1

Soil Types & Phase Relationships

1.1
What is a soil?
Soil is the accumulation of sediments and mineral particles, typically
non-homogenous but not always, influenced by change in moisture
content. Differentiated mainly by grain size. Shape/size increase
hydraulic and mechanic soil parameters.
1.2
General Definitions:
Residual Soil: weathered soil, remaining at original place
Alluvial: transported by water
Glacial: Transported by glaciers
Loess: transported by wind
Marine: deposited in salt/brackish water
Expansive: large volume changes with addition of moisture
Dispersive: loss of cohesion in water
Granular: No cohesion
REV: Representative Elementary Volume. The sample size which has a
size big enough to represent the sample accurately cant be too small,
the bigger the sample size the better. Course-grained samples must
be 10x bigger. Within the REV scale, the soil behaviour can be
described based on phase relationship parameters.
1.3
Fine Grained Soils
Occurs due to weathering of parent rock (mineral), resulting in
formation of groups of crystalline particles at colloidal size
High specific surface area (high surface area to mass ratio)
Surfaces of clay minerals carry residual negative charges, meaning
they are less attracted to other particles and can be denser
Attraction between clay particles happens because of van der waals
bonds
Increasing ion concentration leads to net repulsion
Net repulsion = face to face orientation, which makes it more dense
Net Attraction = face to edge/edge to edge, meaning less close and
less dense
Absorbed water is held around clay by hydrogen bonding & hydration
of cations
1.4
Equations
Void Ratio[-]
Effective Unit
'
e = n/(1-n); e=Gw/S
v Weight
[kn/m^3]

e=

Porosity[-]
n=1- (D/Gw)

Moisture
Content[%]

V
Vs

2.2.1
Limit Indices
Plastic Index: PI IP = LL PL
Liquid Index: LI IL = [w-PL]/IP
Consistency Index: CI Ic = [LL w]/IP
Activity: A = IP/[% clay by mass]
<1 = low activity
1-2 = intermediate activity >4 = high
activity
2.2.2
Atterberg Limit Tests
Determine LL - Penetration: drop a machine pin into sample,
measure penetration, analyse on log graph. 20 blows
Determine SL Shrinkage: fill sample and measure, then dry sample
and measure again, using the equation below:

SL=

m1 m2 V 1V 2 w

m2
m2
g

Determine LL Casagrande Method: mix soil & water in dish, use a

U shaped knife and spread/split the soil. Measure gap and see if it
reforms, count number of blows delivered by the crank machine,
usually at 2 drops/sec, till soil reforms. 25 blows
Determine PL Ellipsoidal (Standard): mix dirt and water, roll into a
ball and then roll onto the bench into an ellipsoidal mass until it
breaks. Repeat at least two times and use w=PL to find plastic limit.
NOTE: PSD & Atterberg Limits are used to determine other properties;
erosion, penetration (grouting), hydraulic conductivity, workability and
more.

Soil Classification & Compaction

3.1
Undefined Soil Classification:
G Gravel
S Sand
C Clay
M Silt
O Organic Soil
P Peat
Ww Well Graded
P Poor Graded
L Low
Plasticity
H High Plasticity
Flow charts are used to sort samples of soil into certain categories,
the following is an example
These classifications are related engineering parameters; strength,
compressibility, hydraulic conductivity, workability
Applied to dams & roads
1
14 = highly undesirable
s = highly desirable,
T
This is an internationally accepted classification system.
w
3.2
Compaction
TIncreased density due to compaction leads to; Increased shear
strength, Reduced compressibility, Decreased porosity, Resistance to
shrinkage
Compaction depends on soil types, size of crumbs, etc.
Compaction Test: the standard test for compaction. Mix soil
sProctor
& water put in mould, compact the sample, weigh sample as well as
mould. Then take out of mould, weigh it and determine the moisture
s content using moisture cans and ovens.

