Types of Stylistics

THE TYPES OF STYLISTIC STUDIES AND THE CHARACTERIZATION OF INDIVIDUAL
STYLE: AN OUTLINE OF PROBLEMS
Types of Stylistics
TYPES OF STYLISTICS
Diri I. TEILANYO &Priscilla O. EFE-OBUKE
1. General Stylistics or Stylistics:
This is stylistics viewed from thebroad notion of the linguistic studyof all types of linguistic events fromdifferent domains of life.
It is used asacover term for the analysis of non-literary varieties of language, orregisters(Wales 458). Hence, one canundertake a stylistic
study of areligioussermon, a sport commentary, a legaldocument, a political speech, abusiness conversation, etc.
2. Literary Stylistics:
This is the type of analysis thatfocuses on literary texts. In thebroadsense, such a study may be linguisticor non-linguistic, but in
the morespecialized sense, it is essentiallylinguistic. To make this linguisticorientation clearer, the terms
linguistic stylistics
or
linguostylistics
aresometimes employed to denote thelinguistic analysis or interpretation of literary events. Other types of stylistics below are largely
subtypesof thislinguistic literary stylistics.
3. Textualist Stylistics(Textlinguistics):
This is the type of stylistics whichengaged in an empty technologyof a text. It merely identifies the rawlinguistic patterns of a (literary)
textsuchas the phonological, grammatical,lexical and semantic patternswithoutattempting to relate these patternsto the message in the text.
Thisapproachwas popular at the early stages of the evolution of stylistics as adisciplinewhere linguists viewed literary textsmerely as
linguistic events and feltliterary interpretation, involvingthematic concerns or artisticsignificance,were not of concern to them
aslinguists, especially as they involvedanunderstanding of the artistsintention which was hardly subject totheobjective verifiability
emphasized bythe scientific claim of modernlinguistics.
4. Interpretative Stylistics:
This is the practice engaged in bymost stylisticians nowadays. Itinvolves the analysis of the linguisticdata in a (literary) text,
theunravellingof the content or artistic value of thetext and the marrying of these two.Asdepicted in Leo Spitzers
philologicalcircle, the interpretative stylisticianrelates linguistic description toliterary appreciation by seekingartisticfunction and relating it
to thelinguistic evidence or first seekingthelinguistic features in the text andrelating it to the artistic motivation. Thebelief is that the
linguistic patternsare chosen deliberately to expresscertain artistic or literary goals andthat the two can hardly be divorced.
.
. Stylistics as a branch of linguistics. The problem of stylistic research
3.
Units of language on different levels are studied by traditional branches of linguistics as phonetics (that
deals with speech sounds and intonation), lexicology (treats the words, their meaning and vocabulary structure),
grammar (analysis forms of words), syntax (analysis the function of words in a sentence).
4.
These areas of study are more or less clear-cut. Some scholars claim that stylistic is a comparatively new
branch of linguistics, The term stylistics really came into existence not too long ago.
5.
Problems of stylistic research:
6.
1. the object and the matter under study; Not only may each of these linguistic units (sounds, words and
clauses) be charged with a certain stylistic meaning but the interaction of these elements, as well as the structure
and the composition of the whole text are stylistically pertinent (, ).
7.
2. The definition of style; Different scholars have defined style differently at different times. In 1955 the
Academician V.V. Vinogradov defined style as socially determined and functionally conditioned internally united
totality of the ways of using, selecting and combining the means of lingual intercourse in the sphere of one
national language or another. In 1971 Prof. I.R. Galperin offered his definition of style as is a system of coordinated, interrelated and inter-conditioned language means intended to fulfil a specific function of
communication and aiming at a definite effect. According to Prof. Screbnev style is what differentiates a group
of homogeneous texts from all other groups Style can be roughly defined as the peculiarity, the set of specific
features of text type or of a specific text.
8.
3. the number of functional styles; The authors of handbooks on different languages propose systems of
styles based on a broad subdivision of all styles into 2 classes literary and colloquial and their varieties. These
generally include from three to five functional styles.
9.
Galperins system of styles: 1. Belles-lettres style (poetry, emotive prose, drama); 1. Publicist (oratory and
speeches, essay, article); 3. Newspaper (brief news items, headlines, ads, editorial); 4. scientific prose; 5. official
documents.
10.
Arnolds system of styles: 1. Poetic; 2. Scientific; 3. Newspaper; 4. Colloquial.
11.
Screbnevs system of styles: Number of styles is infinite.
12. Stylistics is that branch of linguistics, which studies the principles, and effect of choice and usage of
different language elements in rendering thought and emotion under different conditions of communication.
Therefore it is concerned with such issues as:
13. 1. The aesthetic function of language; 2. expressive means in language (aim to effect the reader or
listener); 3. synonymous ways of rendering one and the same idea (with the change of wording a change in
meaning takes place inevitably); 4. emotional colouring in language; 5. a system of special devices called stylistic
devices; 6. the splitting of the literary language into separate systems called style; 7. the interrelation between
language and thought; 8. the individual manner of an author in making use of the language.
14. Its essential that we look at the object of stylistic study in its totality concerning all the above- mentioned
problems.
15.
6.Types of stylistic research (together with branches of Stylistics)

17. Literary and linguistic stylistics
18. According to the type of stylistic research we can distinguish literary stylistics nd lingu-stlistis. h
hv some meeting points or links in that they have common objects of research. Consequently they have certain
areas of ross-rfrn. Both study the common ground of:
19.
1. the literary language from the point of view of its variability;
20.
2. the idiolect (individual speech) of writer;
21.
3. poetic speech that has its own specific laws.
22.
The points of difference proceed from the different points of analysis. While lingua-stylistics studies:
23.
1. Functional styles (in their development and current state).
24. 2. The linguistic nature of the expressive means of the language, their systematic character and their
functions .
25.
Literary stylistics is focused n:
26.
1. The composition of work of art;
27.
2. Various literary genres;
28.
3. h writer's outlook.
29. Types of stylistic research:
. literary stylistics; 2. linguistic st.; 3. Comparative st.; 4. Decoding st.; 5. Functional st.; 6. Stylistic lexicology; 7.
Stylistic grammar.
30. Comparative stylistics
31. Comparative stlistics is connected with the contrastive study of more than one language. It analyses the
stylistic resources not inherent in separate language but at the crossroads of two languages, or two literturs
and is obviously linked to the theory of translation.
32.
Decoding stylistics
33. A comparatively new branch of stylistics is the decoding stylistics, which can be traced back to the works
of L. V. Shcherba, . . Larin, , Riffaterre, R. Jackobson and other scholars of the Prague linguistic circle.
serious contribution into this branch of stylistic study was also made b Prof. I.. Arnold. Each act of speech has
the performer, or sender of speech and the recipient. h former does the act of nding and the latter the act
of decoding the information.
34. If we analyse the text from the author's (encoding) point of view we should consider the epoch, the
historical situation, the personal political, social and aesthetic views of the author.
35. But if we try to treat the same text from the reader's angle of view we shall have to disregard this,
background knowledge and get the maximum information from the text itself (its vocabu1ary, msition,
sntn arrangement, t.) The first approach manifests the prevalence of the literary analysis. h second is
based almost exclusively n the linguistic analysis. Decoding stylistics is an attempt to harmoniously mbine the
two methds of stylistic research and nb the scholar to interpret work of art with minimum loss of its
purport and message.
36. Functional styllstics
37. Special mention, should b made of functional stylistics which is branch of lingua-stylistics that
investigates functional styles, that is specia1 sublangugs or varieties f of the national language such as
scientific, colloquial, business, publicist and so on.
38. However mn types of stylistics m exist r spring into existence they will ll consider the same source
material for stylistic analysis sounds, words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs and texts. That's why any kind of
stylistic research, will b based n the level-forming branches that include:
39. Stylistic lexicology
40. Stytystic Lexicology studies the semantic structure of the word and the interrelation (or interplay) of the
connotative and denotative meanings of the word, as well as the interrelation of the stylistic connotations f the
word and the context.
41. Stylistic Phonetics (or Phonostylistics) is engaged in the study of style-frming phonetic features of
the text. It describes the rosdic ftures of prose and poetry and variants of pronunciation in different types of
speech (colloquial or oratory or recital ().
42. Stylistic grammar
43. Stylistic Morphology is interested in the stylistic potentials of specific grammatical, forms nd categories,
such as the number of the noun, or the peculiar use of tense forms of the verb, etc.
44. Stylistic Syntax is n of the oldest branches of stylistic studies that grew ut f classical rhetoric. The
mterial in qustin lends itself readily to analysis and description. Stylistic syntax has to do with the expressive
order of words, types of syntactic links ( asyndeton, polysyndeton), figures of speech (antithesis, chiasmus, etc.).
It also deals with bigger units from paragraph onwards.
45.
6.Interrelation of Stylistics with other linguistic branches

