INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

B. Gabales
UNDERSTANDING THE BASICS OF RESEARCH
RESEARCH defined
1. It is a process of identifying possible solutions to the complex problems of man. It is the ultimate
remedy when he is not capable of rationalizing the nature, causes and effects of his problems in a
short period of time. (Vizcarra)
2. A systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the
presumed relations among natural phenomena. (Kerlinger as cited by Sevilla, 1992)
3. It is a purposive, systematic and scientific process of gathering, analyzing, classifying and
organizing, presenting, and interpreting data for the solution of a problem, for prediction, for
invention, for the discovery of truth, or for the expansion or verification of existing knowledge, all for
the preservation of human life. (Calderon and Gonzales, 1993)
TYPES OF RESEARCH
1. Basic Research - sometimes known as pure research. It is done for the development of theories
and principles. It aims to explore in order to come up with principles which will serve as the bases
for further knowledge and development.
2. Applied Research - primarily aims to test theories and concepts developed for verification,
application, development, support and their relations to the existing body of knowledge.
3. Action research - Simpler that basic and applied research. It focuses on the immediate solution of
the problem without necessarily using scientific principles in order to find solutions to the problem.
In education, action research is used to remedy common teaching and learning problems.
General Classification of Research:
A. Quantitative Research characterized by the used of statistical analysis. It is fulfilled through
the assignment of numerical values to variables. Variables are measured using a data
gathering instrument to create numerical descriptions.
1. Experimental Research the most conclusive of scientific methods. It involves
manipulating conditions and studying its effects.
2. Correlational Research done to determine relationship among two or more
variables, and to explore their implications for cause and effect.
3. Causal-Comparative Research intended to determine the cause for or the
consequences of differences between groups of people.
4. Descriptive research involves the assignment of numerical values to variables.

B. Qualitative Research Researcher collects data within the natural setting of the information
wherein the key gathering instrument is the researcher himself. Verbal data are gathered
through participant observation, interview, reading diaries, scanning records and files and
conducting case studies.
1. Survey research used to obtain specific characteristics of a group.
2. Ethnographic Research concentrates on documenting or portraying the everyday
experiences of people using observation and interviews.
3. Case Study A detailed analysis of one or a few individuals.
4. Historical research involves studying some aspects of the past.
Variables
- are characteristics and conditions that the researcher manipulates, controls or observes in
a research problem.
a. Independent variables are the conditions or characteristics that are presumed cause or
influence of the existence or non-existence or change in certain phenomena.
b. Dependent Variables are the conditions or characteristics that are influenced by the
independent variables.
Example:
Problem: The effect of Leadership Style on Teaching
Performance
Independent Variable

Leadership
Style

Dependent Variable

Teaching
Performance

DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Operational Definition
2. Conceptual Definition
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
1. Nominal Categorical Data (gender, religion, etc.)
2. Ordinal ranked data (first 10 in the 100 meter run)
3. Interval no true zero (temperature, height, weight, IQ, etc)
4. Ratio has true zero value (number of chairs, daily allowance, etc.)

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Sample Problem:
A. The Library Facilities and Reading Attitude of the USEP Students
USEP Students

Library
Facilities

Reading
Attitude

Statement of the Problem:

1. What is the students rating on the USEP Library Facilities?
2. What is the reading attitude of the USEP students?
HYPOTHESIS FREE
DATA ANALYSIS: Descriptive Statistics
Mean = X / N
Standard Deviation = (x-X)
N-1
Expected Table and Interpretation:
Variables

Mean

SD

Descriptive Rating

Library Facilities

25

3.94

3.5

Very Satisfactory

Reading Attitude

25

2.68

.25

Low Positive

Presented in the table is the result of the descriptive analysis USEP students reading attitude
and their rating on the USEP library facilities. It shows that the mean rating of the students on the
library facilities is 3.94 which could mean that the USEP library facilities are very satisfactory. On the
other hand, it also shows that the USEP students posses a low positive attitude towards reading with
a mean score of 2.68. This means that
The standard deviation of 3.5 for library facilities is quite high suggesting a heterogeneous
rating between and among the respondents. It implies that there are students who reflected
extremely low and extremely high ratings on the USEP library facilities. On the other hand, the low
standard deviation of .25 for students reading attitude entails a homogeneous rating among the
respondents. It implies that the reading attitude of the USEP students is relatively similar.

B. A Correlational Analysis between USEP Library facilities and Reading Attitude of

Students
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable

Library
Facilities

Reading
Attitude

Statement of the Problem:

1. What is the status of the USEP library facilities?
2. What is the reading attitude of the USEP students?
3. Is there a significant relationship between the status of USEP library facilities and the
Reading Attitude of the USEP students?
NULL HYPOTHESIS:
There is no significant relationship between the status of USEP library facilities and the
Reading Attitude of the USEP students.
DATA ANALYSIS: Pearson Product Moment Correlation (pearson r)
r=

N XY (X) (Y)
[X2 (X) 2] [Y2 (Y) 2

Expected Table and Interpretation:

Variables

Mean

SD

Descriptive Rating

Library Facilities

25

3.94

3.5

Very Satisfactory

Reading Attitude

25

2.68

.25

Low Positive

p-value
.026

remarks
SIGNIFICANT

Variables
Library facilities and
reading attitude

r
.892

Description
Very High
relationship

r is significant if p-value .05 level of significance.

The correlation coefficient of .892 suggests that there is a very high positive relationship
between the rating on the USEP library facilities and the students reading attitude. Moreover, the pvalue of .025 which is less than .05 level of significance reveals that the relationship is significant.
Therefore the null hypothesis is not accepted. The positive r value reveals that as the students
rating on the status of USEP library facilities increases, their attitude towards reading also tend to
increase. It also implies that enhancing or improving the university library facilities would tend to
improve reading attitude of students.

C.

A Comparative Analysis between Learning Style and Reading Attitude of USEP students
The Influence of Learning Style on the Reading Attitude of USEP Students
Independent Variable

Dependent Variable

Learning Style

Reading
Attitude

A. Visual
B. Auditory

Statement of the Problem:

1. What is the reading attitude of the USEP students with visuall learning style?
4. What is the reading attitude of the USEP students with auditory learning style?
5. Is there a significant difference on the reading attitude of the students with verbal and
auditory learning style?
NULL HYPOTHESIS:
There is no significant difference on the reading attitude of the students with visual and
auditory learning style.
DATA ANALYSIS: T-test for independent groups (uncorrelated groups)

X1 X2

t=
SD1

N1

SD2

N2

Expected Table and Interpretation:

Group
Visual
Auditory

N
30
35

Mean Reading
Attitude

SD

Description

t-value

p-value

remarks

3.5
2.4

.12
.38

Positive
Negative

3.54

.0135

SIGNIFICANT

t is significant if p-value .05 level of significance.

The t-value of 3.54 with p=.0135 (<.05 level of significance) reveals that there is a significant
difference on the reading attitude of the USEP students with Visual and auditory learning styles.
Therefore the null hypothesis is not accepted. As shown in the mean ratings, this means that the
USEP students who are visual learners possess a significantly higher attitude towards reading than
the students who are auditory learners.
RELATED STATISTICAL TOOLS
t-test for Dependent groups (correlated groups)

t=

D
N D2 - (D)2
N-1

ANOVA (Analysis of variance) = comparing more than two groups