Exploiting the

Phaneron
Using Illusion to improve our
perception of Architecture

SAMUEL WINTON
10240729
BArch (Hons) Architecture
School of Architecture and Design
University of Lincoln
March, 2015
Tutor: Meenakshi Mandhar
Word Count: 5640

Contents
Introduction
1

The Phaneron and the Real World

1.1 An Introduction to the Phaneron
1.2 The Multisensory Experience
1.3 Vision
1.3.1 Perspective
1.4 Proprioception
1.5 The Connection Between Vision and Propreoception
1.6 Conclusions

Illusions in Architecture
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7

The Parthenon (Entasis)

Illusion of Scale Library of Celsus
Illusion of Diminishing Course
Forced Perspective Vanishing Mosque
Distortion Illusion Ames Room
Scale Reduction Manulife Place
Caf Wall Illusion (Mnsterberg Illusion) Australian
Custom Service Building
2.8 Implementing Illusions in Architecture
2.8.1 Herostasse
2.8.2 Caja Granda Savings Bank
2.8.3 Car Park in Nantes
2.9 Conclusions

3 Conclusion
3.1 Summary
3.2 Benefits of the Study
3.3 Further Research
Bibliography

5
6
7
9
10
11
12
13

15
15
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Illustrations
Figure 1- Page 1
Adams, D. (2015). 88 Brilliant Examples of Forced Perspective Photography. [online]
InstantShift - Web Designers and Developers Daily Resource. Available at:
http://www.instantshift.com/2010/08/24/88-brilliant-examples-of-forced-perspectivephotography/ [Accessed 12 Mar. 2015].

Figure 2 - Page 5
Spongyducky.deviantart.com, (2015). Roadmap of the Phaneron by spongyducky on
DeviantArt. [online] Available at: http://spongyducky.deviantart.com/art/Roadmap-of-thePhaneron-384497132 [Accessed 12 Mar. 2015].

Figure 3 - Page 9 & 16

Braingle.com, (2015). Braingle: 'Herring Illusion' Brain Teaser. [online] Available at:
http://www.braingle.com/wii/brainteasers/teaser.php?id=26902;op=0;comm=1 [Accessed 12
Mar. 2015].

Figure 4 - Page 11
Police.gov.hk, (2015). Drug Driving | Hong Kong Police Force. [online] Available at:
http://www.police.gov.hk/ppp_en/05_traffic_matters/dd.html [Accessed 4 Mar. 2015].

Figure 5 - Page 13
Schematic Depictions - Ellis, R., Flanagan, J. and Lederman, S. (1999). The influence
of visual illusions on grasp position. Experimental Brain Research, 125(2), pp.109-114.

Figure 6 - Page 16
Tonks.disted.camosun.bc.ca, (2015). Perception. [online] Available at:
http://tonks.disted.camosun.bc.ca/courses/psyc110/percep/percep.htm [Accessed 5 Mar.
2015].

Figure 7 - Page 17
Cntravelre.com, (2015). IMG-Library-of-Celsus-9.jpg | cnTRAVEL. [online] Available at:
http://www.cntravelre.com/?attachment_id=3227 [Accessed 12 Mar. 2015].

Figure 8 - Page 18
Illusion of diminishing course example - Luckiesh, M. (1922). Visual illusions, their
causes, characteristics and applications. New York: D. Van Nostrand Co.

Figure 9 - Page 19
mirage.studio.7, (2006). Architecture and Optical Illusion. [online] Available at:
http://blog.miragestudio7.com/architecture-and-optical-illusion/422/ [Accessed 28 Jan. 2015].

Figure 10 - Page 20
Ames room example - RANG Speak Your Mind, (2011). Ames Room: is Seeing truly
Believing? (Part 1). [online] Available at:
https://rangspeakyourmind.wordpress.com/2011/02/10/ames-room-1/ [Accessed 12 Mar.
2015].

Figure 11 - Page 21
Ames room Explanation - Commons.wikimedia.org, (2009). File:Ames room-de.svg Wikimedia Commons. [online] Available at:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ames_room-de.svg [Accessed 12 Mar. 2015].

Figure 12 - Page 21
Forced Perspective Mosque - designboom | architecture & design magazine, (2015).
rux: the vanishing mosque - designboom | architecture & design magazine. [online] Available at:
http://www.designboom.com/architecture/rux-the-vanishing-mosque/ [Accessed 15 Feb.
2015].

