Klins et al. '5 21 equations. For finite aquifers,
we must use Klins et ai.'s equations.
5. Calculate the water influx:
BAPn-Wen-IPO(tDn) ]
Wen=Wen-1 +(tDn-tDn-l) [
19 psi.
I '
PD(tDn)-tDn-IPD(tDn)
................................ (10.58)
1.83.
<p = 0.209.
J.I. = 0.25 cpo
()
180
k 275 md.
e, 6x 10- 6 psia- I .
h = 19.2 ft.
rr = 5,807 ft.
0
Solution.
1. Calculate the parameter Busing Eq. 10.46:
B = 1. 119<pc
thr~
c: )
716.441
+ 270.038tD +71
Bt::..Pn
Wen-1PO(tDn)
J,
PD(tDn) -tDn-IPO(tDn)
n
1
2
3
4
5
6
Time
(days)
(psia)
(RB)
91.5
183.0
274.5
366.0
457.5
549.0
3,788
3,774
3,748
3,709
3,680
3,643
18,743
84,482
230,461
489,431
819,766
1,245.061
We
242
(STB/D-psi)
(STB/D-psi)
0.00708kh(O/360)
J = ----'---'p.[ln(r air ,) - 0.75)
J = 3(0.001127)kwh
Finite, constant
pressure
0.00708kh(O/360)
J=-----p. In(r air r)
0.001127kwh
J""----p.L
Infinite
J=
Type of Outer
Aquifer Boundary
Finite, no flow
p.L
kwh
0.00708kh(O/360)
--r:====p.
InJO.0142ktJ,pp.clr~
J=
---;====1 ,000p.JO.0633ktl,pp.c t
is defined as the initial amount of encroachable water and represents the maximum possible aquifer expansion. After differentiating Eq. 10.64 with respect to time and rearranging, we have
For example, at n = I,
Wei dPaq
454.3(5) -0
Pi
1.83-0
= 18,743 RB.
For n=2,
454.3(19)-18,743(0.0155)
=18,743(15.
2.15 -15.1(0.0155)
=84,482 RB.
Fetkovich l6 Method. To simplify water influx calculations further, Fetkovich proposed a model that uses a pseudosteady-state
aquifer PI and an aquifer material balance to represent the system
compressibility. Like the Carter-Tracy method. Fetkovich' s model
eliminates the use of superposition and therefore is much simpler
than van the Everdingen-Hurst method. However, because Fetkovich neglects the early transient time period in these calculations,
the calculated water influx will always be less than the values predicted by the previous two models.
Similar to fluid flow from a reservoir to a well, Fetkovich used
an inflow equation to model water influx from the aquifer to the
reservoir. Assuming constant pressure at the original reservoir/aquifer boundary, the rate of water influx is
qw=
dWe
dt
dt
Eq. 10.63 can be rearranged to yield an expression for the average aquifer pressure,
=Pa q,{ 1-
Wei
Wei (JPaq./ltn)]
.1Wen =--(Paq,n-l-Pm) l-exp .
'
Paq,l
WeI
t
(days)
0
91.5
183.0
274.5
366.0
457.5
549.0
p,
(psia)
3,793
3,788
3,774
3,748
3,709
3,680
3.643
243
and Pm =
Pm-l +Pm
............................ (10.73)
2
Although it was developed for finite aquifers, Fetkovich's method
can be extended to infinite-acting aquifers. For infinite-acting aquifers, the method requires the ratio of water influx rate to pressure
drop to be approximately constant throughout the productive life
of the reservoir. Under these conditions, we must use the aquifer
PI for an infinite-acting aquifer.
The following calculation procedure illustrates this method.
1. Calculate the maximum water volume, Wei' from the aquifer
that could enter the gas reservoir if the reservoir pressure were reduced to zero.
~Wen =
JPaq,i~tn
4. Calculate Wen:
LlWen
JPaq,i~ln )
We,
Wen-I)
Paq,n-l =Paq.i ( 1- ~ ,
e,
Pm-I +Pm
Pm=---2
For example, at n = I,
Wen =
~Wei'
PaqO=Paq,i(1
i=l
WeO )=3,793(10
6 )=3,793 psi.
Wei
176.254 X 10
= 0.209.
rr
p,
k =
0=
c/ =
h =
5,807 ft.
0.25 cpo
275 md.
180.
6xlO-6 psia- l
19.2 ft.
_
Prj
3,793+3,788
-----=3,790.5 psia.
2
PrO+Prl
2
q i~tl
Wei (PaqO-Prl) 1-exp (JPa
LlWel =--.
' .
Paq"
We,
=
176.3 X 10 6
[
(3,793-3,790.5) l-exp
3,793
.
x [- (39.1)(3,793)(91.5)]J
176.3 X 10 6
Solution.
1. Calculate the maximum volume of water from the aquifer,
Wei' that could enter the reservoir if the reservoir pressure were
reduced to zero. Note that the aquifer shape is a sector of a cylinder, so the initial volume of water in the aquifer is
=8,587 RB.
