Brain Gym

Building Stronger Brains or Wishful Thinking?

K E I T H J . H YAT T

ABSTRACT

s part of the accountability movement, schools are

increasingly called upon to provide interventions that are based
on sound scientific research and that provide measurable outcomes for children. Brain Gym is a popular commercial program
claiming that adherence to its regimen will result in more efficient
learning in an almost miraculous manner. However, a review of the
theoretical foundations of Brain Gym and the associated peer-reviewed research studies failed to support the contentions of the
promoters of Brain Gym. Educators are encouraged to become
informed consumers of research and to avoid implementing
programming for which there is neither a credible theoretical nor a
sound research basis.

INCE AT LEAST THE BEGINNING OF THE 20TH CEN-

tury, American schools have been called upon to provide a

wide range of educational programming that should result in
significant benefits for society (Bracey, 2002). In October
1957, the successful launch of the Sputnik satellite by the Soviet Union resulted in immediate demands for reform in
American schools in order to address Soviet technological
advances. A similar call for increased standards was promulgated by the National Commission on Excellence in Educations (1983) report, A Nation at Risk, in which public
education was described as mediocre. Although some scholars have argued that American schools are performing much
better than suggested by the bleak accounts commonly found
in the media and in government sources (Berliner & Biddle,
1995; Bracey, 2002), there is no question that schools are
being held to higher levels of accountability. Both the No

Child Left Behind Act of 2001 and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 have required
that whenever possible, schools must provide students with
academic instruction using scientific, research-based methods. Although an exact definition of scientific, research-based
methodology is not contained in either law, Browder and
Cooper-Duffy (2003) stressed the importance of using and
building upon instructional methodologies that have sound
empirical support from high-quality research studies.
Brain Gym is one popular commercial program marketed in more than 80 countries (Official Brain Gym Web
Site, 2005, About ) that has received a considerable amount
of attention in the press, with many individuals claiming that
it provided the necessary stimulation needed for effective
learning (Chaker, 2005; Hannaford, 1996; Ratliff, 2005). According to a training schedule published on the Official Brain
Gym Web site, there were 337 different trainings scheduled
between February and December of 2006. Of those trainings,
211 were scheduled in the United States, with the remaining
126 trainings scheduled in Canada, Australia, the United
Kingdom, France, Germany, Switzerland, Belgium, Japan,
Indonesia, and Singapore.
The specific purposes of this article are (a) to review the
theoretical bases and research findings on which the developers of Brain Gym base the claim that their movement activities will enhance learning and (b) to determine whether those
activities are scientific, research-based practices. To accomplish these goals, a brief description of Brain Gym will be provided, followed by a review of the theoretical foundations of
the program, a critique of the relevant research findings, and
finally conclusions and recommendations.

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WHAT

IS

BRAIN GYM?

Brain Gym, also known as educational kinesiology, was developed in the 1970s by Dennison and Dennison (Official
Brain Gym Web Site, 2005, About , 3) and consists of a
series of movements that purportedly activate the brain, promote neurological repatterning, and facilitate whole-brain
learning (Dennison & Dennison, 1994). The program is based
on the notion that learning problems are caused when different sections of the brain and body do not work in a coordinated manner, thereby blocking an individuals ability to
learn (Dennison & Dennison, 1994). To overcome this learning block, the program recommends a variety of simple
movements that are intended to improve the integration of
specific brain functions with body movements. In fact, Brain
Gym is described as a process for re-educating the mind and
body that would result in learning any skill more efficiently
and easily (Official Brain Gym Web Site, 2005, FAQ , 1).
The theoretical basis on which brain functioning is conceptualized, according to Brain Gym literature, is relatively
simplistic and described along three dimensions: laterality,
focusing, and centering (Braingym.com, 2005, What Is It
, 35; Dennison & Dennison, 1994; Official Brain
Gym Web Site, 2005, What Are Edu-Ks Three Dimensions
). Laterality refers to the coordination between the right and
left hemispheres of the brain and is viewed as necessary for
reading, writing, listening, speaking, and the ability to move
and think at the same time. Focusing refers to the ability to
coordinate information between the front and back portion of
the brain and is related to comprehension as well as attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder. The final dimension, centering,
refers to the coordination of the top and bottom halves of the
brain, which is described as necessary to balance rational
thought with emotion. Although efficient connections among
various parts of the brain may foster cognitive development,
none of the Brain Gym literature has provided researchbased, scientific evidence supporting this view of brain functioning. In fact, the Brain Gym literature has made it sound
as if the brain could be easily partitioned into different sections, and that simple movement activities would result in improved neurological development and learning for people of
all ages.
Because the developers of Brain Gym own the copyright for the specific movement activities, none of these will
be described in detail. However, suffice it to note that the
movements include activities such as crawling, drawing, tracing
symbols in the air, yawning, and drinking water. Dennison
noted that he included yawning after becoming convinced
that purposeful yawning had improved his eyesight (Dennison & Dennison, 1994) but failed to provide research support
for the link between yawning and vision.
None of the Brain Gym movements that supposedly facilitate academic learning actually include academic instruction as a component; rather, it seems that the purpose of the
movements is to get the child ready to learn. Furthermore,