47. Stylistics and other linguistic disciplines
48. As is obvious from the names of the branches or types of stylistic studies this science is very closely linked
to the linguistic disciplines philology students are familiar with: phonetics, lexicology and grammar due to the
mmn study source.
49. Stylistics interacts with such theoretical discipline as semasiology. This is branch of linguistics whose
area of study is most complicated and enormous sphere that of meaning. The. term semantics is also widely
used in linguistics in relation to verbal meanings. Semasiology in its turn is often related to the theory of signs in
general and deals with visual as well as verbal meanings.
50. Meaning is not attached to the level of the word only, or for that matter to n level at all but correlts
with all of them - morphemes, words, phrases r texts. This is one of the most challenging areas of rsrh since
prtially all stylistic effects are based n the interplay between different kinds of mning n different levels.
Suffice it to say that their are numerous types of linguistic meanings attached to linguistic units, such as
grammatical, lexical,1ogical, denotative, connotative, emotive, evaluative, expressive and stylistic.
51. Onomasiology (or onomatology) is the theory of naming dealing with the choice of words when naming
or assessing some object or hnmnn. In stylistic analysis we often have to do with transfer of nominal
meaning in text (antonomasia, metaphor, metonymy, etc.)
52. The theory of funtionl styles investigates the structure of the national linguistic space - what constitutes
the literary language, the sublanguages and dialects mentioned more than n already.
53. Literary stylistics will inevitably overlap with areas of literary studies suh as the theory of imagery, literary
genres, the art of composition, etc.
54. Decoding stylistics in many ways borders culture studies in the broad sense of that word including the
history of art, aesthetic trends and even information theory.
55.
56.
7.Stylistic neutrality and stylistic coloring. Denotation and connotation. Inherent and adherent
connotation
58. Stylistic neutrality and stylistic colouring
59. Speaking of the notion of style and stylistic colouring we cannot avoid the rblm of the nrm and
neutrality and stylistic colouring in contrast to it.
60. Most scholars abroad and in this country giving definitions of style m to the conclusion that style m
b defined as deviation from from the lingual norm. It mans that what is stylistically conspicuous, stylistically
relevant or stylistically clurd is departure from the norm of given national language. (G. Leech, .
Rifftrr, M. Halliday, R. Jacobson and others):
61. There are authors who object to the use of the word norm for various reasons. hus .. Skrebnev
argues that since we acknowledge the existence of vrit of sublanguages within national language we
should also acknowledge that h of them has norm of its own.
62. So, Skrebnev claims there are as mn norms as there are sublanguages. Each language is subject to its
wn norm. reject this would mean admitting abnormality of everything that is not neutral. Only AC-books, and
texts for foreigners would b considered normal. Everything that has style, eyerything that demonstrates
peculiarities of whatever kind would b considered bnrml, including works b Dickens, Twain, O'Henry,
Galsworthy and so n.
63. For all its challenging and defiant character this argument seems to contain grain of truth and it does
stand to reason that what we often ll the norm in terms of stylistics would b more appropriate to call
neutrality.
64. Since style is the specificity of sublanguage it is self-evident that nn-specific units of it do not
participate in the formation of its style; units belonging to all the sublanguages r stlisticll nutral. Thus we
observe an sition of stylistically coloured specific elements to stylistically neutral non-specific elements.
65. The styllstic colouring is nothing but the knowledge where, in what particular type of communication, the
unit in question is current.
66. Professor Howard . Mims of Cleveland State Univrsit did an accurate study of grammatical deviations
found in American English that he terms vernacular (non-standard) variants. made a list of 20 grammatical
forms which he calls relatively mmn and some of them are so frequent in every-day speech that u hardly
register them as deviations from the norm.
67. The majority of the words are neutral. Stylistically coloured words - bookish, solemn, poetic, official r
colloquial, rustic, dialectal, vulgar - have each kind of label on them showing where the unit was
manufactured, where it gnrally belongs.
68. Within the stylistically coloured words there 15 another opposition btwen frmal vocabulary and
informal vocabulary.
69. These terms have mn synonyms offered b different authors. Rmn Jacobson described this opposition
as casual and non-casual, other terminologies name them as bookish and colloquial or formal and informal,
correct and mmn.
70. In surveying the units commonly called neutral n we assert that they only denote without connoting?
That is not completely true.
71. If we take stylistically neutral words separately, we m call them neutral without doubt. But occasionally
in certain context, in scific distribution one of many implicit meanings of word we normally consider
neutral may prevail. Specific distribution may also create unexpected additional colouring of generally neutral
word such stylistic connotation is called occasional.
72. Stylistic connotations m b inherent or adherent. Stylistically coloured words possess inherent stylistic
connotations. Stylistically neutral words will have nl adherent (occasional) stylistic connotations acquired in
certain context.
73. Stylistic function notion
74. Like other linguistic disciplines stylistics deals with the lexical, grammatical, phonetic and phraseological
data of the language. However there is distinctive difference between stylistics and the other linguistic subjects.
Stylistics does not study or describe separate linguistic units like phonemes or words or clauses as such. It studies
their stylistic function. Stylistics is interested in the expressive potential f these units and their interaction in
text.
75. Stylistics focuses n the expressive properties of linguistic units, their functioning and interaction in
conveying ideas and emotions in a rtin text or communicative ntxt.
76. Stylistics interprets the opposition or clash between the contextual meaning of word and its
denotative mnings.
77.
Accordingly stylistics is first and foremost engaged in the study of connotative meanings.
78. In brief the semantic structure (or the meaning) of word roughly consists of its grammatical meaning
(nun, verb, adjective) and its lxical meaning. Lxical meaning n further n b subdivided into denotative
(linked to the logical or nmintive meaning) and connotative meanings. Connotative meaning is only connected
with extralinguistic circumstances such as the situation of communication and the participants of communication.
nnttive meaning consists of four components:
79.
1. emotive;
80.
2. evaluative;
81.
3. expressive;
82.
4. stylistic.
83. Stylistics of Language and stylistics of Speech

84.
Language system of signs, that actually exists only in our minds, abstract.
85.
Speech external use of the language for communication, physical.
86. The stylistics of language analyses permanent or inherent stylistic properties of language elements
while the stylistics of speech studies stylistic properties, which appear in a context, and they are called
adherent.
87.
8.Connotative meaning types / components