Similarly, at n=2,
Wei)
1f(r5 -r~)hr/>(0/36O)
We;
8,587
176.3 X 10
(43,560)(250,000) (360)
11'
180
_
Pri +Pr2
Pr2=
2
=3,792.8 psi.
3,788+3,774
3,781 psia.
2
=83,260 ft.
Wei Paq.1
LlI
(JPa q,i . 2
We,
Therefore,
11'(83,260 2 - 5,807 2 )(19 .2)(0.209)(180/360)
5.615
where
=7.744x 10 9 RB.
W=------,
5.615
Wi=
)1
176.3x106
[
----(3,792.8-3,781) 13,793
)1
244
(psia)
Prn
Paq.n
(psla)
Paq.n-l -Prn
(psia)
3.793
3,788
3,774
3,748
3,709
3.680
3.643
3.793.0
3,790.5
3,781.0
3,761.0
3.728.5
3,694.5
3.661.5
3,793
3,792,8
3,791.9
3,789.7
3.785.1
3,778.4
3.769,8
0
2.5
11.8
30.9
61.2
90,6
116.9
Prn
-0n
1
2
3
4
5
6
(39.1)(3.793)(91.5)
expX [ -
176.3x 10 6
=40,630 RB.
4. Calculate the cumulative water influx during each timestep.
For example, at the end of the first timestep,
n=J
WeI =
i=1
We2 =
E
;=1
We
(Bg-Bg)
(Bg-B gi )
--'.-2.---.!..-=G+
.............. (10.75)
0
8.587
40.630
106,399
210,285
311,642
402.060
=G+
(Bg -Bgi )
Cf(p,t)
.1.pn
'I2(P n -2 -Pn)'
For example, at n= 1 (Le., t= 182.5 days),
'h(PO-Pl)
= 0.24.
1.0 cpo
r, = 3,383 ft.
'12(5,392-5,368)
12.0 psi.
0.00633kt
(0.00633)(50)t
<pp.Ctr~
(0.24)(1.0)(6 X iO -6)(3,383)2
=0.019[,
For example, at n = I,
, .... ,., . . . . , .... 00.77)
(B g -Bgi )
Example 1O.9-Estimating Original Gas In Place With Material Balance for a Dry-Gas Reservoir With Water Influx. Estimate
the original gas in place and water influx constant using the materialbalance equation developed for water influx in a dry-gas reservoir.
Assume an unsteady-state, infinite-acting aquifer. According to
McEwen,22 the volumetric estimate of original gas in place is
200 X 10 6 Mscf. Table 10.13 gives the pressure and production
histories; the estimated aquifer properties are summarized below.
p.
I +0.616599t5 +0.0413008tD
<p
0
8,587
49,217
155.616
365.901
677.543
1,079,603
We
(RB)
k = 50 md.
e t = 6xlO-6 psia
(J = 360.
h
20.0 ft.
Bw = 1.0 RB/STB.
.1.Pl
.1.Wei =.1.Wel + .1.We2 =8,587 +40,630=49,217 RB,
AWe
4. Now, estimate the original gas in place and water influx constant using the material-balance plotting method. Calculate the plotTABLE 10.13-PRESSURE AND PRODUCTION HISTORIES,
EXAMPLE 10.9
t
(days)
Gp
Wp
(psia)
(MMscf)
(STB)
0
182.5
365
547.5
730
912.5
1.095
1.2n.5
1,460
1.642.5
1.825
2,007.5
2.190
5.392
5,368
5,292
5.245
5,182
5,147
5.110
5,066
5,006
4,994
4.997
4,990
4,985
0
6n.7
2.952.4
5.199.6
7.132.8
9.196.9
11,171.5
12.999.5
14,769.5
16,317.0
17,868.0
19,416.0
21,524.8
0
3
762
2.054
3.300
4.644
5,945
7,148
8.238
9,289
10,356
11.424
12.911
Bg
-z1.0530
1.0516
1.0470
1.0442
1,0404
1,0383
1.0360
1.0328
1.0285
1.0276
1.0278
1.0273
1.0270
(RB/Mscf)
0.6775
0.6796
0.6864
0.6907
0.6965
0.6999
0.7033
0.7072
0.7127
0.7138
0.7136
0.7142
0.7147
245
0
182.5
365
547.5
730
912.5
1,095
1,277.5
1,460
1,642.5
1,825
2,007.5
2,190
(psia)
3.68
5.82
7.76
9.56
11.21
12.84
14.42
15.91
17.40
18.87
20.26
21.68
0
12.0
50
61.5
55.0
49.0
36.0
40.5
52.0
36.0
4.5
2.0
6.0
3.5
6.9
10.4
13.9
17.3
20.8
24.3
27.7
31.2
34.7
38.1
41.6
21.0
28.5
46.3
55.8
71.0
83.1
93.1
99.1
116.7
136.0
151.7
166.7
219.3
227.7
272.6
260.9
287.6
304.5
309.3
298.8
320.8
352.9
378.3
413.6
(677.7 x 10 3)(0.6796)+(3)(1.0)
(0.6796-0.6775)
=219.3xI06 Mscf=219.3 Bscf.