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none of the movements include an assessment activity to determine which of the three dimensions of the brain require attention and which movement would be most appropriate. It
appears that an armchair diagnosis is all that is required to
implement a movement regime that purportedly causes neurological changes in a student.

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS
The three main theoretical categories on which Brain Gym
is based include neurological repatterning, cerebral dominance, and perceptualmotor training. Although there is overlap among these different theories, they are categorized by
their most salient features to provide some degree of structure
to the review.
Neurological Repatterning
A major foundational assumption of Brain Gym is the idea
of neurological repatterning, and many of its activities are
based on the Doman-Delacato theory of development (Dennison & Dennison, 1994). According to this recapitulationist
theory, ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny, meaning that the
development of the individual mirrors the development of the
species (Crain, 2000). Thus, to achieve efficient neurological
development, the individual must satisfactorily acquire specific motor skills during different developmental stages. If
motor skills associated with any of the developmental stages
have been skipped, then neurological development is hindered and learning abilities are limited (Doman, 1968).
According to Doman (1968), a child who walked before
crawling missed a critical step in motor development, which
could account for future difficulties with more complex neurological processes such as reading. To treat this neurological
gap, the child would be provided with exercises that mimicked primitive motor development to ensure that movements
at all stages were mastered. Accordingly, the child would be
taught to crawl, with the idea that this would repattern the
neurons, leaving the child neurologically intact and ready to
acquire academic skills. In a review of the Doman-Delacato
procedures, MacKay, Gollogly, and McDonald (1986) clearly
described the different crawling treatments associated with
the procedure and noted that the program was not effective in
ameliorating disabilities. Other researchers (Robbins, 1966;
Stone & Pielstick, 1969) had also found the Doman-Delacato
procedures ineffective prior to the development of Brain
Gym.
Numerous organizations have issued cautionary statements regarding the Doman-Delacato procedures. The DomanDelacato Treatment of Neurologically Handicapped Children
(American Academy of Pediatrics, 1968) was a joint statement approved by the American Academy for Cerebral Palsy,
American Academy of Neurology, American Academy of Pediatrics, American Academy for Physical Medicine and Re-

