Modulation with continuous

wave
representations in time and frequency for
two types of continuous wave modulation:
Amplitude modulation, AM -amplitude
Angle modulation,
frequency modulation (FM) - instantaneous
frequency
phase modulation (PM) - instantaneous phase
1

Purpose of a communication system:

transport a signal (a message) over a channel
deliver a reliable estimate to a user

Example:
radio system: efficient in a freq. range > 30 kHz,
baseband signals = audio signals (0-20kHz)
Frequency shifting => modulation

The message signal that contains information,

generated by sources of information, is a
baseband signal
Modulation information transfer from the
modulating wave to carrier.
2

 Modulation / demodulation
(1) shifting frequency range of message signal into
another one- suitable for transmission over the
channel
(2) corresponding shift back to the original
frequency range after reception of the signal

Two most common used forms of carriers

Sinusoidal wave
Periodic pulse wave

two main classes of modulation

Continuous wave (CW)
Pulse modulation
3

Amplitude modulation
The amplitude of a carrier sine wave is
modified according to a message signal=
information

Angle modulation
instantaneous frequency / phase of the
carrier sine wave varies with the message
Frequency modulation
Phase modulation
4

Essential components of a
communication system, using
continuous-wave (CW) modulation

The noise from the channel decreases performance of the overall scheme

Amplitude modulation vs Angle

modulation (exponential)

Amplitude modulation
Sinusoidal carrier wave: c ( t ) = Ac cos c t
Modulating signal:

x (t )

AM signal:

s ( t ) = Ac 1 + ka x ( t ) cos ( c t ) .

ka V -1 - amplitude sensitivity of the modulator

Modulation degree or percentage (index):
m = ka x ( t ) max 100 [ % ] ;0 < m 1; m = ka Am (message=sine wave)
f M = maximum frequency of the modulating signal
7

varying percentage of modulation

The amplitude of a harmonic signal is positive: Ac 1 + ka x ( t ) 0
ka x ( t ) 1 t
If ka x ( t ) > 1 overmodulation
1) |kax(t)|1
2) |kax(t)|>1: overmodulation; envelope distortions, phase
inversion in the carrier
m >1

Measuring modulation index

Amax

1.5

Amin

amplitudine

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5

timp

m=

6
-4

x 10

Amax Amin
100 [%]
Amax + Amin

Valid when the modulating signal is a sine wave

AM Spectrum
S ( ) = F { Ac cos c t} + F { Ac ka x ( t ) cos c t} =
1
Ac ka X ( ) ( c ) + ( + c ) ,
2
k A
S ( ) = Ac ( c ) + ( + c ) + a c X ( c ) + X ( + c ) .
2
A
k A
S ( f ) = c ( f f c ) + ( f + f c ) + a c X ( f f c ) + X ( f + f c ) .
2
2
The notation S(f) is used in communications.
= Ac ( c ) + ( + c ) +

10

Magnitude spectrum for the

baseband signal and AM signal

S ( ) = Ac ( c ) + ( + c ) +

ka Ac
X ( c ) + X ( + c )
2
11

Condition to recover correctly the

message signal & Bandwidth
Upper and lower sidebands do not
overlap if

C M > 0

f c >> f M = B (message's bandwidth)

Bandwidth of the modulated signal, BT
is double of the bandwidth of the
message (modulating) signal, B

BT = 2 B
12

AM advantages and disadvantages

+simple
implementation
used from the
beginning in radio
transmission
cheaper

bandwidth is 2x
bandwidth of
modulating wave
low energy
efficiency
AM spectrum: the carrier
~ no information
waste of power
Solution: suppress one
of the sidebands and
carrier linear AM
13

Modulator
nonlinear device, i.e. diode

14

u1 ( t ) = Ac cos c t + x ( t ) u2 ( t ) = Ac cos c t + x ( t ) g ( t )
1 2 ( 1)
g (t ) = +
cos ( 2n 1) c t
2 n =1 2n 1
n 1