Figure 13 - Page 21
Forced Perspective Mosque - designboom | architecture & design magazine, (2015).
rux: the vanishing mosque - designboom | architecture & design magazine. [online] Available at:
http://www.designboom.com/architecture/rux-the-vanishing-mosque/ [Accessed 15 Feb.
2015].

Figure 14 - Page 22
Psy.ritsumei.ac.jp, (2015). [online] Available at:
http://www.psy.ritsumei.ac.jp/~akitaoka/cafewall2.gif [Accessed 4 Mar. 2015].

Figure 15 - Page 22
Gregory, R. and Heard, P. (1979). Border locking and the Caf Wall illusion.
Perception, 8(4), pp.365-380.

Figure 16 - Page 23
Qualitas.com, (2015). Qualitas - Digital Harbour. [online] Available at:
http://www.qualitas.com/section.php?xSec=43 [Accessed 4 Mar. 2015].

Figure 17 - Page 24
ArchDaily, (2015). Herostrasse Office Building / Max Dudler. [online] Available at:
http://www.archdaily.com/605016/herostrasse-office-building-max-dudler/ [Accessed 8 Mar.
2015].

Figure 18 - Page 24
ArchDaily, (2015). Herostrasse Office Building / Max Dudler. [online] Available at:
http://www.archdaily.com/605016/herostrasse-office-building-max-dudler/ [Accessed 8 Mar.
2015].

Figure 19 - Page 25
Langdon, D. (2015). AD Classics: Caja Granada Savings Bank / Alberto Campo Baeza. [online]
ArchDaily. Available at: http://www.archdaily.com/605350/ad-classics-caja-granada-savingsbank-alberto-campo-baeza/ [Accessed 11 Mar. 2015].

Figure 20 - Page 26
ArchDaily, (2011). Car Park In Nantes / Barto+Barto Architects. [online] Available at:
http://www.archdaily.com/108248/car-park-in-nantes-bartobarto-architects/ [Accessed 11
Mar. 2015].

Introduction

Fig. 1 - Forced Perspective of the Eifel Tower

Adams (2014)
The concept of human perception is the focal point of this study so it seems fitting to begin
with a definition of the term. As defined by Attneave: On the crudest and most superficial level:
Perception has to do with the input side of the organism, with certain short term consequences
(how short is difficult to specify) of variations in stimulating conditions (Attneave, 1962). When
trying to define perception we cannot be more specific without causing disagreements between
psychologists. Knowing the definition of perception, we can now understand Peirces concept of the
phaneron: by the phaneron I mean the collective total of all that is in any way or in any sense
present to the mind, quite regardless of whether it corresponds to any real thing or not, (Peirce,
Fisch and Kloesel, 1982). The phaneron is built up using the academically agreed upon 9 senses:
vision, smell, taste, hearing, touch, proprioception, thermoception, equilibrioception and
nociception. In this paper vision and proprioception will be the main focus. Focusing on these two
senses rather than all 9 will enable a deeper analysis can be conducted on these two most relevant
senses. As 50% of neuro tissue is dedicated to vision (Bowan, 1999) this allows for results found to
remain relevant. The understanding that the real world is separate to the phaneron is the key when
looking at illusions.

Dissertation Aims

The aim of this dissertation is to analyse the viability and potential benefits of using
illusions and knowledge of human perception in the field of architecture. The reasons why
illusions occur will be investigated in two ways, these being neurologically and
psychologically. Once an understanding of what causes illusions is determined, the paper will
then look at examples which utilise illusion, in both architecture and other fields. The
potential benefits of the research will be discussed in the conclusion.

Methodology

To implement illusions within architecture it is important to understand the cause

and effect of the relevant systems at play. Considering the psychology behind illusions will
help us understand the reasons for their effect. Once a knowledge base of perception has
been set, the study will then look at example that have used this knowledge both
successfully and unsuccessfully. The examples researched will then lead to the conclusion of
the study where the question of whether such use of perceptual knowledge is viable in
modern architecture.