habilitation, American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine,

American Academy of Orthopedics, Canadian Association
for Children with Learning Disabilities, Canadian Association for Retarded Children, Canadian Rehabilitation Council
for the Disabled, and the National Association for Retarded
Citizens. This large group of well-respected medical and educational professionals identified serious concerns with the
procedures, the claims of successful interventions, and the
concomitant lack of empirical evidence supporting the repatterning therapies used by the Institutes for Achievement of
Human Potential, which promoted the Doman-Delacato
treatment procedures. To date, the idea of neural organization
or neurological repatterning has not met the rigors of scientific research, and programs that offered repatterning have not
resulted in increased learning (American Academy of Pediatrics, 1999; Cohen, 1969; Robbins, 1966; Stone & Pielstick,
1969). Novella (1996) has gone so far as to state that the Institutes for Achievement of Human Potential are practicing
fraud. Thus, it appears that one of the major theoretical bases
on which Brain Gym was developed has failed to meet the
rigors of scientific investigation decades ago and may have
gained some notoriety in the process.
Cerebral Dominance
Dennison and Dennison (1994) noted that Brain Gym was
also based on work by Orton, who investigated causes and
treatments for learning disabilities. Ortons work was conducted in the early twentieth century, and he theorized that
mixed cerebral dominance was a cause of reading difficulty
(Orton, 1937). However, research has not substantiated the
impact of cerebral dominance on learning (Mayringer and
Wimmer, 2002; Mohan, Singh, & Mandal, 2001; Pipe, 1988),
and after reviewing brain research studies, Hynd and SemrudClikeman (1989) determined that the evidence failed to support the contention that deviations in brain morphology were
related to learning difficulties.
Orton (1937) also speculated that the transposition and
reversal of letters indicated problems with cerebral dominance and were indicative of learning problems. Research
findings have also failed to support this assumption. Liberman, Shankweiler, Orlando, Harris, and Bell Berti (1971) and
Stanovich (1985) noted that poor readers may have letter sequence and reversal errors, but as a proportion of the total
number of errors made, there was no significant difference
when compared to error patterns of good readers. As Stanovich (1985) noted, the sequencing and reversal errors
(b/d, was/saw) that once loomed so large in importance have
proven to be a dead end (p. 70).
Hallahan and Mercer (2001) noted that few subscribe to
this theory of cerebral dominance today, but Ortons theory
was a basis for the Orton-Gillingham approach to reading that
is still in use. This approach, as described by Sheffield
(1991), is really a philosophy that incorporated multisensory
phonics-based activities into instructional programs, not a

specific instructional strategy. Oakland, Black, Stanford, Nussbaum, and Balise (1998) noted that little research has been
conducted to validate the Orton-Gillingham approach, and in
a book entirely devoted to multisensory teaching, Moats and
Farrell (2005) noted that it endures even though it has been
poorly defined and is not well validated in existing intervention studies (p. 33).
As Dennison and Dennison (1994) did not identify a
specific relationship between Ortons work and Brain Gym,
one might assume that the link was related to Ortons ideas of
cerebral dominance as well as the multisensory approaches.
However, Ortons theories regarding hemispheric dominance
have been refuted in the literature, and there is a lack of
empirical support for multisensory teaching approaches. In
essence, this line of theoretical support recognized by the developers of Brain Gym has also failed the rigors of scientific
inquiry.
PerceptualMotor Training
A third theory on which Brain Gym has drawn is that of
perceptualmotor trainingan approach to learning that attributed learning problems to inefficient integration of any
combination of visual, auditory, and motor skills. Accordingly, if a child had an academic deficit, the appropriate perceptual skills could be taught that would enable the child to
overcome the learning problems. Some of the strategies used
to purportedly improve perceptualmotor skills and improve
learning have included activities such as crawling, bouncing
balls, throwing beanbags, and walking on a balance beam.
Barsch (1967), for example, promoted a movement curriculum called Movigenics, claiming that the development of
movement patterns was related to learning efficiency.
A considerable amount of research has failed to demonstrate that perceptualmotor training activities are effective
academic interventions (Arter & Jenkins, 1979; Bochner, 1978;
Cohen, 1969; Hammill, Goodman, & Wiederholt, 1974; Kavale & Forness, 1987; Kavale & Mattson, 1983; Sullivan,
1972). Despite these unfavorable research findings, the notion of perceptualmotor training as an academic intervention
has persisted. In a current text on assessment in special education, Salvia and Ysseldyke (2004) devoted a chapter to the
assessment of perceptualmotor skills because some tests are
still in use today. However, they noted that the tests were neither theoretically nor psychometrically adequate and stated
that the real danger is that reliance on such tests in planning
interventions for children may actually lead teachers to assign children to activities that do the children no known
good (p. 538).
There has also been a considerable amount of research
on modality (visual, auditory, kinesthetic) assessment and instructional procedures. Arter and Jenkins (1979) and Kavale
and Forness (1987) found that the literature failed to support
either the assessment or training of visual, auditory, and
kinesthetic skills or the relationship between modality train-