= T

Unit
V vDry
Weight[kn/
e
m^3]
n= =
V t 1+e

G
D= =
=

V
1+w 1+e

Weight
WUnit
of
w Solids
w= [kn/m^3]
100
Ws

W
s=
V

Degree of
Specific
D= T
V
WAnalysis:
Saturation[%]
Gravity
w
s
1+ew
S= [kn/m^3]
G=
G w=S
V A +V w
V s s

1
Total Unit
Saturated
w sat =( w ) S
W
(1+e)G d G
Weight[kn/m^3]
Unit Weight
1+w
G w
= T[kn/m^3]
= waterG sat
w=
w =effective weight
of
1+e
V T 1+e
w
= 9.81(10)kn/m^3
D=
1 wsat
2
Soil Characterisation & Soil States
+
2.1
Soil Tests:
G S
Moisture Tests:
Oven Drying: soil sample taken & measured, then oven dried,
measure again.
MD = MCDS MC
Mw = MCMS MCDS
w = (Mw/MD)x100%
Sieving: soil is placed in sieves, shaken, each different size is
measured & graphed on a PSD scale
Analysis Uniformity Coefficient: Cu = D60/D10, Curvature
Coefficient: (D30)2/(D10 + DD60)
Hydrometer Method: wet dirt, put in tube of water, wait for it to
settle, observe the layers of different soils, and take continual
readings at different time intervals.
2.2
Atterberg Limits
Liquid Limit: LL the minimum w at which soil flows (Liquid plastic)
Plastic Limit: PL the minimum w at which soil deforms plastically
(Plastic semi-solid)
Shrinkage Limit: SL the w at which soil reduces volume (semi-solidsolid)

Plot dry unit weight on y-axis and moisture content on x-axis

Draw a smooth connecting curve
Also draw a curve for complete saturation
2 tests; standard compaction & modified compaction(larger
compaction forces)
-Should be noted that the size of crumbs affects the validity of results
(<10mm)
3.2.1
Direct Density Measurement
Methods
Direct Sampling: place hollow cone over soil, insert into soil and
remove sample from cone.

nat =

M
V

d ,nat =

H = total head(m)
(bulk density)

nat
1+w nat

D=

Ws = W1 (W2+W4)
Volume of hole: V = W3/

Weight of sand to fill hole:

Weight of Dry Soil: Wd =

W
=
V 1V 2

D=

1+ w

3.2.2

Indirect Density Measurement

Methods
Standard Penetration Test: drive standard split/spoon into
sample, count number of blows, N, for specific penetration depth.
Cone Penetration Test: using standardiesed cone, measure the
required thrust to drive the cone into a sampe at a constant rate(1020mm/second)

e e
Dr = max
e max e min

Plate Load Test: there is a hydrulic pump measuring force as a plate

is loaded, measuring the hardness of the ground.
3.3
Dispersion
-Chemically supported erosion process
-Dispersive clays, disperse in water & are erodible under rainfall (may
cause piping fail)
-Dispersive soils are common in QLD
To test dispersion:
Place soil crumbs in water dish, if the water becomes turbid or
cloudy around the crumb, then it is dispersive. Emersive Class
Number or Pinhole test.
4
Darcys Law & Hydraulic Conductivity
4.1
Hydraulic Head/Potential:
Hydrostatic pore water pressure, uw, increases with depth below the
water table -linear

w zw

uw v2
+
w 2 g

=0

(assumed)

h=Z +

Hydraulic Head:

uw
w

[m] (for laminar flow)

-Hydraulic head is a specific measurement of liquid pressure above a
datum
-Velocity head is due to the bulk motion (kinetic energy)
-Elevation Head is due to the fluids weight, the gravitational force
acting on a column of fluid
4.2
Darcys Law
Saturated Seepage for laminar flow
-Where seepage is the slow escape of a liquid or gas passing through
a porous material.
Q = -k i A
Q, Discharge is the volumetric flow rate per unit time (m 2/s)
k, proportionality factor (given)
i, hydraulic gradient combines both change in head and length

i=

h2h 1
L

i crit =

0.222
d e3

Hydraulic head is a gradient against 2 or more hydraulic head

measurements
A, cross sectional area (m2)
q, specific discharge(Q/A) [m/s]
Filter Velocity: This is the apparent velocity of water through soils