89. Stylistic function notion
90. Like other linguistic disciplines stylistics deals with the lexical, grammatical, phonetic and phraseological
data of the language. However there is distinctive difference between stylistics and the other linguistic subjects.
Stylistics does not study or describe separate linguistic units like phonemes or words or clauses as such. It studies
their stylistic function. Stylistics is interested in the expressive potential f these units and their interaction in
text.
91. Stylistics focuses n the expressive properties of linguistic units, their functioning and interaction in
conveying ideas and emotions in a rtin text or communicative ntxt.
92. Stylistics interprets the opposition or clash between the contextual meaning of word and its denotative
mnings.
93.
Accordingly stylistics is first and foremost engaged in the study of connotative meanings.
94. In brief the semantic structure (or the meaning) of word roughly consists of its grammatical meaning
(nun, verb, adjective) and its lxical meaning. Lxical meaning n further n b subdivided into denotative
(linked to the logical or nmintive meaning) and connotative meanings. Connotative meaning is only connected
with extralinguistic circumstances such as the situation of communication and the participants of communication.
nnttive meaning consists of four components:
95.
1. emotive; 2. evaluative; 3. expressive; 4. stylistic.
96. word is always characterised b its denotative mning but not necessarily b connotation. h four
components m b ll present at nce, or in different combinations or they m not b found in the word at l.
97. 1. Emotive connotations express various feelings r emotions. mtions differ from feelings. Emotions
like joy, disappointment, pleasure, anger, worry, surprise are mr short-lived. Feelings imply more stable state,
or attitude, such as love, hatred, respect, pride, dignity, etc. The emotive component of meaning m b
occasional usual (i.. inherent and adherent).
98. It is important to distinguish words with emotive connotations from words, describing or naming emotions
and feelings like anger r fr, because the latter r special vocabulary subgroup whose denotative meanings
r emotions. They do not connote the speaker's state of mind r his emotional attitude to the subject of speech.
99. 2. The evaluative component charges the word with negative, positive, ironic or other types of
connotation conveying the speaker's attitude in relation to the object of speech. Very often this component is
part of the denotative mning, which comes to the fr in specific context.
100. The verb to sneak means to mv silently and secretly, usu. for a bad purpose. This dictionary
definition makes the evaluative component bad quit elicit. Two derivatives a sneak and sneaky have both
preserved drgtory evalutiv connotation. But the negative component disappears though in still another
derivative sneakers (shoes with a soft sole). It shows that vn words of the same root m either have or lack n
vluative component in their inner form.
101. 3. Expressive connotation either increases or decreases the expressiveness of the message. an
scholars hold that emotive and expressive components cannot b distinguished but Prof. I. Arnold maintins that
emotive connotation always entails expressiveness but not vice versa. prove her point she comments n the
example b . rnb and R. Fowler with the word thing applied to girl. When the word is used with n
emotive adjective like sweet it becomes mtive itself: She was sweet little thing. But in other sentences
like She was small thin delicate thing with spectacles, she argues, this is not true and the word thing is
definitely expressive but not emotive. Another group of words that help create this expressive effect are the socalled intensifiers, words like absolutely, frightfully, really, quite, etc.
102. 4. Finally there is stylistic connotation. word possesses stylistic connotation if it belongs to certain
functinl style or specific layer f vocabulary (such as archaisms, barbarisms, slang, jargon, etc). Stylistic
connotation is usually immediately recognizbl.
103. Galperin operates three types of lexical meaning that are stylistically relevant - logical, emotive and
nominal. describes the stylistic colouring of words in terms of the interaction of these types of lexical meaning.
Skrebnev maintains that connotations only show to what part of the national language word belongs - one of the
sub-languages (functional styles) or the neutral bulk. on1y speaks about the stylistic component of the
connotative meaning.
04. Standard structure of fictional narrative communication. Covert and overt narrators. The
problem of narrators relationship to the story. Genettes narrative types. Lansers rule
105. Standart structure of fictional narrative communication
the level of non-fictional communication (author and reader) extratextual level
the level of fictional mediation and discourse (narrator and addressee(s)) intertextual level
the level of action (characters) intertextual level
106. Narrator types
107.
An Overt narrator is one who refers to him/her in the first person (I, we), one who directly or
indirectly addressees the narrator, one who offers readers friendly exposition whenever it is needed, one who
exhibits a discoursal stand towards characters and events, especially in his/her use of rhetorical figures, imagery.
108. A Covert narrator he/she is one who neither refers to him or herself nor addressees any narrates,
one who has a more/less neutral (non-distinctive) voice and style, one who is sexually indeterminate, one who
does not provide exposition even when it is urgently needed. One who doesnt interfere, one who lets the story
events unfold in their natural sequence and tempo, one whose discourse fulfils no obvious phatic, appellative or
expressive functions.
109. Genettes narrative types
110. Genettes two basic types of narratives are:
111. 1. Homodiegetic narrative.
112. In a homodiegetic narrative the story is fold by a (homodiegetic) narrator who is presented as a character
in the story (a text is homodiegetic if among its story-related-action sentences there are some that contain first-
person pronouns (I did this. I saw this. etc), indicating that the narrator was at least a witness to the events
depicted).
113. 2. Heterodiegetic narrative
114. In a heterodiegetic narrative the story is fold by a (heterodiegetic) narrator who is not present as a
character in the story (a text is heterodiegetic if all of its story-related-action sentences are third-person
sentences (She did it, this was what happened to him, etc.)).
115. Lansers rule
116. In the absence of any text-internal clues as to the narrators sex, use the pronoun appropriate to the
authors sex; i.e. assume that the narrator is male if the author is male, and that the narrator is female if the
author is female respectively.
117.
18.
Voice Markers that project a narrative voice. Stanzels (proto-)typical narrative situation. Main
aspects of first-person narration. Basic features of authorial narrative
119. Voice markers that project a narrative voice
120. 1. Content matter appropriate voices for sad and happy, comic and tragic subjects (though precise
type of intonation never follows automatically);
121. 2. Subjective expressions expressions (or expressivity markers) that indicate the narrators
education, his/her beliefs, convictions, interests, values, political and ideological orientation, attitude towards
people, events and things.
122. 3. Pragmatic signals expressions that signal the narrators awareness of an audience and the degree
of his/her orientation towards it.
123. Stanzels (proto-)typical narrative situations
124. 1. A first-person narrative is told by a narrator who is present as a character in his/her story; it is a
story of events she/he has experienced him/herself, a story of personal experience,
125. The individual who acts as a narrator (narrating I) is also a character (experiencing I) on the level of action.
126. 2. An authorial narrative (heterodiegetic overt) is fold by a narrator who is absent from the story, i.e.
does not appear as a character in the story. The authorial narrator tells a story involving other people. An
authorial narrator sees the story from an outsiders position, iften a position of absolute authority that allows
her/him to know everything about the storys world and its characters.
127. 3. A figural narrative (heterodiegetic covert plus internal focalization) the specific configuration
of a heterodiegetic covert narrative which backgrounds the narrator and foregrounds internal focalization.
128. The technique of presenting something from the point of view of a story by an internal character is called
internal focalization.
129. The character through whose eyes the action is presented is called an internal focalizer.
130. Figural narrative is a narrative which presents the story events as seen through the eyes of a third-person
internal focalizer.
131. The narrator of a figural narrative is a covert heterodiegetic narrator hiding behind the presentation of the
internal focalizers consciousness, especially his/her perceptions and thoughts.
132. Because the narrators discourse closely mimics the focalizers voice its own vocal quality is largely
indistinct. One of the main effects of internal focalization is to attract attention to the mind of the reflectorcharacter and away from the narrator and the processes of narratorial mediation.
133. The full extent of figural techniques was first explored in the novels and short stories of 20 th century
authors such as Henry James, Franz Kafka, Dorothy Richardson, Katherine Mansfield, Virginia Woolf, James Joyce
and many others.
134.
35.
Scene and summary as narrative modes. Description and commentary as narrative modes
136. Narrative Modes
Showing. In a showing mode of presentation, there is little or no narratorial mediation, overtness ()

or presence. The reader is basically cast in the role of a witness to the events.
Telling. In a telling mode of presentation, the narrator is in overt control (especially durational control) of action
presentation, characterization and point-of-view arrangement.
Scene/scenic presentation. A showing mode which presents a continuous stream of detailed action events.
Durational aspect: isochrony (story time and discourse time are mapping ()).
Summary. A telling mode in which the narrator condenses a sequence of action events into a thematically
focused and orderly account. Durational aspect: speed-up.
137. Supportive Narrative Modes
Description. A telling mode in which the narrator introduces a character or describes the setting. Durational
aspect: pause.
Comment/commentary. A telling mode in which the narrator comments on characters, the development of the
action, the circumstances of the act of narrating, etc. Durational aspect: pause.
138.
39.
Semantics, semasiology, onomasiology, their links to stylistics