A
A
u2 ( t ) c cos c t + c
2

x (t )

n =1

( 1)

n 1

2n 1

{cos 2n t + cos ( 2n 2 ) t } +
c

2 ( 1)
+
+
x ( t ) cos ( 2n 1) c t
2
n =1 2n 1
For c >> M , in the neighborhood of c
n 1

Ac
2
cos c t + x ( t ) cos c t
2

AM signal - separated by band-pass filtering centered on c

15

Demodulator : envelope
detector

low-pass filtering of u2(t) -> capacitor

removal of the DC component

16

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http://www.discip.crdp.ac-caen.fr/phch/lycee/terminale/modem/modem.htm

17

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18

http://www.discip.crdp.accaen.fr/phch/lycee/terminale/modem/modem.htm

19

http://www.discip.crdp.accaen.fr/phch/lycee/terminale/modem/modem.htm

20

Power of AM signal
x ( t ) = Am cos mt
s ( t ) = [ Ac + K a Am cos mt ] cos ( c t )
mAc
mAc
cos ( c m ) t +
cos ( c + m ) t
2
2
Am2
Power of the modulating signal Pm =
2
2
2 2
2 2
Ac m Ac m Ac Ac2
+
+
=
Power of the AM signal : Ps =
2 + m2 )
(
2
8
8
4
= Ac cos ( c t ) +

21

For detection, use only one sideband, amplitude mAc 2.

Useful power
Efficiency at receiver

m 2 Ac2
Pu =
8
Pu
m2
2
;0
=
=
<
1
m
PS 2 ( 2 + m 2 )

1
max = 100 16.67% (m=1)
6
Power from both sidebands = useful ,
Pu = m 2 A2 / 4,
Maximum efficiency

double efficiency :

m2
=
,max = 33.33%
2 + m2

22

observation
This amplitude modulation is not linear
s1 ( t ) = Ac 1 + ka x1 ( t ) cos c t ; s2 ( t ) = Ac 1 + ka x2 ( t ) cos c t ;
If s1+ 2 ( t ) results from the modulation with the sum
x1 ( t ) +x2 ( t ) we have

s1+ 2 ( t ) = Ac 1 + ka x1 ( t ) + x2 ( t ) cos c t s1 ( t ) + s2 ( t )

23

Linear Amplitude Modulation

s ( t ) = a ( t ) cos c t + ( t )
= a ( t ) cos ( t ) cos c t a ( t ) sin ( t ) sin c t
= sI ( t ) cos c t sQ ( t ) sin c t ,

canonical form of a bandpass signal

sI ( t ) in phase component (I-channel),
sQ ( t ) in quadrature component (Q-channel).
linear modulation sI ( t ) and sQ ( t ) - linear dependent on x ( t )
24

Linear Amplitude Modulation

Modulation type

In phase
component

Double sideband suppressed

carrier DSB-SC
Superior sideband
Single
sideband SSB is transmitted

with vestigial
sideband VSB

x (t )

In
quadrature
component
0

Observations

x (t )

-message

1
x(t )
2

1
x ( t )
2

x ( t ) = H { x ( t )}

inferior
sideband
is transmitted

1
x(t )
2

1
x ( t )
2

x ( t ) = H { x ( t )}

the vestige of the

superior sideband
is transmitted

1
x(t )
2
1
x(t )
2

1
x' (t )
2

the vestige of the

inferior sideband
is transmitted

1
x' (t )
2

DSB-SC suppressed carrier, bandwidth is the same as full AM

VSB large bandwidth signals

25

Observations
in phase component sI(t) depends only on the
message signal
in quadrature component sQ(t) = filtered
version of the message signal. The spectral
modification of s(t) compared to x(t) is given
only by sQ(t)
The purpose of sQ(t) if it exists, is to interfere
with the in phase component to eliminate /
reduce the power from a sideband of the
modulated signal
26

Double sideband-suppressed carrier

modulation
s (t ) = Ac x(t ) cos ct S () =

Ac
[ X ( c ) + X ( + c )].
2

27

carrier multiplied with

the message signal
carrier absent in the
spectrum
But S() has spectral
components in =c !
transmitted bandwidth
= 2xbandwidth of the
modulating wave