Q
h
dh
=k
=k
A
s
ds

v f=

Pore Velocity: This is the real velocity of water through pores

v p=

vf
n

n = porosity, for fine grained soils use

effective porosity ne
Hydraulic head (as a combination of pressure head and geodetic
height) causes water to flow (This is the most important and
fundamental concept in groundwater hydraulics)
4.3
Hydraulic Conductivity
This is a soil property that describes the ease at which water can
move through pore spaces, or to summarise, how quickly water can
move through a porous material.
Typical values: 10-3 to 10-8 [m/s]
Constant Head Test: Fill up a container with sand/soil, connect
funnel ad outlet, let water flow through mechanism and measure
discharge do it twice or more with different heads(place the funnel
higher or lower and measure discharge for both

k i=

Qi
L

A hi

where zw = depth below water table

-negative pore water pressure occurs above the water table

-causes deformations of soil during shrinkage
Potential Concept:

H=Z+

v
2g

For laminar flow:

Wd
V

Dry Unit Weight:

uw =

v=

= velocity head(m)

(dry density)

W3/(1+w)
Balloon Test:
Fill cylinder with water, record volume (V1)
Excavate small hole, determine weight (W) & moisture content (w)
Use pump to invert balloon in order to fill hole
Record volume of remaining water in cylinder (V2)

Bulk Unit Weight:

v
2g

velocity(m/s)

Substitute Method:
Fill jar with sand & determine weight of sand-cone apparatus(W 1)
Determine weight of sand to fill hole (W2)
Dig hole, determine weight of excavation (W3) and moisture content,
w.
After filling hole with sand determine the weight of the remaining sand
and apparatus (W4)

Dry Unit Weight:

Z = elevation head(m)

Normalize Result:

Falling Head Test:

k 20=k t

t
20

h
aL
kt =
ln ( 1 )
A t
h2
Kt is the hydraulic conductivity for temperature, T.
a = area of pipe(m2)
A = area of sample(m2)
L = length of sample(m)
h1 = hydraulic head at beginning and h 2 = hydraulic head at end
Note: when testing for k.
-Use de-aired water
-Use full saturation
-Use homogenous structure, if not segregation occurs and that fucks
up results
-Consider temperature
-Conductivity of filter stones must always be greater than of the
sample
-Factors influencing conductivity
-Fluid: Viscosity, density, unit weight of water
-Soil: Porosity, mean pore diameter, tortuosity (how pores are
connected to each other, connectivity)
-Conductivity from PSD
Empirical method of Hazen (for soils with Cu<5, 10C)
k = 0.01d02 [d0 = mm]
Beyer Method
(gravel and sand, 0.06<d0<0.6mm)
k = 0.01Cd02
Kozeny/Carman Method:

1
n

w d e2
2
C (1n) w
3

k=

= 1.3110-6[kPas] (subject to change)

C = 180 270 (generally given in question)

de = effective diameter
Sherard Method:
k=0.35D152
Indirect determination of k
Low permeability soils, k may be found from the results of an
oedometer test or rowe consolidation test
k = Cv Mv

General equation for fine grained soils from field testing

-k = aeb
e void ratio, a and b are constants from
testing
Stratified soils:
Vertical flow:

k v =

Horizontal flow:

k h =

li
l 1+l 2 ++l n
=
k i l1 l2
ln
+ + +
li k 1 k 2
kn

l i k i l 1 k 1+l 2 k 2+ +l n k n
=
li
l 1 +l 2+ +l n

-Variability of k is bigger than any other soil parameter

-Permeability depends only n the porous medium (fluid does not affect
it) where k depends on both soil and fluid
4.4
Permeability
This is the ability of a porous material(soil) to transmit water, differing
to hydraulic conductivity which is the ease at which fluid travels
through a porous medium depending on both fluid and material
properties.