Literature Review
Current literature in the field of illusions identifies that there is a disconnection
between what we perceive and the real world. This idea has been debated for many
centuries. Details into illusions, both passive and constructed, are discussed. This study
focuses on everyday illusions. However, using constructed illusions to improve
understanding is a necessity. Whether or not illusions are constantly present is discussed in
2

current literature. What we perceive to be the real word is not absolute. This does not
deny that everything we experience is a manifestation of ones own mind but says that the
senses limit our knowledge of the experience. This, as discussed by Lanners (1977), is then
related to architecture by Norberg-Schulz (1966). The discussion in architecture is focused
upon perception from a phenomenological stand point. This is demonstrated by both
Norberg-Schilz (1966) and Pallasmaa (2005).
When perception has been discussed in architecture it is regularly referred to as
being visually dominant. This is particularly prevalent in western cultures. The term
ocularcentrism is used to describe the visual focus in perception (Kleinberg-Levin, 1993).
Current research in illusionary architecture has been focused on vision in virtual
environments. Kelly (2013) discusses the implications of virtual environments and their
implications on architecture. This study looked into physically impossible environments and
how perception was altered by the environments created. Kelly (2013) stated that although
implementation of these environments into our everyday lives is possible, more research is
needed into their effects on our wellbeing. However, this study focuses on the passive
illusions which have been used in architecture successfully since Antiquity (Spiliotis 2008).
Such illusory techniques have been considered and refined since the Greek Temples.
However, such use of illusions has heavily declined. The reason for this has not been stated
but it can be theorised that it is due to the mechanisation of building techniques. This
mechanisation coupled with the modernist movement may provide the reason for this
decline.

Structure
This study has been divided into two main sections. The first section will cover the
phenomenological side of architecture and its connection to the Phaneron. In this section
two chosen senses are discussed to take into account their individual connections to the
perception of architecture. When discussing this, the viability of altering these senses will be
questioned.
The second section focuses on examples of perceptual knowledge being used in
architecture. This section will look at the historical use of perceptual knowledge in
architecture to provide relevant background information for this study. This will then be
followed by modern examples of illusory techniques that have been utilised in architecture.
Subsequently, examples of contemporary architecture that do not utilise illusions will be
analysed and suggestions made as to how these buildings could be refined using illusions.
The conclusion will summarise what has been learnt through this research. This will
review each section and draw conclusions from each. After the summary the potential
benefits of this study and future research into the field will be discussed.

Chapter 1

The Phaneron and the Real World

Fig. 2 - Road Map to the Phaneron

Deviantart (2014)

This chapter is an introduction to the concept of the phaneron. It will investigate the
disconnection between the real world and the phaneron. Exploring this disconnection will
give context to illusions and why they occur. The focus will be on the ability to alter vision
and proprioception in relation to architecture. After the phaneron has been discussed the
two senses selected for this study will be discussed. Reviewing how the phaneron and
architecture have been related in previous text will give essential knowledge needed, when
considering the viability of illusions being used in architecture.

1.1 An Introduction to the Phaneron

The phaneron is a term devised by Charles S Peirce. In his definition of the term Peirce
suggests that our experience of the world is not absolute when he says: by the phaneron I mean the
collective total of all that is in any way or in any sense present to the mind, quite regardless of
whether it corresponds to anything real or not, (Peirce, Fisch and Kloesel, 1982). The concept of
the phaneron relies on the fact that all the sensory input we experience is filtered through our
minds, which allows for preconceptions to alter or reject the initial data. Peirce therefore suggests
that it is not possible to be sure of anything beyond the phaneron. Martin Gardner agrees with this
stating: If you ask me to tell you about the nature of what lies beyond the phaneron my answer is
how should I know, (Gardner, 1983, 17). Gardners definition of the phaneron is anecdotal; he
accepts the limitations of the phaneron and accepts his limited knowledge of the real world. The
acceptance of the limitations of our perception has caused a number of theories about what lies
outside our perception.
The concept of the phaneron has formed two widely accepted theories of what we can
know about the real world, the first of which is solipsism. This is the belief that nothing is real
outside of ones phaneron and everything experienced is created by ones own mind. The opposing
theory is realism, which is the belief that a persons phaneron is separate from the real world and
that everything in the real world would continue to exist even if you were not there to experience
it. The latter ideology is more widely accepted as it is a healthier veiw (Gardner, 1983). Neither of
these theories can be proved, they can only be believed. This paper is therefore written on the basis
of realism. Realism is the only theory in which illusions can be explained due to the disconnection
between the phaneron and the real world. Hence this is the only theory this paper can follow.
The phaneron and the real world can therefore been seen as separate entities. The real
world remains constant but no two phanerons perceive anything in the same manner. To perceive
is to interpret that is to choose between the intentional possibilities. (Norberg-Schulz, 1966, 34).
Norberg-Schulz here begins the suggestion that perception is a selective process. His use of the
6

word interpret and the idea that our perception can choose to reject stimuli, introduces the
disconnection between the phaneron and the real world. Although each person will perceive stimuli
differently illusions are often caused by neurological processes (of our senses), which occur the same
in all humans hence the majority of illusions sill cause the same perceptual errors in all perceivers.