140. Stylistics and other linguistic disciplines
141. As is obvious from the names of the branches or types of stylistic studies this science is very closely linked
to the linguistic disciplines philology students are familiar with: phonetics, lexicology and grammar due to the
mmn study source.
142. Stylistics interacts with such theoretical discipline as semasiology. This is branch of linguistics whose
area of study is most complicated and enormous sphere that of meaning. The. term semantics is also widely
used in linguistics in relation to verbal meanings. Semasiology in its turn is often related to the theory of signs in
general and deals with visual as well as verbal meanings.
143. Meaning is not attached to the level of the word only, or for that matter to n level at all but correlts
with all of them - morphemes, words, phrases r texts. This is one of the most challenging areas of rsrh since
prtially all stylistic effects are based n the interplay between different kinds of mning n different levels.
Suffice it to say that their are numerous types of linguistic meanings attached to linguistic units, such as
grammatical, lexical,1ogical, denotative, connotative, emotive, evaluative, expressive and stylistic.
144. Onomasiology (or onomatology) is the theory of naming dealing with the choice of words when naming
or assessing some object or hnmnn. In stylistic analysis we often have to do with transfer of nominal
meaning in text (antonomasia, metaphor, metonymy, etc.)
145. The theory of funtionl styles investigates the structure of the national linguistic space - what constitutes
the literary language, the sublanguages and dialects mentioned more than n already.
146. Literary stylistics will inevitably overlap with areas of literary studies suh as the theory of imagery, literary
genres, the art of composition, etc.
147. Decoding stylistics in many ways borders culture studies in the broad sense of that word including the
history of art, aesthetic trends and even information theory.
148.
149.
150.
151.
152.
153.
154.
155.
156.
157.
158.
159.
160.
161.
162.
163.
64.
Tropes (brief outline: definition, classification). Figures of quantity

165. Trope is a rhetorical figure of speech that consists of a play on words, i.e. using a word in a way other than
what is considered its literal or normal form. Tropes comes from the Greek word tropos which means a turn.
We can imagine a trope as a way of turning a word away from its normal meaning, or turning it into something
else.
166. Tropes include: epithet, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, periphrasis, personification, simile, etc.
167. Epithet is an adj. or an adjective phrase appropriately qualifying a subject (noun) by naming a key or important characteristic of the
subject.
168. Semantics-oriented epithet classification by prof. I.Screbnev: 1. metaphorical epithet (lazy road, ragged noise, ), 2.
Metonymical (brainy fellow), 3. Ironic.
169. Structural characteristics of epithets: 1. Preposition, one-word epithet (a nice way); 2. Postposition, one-word or hyperbation (the eyes
watchful); 3. Two-step (immensely great); 4. Phrase (a go-to-hell look); 5. Inverted (a brute of a dog, a monster of a man).
170. Metaphor is a transference of names based on the associated likeness between two objects, on the similarity of one feature common
to two different entities, on possessing one common characteristic, on linguistic semantic nearness, on a common component in their semantic
structures. e.g. pancake for the sun (round, hot, yellow); e.g. silver dust and sequins for stars
171. Metonymy is a transference of names based on contiguity (nearness), on extralinguistic, actually existing relations between the
phenomena (objects), denoted by the words, on common grounds of existence in reality but different semantic (V.A.Kucharenko). e.g. cup
and tea in Will you have another cup?;
172. Oxymoron is a combination of two semantically contradictory notions, that help to emphasise contradictory qualities simultaneously
existing in the described phenomenon as a dialectical unity (V.A.Kucharenko). e.g. low skyscraper, sweet sorrow, nice rascal,
pleasantly ugly face.
173. Periphrasis is a device which, according to Websters dictionary, denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter
and plainer form of expression. e.g. The lamp-lighter made his nightly failure in attempting to brighten up the street with gas. \[= lit the street
lamps\] (Dickens)
174. Personification is a metaphor that involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects (V.A.Kucharenko). e.g. the face of
London, the pain of ocean;
175. Simile is an imaginative comparison of two unlike objects belonging to two different classes on the grounds of similarity of some
quality (V.A. Kucharenko).e.g. She is like a rose.
176.
Figures of Replacement (Tropes) are divided into two classes:
177. Figures of quantity which are hyperbole or overstatement, i.e. exaggeration and meiosis or understatement, i.e. weakening.
178. Figures of quality which are metonymy, metaphor, irony.
179. Figures of quantity
180. Hyperbole is a stylistic device in which emphasis is achieved through deliberate exaggeration (V.A. Kucharenko). Hyperbole is a
deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feature essential (unlike periphrasis) to the object or phenomenon (I.R. Galperin). It does not
signify the actual state of affairs in reality, but presents the latter through the emotionally coloured perception and rendering of the speaker. e.g.
My vegetable love should grow faster than empires. (A. Marvell); e.g. I was scared to death when he entered the room. (J.D.Salinger)
181. Meiosis deliberately expresses the idea, there less important than the action is. Meiosis is dealt with when the size, shape, dimensions,
characteristic features of the object are intentionally underrated. It does not signify the actual state of affairs in reality, but presents the latter
through the emotionally coloured perception and rendering of the speaker. e.g. The wind is rather strong instead of Theres a gale blowing
outside; e.g. She wore a pink hat, the size of a button. (J.Reed)
182.
83. Tropes. Figure of quality
184. Trope is a rhetorical figure of speech that consists of a play on words, i.e. using a word in a way other than
what is considered its literal or normal form. Tropes comes from the Greek word tropos which means a turn.
We can imagine a trope as a way of turning a word away from its normal meaning, or turning it into something
else.
185. Tropes include: epithet, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, periphrasis, personification, simile, etc.
186. Epithet is an adj. or an adjective phrase appropriately qualifying a subject (noun) by naming a key or important characteristic of the
subject.
187. Semantics-oriented epithet classification by prof. I.Screbnev: 1. metaphorical epithet (lazy road, ragged noise, ), 2.
Metonymical (brainy fellow), 3. Ironic.
188. Structural characteristics of epithets: 1. Preposition, one-word epithet (a nice way); 2. Postposition, one-word or hyperbation (the eyes
watchful); 3. Two-step (immensely great); 4. Phrase (a go-to-hell look); 5. Inverted (a brute of a dog, a monster of a man).
189. Oxymoron is a combination of two semantically contradictory notions, that help to emphasise contradictory qualities simultaneously
existing in the described phenomenon as a dialectical unity (V.A.Kucharenko). e.g. low skyscraper, sweet sorrow, nice rascal,
pleasantly ugly face.
190. Periphrasis is a device which, according to Websters dictionary, denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter
and plainer form of expression. e.g. The lamp-lighter made his nightly failure in attempting to brighten up the street with gas. \[= lit the street
lamps\] (Dickens)
191. Personification is a metaphor that involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects (V.A.Kucharenko). e.g. the face of
London, the pain of ocean;
192. Simile is an imaginative comparison of two unlike objects belonging to two different classes on the grounds of similarity of some
quality (V.A. Kucharenko).e.g. She is like a rose.
193.
Figures of Replacement (Tropes) are divided into two classes:
194. Figures of quantity which are hyperbole or overstatement, i.e. exaggeration and meiosis or understatement, i.e. weakening.
195. Figures of quality which are metonymy, metaphor, irony.
196. Figures of quality
structures. e.g. pancake for the sun (round, hot, yellow); e.g. silver dust and sequins for stars
198. Metonymy is a transference of names based on contiguity (nearness), on extralinguistic, actually existing relations between the
phenomena (objects), denoted by the words, on common grounds of existence in reality but different semantic (V.A.Kucharenko). e.g. cup
and tea in Will you have another cup?;
199. Irony is a stylistic device in which the contextual evaluative meaning of a word is directly opposite to its dictionary meaning. The
context is arranged so that the qualifying word in irony reverses the direction of the evaluation, and the word positively charged is understood
as a negative qualification and (much-much rarer) vice versa. The context varies from the minimal a word combination to the context of a
whole book. e.g. It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in ones pocket.
200. Irony can be of three kinds: verbal irony is a type of irony when it is possible to indicate the exact word whose contextual meaning
diametrically opposes its dictionary meaning, in whose meaning we can trace the contradiction between the said and implied ( e.g. She turned
with the sweet smile of an alligator. (J.Steinbeck) (V.A. Kucharenko); Dramatik irony happens when a reader or viewer knows more
information that a character in book or in a movie; Situational irony is a kind of joke that is against you or situation.
201.
02. The structure of metaphor. Types of metaphor
structures. e.g. pancake for the sun (round, hot, yellow)
204. The expressiveness is promoted by the implicit simultaneous presence of images of both objects the one which is actually named
and the one which supplies its own legal name, while each one enters a phrase in the complexity of its other characteristics.
205. The wider is the gap between the associated objects the more striking and unexpected the more expressive is the metaphor.
e.g. His voice was a dagger of corroded brass. (S. Lewis); e.g. They walked alone, two continents of experience and feeling, unable to
communicate. (W.S.Gilbert).
206. Metaphors, like all SDs can be classified according to their degree of unexpectedness. Thus metaphors
which are absolutely unexpected, i.e. are quite unpredictable, are called genuine metaphors. Those which are
commonly used in speech and therefore are sometimes even fixed in dictionaries as expressive means of
language are trite metaphors, or dead metaphors. Their predictability therefore is apparent and they are
usually fixed in dictionaries as units of the language (I.R. Galperin); prolonged metaphor is a group (cluster) of
metaphors, each supplying another feature of the described phenomenon to present an elaborated image
(V.A.Kucharenko).
207. The constant use of a metaphor, i.e. a word in which two meanings are blended, gradually leads to the
breaking up of the primary meaning. The metaphoric use of the word begins to affect the dictionary meaning,
adding to it fresh connotations or shades of meaning. But this influence, however strong it may be, will never
reach the degree where the dictionary meaning entirely disappears.
208. How metaphor works (according to Leikoff and Johnson)
209. Source domain is a realm with the help of which the imagianary and verbal representation are made.
Taken from the Source Domain (-) images and words are applied to a Target Domain ().
210. Types of metaphors (according to Leikoff and Johnson)
211. 1. Oriental metaphors (up and down, front and back, in and out, near for, etc.)
212. 2. Antological metaphors, associate with activity motions personification
213. 3. Structural metaphors (argument is war, life is a journey, etc.)
214.
215.
16.
Syntagmatic semasiology. Semantic figures of co-occurrence (general remarks on classification)