K=k

w
w

Steady State Seepage:

[ ( )]
r
ln 2
r1

kx

q
k= 2
h2 h 12

-Used for wells and pumps (unconfined flow)

-Used for coarse grained soils and fractured rock
5.2
Limitations of Darcys Law
Reynolds number: this is a dimensionless number thats a measure of
the ratio between inertial forces and viscous forces

v f d e 2 T

v 3(1n)

(laminar flow)

Vf = filter velocity [m/s], de = effective diameter [m], = density,

v=kinematic viscosity T=tortuosity
Validity of Darcys law (Laminar Flow)
-Hydraulic gradient limit is used for the limit of laminar flow
i = 0.222(1/de3) where de is measured in mm
Cu:

1-1.9
2-2.9
3-4.9
5-9.9
1020
9.9
C:
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Measurement of post lamina range (between laminar and turbulent),
use Forcheimers Law
i = avf + bvf2
a =1/k
b=fit
parameter (given)
-For fine grained soils the hydraulic gradient must overcome a specific
yield stress to initiate a flow of water
(no flow): q = 0
for
0 < i < i0
(flow): q = kf(i i0)
for
i > i0
(darcy)
-Darcys law only valid for representing flow if there is a linear
relationship between hydraulic gradient and specific discharge (or
filter velocity)
In the pre-laminar rage there is a stagnation gradient i 0 that must be
overcome to initiate flow
In post-laminar range (for coarse grained soils & for i > i limit) the flow
starts to become partly turbulent (Re>1)
Experiments with partly turbulent flow can be analyzed with
Forchiemers law to receive k for laminar flow
5.3
Seepage
5.3.1
1D Seepage

C critical=

saturated w
1
w
'

For upwards vertical flow in sand

5.3.2

v< 0

2D Seepage

Continuity Equation:

dv x dv z
+
=0
dx dz

Assuming homogenous and isotropic conditions, both pore water and

soil are incompressible
Vx and Vz are both apparent velocities in x and z directions, not
actual velocities

Darcys Law: Vx = kx

Laplace Equation:

dh
dx

d2 h d2 h
+ 2 =0
2
dx d z

Hydraulic Conductivity & Flow Nets

5.1
Hydraulic Conductivity Again:
Field Measurement:

d hx
dx

+kz

d hz
dz

=0

Where hx ad hz are heads in each direction

5.4
Flow Nets
-Flow nets are used to map confined flow through horizontal layers
-Assume: stationary conditions (Qin = Qout), homogenous, isotropic
-Total potential difference is linearly reduced along the sample (Ltot)
htot = hu hd
i = htot/Ltot
-htot is divided into N equal potential drops along the flow net and are
known as equipotential lines (vertical lines)
-All lines must be 90 at top and bottom of diagram
-Flow lines are used to form a quadratic flow net, M, flow tubes
(horizontal lines)
-Normally not a whole number
-In each flow tube the same Q will flow
Total discharge: Q = kiA = k(htot/Ltot)b
Q = MQ = (M/N)khtot
Specific discharge, q: discharge in a single flow tube) Q = k i local A
= khi /(L b)
Where (L b) = 1 & hi = htot/N
therefore Q = k hi =
k(htot/N)
Volume dependent Seepage Force: S = ilocal c
Where ilocal = hi/L
Total Seepage Force: S = sV
Where V = volume of soil affected by flow of water
Rules for flow nets:
-Sets of flow line and equipotential lines are drawn within a seepage
zone to form a flow net
-A permeable boundary is an equipotential line (max or min)
[vertical]
-An impermeable boundary is a flow line [horizontal]
-Phreatic surface = surface exposed to atmosphere
-Right angles must be made with top line (phreatic surface) and
bottom and all line intersections.
6
Flow Nets
6.1
Errors in Flow Net Construction
-Usual errors in flow nets are sue to:
-Extraneous equipotential lines
-Disapperaing flow lines, not connected the whole time
-Disappear through the bottom
-Flow lines and equipotential lines not intersecting at 90
Constrcution
6.2.1
Confined Flow
-Define boundary conditions (max and min equipotential lines,
shortest and largest flow lines)
-First estimate of starting and ending points of flow lines ad
equipotential lines
-First sketch of lines and readjustment of starting and ending points,
adjust for 90 squares
-Proportions of flow net can be subdivided with square lines to even
up the net
6.2.2
Unconfined Flow
-Definition of boundary conditions, guess location of phreatic surface
-First estimates of start and end points for equipotential and flow lines
-First sketch, with readjustment
-Improve by drawing circles within each intersecting square
-Several types of flow nets:
-Embankment with chimney, homogenous, rock toe drain and flow
through dams
6.3
Analysis
-Flow through seepage zone: q = k(M/N)
-Filter velocity, vf varies through seepage zone, the apparent
velocity increases as dimensions decrease.
-Pore water pressure, uw, from the side with the highest total head to
the side with the smallest, via each equipotential lines (drops in
pressure per equipotential line)
-Flow nets with different k values:
Flow lines are refracted (width/shape changes) on the crossing
interface between k values
(W1/k1) = (W2/k2)
W = width of flow tube
For anisotropic soils:
Flow nets may be used with a transformed scale