28

Coherent (Synchronous) Detection

reconstruct modulating signal x(t)

29

v ( t ) = s ( t ) cos ( c t + ) = Ac x ( t ) cos c t cos ( c t + )

=

Ac
Ac
x ( t ) cos
x ( t ) cos ( 2ct + )
+
2
2

 

base band ( M , M ) centered in 2 , ( 2C M , 2C + M )

c
A
v0 ( t ) = c x ( t ) cos (LPF output)
2
Desynchronisation between local oscillators - receiver &
emission unit phase error decreasing of detector response.

maximum for = 0; zero for = .

2
Local oscillator of the receiver synchronized with the local oscillator
that generates the carrier signal in frequency and in phase
30

Quadrature-Carrier multiplexing
Also known as Quadrature-amplitude modulation
(QAM)
Transmit two DSB-SC modulated waves on the
same banwidth bandwidth-conservation scheme
Modulators with quadrature phase:
carriers in quadrature, same frequency, differ in phase
by /2 (900)

Demodulator: two coherent detectors with 90

degree phase shift
=/2: output of synchronous detector = null
(quadrature effect)
31

x1 ( t ) , x2 ( t ) - independently modulating signals.

s ( t ) = Ac x1 ( t ) cos c t + Ac x2 ( t ) sin c t
32

Single side band modulation SSB

one sideband transmitted
frequency-discrimination scheme with 2 steps
Product modulator double sideband-suppressed
carrier
Bandpass filter : passes the sideband selected for
transmission and suppresses the remaining sidebands
separation lower and upper sideband energy gap
in the spectrum of the message signal x(t)
Speech signals (telephony): energy gap= -300, 300
Hz
modulated signal: energy gap 2m
33

Restrictions for BPF of sideband selection:

1. selected sideband passing band of the filter,
2. unwanted sideband stop band of the filter,
filter's transition bandwidth < 2m .
Demodulation- synchronous detection.

34

Vestigial sideband modulation VSB

Transmitted: modified version of one sideband
and to compensate this, an appropriately
chosen vestige of the other sideband.
Well suited for large bandwidth signals:
commercial television

Frequency discrimination
scheme

35

-The bandpass filter makes difference between SSB

and VSB.
-Odd symmetry in the transition bandwidth [fc- fv,
fc+fv] centered on the cutoff frequency fc

BPF frequency
response

H ( c ) + H ( + c ) = 1

36

 The sum of its magnitude at frequencies

symmetrically with fc is 1, in the transition
bandwidth
H ( c ) + H ( + c ) = 1

Phase is linear
The transmission bandwidth is
BT = B + 2f v
B -message bandwidth; f v =

s (t ) =

v
-vestigial bandwidth
2

37

1
1
Ac x ( t ) cos ct Ac x ( t ) sin ct
2
2

+ is for transmitting a vestige from the

upper sideband
- is for the lower sideband vestige
x ( t ) in quadrature component of the signal s ( t )
obtained by filtering x ( t ) with H Q ( )
H Q ( ) = j H ( c ) + H ( + c ) ; B B

38

39

SSB modulation can be seen as VSB with

vestige reduced to zero
The filter for the in quadrature component:
H Q ( ) = j sgn

Or

x ( t ) = H {x ( t )}

40

 The video signal bandwidth is large with

significant low frequencies spectral components.
Hence the VSB
Demodulation circuits must be simple
(affordable). This requirement imposes envelope
detection hence transmitting the carrier besides
the VSB signal
In reality, since at transmitter the power is high,
the VSB filter is used at receiver (low power,
relatively affordable filter)
41

Video signal spectrum

VSB filter characteristic at receiver

42

North America: channel bandwidth 6 MHz

Picture carrier: 55,25 MHz
Sound carrier: 59,75 MHz
Image signal spectrum is 1,25MHz below carrier, and
4,5MHz above it

43

Adding the carrier:

1
1

s ( t ) = Ac 1 + mx ( t ) cos ct mAc x ( t ) sin c t

2
2

m-modulation degree.
At envelope detection:
1
2 mx ( t )
1

a ( t ) = Ac 1 + mx ( t ) 1 +

1
2

1 + x ( t )
2

44

 The signal is distorted at the receiver. This

can be reduced by
-reducing the modulation degree
-increasing vestigial bandwidth to reduce
x(t)
The vestigial bandwidth 0,75MHz (1/6 of the
bandwidth) is chosen such that distortion
is acceptable even for m=100%
45

Frequency translation
Change the carrier
frequency of the
modulated signal from
1 to 2
Mixer: product
modulator+bandpass
filter

Up conversion 2 > 1
l = 2 1
Down conversion 2 < 1
l = 1 2

46

Up conversion, 2>1

Image signal spectrum

Spectrum of the modulated signal
with up conversion

47

Down conversion, 2<1

Spectrum of the modulated

signal with down conversion

Image signal spectrum

48

Frequency Division Multiplexing

Telephony systems: 300Hz-3400Hz
Goal: transmit simultaneously several
vocal signals on the same channel:
FDM-frequency division multiplexing
TDM-time division multiplexing

FDM, using AM-SSB

Distance between carriers 4kHz
BPFs bandwidth limitation at 4kHz
49

Frequency Division Multiplexing

LPF -remove high frequency
components
AM Modulators modulate the
signals on different carrier
frequencies

50

51

Angular Modulation
modulate a carrier : alter its angle phase,
according to the message; amplitude ~
constant
Advantage: signal more robust against
noise and interference.
Disadvantage: increase in bandwidth

52

Angular Modulation
Modulated signal- rotating vector with amplitude Ac

and angle i ( t ) :

s ( t ) = Ac cos i ( t )
Its angular velocity: instantaneous frequency of the
modulated signal.
i ( t ) =

d i ( t )
dt
53

Angular Modulation

Frequency modulation (FM).

i ( t ) = c + 2k f x ( t )
kf

[ Hz/V ] - frequency sensitivity.

Phase modulation (PM)

i ( t ) = c t + k p x ( t )

k p [ rad/V ] - phase sensitivity.

s ( t ) = Ac cos c t + k p x ( t )

i ( t ) = c t + 2k f x ( ) d
t

s ( t ) = Ac cos c t + 2k f x ( )d
0

FM signal generated using x ( t ) =PM signal generated using x ( ) d .

0

54

Frequency Modulation
modulating signal:

x ( t ) = Am cos mt

instantaneous frequency

i ( t ) = c + 2k f Am cos mt

The frequency deviation

= 2k f Am

is the maximum instantaneous difference between FM modulated carrier frequency

and nominal carrier frequency;
The modulation index.

2k f Am

=
m
m

s ( t ) = Ac cos i ( t ) = Ac cos [ ct + sin mt ]

Essential characteristic for FM : frequency deviation f is proportional with
modulating signal amplitude Am ; does not depend on its frequency.
<< 1 radian - narrow band modulation.
>> 1 radian - wide band modulation.

55

Narrow Band Frequency Modulation

s ( t ) = Ac cos c t cos ( sin mt ) Ac sin c t sin ( sin mt ) .

rad cos ( sin mt ) 1 and sin ( sin mt ) sin mt

36
s ( t ) = Ac cos c t Ac sin c t sin mt.
If <

56

Phasorial representation of the FM and AM signals

FM

AM

s AM ( t ) = Ac [1 + m cos mt ] cos c t

sFM ( t ) Ac cos c t
1
+ Ac cos ( c + m ) t cos ( c m ) t
2

= Ac cos c t +
1
mAc cos ( c + m ) t + cos ( c m ) t
2

Narrow band FM and AM same bandwidth

57

Narrow Band FM Spectrum general case

X ( c ) X ( + c )
S ( ) = Ac ( c ) + ( + c ) + Ac

+ c
c
t

s ( t ) = Ac cos c t + 2k f x ( ) d
0

0
=

y ( t )= x( ) d
y(t ) A

= Ac cos c t cos ( 2k f y ( t ) ) Ac sin c t sin ( 2k f y ( t ) ) .