217. Semantic Figures of Co-occurrence
218. 1. Figures of Identity
219. a. simile; b. quasi-identity; c. replacers
220. 2. figures of inequality
221. a. specifiers; b. climax; c. anti-climax; d. pun; e. zeugma; f. tautology; g. pleonasm
222. 3. Figures of contrast
223. a. oxymoron; b. antithesis
224. As distinct from syntagmatic semasiology investigating the stylistic value of nomination and renaming, syntagmatic
semasiology deals with stylistic functions of relationship of names in texts. It studies types of linear arrangement of meanings,
singling out, classifying, and describing what is called here 'figures of co-urn', b which term combined, joint rn
of sense units is understood.
225. The interrelation of semantic units is unique in n individual text.
226. Yet stylistics, like any other branch of science, aims at generalizations.
227. The most general types of semantic relationships n b reduced to three. nings n b either identical, or different,
r else opposite. Let us have more detailed interpretation.
228. 1.Identical meanings. Linguistic units co-occurring in the text either have the same meanings, or r used s nms of the
same object (thing, phenomenon, process, property, etc.).
229. 2. Different meanings. The correlative linguistic units in the text r perceived as denoting different objects (phenomena,
processes, properties).
230. 3. Opposite meanings. Two correlative units r semantically polar. The meaning of one of them is incompatible with the
meaning of the second: the one excludes the other.
231. The possibility of contrasting notions stand in n logical opposition to each other (as do antonyms long - short, young old, u - down, etc.).
232. As for the second item discussed (difference, inequality of co-occurring meanings), it must b specially underlined that
we are dealing here not with n kind of distinction or disparity, but only with cases when carriers of meanings are syntactically
and/or semantically correlative. What is meant here is the difference manifest in units with homogeneous functions.
233. sum u, sometimes two or more units are viewed b both the speaker and the hearer - according to varying aims of
communication - as identical, different, or vn opposite.
234. The three types of semantic interrelations are matched b three groups of figures, which are the subject-matter of
syntagmatic semasiology. They are: figures of identity, figures of inequality, and figures of contrast.
235.
36.
Semantic figures of co-occurrence figures of identity and contrast

238. 1. Figures of Identity: a. simile; b. quasi-identity; c. replacers
239. 2. figures of inequality: a. specifiers; b. climax; c. anti-climax; d. pun; e. zeugma; f. tautology; g. pleonasm
240. 3. Figures of contrast: a. oxymoron; b. antithesis
241. Figures of Identity
242. Human cognition, s viewed b linguistics, n b defined s recurring acts of lingual identification of what we
perceive. naming objects (phenomena, processes, and properties f reality), we identify them, i.e. search for classes in which
to place them, recalling the names of classes already known to us.
243. 1. Simile, i.e. imaginative comparison. This is an explicit statement of partial identity (affinity, likeness, similarity) f
two objects. The word identity is only applicable to certain features of the objects compared: in fact, the objects cannot b
identical; they are only similar, they rsmble each other due to sm identical features. simile has manifold forms, semantic
features and expressive aims. s already mentioned, simile m b combined with or accompanied b another stylistic device,
or it m achieve one stylistic effect or another. Thus it is often based n exaggeration of properties described.
244. 2. Quasi-identity. Another rblm arises if we inspect certain widespread ss of 'active identification' usull treated as
tropes; when we look at the matter mr closely, they turn out to b special kind of syntagmatic phenomena. Sm f quasiidntitis manifest special expressive force, chiefly when the usual topic - comment positions change places: the metaphoric
(metonymical) nm rs in the text first, the direct, straightforward denomination following it. S what happens, for
instance, with metaphorical characteristics preceding the deciphering noun.
245. 3. Synonymous replacements. he term goes back to the classification of the use of synonyms proposed b M.D. Kuznets
in paper n synnms in English as early s 1947. She aptly remarked that n the whole, synnms are used in actual texts for two
different reasons. n of them is to avoid monotonous repetition of the sm word in sentence or sequence of sentences.
246. The other purpose of co-occurrence of snnms in text, according to Kuznets, is to make the description s exhaustive as
possible under the circumstances, to provide additional shades of the meaning intended.
247. Figures of Contrast
248. They formed b intentional combination, often b direct juxtaposition f ideas, mutually excluding, and incompatible
with one another, r at least assumed to b. They r differentiated b the type of actualization of contrast, as well as b the
character of their connection with the referent. We remember from previous sections of this chapter that presentation m b
passive (implied) r active (expressed r emphasized).
249. Oxymoron. The etymological meaning of this term combining Greek roots ('sharp-dull', r 'sharply dull') shows the
logical structure of the figure it denotes. mrn ascribes some feature to n object incompatible with that feature. It is
logical collision of notional words taken for granted as natural, in spite of the incongruity of their mean ings. The most typical
oxymoron is an attributive r an adverbial word combination, the members of which r derived from antonymic stems or,
according to our common sense experience, are incompatible in other ways, i.e. express mutually exclusive notions. It is
considered b some that an oxymoron m b formed not only b attributive and adverbial, but also b predicative combinations,
i.e. b sentences. In certain ss oxymoron displays n illogicality and, actually, n internal contradictions, but rather an
opposition of what is real to what is pretended.
250. Antithesis. This phenomenon is incomparably mr frequent than oxymoron. The term 'antithesis' (from Greek anti
'against'; thesis 'statement') has broad range of meanings. It denotes n active nfrontation, emphasized co-occurrence of
notions, really or presumably contrastive. h most natural, or regular expression of contrast is the use of antonyms. We h v
already seen it: best - worst, wisdom - foolishness. light - darkness, everything - nothing. Antithesis is not only an expressive device
used in every type f emotional speech (poetry, imaginative prose, oratory, colloquial speech), but also, like any other stylistic
means, the basis of set phrases, some f which are not necessarily emphatic unless pronounced with special force.
251.
252.
253.
254.
255.
256.
257.
258.
259.
260.
261.
262.
263.
264.
265.
266.
267.
268.
269.
270.
271.
272.
273.
274.
275.
276.
277.
278.
279.
280.
281.
282.
283.
284.
85.
Semantic figures of co-occurrence figures of inequality: pun, zeugma, tautology, pleonasm.