-Quick conditions can occur if v < 0

where: v = effective
stress
-Can be avoided by decreasing i
-Increasing L using a cutoff and/or decrease h by dewatering and/or
increase v by surcharging
-Surcharging = extra loading above soil line being supported by a
retaining wall
-Seepage stresses can cause heave in clays, in extreme cases can
cause piping
-Piping is the erosion of soil leading to sink holes
-In granular soils, seepage stresses lead to erosion
6.5
Overview
-2D seepage cant be described with a flow net
-Unconfined slow = top surface is exposed to atmosphere (phreatic
surface) -Flow nets provide info on uw and hydraulic forces which have to be
taken into account for safety of hydraulically loaded structures
-Increased hydraulic gradient leads to local erosion processes
>40% dysfunctions/failures in embankments due to erosion
7
Soil Stress & Principle Effective Stress
7.1
Force Pressure & Stress
-Pressure & Stress are dependent on Area
-Pressure & stress vary with space
-Multiple components of stress, x, y & z
-Internal pressure (P) = External Force(F)/Area(A)
-Pressure ad stresses are better related to the material mechanical
changes(damage, failure, stretching, ) rather than forces
7.2
Effective Stress
Effective Stress Principle:
= - uw
= total stress, the weight of everything above a certain point,
including water, uw is the pre water pressure. Used for saturated soils
-in dry soils = 0
-change in leads to deformations and changes in strength
-the soil grains and pore water are assumed to be incompressible
-in a saturated soil, deformation on the application of stress is directly
related to the expansion of water, which means its related to the
hydraulic conductivity
Sand Shear Strength (): proportional to , = tan where;
= internal angle of friction
Clay Shear Strength (): = cu or c
Also proportional to , but the constant of proportionality is
dependent on the over-consolidation ratio (OCR)
(/ )NC = constant [typically = 0.25]
NC = normally
consolidated, OC = over consolidated
m = a value experimentally
found is equal to 0.8

6.2

Reduction of horizontal length:

In terms of hydraulic head, k = kx = kz, used for flow nets, used for
anisotropic conditions (antistrophic = directionally independent)
Discharge:

q= h

x'=

kz
x
kx

M
k k
N z x

6.4
Special Cases
-Local effects of seepage stresses

m
) =( ) (OCR)
' OC ' NC

Drained Behavior: In high permeability soils (sand and gravel) any

excess pressure gained by an applied stress generally dissipates
instantaneously, the applied stress transferring instantly to the soil
skeleton
-a drained situation has no real difference
-quick conditions or liquefaction are an exception, the rate of stress
application is faster than the drainage rate and the seepage stresses
exceed the strength of the soil (pure water strength overrules)
Short Term Undrained: similar to long term drained, in saturated
soils of low permeability where any excess stress is taken as excess
pressure and applied to the soil skeleton. (In a question add the extra
pressure)
-Loss of effective stresses can be caused by hydraulic forces
-Critical hydraulic gradient
-Seismic excitation (small vibrations in soil can cause increased
pressure)
-When liquefaction and earthquakes combine, safety issues can arise
7.3
Geostatic Stress
v = total vertical stress, this is equal to the weight of everything
above this point
uw = hydrostatic pore water pressure, increases with depth under
ground
-effective vertical stress(v), this is the difference between total
vertical stress and pore water pressure
v = v uw
H = k0 - v
Total vertical stress due to wet soil is equal to unit weight multiplied
by depth at that point
v =
8