1.2 The Multisensory Experience

All information we receive from the real world is collected from the academically agreed
nine senses, these being vision, smell, taste, hearing, touch, proprioception, thermoception,
equilibrioception and nociception (Bowan, 1999). Kinaesthesia, although not classed as a sense due
to its similarity to proprioception, is also relevant to the study. The senses focused on in this study
will be vision and proprioception with the inclusion of kinaesthesia. Although we experience the
world with these 9 senses, vision and proprioception, with the inclusion of kinaesthesia, have been
selected as they are the most relevant to perceive architecture. The reason for choosing vision is
that it is the medium which is relied on the most. This is confirmed by 50% of neuro tissue being
dedicated to this sense (Bowan, 1999). Proprioception has been chosen as it is the only one of our
nine senses that can be used with vision to determine relative positioning.
It is important to understand that all senses are relativistic. All stimuli are perceived in
relation to the observer. Pallasmaa explains this when saying I confront the city with my body; my
legs measure the length of the arcade and the width of the square, (Pallasmaa, 2005, 40). Here
Pallasmaa is speaking about the subconscious methods we use to judge size in architecture. It can be
deduced that subconscious methods of measurements are relative. Pallasmaa says that his legs
measure but this cannot be taken literally. Individuals do not measure in the same way as each
other. my legs are not perceived by Pallasmaa as your legs are to you, the reader.
Pallasmaa continues to remark: my gaze unconsciously projects my body onto the faade of
the cathedral, where it roams over the mouldings and contours,(Pallasmaa, 2005). Here he suggest
that although people visually perceive faades they also subconsciously touch the textures and the

recesses which reside on it. It is the past experiences of the perceiver that inform what they touch
when viewing the faade. It is obvious to state that no two people have had the identical past
experiences, but this is important to know as it is the explanation for peoples different perceptions
of the same objects. This idea is explained by B. Magda using infants as the subject. Magda states that
to an infant the world is a `Buzzing a Blooming experience` in which nothing perceived has true
meaning yet. The infant does not understand how he can effect an object nor how the object can
affect him. After the infant has manipulated and interacted with an object, the memories of these
inter actions can be recalled therefore giving meaning to the `buzzing` experienced before the
interaction (Arnold, 1984). Although architecture is often only experienced through vision the
perceiver will recall how such architecture can affect his other senses such as touch and smell, as
well as how in turn the perceiver can affect architecture.

1.3 Vision

Fig. 3 - Herring Illusion

Braingle (2014)

Vision is the medium relied on most by able-bodied people. It is therefore no

surprise that when the disconnection between ones phaneron and the real world is
exposed visually, it evokes the most curiosity (Bowman, 1990). Hence this can be seen as
the reason that optical illusions are common knowledge. This reliance on vision has often
been remarked on as having a negative impact, forcing people into detachment from
architecture (Pallasmaa, 2005). The term for this is ocularcentrism which is defined as the
central focus on visual stimuli (Carspecken, 2003). This is most prevalent is western cultures
and in architecture is often referred to as an issue.
The dependence on vision in western culture has meant that other senses are no
longer consciously considered when interacting with architecture. Pallasmaa suggests, The
dominance of the eye and the suppression of the other senses tend to push us into
detachment, (Pallasmaa, 2005, 22). Detachment from architecture is here argued to be due
to a focus on visual stimuli. This in turn reduces the sense of place in these spaces, as
constant referral and confirmation from other senses is what creates a strong feeling of
place.
9

The combination of western cultures dependence on vision and the extensive

research into visual processing means that there is an opportunity to alter how architecture
is perceived. This should be done as such visual illusions can refine architectural forms.
Buildings can be made to be perceived as larger as or smaller than their actual size, making
them either more striking or less imposing.