36
s ( t ) Ac cos c t Ac 2k f y ( t ) sin c t.
Narrow band modulation, 2k f A

Ex: /10=0.314, sin( /10)=0.309

58

y ( t ) = x ( ) d Y ( ) =
0

1
X ( )
j

S ( ) = Ac ( c ) + ( + c ) Ac k f

X ( )
( c ) ( + c ) ,
j
j

X ( c ) X ( + c )
S ( ) = Ac ( c ) + ( + c ) + Ac

+ c
c
k A
S MA ( ) = Ac ( c ) + ( + c ) + a c X ( c ) + X ( + c )
2

59

Wide Band Frequency Modulation

s ( t ) = Ac cos [ c t + sin mt ]

= Ac cos c t cos ( sin mt ) Ac sin c t sin ( sin mt )

s ( t ) = Re Ac e
s ( t ) = Ac

j ( c t + sin m t )

J ( )e
n

n =

jnm t

s ( t ) = Ac e j sin mt

Re s ( t ) e jct ,

- complex envelope of the FM signal s ( t )

J n ( x ) -Bessel function of first kind, order n and variable x.

s ( t ) = Ac

n =

S ( ) =

J n ( ) cos ( c t + nmt ) = Ac

Ac
2

J ( ) (

n =

J ( ) cos 2 ( f

n =

+ nf m ) t

nm ) + ( + c + nm ) .
60

First five Bessel

functions, J0()-J4()

properties of Bessel's functions

1. J n ( ) = ( 1) J n ( ) for any n Z ,
n

2. For small , we have:

J 0 ( ) 1 ; J1 ( )

; J n ( ) 0 ; n > 2 ; << 1 ;

3.

J ( ) = 1.

n =

A
S ( ) = c
2
Remarks

2
n

J ( ) (
n

n =

61

nm ) + ( + c + nm ) .

1. FM Spectrum: component on the carrier, c and an infinite set

of components on the sidebands at a distance of m , 2m , ... c
2. << 1 (narrow bandwidth FM), only J 0 ( ) and J1 ( ) have

significative values carrier (c ) and two lateral bands c m .

3. The amplitude of the component on c depends on the factor J 0 ( )

not constant.
The power is constant :
P=

1 2 2
1
Ac J n ( ) = Ac2
2 n =
2
62

Example 1
=

2 k f Am

f m = const;
Am variable f = k f Am variable
variable
Spectral components separated
by f m (const).

The amplitude of the modulating signal affects the FM spectrum

63

2 k f Am

Example 2
Am = const f = k f Am const
f m variable = variable
+ number of sprectral components
in the interval [ f c f , f c + f ]
increases
FM bandwidth
2f

The frequency of the modulating signal affects the FM spectrum

64

The transmission bandwidth of FM signals

Ac
J n ( ) ( c nm ) + ( + c + nm ) .
2 n =
For , the transmission bandwidth BT 2f ; centered on f c .
S ( ) =

Carson's rule : nearly all (~98%) of the power of a FM signal lies

within a bandwidth BT of:
1
BT 2f + 2 f m = 2f 1 +

Carson's rule : under estimation of transmission band.
The universal curve : over estimation of transmission band
The transmission bandwidth is found between the two estimates
65

Equivalent definition of the

transmission bandwidth
The frequency interval where the spectral components of the FM signal
have a value superior to 1% of the carrier amplitude.
BT = 2nmax f m ,
where for each n nmax is satisfied the condition
J n ( ) > 0, 01.
The value nmax depends on .

66

Non harmonic modulating wave

x ( t ) - modulating signal, maximum frequency W (same as f m )
Amax = max x ( t ) f = k f Amax , frequency deviation
D = f / W deviation ratio (same as ).
Carson's rule: replace with D and f m with W and the
universal curve for any modulating signal

67

Example 3
North America, radio transmissions:
75
= 5.
15
Carson's rule : BT = 2 ( f + W ) = 180 kHz.
f = 75 kHz ; W = 15 kHz ; D =

Universal curve : D = 5 BT = 3, 2f = 240 kHz.