287. 1. Figures of Identity: a. simile; b. quasi-identity; c. replacers
288. 2. figures of inequality: a. specifiers; b. climax; c. anti-climax; d. pun; e. zeugma; f. tautology; g. pleonasm
289. 3. Figures of contrast: a. oxymoron; b. antithesis
290. Figures of Inequality
291. Their semantic function is highlighting differences. The expression of differences n b, just s previously, either
'passive', i.e. nearly, though not quite unintentional (e.g. specifying synonyms), or 'active', i.e. used n purpose (e.g. climax, anticlimax), and, in some varieties, effecting humorous illogicality (un, zeugma, pretended inequality).
292. Specifying, r clarifying synonyms. s suggested above, their use contributes to precision in characterizing the object
of speech. Synonyms used for clarification mostly follow one another (in opposition to replacers), although not necessarily
immediately. Clarifiers m either arise in the speaker's mind s n afterthought and b added to what has bn said, or they
u the sm syntactical positions in two or more parallel sentences.
293. limax (r: Gradation). The Greek word limax means 'ladder'; the Latin gradatio means 'ascent, climbing u'. These
two synonymous terms denote such an arrangement of correlative ideas (notions expressed b words, word combinations, or
sentences) in which what precedes is less than what follows. Thus the second element surpasses the first and is in its turn,
surpassed b the third, and so n. put it otherwise, the first element is the weakest (though not necessarily weak); the
subsequent elements gradually increase in strength, the last being the strongest.
294. Anti-climax (r: Bathos). The device thus called is characterized b sm authors as 'back gradation'. s its very nm
shows, it is the opposite to climax, but this assumption is not quite correct. It would serve n urpose whatever making the second
element weaker than the first, the third still weaker, and s n. real anti-climax is sudden deception of the recipient: it consists
in adding n weaker element to n or several strong ones, mentioned before. The recipient is disappointed in his expectations:
he predicted stronger element to follow; instead, some insignificant idea follows the significant one (ones). Needless to say, anti lim is employed with humorous aim. For example, in It's bloody lie and not quite true, we s the absurdity of mixing u n
offensive statement with polite remark.
295. Pun. This term is synonymous with the current expression 'play upon words'. The semantic essence of the device is based
n polysemy or homonymy. It is n elementary logical fallacy called 'quadruplication of the term'. The general formula for the pun
is as follows: ' equals and ', which is the result of fallacious transformation (shortening) of the two statements ' equals '
and ' equals ' (three terms in all). e.g. Is life worth living? It depends n the liver.
296. Alongside the English term 'pun', the international (originally French) term calembour is current (cf. the Russian
).
297. Zeugma. s with the pun, this device consists in combining unequal, semantically heterogeneous, or even
incompatible, words or phrases.
298. Zeugma is kind of economy of syntactical units: one unit (word, phrase) makes combination with two or several
others without being repeated itself: "She was married to Mr. Johnson, her twin sister, to Mr. Ward; their half-sister, to r. Trench." The
passive-forming phrase was married does not recur, yet is obviously connected with ll three prepositional objects. This
sentence has n stylistic colouring, it is practically neutral. e.g. "She dropped tear and her pocket handkerchief." (Dickens)
299. Tautology pretended and tautology disguised. Is a repetition of one and the same word or idea within a sentence or a
figure syntactic unit. Tautology pretended (e.g. For East is East, Befehl ist Befehl, ) and tautology
disguised (e.g. Heads, I win, tails, you lose ).
300. Pleonasm. Using more words that required to express an idea, being redundant. Normally a vice, it is
done on purpose on rare occasions for emphasis. Eg.: We heard it with our own ears.
301.
02.
Functional Styles. Different approaches to functional styles classification

303. Functional Styles of the English Language
304. According to Galperin: Functional Style is a system of coordinated, interrelated and inertconditioned
language means intended to fulfill a specific function of communication and aiming aiming at a definite effect in
communication. It is the coordination of the language means and stylistic devices which shapes the distinctive
features of each style and not the language means or stylistic devices themselves. Each style, however, can be
recognized by one or more leading features which are especially conspicuous. For instance the use of special
terminology is a lexical characteristics of the style of scientific prose, and one by which it can easily be
recognized.
305. The authors of handbooks on different languages propose systems of styles based on a broad subdivision
of all styles into 2 classes literary and colloquial and their varieties. These generally include from three to five
functional styles.
306. Galperins system of styles:
307. 1. Belles-lettres style (poetry, emotive prose, drama); 2. Publicist (oratory and speeches, essay, article); 3.
Newspaper (brief news items, headlines, ads and announcements, editorials); 4. scientific prose; 5. official
documents (business, legal, diplomacy, military).
308. Arnolds system of styles:
309. 1. Poetic; 2. Scientific; 3. Newspaper; 4. Colloquial.