1.3.1 Perspective
When we perceive the world we use both eyes binocularly to determine
convergences and disparities. This method is also used to judge motion and spatial
relationships between multiple objects. When observing a 3D environment we attempt to
draw 3D cues from the two 2D images produced by each eye. However, when not enough
3D cues can be drawn the mind begins to make assumptions that can lead to optical illusions
(Kelly, 2013).
We use pictorial cues such as interposition, occlusion, familiar scales and perspective
to aid day to day interactions with 3D environments (Marotta and Goodale, 1998). Of the
cues mentioned, perspective has been found to have the most significance when determining
relative positioning and shadow. Perspective is the visual understanding of objects when
discerning their position, and distance from the viewer (Allen, Fowler and Fowler, 1990).
Understanding that an objects distance from the perceiver is inversely proportional to its
size enables the size and relative distance from the observer to be determined. When
illusions have been implemented into architecture, the use of perspective illusions (forced
perspective) is a common method of altering the perceived scale of features. This in turn
causes discrepancies when considering relationships between the surroundings and the
observer.
10

Fig. 4 - Proprioceptive Test

Police.gov.hk (2015)

1.4 Proprioception
Knowing and understanding the position of ones self in space and time is essential
information. When moving through space our relative position to ourselves is known using
proprioception. This is the sense which allows us to touch our nose whilst our eyes are
closed as shown in Fig. 4. The relative position when reaching for an object relies on both
vision and proprioception (Graziano, 1999). These two senses constantly confirm and reject
each other to allow smooth movements in space time.

Proprioception is the internal sense of limb position in space time. Kinaesthesia is

the bodys external positioning in space time. Kinaesthesia and our mental reasoning of the
world around us and is built up around a golden braid, this braid being, perception, action
and experience (Clark, 2009). This constant feedback system is what gives us our sense of
space and time. This sense of space and time allows us to move through spaces judging the
distances we are from objects.

Proprioceptional reasoning is used by the subconscious mind when experiencing

architecture. As referenced earlier, Pallasmaa speaks of his unconscious mind projecting his
11

body upon the faade of a cathedral (Pallasmaa, 2005). This refers to his external
understanding of space time. This sense of projection into the external world is called
kinaesthesia. Garn and Newton defined Kinesthesia as the ability to discriminate joint
motion and position (Garn and Newton, 1988). Their description implies that kinesthesia is
the knowledge of how ones limbs, both in motion and coloration, relate to the
environment inhabited. It is by this method that we interact with the world without
touching it.

When observing a surface a person can find it agreeable or discomforting with

regard to the surfaces texture. The external projection is subconscious and passive. It is
therefore possible to create a sense of agreement with a space by maintaining a comfortable
pallet of textures and colours. Such work would be an example of kinaesthesia being used to
improve ones sense of comfort in the space they inhabit.

1.5 The Connection between Vision and Proprioception

There are ongoing debates about how these two systems interact together. This is
especially true with regard to whether visual illusions affect the proprioceptive system. It is
this topic which will be investigated here.
Early research into this area conclusively proved there was dissociation between the
visual systems and proprioceptive systems. These are is now termed, Experimental
artifacts, (Bruno, 2001). This suggests that when the observer reference frame is
emphasised the participants in the experiment become immune to the visual illusions. This

12

has therefore meant the results of recent experiments, in which the reference frame is no
longer emphasised, have differed from previous experiments.
An example of such is Ellis, Flanagan and Ledermans
study into the influence of visual illusions on grasp position.
In this experiment participants were asked to grasp the
centre of a steel bar three times: once for a control
measure (A) and two more times with illusions designed to
alter the visual systems ability to judge the centre of the
bar (B and C). These illusions are shown below.

Fig. 5 - Schematic Depictions

Ellis (1999)

The results of this experiment showed that: Clearly the illusory backgrounds did affect
both visually perceived estimate of the centre and the grasp position (Ellis, Flanagan and
Lederman, 1999).
Experiments such as this could lead to widespread implications on current theories
of perception. Such implications can easily be applied to the field of architecture. Using
visual illusions to alter peoples perception of space, can also change observer
proprioceptional understanding of the architecture around them.

1.6 Conclusions
The phaneron is the sum total of all our senses but it is deduced that it is not an
absolute representation of the real world. Our perception is therefore an interpretation of
the real world. This in turn means that no two separate phanerons can perceive the world

13

in the same way. Each person can subconsciously choose to accept or reject stimuli based
on past experiences.
When we perceive architecture the two senses used prolifically are vision and
proprioception. This is especially true of vision which is said to be the central focus by
Carspecken (2003). When viewing architecture pictorial cues are used to create a sense of
size and distance from objects and faades. Perspective is the visual cue which is used most
when viewing 3D environments. Perspective and proprioception constantly confirm and
reject each other to create a sense of self-awareness in a space.
Proprioception is used to maintain awareness of ones limb position in relation to
ones self. Proprioception is used in combination with vision to build up an awareness of
external spaces. This is called kinaesthesia and it is the method by which we project
ourselves into the external world. Recent studies have shown that these two sense are
more connected than originally believed. These studies look at the connection between
visual illusions and proprioceptive awareness. More research in this area could allow for the
alteration of perceivers self-awareness in architecture using visual Illusions.