The plotting function for the horizontal axis, x, is
x=
EilpQpD
(Bg-Bgi)
(l2){3.68)
(0.6796-0.6775)
= 21. 0 x 10 3 psi/RB-Mscf.
5. The material-balance plotting functions, summarized in Table 10.14, are plotted in Fig. 10.11.
6. From the slope of the line through the data points in Fig. 10.11,
e is estimated to be 1195 RB/psi, and the original gas in place estimated from the intercept is G= 197 Bscf = 197 x 10 6 Mscf, which
agrees with the volumetric estimate of G=200x 10 6 Mscf.
The general problem that reservoir engineers face when analyzing gas reservoirs with water influx is simultaneous determination
.....u
'"
~
~
~
....
!:9,
500
400
'")
Slope,
c= 1,19S~/psi
300
j
200
----------I------f---------.-~.-..
(GpBg + WpBw)/(Bg - B gi )
(Bscl)
~Pn
E~PQpO/(B!f3-Bgi)
Q pon
tOn
100
(G - Gp) Bg
-------~--------t-----...--.-~-------.-
~ =197 !iMMMscf !,
!
GBgj
!I'
-----..-T----------l------...--.-,.-..----.......
so
ISO
100
LIlpQpD1(B, - B,i)' MMpsilRB / Mscf
200
Fig. 10.11-Graphlcal solution to the material-balance equation for a dry-gas reservoir with water Influx, Example 10.9.
Fig. 10.12-Materlal-balance model showing reservoir PVoccupled by gas at initial and later conditions for a volumetric
geopressured gas reservoir.
246
TABLE 10.15-PRESSURE AND PRODUCTION HISTORIES,
EXAMPLE 10.10
p
(psla)
9,507
9,292
8,970
8,595
8,332
8,009
7,603
7,406
7,002
6,721
6,535
5,764
4,766
4,295
3,750
3,247
cw= _ _
l
Vw
VW
ap
p/z
(psia)
p/z[1-(c w S w; +
(psia)
0
392.5
1,642.2
3,225.8
4,260.3
5,503.5
7,538.1
8,749.2
10,509.3
11,758.9
12,789.2
17,262.5
22,890.8
28,144.6
32,566.7
36,819.9
6,602
6,553
6,467
6,395
6,331
6,247
6,136
6,081
5,954
5,860
5,799
5,500
4,878
4,628
4,209
3,802
6,602
6,515
6,374
6,239
6,133
5,998
5,825
5,740
5,556
5,424
5,339
4,951
4,261
3,985
3,563
3,167
Gp
(MMscf)
o
392.5
1,642.2
3,225.8
4,260.3
5,503.5
7,538.1
8,749.2
10,509.3
11,758.9
12,789.2
17,262.5
22,890.8
28,144.6
32,566.7
36,819.9
_
T
(MMscf)
Gp
1.440
1.418
1.387
1.344
1.316
1.282
1.239
1.218
1.176
1.147
1.127
1.048
0.977
0.928
0.891
0.854
............... (10.79)
Vwi Ap
where cj=average formation compressibility over the finite pressure interval, Ap. In terms of the change in PV. Eq. 10.83 becomes
AVp=CjVpiAP ........................... (10.84)
SwiGBg,
................................ (10.81)
(l-Sw;)
SwiGBgi
Vpi=
GB g;
................................. (10.85)
(i-Swi)
Substituting Vp; from Eg. 10.85 into Eg. 10.84 and noting that
-AP=Pi-P and AVp = -AVj (the change in rock volume) yields
_
-AVp=Cj(Pi-P)
GB gi
(i-Sw;)
(I-Sw;)
-p)/(1- S w;)]
Substituting Egs. 10.82 and 10.86 into Eq. 10.78, we can now
write a general material-balance equation for a volumetric geopressured reservoir:
Similarly, the decrease in PV, AVI" caused by a finite reduction in pore pressure can be modeled with
Cj= :p
C~
T .............................. (1O.83a)
.. (10.87)
After simplification, Eg. 10.87 becomes
and thus,
_
I AVp
Cj=---' ............................... (l0.83b)
Vp; Ap
GBgi=(G-Gp)Bg+
7000
7000
'"
6000
6000
""'i
5000
4000
1-
3000
2000
'I
~
S
5000
;:;;:
S
_
(CwSwi+Cj) ....... (10.88)
(I-Swi)
''';
""
GBgi(Pi-P)
'il
{""
"
...