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ing and the acquisition of academic skills. They therefore recommended that the modality model be abandoned in favor
of the development of effective, research-based instructional
procedures.
An additional area of perceptualmotor training that appears to have been incorporated into Brain Gym is vision
therapy. The American Academy of Pediatrics, American
Academy of Ophthalmology, and American Association for
Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus issued a joint statement strongly discrediting vision therapy (American Academy of Pediatrics, 1998). In that statement, they noted that
eye defects do not cause letter reversals and that no scientific
evidence supports claims that the academic skills of children
with learning disabilities can be improved through vision
training or the use of colored glasses. Whereas visual problems should be corrected, there is no convincing body of research supporting the use of optometric visual training as a
treatment for learning problems (Keogh & Pelland, 1985;
Sieban, 1977; Silver, 1995).
Summary of Theoretical Foundations
Brain Gym materials and writings have consistently promoted the notion that the exercises activate the brain and
facilitate whole brain learning. However, Brain Gym materials provide no scientific support that the brain needs to be
turned on, nor do the materials provide research support regarding whole brain learning or even a definition of exactly
what this term means. These terms appear to be phrases that
capture the imagination and lead the uninformed reader to believe in something for which there is no theoretical support.
In fact, research findings have strongly refuted the theoretical
foundations on which Brain Gym was developed. Neurological repatterning has been described as fraudulent, cerebral
dominance has not been linked to learning, and perceptual
motor training has not withstood rigorous scientific investigation.
In contrast to claims made by the promoters of brainbased approaches, such as Brain Gym, Bruer (2004) noted
that neurological development is genetically determined and
that there is no research supporting the notion that certain
movements facilitate neural development. He did note that
for some areas of the brain, such as the visual center, there appears to be a critical period when sensory input is required for
proper neurological development. However, he made the case
that much of the rush by educators to provide brain-based
learning opportunities for children is based on information
that is selective, oversimplified, or incorrectly interpreted,
and he strongly urged that educators and the public exercise
great caution when trying to apply findings from brain science to educational interventions. In essence, brain science
has provided information about neurons and synapses but has
not provided information that could guide educational practices in any meaningful ways (Bruer, 1999; Ormrod, 2004;
Seger et al., 2000).

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RESEARCH FINDINGS
In spite of the lack of a research-supported theoretical foundation for Brain Gym, some research has been conducted
regarding the application of the procedures. An extensive literature review resulted in the identification of only five peerreviewed journal articles that addressed the effectiveness of
Brain Gym. Of those five articles, only four will be reviewed; one was discarded because the author of that article
was one of the four participants in the study (Wolfsont,
2002). Three of the remaining four articles were published in
the same journal, in which authors must pay for publication.
Rather than describing each study in detail, Table 1 provides
an overview. The research described in these articles contained serious methodological flaws, some of which will be
briefly discussed here.
Khalsa, Morris, and Sifft (1988) conducted a study to
determine whether participation in Brain Gym activities resulted in improved static balance of children as measured by
performance on a modified stork stand test (i.e., on one foot
with the other hooked behind the knee of the supporting leg
and hands on hips). Following a pretest measure, treatment
regimens for the two treatment groups were conducted by an
unspecified number of classroom teachers with children of
varying ages who attended different elementary schools. The
authors did not describe the training received by the teachers,
nor did they identify whether any safeguards were implemented to ensure treatment fidelity across teachers and settings. Because these threats to validity were not addressed, it
is within reason to assume that the teachers of the treatment
groups told students that they were doing the Brain Gym activities to improve their performance on an upcoming stork
stand test. Furthermore, it is unknown whether students were
prohibited from practicing the stork stand during the treatment phase of the study. At posttest, the students were tested
on the stork stand, and the results indicated a significant difference in the gain scores, with the repatterned group showing the most improvement, followed by the movement group.
Gain scores were computed by subtracting pretest scores
from posttest scores, but the authors use of gain scores is of
particular concern, due to the unknown reliability of such
scores (Thorndike, 2005). The researchers descriptions of
the data were also contradictory. They stated that there were
no significant differences between the mean scores of the
groups at pretest, but when discussing posttest results, they
stated that one groups initial mean score was well below
those of the other two groups (p. 55). Due to the numerous
methodological errors, the findings of this study cannot be interpreted with an acceptable level of certainty, but perhaps a
more crucial question is whether performing the stork stand
is educationally relevant and whether the 10 min per day for
6 weeks (5 hrs) of the intervention was a good use of instructional time for children experiencing learning problems.
Sifft and Khalsa (1991) described a study conducted to
determine whether the response time of college students to