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Chapter 2

Illusions in Architecture

Illusions have been utilised in architecture since antiquity, often this illusions were
used to correct perceptual imperfections. However there are examples in which the
illusions used have been applied to accentuate or reduce elements of the buildings form.
These examples will be discussed in the first sections of this chapter.
This chapter will proceed to investigate contemporary architecture in which the use
of illusions has declined. Here potential illusions that could have improved the perception of
the building will be suggested and their possible effects will be discussed.

2.1 The Parthenon (Entasis)

It seems appropriate to start this chapter by looking at one of the most famous and
earliest examples of illusions used in the field of architecture. The Parthenon is known for
its correctional illusions. The distortions of the lines of the building are implemented due to
the illusion in Fig. 3. As we see in perspective, when a truly straight line is present as bellow
they appear to bow.

15

Fig.3 - Herring Illusion

Braingle (2014)

The horizontal lines would appear to sag in the middle and the vertical lines would
swell at either end (Tomlinson, 1989), this effect is known as entasis. This is explained in the
Fig. 6 below.

Fig 6 - Etasis Explaination

Tonks (2015)
16

There are recent debates as to whether these correctional illusions are intentional
or implemented for another reason. It has been suggested these corrections are due to
engineering requirements or aesthetics. Although there is evidence for these columns giving
a greater strength to weight ratio it is premature to draw a conclusion yet (Thompson,
Vassiliou and Papadopoulou, 2007). Whether entasis is used for engineering aesthetics or
illusion the affect it has on perception is an example in which architecture is improved by
perceptual illusion.

2.2 Illusion of Scale Library of Celsus

Fig. 7 - Illusion of Scale

(Cntravelre.com,2015)

This illusion is experienced by observing the faade of the Library of Celsus, located
in Ephesus. This illusion relies on the repetitive elements of a building. In this library these
elements are the columns. The minds assumption that these elements possess equal
dimensions is taken advantage of. The slight reduction to the width of the exterior and first
floor columns creates the appearance of larger spacing between the columns as well as an
17

illusion of increased scale. The reduction in size is presumed to be due to a greater distance
between the observer and the object (Mirage.studio.7, 2006). The modernist movement and
the integration of columns allow this method of illusion to become viable in new
architecture. There is a valid argument that such a use of this illusion is an expense that is
not required. This is a strong argument against such a implementation. By changing the
repetitive elements the cost of the building will in turn rise, making the justification of such a
system difficult.

2.3 Illusion of Diminishing Course

Similar to the previous illusion, illusions of diminishing course also use repetitive
elements to increase the perceived size of a structure. The repetitive element in this
building is the shingle roofing.

Fig 8 - Illusion of Diminishing Course

(Luckiesh, 1922)

In this example the tiles decrease in size as they move up the roof. This illusion takes
advantage of our rules of perspective. The effect of this is that the roof is perceived to
extend further in height and distance from the perceiver. The practical implications of this
illusion are greater than the previous. The cheap cost of this style of roofing can allow for
the integration of this subtle illusion.

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2.4 Forced Perspective Vanishing Mosque

Fig. 9 - Vanishing Mosque

(Designboom,2015)

As with the previous two examples this Mosque design takes advantage of our
perceptual assumptions. Our perception has a choice between perceiving an objects size by
its imprint on our retina or perceiving the objects distance from us by this method. In the
above design entry, forced perspective is used to create the illusion that the steps and
surrounding row of buildings continue to the horizon. Raising the steps to a converging
point along with the street faades being saw-toothed, as shown in the model below, causes
this illusion.

Fig. 10 -Vanishing Mosque

(Designboom,2015)

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2.5 Distortion Illusion Ames Room

The Ames room is one of the most well know perspective illusions. The room itself
is heavily distorted and twisted. However, from one viewing position the room appears
rectangular despite its offset geometry.

Fig. 11 - Ames Room Example

(RANG, 2011)

The brain generally perceives objects producing small retinal images to be further
from the eye. In this case the rooms distortion leads the brain to perceive the back wall to
be flat and the geometry to be rectangular. In turn this causes our perception of the objects
sizes in the room to be distorted proportionally to the rooms distortion (Kelly, 2013). A
small retinal image can be perceived in two ways. It is either viewed as a small or distant
object. Our perception is convinced, due to past experiences of rectangular rooms, that the
small retinal image is a small object, when it is actually far away. This illusion has no practical
use in architecture. However, the methods used in this installation can be carried across
into architecture to alter the perceived size of the space, objects and buildings. The previous
three illusions are created using subtle versions of the devises used in the Ames room.