4000
3000
2000
1000
1000
0
0
20
80
100
Cumulative Gas Production, G, (Bet)
40
60
120
'"
~G;=8~.3Bd
N
I
20
40
60
80
100
Cumulative Gas Production, G, (Bet)
120
247
p
(psi a)
9,507
9,292
8,970
8,595
8,332
8,009
7,603
7,406
7,002
6,721
6,535
5,764
4,766
4,295
3,750
3,247
(MMscf)
1.440
1.418
1.387
1.344
1.316
1.282
1.239
1.218
1.176
1.147
1.127
1.048
0.977
0.928
0.891
0.854
Bg
Gp
ISO
392.5
1,642.2
3,225.8
4,260.3
5,503.5
7,538.1
8,749.2
10,509.3
11,758.9
12,789.2
17,262.5
22,890.8
28,144.6
32,566.7
36,819.9
><
.;;;
100
.!?:
::;'
,
-;r
~
SO
ti
50
:::.
-50
10
12
14
Pi Gp
- - - ......... (10.90)
Zi G
Note that, when the effects of rock and water compressibility are
negligible, Eq. 10.90 reduces to the material-balance equation in
which gas expansion is the primary source of reservoir energy (Eq.
10.29). Failure to include the effects of rock and water compressibilities in the analysis of high-pressure reservoirs can result in errors
in both original gas in place and subsequent gas reserve estimates.
We present two analysis techniques based on Eq. 10.90 for volumetric geopressured reservoirs.
Simultaneous Determination of A verage Formation Compressibility and Original Gas in Place. Roach 25 developed a materialwill be a straight line with slope equal to -Pi/ZjG and an interceptequal tOPj/Zi' Atp/z=O, Gp=G, so extrapolation of the line
to p/z=O provides an estimate of original gas in place. Example
10.10 illustrates this analysis technique.
balance technique for simultaneously estimating formation compressibility and original gas in place in geopressured reservoirs.
Beginning with Eq. 10.90, Roach presented the material-balance
equation in the following form:
I (Pi
(p,-p)
Example 10.10-Estimating Original Gas in Place With Material Balance for a Volumetric Geopressured Gas Reservoir. For
the following data taken from an abnormally pressured reservoir
(the Anderson "L" sand 24 ) , estimate the original gas in place
using the material-balance equation developed for a high-pressure
gas reservoir. In addition, use the material-balance equation for a
normally pressured gas reservoir, and compare the initial gas estimates from both equations. Table 10.15 gives the pressure and production histories.
Pi
9,501 psia.
= 3.2xlO-6 psi-I.
Swi = 0.24.
Original pressure gradient=0.843 psi/ft.
cI=19.5xlO-6 psi- 1 (assumed constant).
Cw
l)=~[ ~~
PiZ]_ SWi:W+Cf.
G (p, p) PZj
I Swi
PZi
................................ (10.91)
Again, if cf is constant, the form of Eq. 10.91 suggests that a
plot of
Z
(Pi
(Pi-P) pZi
-I)
VS
[~PiZ]
(Pj-p) PZi
will be a straight line with a slope that equals I/G and an intercept
that equals -(Swjcw +cil-Swj). We can then calculate the original gas in place, G, and the average fonnation compressibility, cI'
using the slope and intercept, respectively. Poston and Chen 26 applied this method to the geopressured gas reservoir data presented
in Example 10.10. Their analysis is reproduced in Example 10.11.
Solution.
I. Calculate the geopressured and normally pressured pressure
plotting functions for each data point (Table 10.16).
2. From the two plots, estimate original gas in place from the
intercept with the horizontal axis: high-pressure reservoir analysis
Example 10.ll-Simultaneous Determination of Average Formation Compressibility and Original Gas in Place With Material Balance in a Volumetric Geopressured Gas Reservoir. For
the following data taken from the Anderson "L" sand,24 estimate
248
TABLE 10.18-PLOTTING FUNCTIONS, EXAMPLE 10.11
plz
(psia)
Gp
(MMscf)
1/(p; -p)[(p;zlpz;)-11
10 -6 psi 1
6,602.1
6,552.9
6,467.2
6.395.1
6,331.3
6,247.3
6.136.4
6,080.5
5,954.1
5,859.6
5,798.6
5,500.0
4,878.2
4,628.2
4.208.8
3.802.1
0
392.5
1,642.2
3,225.8
4,260.3
5,503.5
7,538.1
8,749.2
10.509.3
11,758.9
12,789.2
17,262.5
22.890.8
28.144.6
32,566.7
36.819.9
34.9
38.9
35.5
36.4
37.9
39.9
40.8
43.4
45.4
46.6
53.5
74.5
81.8
98.8
117.6
1,840
3,120
3.650
3.780
3,880
4,260
4,520
4,650
4,760
4,900
5,540
6,530
7.700
8,870
10,210
original gas in place using Eq. 10.91 and an average value for formation compressibility. Table 10.17 gives the pressure and production histories.
Pi = 9,507 psia.
6
w = 3.2xlO- psi-I.
Original pressure gradient = 0.843 psi/ft.
Swi
0.24.
C
Solution.