T z

Stress & Strain/Mohr Circle

8.1
General Consideration
-Engineers use a rational approach to design considering continuum
mechanics & differential equations to represent structural conditions
leading to an initial boundary value problem (IBVP)
-IVBPs are solved to assess safety of failure (collapse), safety of large
deformations (serviceability) and safety of other problems such as
water leakage.
Assessing the following:
-Seepage: need understanding of hydraulic conductivity and water
flow

-Slip lines: understanding of strength

-Settlement: understanding of deformation due to loads &
deformations in time due to pore water movement (consolidation)
-To solve IVBPs all materials must be characterized in lab
tests(morphologically, mechanically, hydraulically)
-IVBPs are tests to represent conditions of future designs for big ass
structures
8.2
Representations of Stress Conditions
Stress state in soil is described by normal and shear stresses applied
to the boundaries of the sample
Stress states can be plotted 2 ways
-Pair of coordinates (z , xy) and (x , -xy)
-Mohrs circle of the effective principle stresses (1 and 3)
8.3
Mohrs Circle
-At an angle of 2 to the horizontal of the circle is a representation of
the stress condition of a plane at an angle of to the direction of the
minor principle stress, 3
-The circle represents the stress states on all possible planes within
the soil element
-All info is then represented on a failure envelope
-A stress condition represented by a point above the failure envelope
is not possible (failure occurs with small shear stress)
-Relationships between shear strength parameters & effective
principle stress at failure can be found from shear stress (f) and
normal stress (f) acting in the failure plane.
f = 0.5(1 3)sin(2)
f = 0.5(1 + 3) + 0.5(1 3)cos(2)
Where: = the theoretical angle between minor principle stress( 3)
and the failure plane, hence why: 2 = 90 + and = 45 + (/2)
Mohr-Coulomb Criterion: this defines the relationship between
principle stresses at failure and material parameters, and C
(1 3) = (1 + 3)sin() + 2Ccos()
(1) = 3tan2(45 + [/2]) + 2Ctan(45 + [/2])
For a given state of stress it is apparent that because of ( = u w)
that the Mohr circle will have to shift when dealing with effective
stresses, the same diameter will be used it will just be moved
8.4
Overview
-Tests with soil (mechanical and hydraulic) are needed to quantify
material parameters in order to calculate safety against failure,
settlements, etc.
-Mohrs circle is used to describe stress states of soil both before and
after failure
-Stress and strain invariants are used to show evolution of stresses for
changing stress conditions or deformations (stress paths)
9
Mechanical Behaviours
9.1
Mechanical Behaviours
Modes of failure in triaxial compression:
-Shear plane failure (brittle)
-Barrelling (plastic failure)
-Combination of both (intermediate failure)
-Elastic behavior (idealised) has deformation that is recovered after
loading
-Behavior can be linear or non linear
-Can act both elastically or brittle (rigid)
-Elasto-plastic(idealized) behavior: deformation is permanent after
unloading
-Behavior can be linear or non linear
-Can act elastically or brittle
-Can act with hardening or softening
-Loose normal porous soils act in a ductile (plastic) manner
-Dense compacted/consolidated materials act in a brittle way (sudden
loss of strength)
-In realistic soils there is always some deformation necessary to
actuate friction
10
Soil Strength
10.1
Mechanical Behaviours
Soil moduli is also known as the soil stiffness, it can be determines
from stress-strain relationships

-Effective residual parameters = Cr

&
r
-Advantages of this test = this test can also be used for measuring
angle of friction developed at an interface of soil and other material
-Disadvantage = major assumption that stresses within sample are
uniformly disturbed
11.2
Conventional Triaxial Test
-Conventional triaxial test carried out in 2 stages
1. Isotropic compression consolidation(in time) or not

10.2
Summary of Strength
-Total stress increases, with depth
-Pore water pressure, uw, reduces the total stress to effective stress,