20

Fig. 12 - Ames Room Explanation

(Commons.wikimedia, 2009)

2.6 Scale Reduction Manulife Place

Fig. 13 - Manulife Place

(Mirage.studio, 2006)

Ottawa hosts the Manulife Skyscraper shown in Fig. 13, which is an example of
perceptual knowledge being used in contemporary architecture. The curtain walls of the
building are angled to reflect each other multiple times which breaks up the mass of the
building and causes observers to lose sense of what occurs at the top of the building. This
causes the outline of the building to become less intimidating as it merges with the sky
(mirage.studio.7, 2006). The number of floors and the size of these floors is something that
cannot be changed as it is part of the clients brief. The architects used the method
described to maintain floor space but reduce the imposing nature of the buildings size. No
illusions have been used in this building, instead the knowledge of perception has been
utilised.
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2.7 Caf Wall Illusion (Mnsterberg Illusion) Australian Custom

Service Building

Fig. 14 - Caf Wall Illusion

(Phy.ritsumei, 2015)

The lines between the blocks are straight. Misaligning the black and white blocks
creates the illusion that the lines are at an angle. Visual systems are said to lose their ability
to correctly register in conditions with strong contrasts in luminosity, as seen by the black
and white blocks in the illusion. Therefore the neutral border (the horizontal lines) cannot
be locked into their correct position by our perception due to the misalignment of the
strongly contrasting blocks (Gregory and Heard, 1979).
This illusion was first discovered in Bristol, England, by a decorator. The cafs tiles
were misaligned by design causing the discovery of this illusion.

Fig. 15 - Original Caf Wall Illusion

(Gregory and Heard, 1979)
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Fig. 16 - Australian Custom Service Building

(Qualitas, 2015)

This illusion has now been implemented into the Australian Custom Service
Building in Fig.16. Although this is a modern building with illusions implemented, it is not a
practical use of illusory techniques, as in the previous example. This use is purely superficial
and is not the type of implementation where perception has been truly considered. The
illusion itself does have practical implications. It can be used to highlight specific elements of
a building by increasing or reducing the perceived height of these elements at either end of
the illusion.

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2.8 Implementing Illusion in Contemporary Architecture

2.8.1 Herostasse
In this section examples of modern architecture will be analysed and improvements
based on perceptual knowledge suggested. The first example is the Herostasse office
building in Zrich, Switzerland.

Fig. 17 - Herostrasse Office Building

(Arch Daily, 2015)

This office block is an example of a building in which no illusory techniques have

been used. The form of the building is very regular with repetitive elements on all its
faades. From all directions there is a sheer 90 degree faade. This is important to note as
streets on either side of this building may cause the public to feel claustrophobic. Carmona
et al. state that: if the surrounding building height exceeds the width of the space then the
tops of buildings will no longer be visible Such ratios may lead to feelings of
claustrophobia, (Carmona et al., 2003). This is arguably an unavoidable issue as this site has
limited ground space. This means to meet the total floor space required by the client, the
building needs to be 6 floors. Therefore this is a situation in which the building may need to
appear smaller without reducing its size. In a situation such as this perspective is a potential

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solution. The repetitive elements, in this case the windows, force perspective assumptions
to be made which means that an illusion of diminishing course would positively affect the
appearance of the building.

Fig. 18 - Heeostasse & Adjacent Buildings

(Archdaily, 2015)

2.8.2 Caja Granada Savings Bank

As previously stated columns will encounter entasis, which is the distortion of
straight lines due to our perspective. This effect is increased proportionally according to the
size of the lines observed. This example shows two twenty-four metre columns as shown in
Fig. 19.

Fig. 19 - Caja Granada Savings Bank

(Archdaily, 2015)
25

The inward bowing of the columns can be corrected. Using the Parthenon as an
example, the effect of entasis can be negated by increasing the diameter at the centre of the
column. Expand

2.8.3 Car Park in Nantes

Multi-storey car parks are forced to be large regular structures by their briefs. It is in
cases like this which the size of a building cannot be changed, but the size remains imposing.
Building forms such as this can be improved using illusions of diminishing course in reverse.
In the example below it can be seen that the faades are broken up using strips of railing
around the building.