1. First, we must generate the plotting functions developed by
Roach.25 Example calculations for Gp =392.5 MMscf=3.925 x
105 Mscf follow. For the variable on the vertical axis, we plot
I
(P;Z 1)
(Pi -p) PZi-
(9,507)(1.418)
------1
(9,507-9,292)
(9,292)(1.440)
=34.9xlO- 6 psi I
For the variable on the horizontal axis, we plot
(3.92 X 10 5)
(9,507)(1.418)
(0.24)(3.2 x 10 -6)+Cfl
(1-0.24)
2. Prepare a plot (Fig. 10.15) of the plotting functions summarized in Table 10.18.
3. Estimate the original gas in place and average formation compressibility from Fig. 10.15.
A. The original gas in place, G, is estimated from the slope of
the line, m:
=slope=13.3xIO-6 (MMscf)-I,
G
or G=
Vhcvi
=75,190 MMscf.
Later Conditions
V < pJ
reservoir. Above the dewpoint, the vapor phase consists of not only
hydrocarbon and inert gases but also water vapor. As the reservoir
pressure declines, the water in the liquid phase continues to vaporize to remain in equilibrium with the existing water vapor, thus
decreasing the saturation of the liquid water in the reservoir and
increasing the PV occupied by the vapor phases. As the reservoir
pressure decl ines further, the amount of water vapor present in the
gas phase may increase significantly. However, as the reservoir
pressure decreases below the dewpoint, the fraction of PV available for the vapor phases decreases as liquids condense from the
hydrocarbon vapor phase.
To develop a material-balance equation that considers the effects
of gas condensation and water vaporization requires that we include
the changes in reservoir PV resulting from these phenomena. We
begin with a material-balance equation for gas-condensate reservoirs. We then extend this equation to include the effects of connate water vaporization. In addition, because changes in formation
compressibilities often are significant in these deep, high-pressure
gas reservoirs. we include geopressured effects.
Gas-Condensate Resenoirs. We derived the material-balance
equations in previous sections for dry gases with the inherent assumption that no changes in hydrocarbon phases occurred during
pressure depletion. Unlike dry-gas reservoirs, gas-condensate reservoirs are characteristically rich with intermediate and heavier
hydrocarbon molecules. At pressures above the dewpoint, gas condensates exist as a single-phase gas; however, as the reservoir pressure decreases below the dewpoint. the gas condenses and forms
a liquid hydrocarbon phase. Often, a significant volume of this condensate is immobile and remains in the reservoir. Therefore, correct application of material-balance concepts requires that we
consider the liquid volume remaining in the reservoir and any liquids produced at the surface.
Assuming that the initial reservoir pressure is above the dewpoint, the reservoir PV is occupied initially by hydrocarbons in the
gascous phase (Fig. 10.16), or
Vpi = Vhvi ' .. . ................................ (10.92)
where G T includes gas and the gaseous equivalent of produced condensates and Bgi is defined by Eq. 10.7.
At later conditions following a pressure reduction below the dewpoint, the reservoir PV is now occupied by both gas and liquid
hydrocarbon phases, or
Vp
............................. (10.98)
(1-So)
Substituting Eq. 10.98 into Eq. 10.95 and combining with Eq.
10.97 yields an expression for the reservoir PV at later conditions:
(GT-GpT)B g +
So(GT-GpT)B g
I-So
.................. (10.99)
249
..... (10.100)
I-So
or, if we substitute BgiIBg=(pz;)/(PiZ) into Eq. 10.100 and rearrange.
p.(
~I
Zi
where G TB 2gi =reservoir PV occupied by the total gas, which includes gas and the gaseous equivalent of the produced condensates,
at the initial reservoir pressure above the dewpoint, RB;
(GT-GpT)B2g reservoir PV occupied by hydrocarbon vapor
phase and the vapor equivalent of liquid phase after some production at a pressure below the initial reservoir pressure and dew point
pressure, RB; and B2 i and B 2g = gas FVF's based on two-phase
z factors at initial anJ later conditions, respectively, RB/Mscf.
If we substitute B2giIB2g=(PZ2i)/(PiZ2) into Eq. 10.102 and rearrange, we have
P
Pi
z2i
(I
G pT ), ......................... (10.103)
GT
where Z2i and Z2 = two-phase gas deviation factors evaluated at initial reservoir pressure and at a later pressure, respectively.
The fo~m of Eq. 10.103 sugge?ts that a plot of pIZ2 vs. G pT will
be a straight Ime for a volumetriC gas-condensate reservoir when
two-phase gas deviation factors are used.
Two-phase gas deviation factors account for both gas and liquid
phases in the reservoir. Fig. 10.17 is an example of the relationship between the equilibrium gas (I.e., single-phase gas) and twophase deviation factors for a gas-condensate reservoir. At pressures
above the dewpoint, the single- and two-phase z factors are equal;
at pressures below the dewpoint, however, the two-phase z factors
are lower than those for the single-phase gas.