In practice a transmission bandwidth of 200 kHz
is used.
68

Frequency Modulated Signals

Generation
There are 2 methods,
direct - based on a voltage controlled oscillator - 555 timer
indirect - 1. narrow band FM
2. frequency multiplication to set the frequency
deviation.
The second method high frequency stability
FM radio broadcasting

69

FM Signal Generation, indirect method

The frequency deviation is small to reduce

distortions narrow band modulation

narrow band FM signal wide band FM

signal by frequency multiplication

70

Input: s ( t ) = Ac cos c t + 2 k f x ( )d , with fi ( t ) = f c + k f x ( t )

0

2
n
Output: v ( t ) = a1s ( t ) + a2 s ( t ) + ... + an s ( t )

The pass-band of the band-pass filter is n times larger than of the

bandwidth of the signal s ( t ) .
t

s ' ( t ) = Ac 'cos nc t + 2 nk f x ( ) d with the instantaneous

0

frequency: fi ' ( t ) = nf c + nk f x ( t ) .

71

The frequency multiplier is a nonlinear

device followed by a bandpass filter
The nonlinear device is memoryless in
the sense that it doesnt have in its
structure reactive elements

72

Demodulation
Reconstruction of modulating wave
Inverse characteristic of transfer of the
characteristic of transfer of the FM modulator
1. directly: frequency discriminator: output
proportional with the instantaneous
frequency of the FM signal.
2. indirectly: PLL circuit (Phase-locked loop)
73

FM quadrature demodulator

The block diagram of the demodulator

74

 The quadrature demodulator converts the FM

signal:
t

s ( t ) = A cos 2fct + 2 x ( ) d
0

fc = 10.7 MHz = 10700kHz

into a PM signal, and a PM detector is used to

recover the message signal, x(t)

75

1. The phase shifter converts FM

modulation into PM modulation but
preserves the FM modulation
2. The analog multiplier serves as a
phase detector, PD, and produces an
output being linearly proportional to PM.
PD is not sensitive to FM
3. The low-pass filter suppresses the
spectral components with high
frequency (2fc)
76

The phase shift is linearly proportional to the instantaneous

frequency deviation around the carrier frequency, 10700kHz.

o ( f ) = 90o +
( f )=

34.42
( f 10700 )
150

+ 4 103 ( f 10700 ) [rad], f [kHz]

77

The phase shifted signal is :

s (t ) = A cos 2 10700t + 2 k x( )d + 4 103 ( f 10700 )

2
0


= A sin 2 10, 700t + 2 k x( ) d + 4 103 ( f 10700 )
0

78

But the amplitude response of the phase shifter is

79

FM

Maximum gain

20 log

A M / A
= 20 log
A m / A

A M
= 0.771 [dB]
A m

Minimum gain
The amplitude varies only a little, and therefore we can
consider the output amplitude of the output from the phase
shifter is constant:
A M
1.093 A cst.
A
m
The mean gain can be taken as:
A
20 log 26.57 [dB] A 4.7 10-2 A
A
80

The phase detector is implemented by an analog multiplier:

s (t ) s (t ) =
t
t

= AA cos 2 10700t + 2 x ( ) d sin 2 10700t + 2 k x ( ) d + 4 103 ( f 10700 )

0
0

= 2.35 10-2 A2 sin 4 103 ( f 10700 )

t

+ 2.35 10-2 A2 sin 2 21.400t + 4 k x ( ) d + 4 103 ( f 10700 )

0

The low-pass filter suppresses the second component,

centered at 21.4 MHz. The first component, a base-band
component is retained:
x(t ) = 2.35 10-2 A2 sin 4 103 ( f 10, 700 )
81

4 103 ( f 10, 700) 4 103 75 = 0.3 [rad]

for

0.3

sin

x (t ) = 2.35 10-2 A2 4 103 ( f 10700 )