Fig. 20 - Car Park in Nantes

(Archdaily, 2015)

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The railing element can be used to reduce the perceived height of the structure. By reducing
the height of the rails on each floor the gaps between the higher floors rails will appear
larger. The larger gaps between the higher floors will mean that when the building is
perceived from ground level this illusion of diminishing course will reduce the perceived
height of the building. Illusions of diminishing course are normally used to increase the
perceived height or distance from an object. However, using the same method of altering
perception, but in reverse, causes the repetitive elements that are further away to seem
closer as they produce a larger retinal image. Our perception is convinced that the larger
retinal image, of the larger railing at the top floors, is closer rather than larger than the rails
below.

2.9 Conclusions
It is well documented that illusions were used extensively during antiquity with many
examples in ancient Greece. Illusions were implemented here to refine the effects of entasis,
this meant that the lines of the temples form remained straight when perceived by the
human eye. These correctional illusions rely on altering the perspective of the lines.
Perspective illusions are the most frequently used throughout the history of illusory
implementation in architecture. Such techniques have been used to both increase and
decrease the perceived height of a building. The examples achieve this by applying a
diminishing course to the repetitive elements of the buildings.
Diminishing course illusions can be applied to a variety of architectural forms.
However, buildings with a brief that does not allow for spatial changes would benefit most
from these illusions. The examples suggested by this paper are office blocks and multi-storey
car parks.

27

Chapter 3

Conclusion
3.1 Summary
Literature in the field of the phaneron gives a clear understanding to the limitations
and philosophical implications of perception. It is here that we conclude that the
disconnection between the real world and the phaneron is what allows for illusions to
occur. Vision and proprioception were found to be the most relevant senses to the
perception of architecture. Current research has indicated a connection between visual
illusions and our proprioceptive perception. This connection indicates that visual illusion can
be used to change the way architecture is seen as well as changing our sense of kinesthesia
(external special-awareness).
Visual illusions in architecture have been focused on altering the observers
perspective. Of the pictorial cues we use, perspective is the one used most when judging
distance and relative size. Illusions of perspective have been used since antiquity. The
Parthenon is an example of the early use of correctional illusion.
However, there has been a large decline in the number of buildings utilising
perceptual knowledge. Contemporary buildings often neglect illusions when using them
would have a positive impact on the building and its surroundings. Often the constraints of a
brief mean the physical stature of the building cannot be changed, it is in these situations
where illusion can have the most impact. Examples such as office blocks and multi-storey car
parks are structures that could greatly benefit. The use of repetitive elements allow the
implementation of perspective illusions simple to theorise. This is not to suggest that we
copy illusory techniques from antiquity. Instead, I suggest that the use of research in to how

28

we perceive the real world to improve the architectural designed is an underutilised

methodology.

3.2 Benefits of the Study

Increased awareness of the improvements and refinements that perceptual
knowledge can have on contemporary architecture will offer solutions to architects that
they were previously unaware of. The understanding of how a building will be perceived by
the senses will allow for a more informed design decision to be made. Architects who can
utilise illusion will have a greater skill set to inform their designs.
The most beneficial situations for illusory techniques to be used is for buildings with
constricting briefs. In these cases where the size and form of the building cannot be
changed, often due to spatial requirements, illusions can be used to alter the perception of
the form. The examples shown in this study, such as Herostasse, display how in theory the
implementation of illusions can have an effect on the wellbeing of the public interacting with
these. Therefore research into how illusory techniques affect people when perceiving
architecture needs to be conducted to allow for accurate reactions to be predicted.

3.3 Further Research

Perception is a field which is in a state of constant research. Through sciences such
as neurology and phycology the knowledge of how we interact and understand the world is
ever increasing. Research using fMRI scanners allows researchers to see the brains
responses to visual stimuli. M. S. Beauchamp et al. have conducted such research. Their
research is focused on the sections of the brain used to process complex visual movements
(Beauchamp et al., 2003). Research methods using fMRI could be used to further the

29

understanding of perceptual processing of Architecture. Current this research has not been
applied to architecture but such experiments would allow for illusory integrations to be
more effective and refined.
Illusions can be tested out in architecture using immersive virtual environments. This
is a technique used by Kelly (2013), in studying impossible architectural environments. It
would be beneficial to the implementation of illusion if buildings were to be tested in a
similar manner before construction. Virtual Environments are a completely controlled and
this gives these environments a second benefit. The control allows for studies into the
observers reactions and can be used to better understand the stimuli needed for specific
responses.

30

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