Ideally, two-phase gas deviation factors are determined from a
laboratory analysis of reservoir fluid samples. Specifically, these
two-phase z factors are measured from a constant-volume depletion study. 27-29 However, in the absence of a laboratory study,
correlations 29 are available for estimating two-phase z factors from
properties of the well-stream fluids.
Gas-Condensate Resenoirs With Water Vaporization. In this
section, we develop a material-balance equation for gas-condensate
reservoirs in which both phase changes and water vaporization
occur. Similar to Humphreys'30 work. we include the effects of
rock and water compressibilities, which are often significant in deep,
high-pressure reservoirs. The reservoir PV is occupied initially by
hydrocarbon and water vapor phases as well as the connate liquid
phase, or
Vpi=VVi+Vwi ................................ (10.104)
250
1.0....-----------------,
0.9
OJ
Vwvi
Vwi
i1Vf
OJ
0.'
Fig. 10 .la-Material-balance model showing reservoir PV occupied by hydrocarbons and water at Initial and later conditions for a gas-condensate reservoir with water vaporization.
~+----~----r---~~--~
1000
:lOOO
3000
Pressure, psia
Flg.l0.17-Example of equilibrium and two-phase gas deviation factors for a gas-condensate reservoir. 29
Vhv
GB gi
----'--~-.
Like geopressured gas reservoirs, deep, high-pressured gascondensate reservoirs often experience significant changes in PV
during pressure depletion. Therefore, using a method similar to that
presented in the section on geopressured gas reservoirs, we .can
express the change in reservoir formation (rock) volume in terms
of the formation compressibility as
LlVj=
Cj(Pi-p)GB gi
........................ (10.119)
(l-Swi)(I-Ywi)
In terms of Eq. 10.119, the material-balance equation for pressures above the dewpoint becomes
(G-Gp)Bg
Cj(p;-p)GB gi
(l-Sw)(l-yw)
(l-Swj)(1-Ywj)
---"'---"'-- +
(l-Swi)(l-Ywi)
............................... (10.120)
....................... (10.111)
(l-Swi)(l-Ywi)
.. ...................... (W.llS)
(l-Sw)(l-yw)
Pi Gp
-Zj G
.. (10.122)
will be a straight line with a slope equal to -p;lziG and an intercept equal to p/Zj. At plz=O, Gp=G, so extrapolation of the
straight line to plz =0 provides an estimate of original gas in place.
Note that, if the water saturation remains constant during the life
of the reservoir (i.e., Sw=Swi and Yw=Yw;) and when formation
compressibility is negligible, Eq. 10.122 reduces to Eq. 10.29 for
a volumetric dry-gas reservoir.
251
6000
sooo
V hcv
4000
V hcvi
.!!
IS. 3000
Vwvi
2000
L1V,
Initial Conditions
t > pJ
Later Conditions
1000
VJ<
Pd)
Fig. 10.19-Materlal-balance model showing reservoir PV occupied by hydrocarbons and water at Initial and later conditions for a gas-condensate reservoir with water vaporization.
Depletion at Pressures Below the Dewpoint. When reservoir pressures decrease below the dewpoint, the gas phase condenses. In
many gas-condensate reservoirs, the liquid hydrocarbons formed
in the reservoir remain immobile. Therefore, we must modify Eq.
10.120 to include this additional liquid phase (Fig. 10.19).
Adding the liquid phase gives
GBgi
(G-Gp)Bg
-----"---"'--- + --"------"-
(l-Swi)(l-ywi)
(l-Sw-So)(l-yw)
(l-Swi)(l-Ywi)
............................... (10.123)
where So =liquid hydrocarbon phase (i.e., condensate) saturation.
After rearranging Eq. 10.123, we write a material-balance equation similar in form to Eq. 10.122:
(l-Sw-So) (l-yw)
(l-Swi)
(l-Ywi)
(l-Ywi)
will be a straight line with a slope equal to -Pi/ZiG and an intercept equal to p/Zj. Aat p/z=O, Gp=G. so extrapolation of the
straight line to p/z =0 provides an estimate of original gas in place.
Again, the gas deviation factors in Eqs. 10.122 and 10.124 should
be two-phase Z factors representing both gas and liquid hydrocarbon phases in the reservoir. In addition, gas production should include not only production from all separators and the stock tank
but also the gaseous equivalent of the produced condensates.
The water vapor content of a gas has been shown 31 to be dependent on pressure, temperature, and gas composition. Gas composition also has more effect on water vapor content at higher
pressures. Unfortunately, laboratory analyses of gas usually do not
quantify the amount of water vapor; however, as discussed in Chap.
I, empirical methods 32 ,33 are available for estimating the water
vapor content of a gas.