310. In her last issue: 1. Colloquial styles (literary coll., familiar coll., common coll.) and 2. Literary bookish style
(scientific, official documents, publicists, oratorical, poetic)
311. Screbnevs system of styles: Number of styles is infinite.
312. Screbnev and Kusnez
313. 1. literary/bookish style (publicist; scientific (and technological); official documents); 2. free/colloquial
(literary coll.; familiar coll.)
314. .. , .. , ..
315. 1. official business style; 2. scientific professional style; 3. publicist style; 4. literary coll. Style; 5. familiar
coll. Style
316. David Chrystal. Functional Styles System
317. 1. regional (Canadian; cockney; etc.); 2. social; 3. occupational (religious; scientific; legal; plain (or official);
political; news media; etc.); 4. restricted (knit write; cook write; congratulatory msg.; n/p headlines; sportcasting
scores; air speak; emergency speak; e-mail; etc.)
318. V.A.Maltzev (Essays on English Stylistics): his teory based on the broad division of lingual material
into formal and informal varieties and adherence to Skrebnev system of functional styles.
319.
320. Classification of Functional Styles of the English Language
321. 1. The Belles - Lettres Functional Style: a) poetry; b) emotive prose; c) drama;
322. 2. Publicistic Functional Style: a) oratory; b) essays; c) articles in newspapers and magazines;
323. 3. The Newspaper Functional Style: a) brief news items; b) advertisments and announcements; c)
headlines;
324. 4. The Scientific Prose Style: a) exact sciences; b) humanitarian sciences; c) popular- science prose;
325. 5. The Official Documents Functional Style: a) diplomatic documents; b) business letters; c) military
documents; d) legal documents;
326.
327.
28. General characterization and distinguishing phonetic, morphological and lexical features of
Literary Colloquial Style, Familiar Colloquial Style, Publicist style, The Style of Official Documents and
Scientific Style
329. Phonetic
330. 1. Literary Colloquial Style: a) standard pronunciation in compliance with the national norm,
enunciation, b) phonetic compression of frequently used forms (its, dont), c) omission of unaccented elements
due to the quick tempo.
331. 2. Familiar Colloquial Style: a) casual and often pronunciation, use of deviant forms (gonna instead of
going to), b) use of reduced and contracted forms (youre, theyve), c) omission of unaccented elements due to
the quick tempo, d) emphasis on intonation as a powerful semantic and stylistic instrument capable to render
subtle nuance of thought and feeling, e) use of onomatopoeic words (hush, yum, yak).
332. 3. Publicist style: a) standard pronunciation, wide use of prosody as a means of conveying the subtle
shades of meaning, overtones, emotions, b) phonetic compression.
333. 4. Style of Official Documents: )))))))
334. 5. Scientific Style: )))))))
335. Morphological
336. 1. Literary Colloquial Style: use of regular morphological features, with interception of
suffixes (deary, doggie).
evaluative
337. 2. Familiar Colloquial Style: a) use of evaluative suffixes, nonce words formed on morphological and
phonetic analogy with other nominal words (baldish, hanky-panky, helter-skelter), b) extensive use of collocations
and phrasal verbs instead of neutral and literary equivalents (to turn in instead of to go to bed).
338. 3. Publicist style: a) frequent use of non-finite verb forms, such as gerund, participle, infinitive, b) use of
non-perfect verb forms, c) omission of articles, link verbs, auxiliaries, pronouns, especially in headlines and news
items.
339. 4. Style of Official Documents: adherence to the norm, sometimes outdated or even archaic (legal
documents).
340. 5. Scientific Style: a) terminological word building and word-derivation: neologism formation by
affixation and conversion, b) restricted use of finite verb forms, c) use of the authors we instead of I, d)
frequent use of impersonal constructions.
341.
42. Lexical features of Colloquial Style, Familiar Colloquial Style, Publicist style, The Style of Official
Documents and Scientific Style
343. Literary Colloquial Style:
344. 1. Wide range of vocabulary strata in accordance with the register of communication and participants
roles: formal and informal, neutral and bookish, terms and foreign words. 2. stylistically neutral vocabulary.3. use
of socially accepted contracted forms and abbreviations (TV, fridge, CD) 4. use of etiquette language and
conversational formulas (nice to see you) 5. extensive use of intensifiers and gap-fillers (absolutely, definitely) 6.
use of interjections and exclamations (dear me, well, oh) 7. extensive use of phrasal verbs 8. use of words of
indefinite meaning like stuff, thing 9. avoidance of slang, vulgarisms, dialect words, jargon 10. use of
phraseological expressions, idioms and figures of speech.
345. Familiar Colloquial Style
346. 1. combination of neutral, familiar and low colloquial vocabulary, including slang, vulgar and taboo words.
2. extensive use of words of general meaning, specified in meaning by situation (guy, job). 3. abundance of
specific colloquial interjections (boy, wow). 4. use of hyperbola, epithets, evaluative vocabulary, dead metaphors
and simile. 5. tautological substitution of personal pronounces and names by other nouns (you-baby. Johnny-boy).
6. mixture of curse words and euphemisms (damn, dash, shoot).
347.
Publicist style
. newspaper clichs and phrases. 2. terminological variety (scientific, sports, political etc.).3. abbreviations and
acronyms. 4. numerous proper names, toponyms, names of enterprises, institutions.5. abstract notion words,
elevated and bookish words. 6..in headlines (frequent use of pun violated phraseology, vivid stylistic devices). 7.
in oratory speech (elevated and bookish words, colloquial words and phrases, frequent use of metaphor,
alliteration, allusion, irony etc.) .8. use of conventional forms of address and trite phrases.
348. Style of Official Documents
349. 1. prevalence of stylistically neutral and bookish words. 2. use of terminology. 3. use of proper names and
titles. 4. abstraction of persons (use of party instead of the name). 5.officialese vocabulary (clichs, opening and
conclusive phrases). 6. conventional and archaic words. 7. foreign words, especially Lain and French. 8.
abbreviations, contractions, conventional symbols (M.P.). 9. use of words in their primary meaning. 10. absence of
tropes. 11.seldom use of substitute words (it, on, that).
350. Scientific Style
351. 1. extensive use of bookish words (presume, infer). 2. abundance of scientific terminology and
phraseology. 3. use of numerous neologisms. 4. abundance of proper names. 5. restricted use of emotive coloring,
interjections, expressive phraseology, phrasal verbs, colloquial vocabulary. 6. seldom use of tropes, such as
metaphor, hyperbole, simile etc.
352.
53. Syntactical and compositional Features of Colloquial Style, Familiar Colloquial Style, Publicist
style, The Style of Official Documents and Scientific Style
354. Syntactical
355. 1. Literary Colloquial Style: a) use of simple sentences with a number of participial and infinitive
constructions and numerous parentheses, b) use of various types of syntactical compression, simplicity of
syntactical connection, c) prevalence of active and finite verb forms, d) use of grammar forms for emphatic
purposes (progressive verb forms to express emotions of irritation, anger), e) decomposition and ellipsis of
sentence in a dialogue, f) use of special colloquial phrases (that friend of yours).
356. 2. Familiar Colloquial Style: a) use of short simple sentences, b) dialogues are usually of the questionanswer type, c) use of echo-questions, parallel constructions, repetitions, d) coordination is used more often than
subordination, e) extensive use of ellipsis, f) extensive use of tautology, g) abundance of gap-fillers and
parenthetical elements (sure indeed, well).
357. 3. Publicist style: a) frequent use of rhetorical questions and interrogatives in oratory speech, b) in
headlines (use of impersonal sentences, elliptical constructions, interrogative sentences), c) in news items and
articles (news items comprise one or two, rarely three, sentences), d) absence of complex coordination with chain
of subordinate clauses and a number of conjunctions, e) prepositional phrases are used much ore than
synonymous gerundial phrases, f) absence of exclamatory sentences, break-in-the narrative
358. 4. Style of Official Documents: a) use of long sentences with several types of coordination and
subordination, b) use of passive and participial constructions, numerous connectives, c) use of objects, attributes
and all sorts of modifiers, d) extensive use of detached constructions and parenthesis, e) use of participle I and II,
f) a general syntactical mode of combining several pronouncements into one sentence.
359. 5. Scientific Style: a) complete and standard syntactical mode of expression, b) direct word order, c) use
of lengthy sentences with subordinate clauses, d) extensive use of participial, gerundial and infinitive complexes,
e) extensive use of adverbial and prepositional phrases, f) frequent use of parenthesis introduced by a dash, g)
abundance of attributive groups with a descriptive function, h) avoidances of ellipsis, i) frequent use of passive
and non-finite verb forms, j) use of impersonal forms and sentences such as mention should be, assuming that.
360. Compositional
361. 1. Literary Colloquial Style: a) can be used in written and spoken varieties (dialogue, monologue,
personal letters, essays, articles), b) prepared types of texts may have thought out and logical composition, to a
certain extent determined by conventional forms, c) spontaneous types have a loose structure, relative coherence
and uniformity of form and content.
362. 2. Familiar Colloquial Style: a) use of deviant language on all levels, b) strong emotional coloring, c)
loose syntactical organization of an utterance, d)frequently little coherence or adherence to the topic, e) no
special compositional patterns.
363. 3. Publicist style: a)carefully selected vocabulary, b) variety of topics, c) wide use of quotations, direct
speech and represented speech, d) use of parallel constructions, e) in oratory (simplicity of structural expression),
f) in headlines (use of devices to arrest attention: pun, puzzle etc), g) in news items (strict arrangement of titles
and subtitles), h) careful division on paragraph.
364. 4. Style of Official Documents: a) special compositional design (coded graphical layout, clear-cut
subdivision of texts into units of formation), b) conventional composition of treaties, agreements, protocols, c) use
of stereotyped, official phraseology, d) accurate use of punctuation, e) generally objective, concrete, unemotional
and impersonal style of narration
365. 5. Scientific Style: a) highly formalized text with the prevalence of formulae, tables etc, b) in
humanitarian texts: descriptive narration, supplied with argumentation and interpretation, c) logical and
consistent narration, sequential presentation of material and facts, d) extensive use of citations, e) extensive use
of EM and SD, f) extensive use of conventional set phrases at certain points to emphasize the logical character of
the narration, g) use of digressions to debate or support a certain point, h) introduction, chapters, paragraph,
conclusion, i) extensive use of double conjunctions like asas, eitheror, bothand, etc, j)compositionally
arranged sentence patterns: postulatory (at the beginning), argumentative (in the central part), formulative (in
the conclusion)
366.
67.
The classification of syntactical stylistic devices by prof.Screbnev (the general survey)

368. Paradigmatic syntax has to do with the sentence paradigm: completeness of sentence structure (1),
communicative types of sentences (2), word order (3), and type of syntactical connection (4).
Paradigmatic syntactical means of expression arranged according to these four types include:
369. (1): ellipsis, aposiopesis, one-member nominative sentences, redundancy: repetition of

sentence parts, syntactic tautology (prolepsis), polysyndeton.
370. (2): inversion of sentence members
371. (3): quasi-affirmative sentences, quasi-interrogative sentences, quasi-negative sentences,
quasi-imperative sentences
372. (4): detachment, parenthetic elements, asyndetic subordination and coordination.
373.
74.
Syntactical stylistic devices with missing elements