TABLE 1. Overview of Brain Gym Research

Publication

Participants

Design

Measures

Intervention strategies
and duration

Statistical
test

Khalsa, Morris, &

Siftt, 1988

60 (30 boys, 30 girls)

Identified as having
LD
ages 711 yrs

Group
1: repattern
2: movement
3: control

Pre- and posttest

on modified
stork stand

Group 1: one 10-min session in homolateral and

cross-lateral movements and unspecified
eye movement + BG 10
min/day, 6 weeks
Group 2: BG 10 min/day,
6 weeks
Group 3: comparison

One-way
ANOVA

Sifft & Khalsa, 1991

60 (30 men,
30 women)
ages 1940 yrs

Group
1: repattern
2: movement
3: control

Pre- and posttest

on 2 measures of response time

Group 1: one 10-min session in homolateral and

cross-lateral movements and unspecified
eye movement + 5 min
BG
Group 2: 5 min BG
Group 3: 5 min of rest
515-min interventions

Two-way
ANOVA

Cammisa, 1994

25 (19 boys, 6 girls)

Identified as having
LD
ages 7-417-4

Group served as
own control

Pre- and posttest

on perceptual
and academic
tests

Unspecified BG movements for 1 year

Paired t tests

De los Santos, 2002

School 1: 390
students
School 2: 596
students
ages pre-KGrade 5

School 1: Experimental group

School 2: Control
group

Teacher ratings
and performance on
academic
achievement
tests

Group 1 (Experimental):
played classical music
during class time + 20
min/day of brain exercises
Group 2 (Control): regular
instruction
1-year intervention

Teacher ratings
and percentage of mean
score increase on
academic
tests

Note. LD = learning disabilities; BG = Brain Gym.

two types of visual stimuli could be shortened following a

Brain Gym intervention. As with their earlier study (Khalsa
et al., 1988), the authors did not describe any procedures to
ensure treatment fidelity. At posttest, they reported a significant main effect for groups, with the repatterned group decreasing response time most, followed by the movement
group, then the control group. However, there were several
methodological problems with this study. The authors did not
determine whether there were differences in performance
among the groups prior to the intervention, and the data
analysis did not identify an interaction effectjust a main effect that simply indicated that the response time of all three
groups decreased. Thus, the decrease in response time could
not be attributed to the intervention. Moreover, the authors
computed statistical tests using gain scores, which, as pre-

viously noted, are of dubious value due to reliability concerns. Although the authors concluded that the results supported the efficacy of Brain Gym, a careful reading of the
study indicates that the data did not demonstrate that the
Brain Gym activities were superior to no treatment at all.
Due to the numerous methodological problems, including the
lack of controls for threats to validity, lack of reliability evidence, and inappropriate statistical procedures, the results of
this study cannot be accepted with any degree of certainty.
Cammisa (1994) reported that following 1 year of Brain
Gym activities, the participants scored significantly higher
on a test of perceptualmotor skills but not on an academic
measure. However, the author failed to adequately describe
the study, and there were several significant methodological
problems. The author did not describe which Brain Gym