Correct application of Eq. 10.124 also requires estimates of the
liquid hydrocarbon volumes formed at pressures below the dewpoint. The most accurate source of these estimates is a laboratory
analysis ofthe reservoir fluid samples. These liquid saturations are
obtained from a constant-volume depletion study.27,28 Note that
this type of laboratory fluid study assumes that the liquid hydrocarbons formed in the reservoir are immobile. This assumption is valid
for most gas-condensate reservoirs; however, some very rich gascondensate fluids may be characterized by mobile liquid saturations.
For these conditions, compositional simulators are required to model
the multiphase flow and predict future performance accurately.
10.4 Summary
Reading this chapter should prepare you to do the following.
Calculate original gas in place in a volumetric dry-gas reservoir using volumetric methods.
Calculate gas reserves and recovery factor for a gas reservoir
with water influx using volumetric methods.
Calculate original gas in place and condensate in place for a
volumetric wet-gas reservoir using volumetric methods.
State the principle of conservation of mass and derive a general material-balance equation from that principle.
Calculate original gas in place using material balance for a volumetric dry-gas reservoir.
Estimate water influx using the van Everdingen-Hurst, CarterTracy, and Fetkovich methods and state the assumptions and limitations of each method.
Estimate original gas in place using material balance for a drygas reservoir with water influx.
Estimate original gas in place using material balance for a volumetric geopressured gas reservoir .
Determine average formation compressibility and original gas
in place simultaneously using material balance in a volumetric geopressured gas reservoir.
Derive material-balance relationships for volumetric gascondensate reservoirs, gas-condensate reservoirs with water vaporization, gas-condensate reservoirs with depletion at pressures above
the dewpoint, and gas-condensate reservoirs with depletion at pressures below the dewpoint.
252
Cumulative Gas
Production
(MMscf)
Pressure
(psia)
factor
0
10
20
30
40
50
2,751
2,381
2,223
2,085
1,940
1,801
0.742
0.739
0.737
0.742
0.747
0.755
....-9=60
Sealing
Fault
Time
(days)
Reservoir/Aquifer Pressure
(psi a)
3,793
3,788
3,774
3,748
3,709
3,680
3,643
91.5
183.0
274.5
366.0
457.5
549.0
Sealing
Fault
Fig. 10.21-Reservoir configuration for Exercise 10.10.
Time
(days)
Reservoir/Aquifer Pressure
(psia)
3,793
3,788
3,774
3,748
3,709
3,680
3,643
91.5
183.0
274.5
366.0
457.5
549.0
10.2 For the reservoir data given below. estimate the gas reserves
and the recovery factor using the volumetric method.
Pi
3,150 psia.
A = 640 acres.
h = 10 ft.
Bg;
Time
(days)
Reservoir/Aquifer Pressure
(psia)
3,793
3,788
3,774
3,748
3,709
3,680
91.5
183.0
274.5
366.0
457.5
549.0
Exercises
For the reservoir data given below, calculate the total cu-
0.947 RB/Mscf.
0.22.
Sw; = 0.23.
Sgr
Bga
= 0040.
1.48 RB/Mscf.
10.3 Using the data given below and the plot of plz vs. Gp in Fig.
10.20, estimate the cumulative gas production at an abandonment pressure of 500 psia. In addition, estimate the recovery factor at the abandonment pressure.
3,643
8. What are typical recovery factors for volumetric gas reservoirs? How may we estimate abandonment pressure to calculate
recovery factor? At what point does abandonment pressure enter
the recovery factor calculation?
9. Compare typical recoveries in waterdrive gas reservoirs with
those from volumetric gas reservoirs and explain the reasons for
the difference.
to. Explain two methods for improving the recovery from
waterdrive gas reservoirs.
11. Describe the different types of aquifer that may be in association with a reservoir.
12. How does the aquifer offset pressure decline in the reservoir?
13. If the time elapsed since production began doubled, do you
think the amount of water influx into a gas reservoir would double? Or would it be more or less than double? Why? If additional
infonnation is required to answer this question, what is that additional information?
10.1
tf>
Pi = 4,000 psia.
Pa
500 psia
Zi = 0.80 psia.
za = 0.94 psia.
lOA
za
2,751 psia.
= 0.92.
P a = 663 psia.
tf>
= 0.209.
= 0.25 cpo
h
19.2 ft.
() = 180.
JA.
253
Cumulative Gas
Production
0
9,920
28,620
53,600
77,670
101,420
120,360
145,010
160,630
182,340
197,730
215,660
235,740
245,900
plz
(psia)
7,650
7,423
7,252
6,957
6,698
6,428
6,191
5,933
5,693
5,375
5,132
4,840
4,478
4,221
plz!1-(c wS wi
-p)/(1 -Swill
7,650
7,276
7,008
6,561
6,202
5,839
5,539
5,229
4,950
4,594
4,330
4,035
3,674
3,425
Reservoir
Pressure
(psia)
11,444
10,674
10,131
9,253
8,574
7,906
7,380
6,847
6,388
5,827
5,409
5,000
4,500
4,170
(Mscf/psi)
9,920
28,620
53,600
77,670
101,420
120,360
145,010
160,630
182,340
197,730
215,660
235,740
245,900
k = 275 md.
c r = 6xlO- 6 psia- I .
r, = 5,807 ft.