= 94.12 106 A2 ( f 10700 )

82

 The instantaneous frequency is

f = 10700 + kx(t ) [kHz]

And therefore

x (t) 94.2 10-6 A2 kx(t )

We have obtained a FM demodulator. The circuit
configuration presented is almost exclusively
used to implement a modern FM demodulator
(discriminator).
83

The transfer function obtained is called an S curve

Linear portion of the

characteristic

84

Stereo FM Signals Multiplexing

Stereo - 2 different signals are transmitted using the same carrier.
The stereo radio broadcasting satisfies the conditions:
1. It is realized inside the broadcasting FM channel alocated,
2. It is compatible with the mono receivers.
The signal xl ( t ) + xr ( t ) represents the part of the base-band disponible for
mono reception.
The signal xl ( t ) xr ( t ) is amplitude modulated with 2 sidebands and
suppressed carrier. The multiplexed signal :
x ( t ) = xl ( t ) + xr ( t ) + xl ( t ) xr ( t ) cos 4 f p t + K cos 2 f p t ,
is frequency modulated.
85

x ( t ) = xl ( t ) + xr ( t ) + xl ( t ) xr ( t ) cos 4 f p t + K cos 2 f p t
86

87

Non-linear Effects in Frequency

Modulation
Nonlinearities in electronic circuits
Strong non-linearity which is intentional, for
given applications

Weak non-linearity
Effect of weak non-linearity on FM
systems

88

Non-linear Effects in Frequency

Modulation
Consider a non-linear communication channel with the
input-output transfer characteristic:
v0 ( t ) = a1vi ( t ) + a2 vi2 ( t ) + a3vi3 ( t ) ,
having at its input the frequency modulated signal:
t

vi ( t ) = Ac cos 2 f c t + ( t ) ;

( t ) = 2 k f x ( )d
0

v0 ( t ) = a1 Ac cos 2 f c t + ( t ) + a2 A cos 2 f c t + ( t ) +
+ a3 Ac3 cos3 2 f c t + ( t ) .
2
c

89

From the trigonometric relations:

cos 2 x =

1 + cos 2 x
cos 3 x + 3cos x
; cos3 x =
2
4

we have:
a2 Ac2
a A2
3

+ a1 Ac + a3 Ac3 cos [ 2 f c t ] + 2 c cos 4 f c t + 2c ( t ) +

2
4
2

3
aA
+ 3 c cos 6 f c t + 3c ( t ) .
4
For the detection of the FM signal from v0 ( t ) it is necessary its identification

v0 ( t ) =

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Let f be the frequency deviation of the FM signal and

W the maximum frequency of the modulator signal. Applying Carson's rule we have the separation condition:
2 f c ( 2f + W ) > f c + ( f + W ) f c > 3f + 2W .
If this condition is satisfied then we can extract from v0 ( t ) ,
using a band-pass filter with central frequency f c and bandwidth 2f + 2W , the term
3

v0 ' ( t ) = a1 Ac + a3 Ac3 cos 2 f c t + ( t ) .

4

91

The Super-heterodyne Receiver

A radio broadcasting receiver has not only
the goal to demodulate the received signal.
Other goals:
- Selection of the desired carrier frequency,
- Filtering, for the separation of the desired
signal from other modulated signals,
- Amplification, for the compensation of the
losses produced by the propagation.
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fRF=630 kHz
Radio
Timisoara

0.3-4.5 kHz
fIF=455kHz
fLO=630+455 kHz=1085 kHz
RF- radio frequency;
IF-intermediate frequency
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RF- radio frequency; IF-intermediate frequency

f IF = f LO f RF ; f LO > f RF .
An IF signal is generated in the receiver if the difference
of the local oscillator frequency and of the input carrier
frequency equals f IF :
f RF = f LO f IF .
only one of these frequencies corresponds to the carrier,
the other one is named image frequency = f RF + 2 f IF

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 For FM case, after the IF amplifier there is

limiter and a bandpass filter
Detection is made using a frequency
discriminator

95