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activities were prescribed, whether there was a reason for

choosing a particular Brain Gym activity, or what were the
frequency and duration of the activities. Furthermore, there
was no control for the variation in age range of participants,
and, as the author correctly noted, it was impossible to attribute any gain in perceptual development to Brain Gym,
because the effects of maturation had not been controlled.
The participants also served as their own controls for the
academic measure, with grade-equivalent scores on a normreferenced test used as the measurement. The author assumed
that academic growth would be the same for each year, which
could be a faulty assumption, due to extraneous variables
such as teacher effectiveness, student motivation, or outside
tutoring. Moreover, the author noted that children with disabilities were not included in the standardization sample for
the academic test. Therefore, the instrument used to measure
their academic performance had not been validated for this
use. Another serious flaw in this study was the use of gradeequivalent scores, which are not suitable metrics for statistical comparisons (Salvia & Ysseldyke, 2004). In essence, this
study contained so many methodological problems that the
results cannot be interpreted with any level of certainty.
The final study obtained was reported by de los Santos
(2002) in an article focused on improving the success of Hispanic students in higher education. Interesting enough, the research reported in the article was conducted with elementary
school students and then extrapolated to university students.
The intervention consisted of students in the target school listening to Mozart during the day and participating in activities
based on Brain Gym, while students in the comparison
group participated in their usual activities during the school
year. The author concluded that the intervention was successful; however, comparisons were made using only teacher
ratings of students in the target school and percentages of increase in mean scores on academic tests, with no determination of whether the differences between the groups were
statistically significant. The researcher did not control for
threats to validity or address issues related to reliability of
measures or to treatment fidelity. The article concluded with
a recommendation that university students use Brain Gym
type exercises before an examination to improve test performance but provided no credible research support for that recommendation. As with the other studies reviewed, this study
contained so many methodological flaws that the data cannot
be interpreted with any degree of certainty.
Taken together, these studies clearly failed to support
claims that Brain Gym movements were effective interventions for academic learning. They were overcome by methodological difficulties, and two studies failed to address
academic learning at all. With the exception of the studies reviewed in the previous section, the only other research reports
located during the review were those listed on the Brain
Gym Web site and available for purchase. Two of those articles were published in peer-reviewed journals and have
been discussed in the previous sections. One other was pub-

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lished in a journal that is no longer in print, and the citation

was insufficient to order the article through an academic library. However, the majority of the articles listed were not reviewed, because quality research should be published in
peer-reviewed journals available through academic libraries
rather than sold by the organization promoting the treatment
or publishing the journals, as was the case with Brain Gym.

CONCLUSION

AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

In the Revised Teachers Edition of Brain Gym, Dennison &

Dennison (1994) concluded with a section identifying which
Brain Gym exercises could be used to facilitate learning
in a variety of academic areas: reading skills, oral reading,
reading comprehension, thinking skills, spelling, math, penmanship, creative writing, clear listening and thinking, selfesteem, sports and play, memory, abstract thinking, creative
thinking, speed reading, and test taking. Moreover, they
claimed that Brain Gym movements could improve activities such as keyboarding and riding in a car, bus, or plane;
however, how such improvements would take place was not
identified. Finally, the Brain Gym home page (Official
Brain GymWeb Site, 2005) heading reads Learn ANYTHING Faster and More Easily, and the Web site bookstore
includes books and articles touting the benefits of Brain
Gym for golf, sales, surfing, attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder, emotional disturbance, fetal alcohol syndrome,
learning disabilities, Alzheimer disease, salesmanship, sports,
and senior moments. Although neither the theoretical foundation nor the peer-reviewed research base supported the claims
of Brain Gym, the slick marketing approach made it appear
that Brain Gym could provide the cure to all that ails
humankind.
Silver (1995) and the American Academy of Pediatrics
(1999) noted that research results should be provided in peerreviewed journals and cautioned against placing much faith
in research from organizations that claim to have the cure.
The advocates of Brain Gym have not followed through on
this advice and appear to base the majority of their claims on
testimonial evidence or on research so seriously flawed that
its findings are essentially meaningless. Persuasive testimonials are not sound scientific evidence and should not be the
basis on which interventions for children with learning difficulties are selected.
The American Academy of Pediatrics (1999) noted that
the new generation of pediatricians may be unaware of programs such as Doman-Delacatos repatterning and should receive instruction on those programs to avoid repeating the
mistakes of the past. It appears that this advice would also
apply to educators. For example, Nolan (2004) stated that
Doman-Delacatos repatterning was still considered valid,
and Reynolds, Nicolson, and Hambly (2003) wrote an article
touting the academic benefits of a perceptualmotor training
that included using a balance board, throwing and catching