4> == 0.209.
I-t
0.25 cpo
h = 19.2 ft.
8
180".
k
275 md.
c/ = 6xlO- 6 psia- I .
r, = 5,807 ft.
Table 10.21 gives the pressure history at the initial
reservoir-aquifer interface.
10.7 Calculate the water influx at timestep n=3 (Le., 1=274.5
days) for the reservoir/aquifer system given below. Use the
Fetkovich method and assume a finite aquifer.
4> = 0.209.
p,
0.25 cpo
h == 19.2 ft.
8
180 0
k
275 md.
c/ = 6x 10- 6 psia
r,
5,807 ft.
A
250,000 acres.
Gp/(Pi -p)(PiPlzz/)
13,300
12,900
26,900
30,900
34,100
36,600
40,700
42,700
46,200
48,800
52,900
58,000
61,300
39.7
41.8
45.4
49.5
53.7
58.0
63.0
68.0
75.4
81.3
90.1
102.0
111.7
o
10
200
400
500
Swi
Cw
Table 10.22 gives the pressure history at the initial reservoir/aquifer interface. The cumulative water influx after 183
Reservoir/Aquifer Pressure
(psia)
4,000
3,990
3,900
3,820
3,760
0.22.
3.2xlO- 6 psia- I .
10.9 For the following gas reservoir offshore Louisiana, 23 estimate the original gas in place and formation compressibility
using the material-balance method for geopressured reservoirs. In addition, use the material-balance method presented for a normally pressured gas reservoir, and compare the
initial gas estimates from both equations. The plotting functions are tabulated in Table 10.24.
254
Pr
Cw
Swi
= 11,444 psia.
= 3.2xlO-6 psia- I .
0.22.
Nomenclature
A = well drainage area, L2, acres
b
intercept
B
van Everdingen-Hurst constant, RB/psi
Bg = gas FVF, RB/Mscf
Bga = gas FVF at reservoir abandonment pressure and
temperature conditions, RB/Mscf
B gi = gas FVF at initial reservoir pressure and
temperature, RB/Mscf
Bw
water FVF, RB/STB
B2g
gas FVF based on two-phase gas deviation factor,
RB/Mscf
B 2gi = gas FVF based on two-phase gas deviation factor at
initial reservoir pressure and temperature,
RB/Mscf
C = water influx constant from material-balance
calculations, RB/psi
cf
in-situ formation compressibility, Lt2/m, pSia- 1
c/ = total aquifer compressibility, cf+cw, Lt2/m, psia- I
C w = water compressibility, Lt2/m, psia- I
E v = volumetric sweep efficiency, fraction
fg = fraction of reservoir gas produced as liquid at
surface, fraction
F = gas recovery factor
G = original gas in place, L3, Mscf
Ga
gas in place at reservoir abandonment, L3, Mscf
Gp = cumulative gas production, L3, Mscf
Gpa = additional gas production from secondary separator
and stock tank, L3 /L3, scf/STB
GpT = cumulative gas production from primary and
secondary separators, stock tank, and the gaseous
equivalent of produced condensates, L3, Mscf
Gp !
cumulative gas production from primary separator,
L3, Mscf
Gp2 = cumulative gas production from secondary separator,
L3, Mscf
Gp3 = cumulative gas production from stock tank, L3, Mscf
G/ = reservoir volume occupied by gas trapped by
encroaching water, L3, Mscf
G T = total initial gas in place, including gas and gaseous
equivalent of produced condensates, L3, Mscf
h = net formation thickness, L, ft
J = aquifer PI, L3t/m, STBID-psi
k = reservoir permeability, L2, md
L = length of linear-shaped reservoir, L, ft
m = slope
Mo = molecular weight of stock tank liquids, m,
Ibm/Ibm-mol
n = number of moles of gas
N = original oil (condensate) in place, L3, STB
Np
P
= cumulative oil
PD
255
za
Zj ;:
zsc
z2 =
Z2j
l' 0 =
l'w ::::
1'1 =
1'2 =
1'3
6
" =
p.
=
sionless
gas compressibility factor evaluated at initial conditions, dimensionless
gas compressibility factor at standard conditions,
dimensionless
two-phase gas compressibility factor, dimensionless
two-phase gas compressibility factor evaluated at initial conditions, dimensionless
specific gravity of condensate (water = 1.0 g/cm 3 )
specific gravity of reservoir gas at reservoir conditions (air::: 1.0)
specific gravity of high-pressure separator gas
(air = 1.0)
specific gravity of low-pressure separator gas
(air = 1.0)
specific gravity of stock-tank gas (air= 1.0)
angle encompassed by aquifer, degrees
dummy integration variable for Eq. to.57
viscosity, miLt, cp
porosity, fraction
SUbscript
aq = aquifer
Superscript
- = average
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