-Normally horizontal stresses < vertical stresses

-Stress states/conditions (both 2D and 3D) can be visualized using
Mohrs circle
-Difference in stresses at different locations leads to shear stresses
-When shear stresses exceed shear strength, f failure occurs
-Therefore there is a maximum limit of shear strength soil can
withstand
-The maximum shear strength is dependent on the normal stresses n
acting in the shear plane
-A failure envelope is found by a combination of points of maximum
shear stresses and normal stresses
-A linear relationship
1 known
3 as the mohr-coloumb criterion maps
shear and normal stresses at failure
-f = C + f tan()
1
3
-C = effective cohesion
= friction angle
-Failure due to wall movements

sin ( )=

-Drained conditions means pore water pressure changes = 0

-Tests must be done very small to eliminate/reduce development of u w
-Undrained conditions means no change in volume, but u w can change
-During CU tests effective parameters can be determined
Soil Testing and consolidation

Consolidated(C) or unconsolidated(U)
2. Loading(shearing) to failure with drainage or not > 0
Drained(D) or undrained(U)
-An unconsolidated and drained test is highly uncommon
11.3
Unconfined Compression Test
-This is a special case of a triaxial test, determining Unconfined
Compression Strength (UCS)
-Special case: r = o, therefore dimensionless
-Only 1 stage, loading until failurec(quick test)
-Samples are capable of being formed as self-supporting cylinders
-Ultimate Strength

Compression Index

(CC )

: Gradient between initial state

of normally consolidated clay and final stress condition for prediction

of settlements
Recompression

(C r)

(C e )

/Expansion

(m v )

C =e e

11.4
Unconsolidated Undrained Test (UU)
-Only 1 stage, loading until failure
-Drainage is prevented
-Repeat test with multiple samples extracted from the same depth
and position to give an average(line of best fit for horizontal line S u)
-Mean pressure does not affect strength because the confining
pressure only affects the pore water pressure
-Disadvantages: unconfined strength is not intrinsic of material, varies
from one point to another in the same soil mass, varies with depth
-However C and the material parameters do not vary greatly with
depth

12.2 Oedometer Test

-Test procedure for primary consolidation
-Each dead weight is added and left for a period of time. During this

time the vertical displacement

uz

is measured

'

-For each increment of time, a pair (

uz , z

12.3 Summary

11

Week 12: Soil Testing

11.1
Direct Shear Test
Shear Box Test: relatively quick and simple -> soil is forced to shear
at the interface between the two halves of the box
-during shearing, the shear stress and normal stresses are measured
-the effect of large shear displacement is obtained by reversing the
shear box after initial displacements are measured then repeating a
bunch of times to achieve a steady(residual) shear strength
Ring Shear Test: pretty sure a sample of soil is just twisted until it
fails
-Effective parameters = C &

: Relates the

vertical stress with the vertical strain by the following rate equation:
e
0
1
(note: mv needs to b x 1000)

10.3 Summary of Mohrs Circle

Rope Test

Index:

Gradient between initial state of over consolidated clay and initial

state of normally consolidated clay
Coefficient of Volume Compressibility

-Changes in stress conditions is represented by sets of Mohrs circles

12.1 Coefficients of Primary Consolidation

11.5
Consolidated Undrained Test (CU)
-2 stages, consolidation and loading to failure without drainage
-During consolidation the volume change with respect to isotropic
pressure can be determined
-During loading there is no volume change cause valves are closed
-If pore water pressure changes are measured, effective parameters
can also be calibrated
11.6
Consolidation Drained Test (CD)
-2 stages, consolidation and loading to failure with drainage
-During consolidation, volume change with respect to isotropic
pressure can be determined
-Pore water pressures are zero, total stresses = effective stresses
-Only drained parameters can be found
11.7
Overview
-Mohrs circle contains NO info about deformations
-Shear parameters and stress strain relationships are dependent on
density
-During consolidation (phase 1) load deflection curves are measured
which can be used to asses consolidation parameters
-Residual parameters are measured by repeating the shear box test
-Triaxial tests are differentiated by consolidation and hydraulic
conditions (drained/undrained)

Material Behaviour.

) is obtained