bean bags, and stretching activities as treatments for reading

difficulties. They did not provide specifics of the training, because it was considered commercially sensitive (Reynolds
et al., 2003, p. 55). However, Snowling and Hulme (2003)
provided a well-written critique of these claims and noted
that there was no evidence that this intervention, shrouded
under the guise of commercial sensitivity, was an effective
treatment for children with reading difficulties.
It is time that educators and educational training
instituteswhether university or other entityensure that
practices such as Brain Gym that have no substantive theoretical or research support are no longer used with children in
the hope of ameliorating a learning problem. When writing
about Brain Gym, Goldacre (2003), a reporter for a British
newspaper, stated the following: In an ideal world, we
would be teaching children enough science in school that
they were able to stand up to a teacher who was spouting this
kind of rubbish (p. 3). It is indeed disheartening that many
educators have not been as adept at spotting rubbish as was
this newspaper reporter when, after all, educators have the responsibility of ensuring that school days are filled with meaningful learning activities.
This responsibility requires that school personnel take
the time to critically review instructional programs and select
those that have sound, objective research support. As advocated by Stanovich and Stanovich (1997), researchers should
ensure they have an understanding of the typical tasks required of teachers and translate their research findings into a
format useful to teachers. Furthermore, teacher training programs should provide prospective teachers with the skills
needed for evaluating research. These skills include a recognition that quality research results are most likely found in
scientific, peer-reviewed journals, an understanding of the
importance of replication of studies, and knowledge of whether
the research community has determined that there have been
enough studies to either validate or refute a particular approach. Satisfaction of these criteria would be an indicator
that a particular instructional practice did incorporate scientific, research-based methods.
The theories and practices reviewed in this article are all
deficit based, with the goal of identifying a particular intraindividual deficit that would explain learning problems. The
deficit-based explanation tends to place blame on the child
for his or her learning problems and provides the teacher with
an excuse for failing to implement sound academic instructional strategies. An example of a more enlightened approach
that actually does include scientific, research-based strategies
would be to use a curriculum-based evaluation procedure. A
detailed description of such an approach that uses formative
assessment results to monitor and guide student instruction
has been provided by Howell and Nolet (2000) and Howell,
Hosp, and Hosp (in press).
In closing, if teachers are to use scientific, researchbased practices to the maximum extent, they must have adequate training for interpreting research and be aware of past

fads that never seem to pass. The following observation by

Mann in 1979 was meant to describe the state of process
training and academic instruction, but it appears to be just as
pertinent some 25 years later, because it highlights the necessity of ensuring that future educators and interventionists understand the history of their field, lest they be duped into
implementing practices devoid of research support:
Process training has always made the phoenix
look like a bedraggled sparrow. You cannot kill
it. It simply bides its time in exile after being
dislodged by one of historys periodic attacks
upon it and then returns, wearing disguises or
carrying new noms de plume, as it were, but
consisting of the same old ideas, doing business
much in the same old way. (p. 539)

KEITH J. HYATT, EdD, is an assistant professor of special education at

Western Washington University. His interests include special education law,
inclusion, and early childhood special education. Address: Keith J. Hyatt,
Department of Special Education, Western Washington University, 516
High Street, MS 9090, Bellingham, WA 98225-9090; e-mail: keith.hyatt@
wwu.edu
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