375. Syntactical SD:
376. 1. Syntactical SD with missing elements
377. 2. Syntactical SD with redundant elements
378. 3. Inversion
379. Syntactical stylistic devices with missing elements
380. Aposiopesis stopping abruptly and leaving a statement unfinished.
381. Aposiopesis a stopping short for rhetorical effect (I.R.Galperin). Used mainly in the dialogue or in the other forms of narrative
imitating spontaneous oral speech because the speakers emotions prevent him from finishing the sentence (V.A.Kucharenko). e.g. You just
come home or Ill ... ; e.g. Good intentions, but ...
382. Ellipsis. The omission of a word or a part of a sentence that follows logically. Typical of oral speech.
383. Ellipsis a deliberate omission of at least one member of the sentence. e.g. What! all my pretty chickens and their dam at one fell
swoop? (W.Shakespeare); e.g. In manner, close and dry. In voice, husky and low. In face, watchful behind a blind. (Dickens); e.g. His forehead
was narrow, his face wide, his head large, and his nose all one side. (Dickens).
384. Apokoinu is the omission of coordinative or subordinative words. Typical of spontaneous or illiterate speech.
385. apo-koinu constructions (Greek "with a common element"). e.g. There was a door led into the kitchen. (Sh. Anderson); e.g. He was the
man killed that deer. (R. Warren); e.g. There was no breeze came through the door. (E.Hemingway); e.g. I bring him news will raise his
dropping spirits. (O. Jespersen)
386.
387.
388.
389.
90.
Syntactical stylistic devices with redundant elements

391. Syntactical SD:
392. 1. Syntactical SD with missing elements
393. 2. Syntactical SD with redundant elements
394. 3. Inversion
395. Syntactical SD with redundant elements
396. Asyndeton. Consists of omitting conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses. In a list of items,
asyndeton gives the effect of unpremeditated () multiplicity, of an extemporaneous
() rather than a labored account.
397. Asyndeton is a deliberate omission of conjunctions, cutting off connecting words. Helps to create the effect of terse, energetic, active
prose. (V.A.Kucharenko). e.g. Soames turned away; he had an utter disinclination for talk, like one standing before an open grave, watching a
coffin slowly lowered. (Galsworthy)
398. Polysyndeton. Is the use of conjunction between each word, phrase, or clause, and it thus structurally the opposite of asyndeton. The
rhetorical effect of polysyndeton, however, often shares with that of asyndeton a feeling of multiplicity, energetic, enumeration and building up.
Polysyndeton is a repeated use of conjunctions. Is to strengthen the idea of equal logical/emotive importance of connected sentences(V.A.
Kucharenko). e.g. By the time he had got all the bottles and dishes and knives and forks and glasses and plates and spoons and things piled up
on big trays, he was getting very hot, and red in the face, and annoyed. (A.Tolkien)
399. Anadiplosis (or catch repetition). Repeats the last word of one phrase, clause, or sentence at or very near the beginning of the text. It
can be generated in series for the sake of beauty or to give a sense of logical progression (a, a). e.g.: Pleasure might cause her read,
reading might make her know,
400. Anaphora. Is the repetition of the same word or words at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses or sentences, commonly in
conjunctions with climax and with parallelism (a, a). e.g.: Slowly and grimly they advanced, not knowing what lay ahead, not knowing
what they find at the top of the hill.
401. Epistrophe (also called antistrophe or epiphora). Forms the counterpart to anaphora, because the repetition of the same word or
words comes at the end of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences (a, a). e.g.: I wake up and Im alone and I walk round Warley and Im
alone; and I talk with people and Im alone and I look at his face when Im home and its dead. (J.Braine)
402. Symploce. Combining anaphora and epiphora, so that one word or phrase is repeated at the beginning and another word or phrase is
repeated at the end of successive phrases, clauses or sentences (ab, ab). Eg. To think clearly and rationally should be a major goal for man;
but to think clearly and rationally is always the greatest difficulty faced by man.
403. Amplification. Involves repeating a word or expression while adding more detail to it, in order to emphasize what might otherwise be
passed over. e.g.: Pride boundless pride is the bone of civilisation.
404. Prolepsis. Is the use of co-referential pronoun after a noun or a proper name. Typical of spontaneous speech. e.g.: John, he doesnt
like loud music.
405. Hypophora. Consists of raising one or more questions and then proceeding to answer them, usually at some length. A common usage
is it ask the question at the beginning of a paragraph and then use that paragraph to answer it.
406. Rhetorical question (or erotesis). Differs from hypophora in that it is not answered by the writer, because its answer is obvious or
obviously desired, and usually just a yes or no. It is used for effect, emphasis or provocation, or for drawing a conclusionary statement from
the facts at hand. e.g. For if we lose the ability to perceive our faults, what is the good of living on?
407.
08.
Types of repetition
409. Repetition is an expressive means of language used when the speaker is under the stress of strong
emotion. It shows the state of speaker. As a SD repetition is recurrence of the same word, word combination,
phrase for two and more times. According to the place which repeated unit occupies in the sentence (utterance),
repetition is classified:
410. anaphora: the beginning of two or more successive sentences (clauses) is repeated a.., a..,a The main
stylistic function of anaphora is hot so much to emphasize the repeated unit as to create the background textile
non-repeated unit, which, through its novelty, becomes foreground.
411. epiphora: the end of two or more successive sentence (clauses) is repeated- ..a,a,a. The main
function of epiphora is to add stress to the final words of the sentences.
412. framing: the beginning of the sentence is repeated in the end, thus forming the frame for the nonrepeated part of the sentence (utterance)-a..a. The function of framing is to elucidate the notion mentioned in the
beginning of the sentence.
413. catch repetition (anadiplosis or linking or reduplication) the end of one clause (sentence) is repeated in
the beginning of the following one -a,a it makes the whole utterance more compact and complete. Framing is
most effective in singling out paragraphs.
414. chain repetition presents several successive anadiplosis- ..a,ab, bc, c. The effect is that of the
smoothly developing logical reasoning.
415. ordinary repetition has no definite place in the sentence and the repeated unit occurs in various
positions- a, a, a/ ordinary repetition emphasizes both the logical and emotional meanings of the
reiterated word.
416. successive repetition is a string of closely following each other reiterated units- ..a,a,a this is the most
emphatic type of repetition which signifies the peak of emotions of the speaker.
417. Synonym repetition. The repetition of the same idea by using synonymous words and phrases which by
adding a slightly different nuance of meaning intensify the impact of the utterance.: there are two terms
frequently used to show the negative attitude of the critic to all kinds of synonym repetition: a) pleonasm the
use of more words in a sentence than are necessary to express the meaning; redundancy of expression;
b)tautology-defined as the repetition of the same statement; the repetition of the same word or phrase or of the
same idea or statement in the other words; usually as a fault of style
418.
19.
Syntactical stylistic devices: parallelism, chiasm; inversion and its types

420. Parallel constructions may be viewed as a purely syntactical type of repetition for here we deal with the
reiteration of the structure of several successive sentences (clauses), and not of their lexical "flesh". True enough,
parallel constructions almost always include some type of lexical repetition too, and such a convergence produces
a very strong effect, foregrounding at one go logical, rhythmic, emotive and expressive aspects of the utterance.
The necessary condition in parallel constructions is identical or similar structure in two or more sentences or parts
of a sentence. Parallel constructions are often backed up by repetition of words (lexical repetition) and
conjunctions and prepositions (polysyndeton). Parallel constructions can be partial and complete. Partial parallel
arrangement is the repetition of some arts of successive sentences or clauses. Complete parallel
arrangement, also called balance, maintains the principal of identical structures throughout the corresponding
sentences. There are two main functions of parallel constructions: semantic (suggest equal semantic significance
of the component parts) and structural (rhythmical design to these component parts).
421. Reversed parallelism is called chiasmus. The second part of a chiasmus is, in fact, inversion of the first
construction. Thus, if the first sentence (clause) has a direct word order - SPO, the second one will have it inverted
- OPS. Like parallel constructions chiasmus contributes to the rhythmical quantity of the utterance, and the pause
caused by the change in the syntactical pattern may be likened to a caesura in prosody.
422. Inversion which was briefly mentioned in the definition of chiasmus is very often used as an independent
SD in which the direct word order is changed either completely so that the predicate (predicative) precedes the
subject; or partially so that the object precedes the subject-predicate pair. Correspondingly, we differentiate
between partial and a complete inversion. The stylistic device of inversion should not be confused with
grammatical inversion which is a norm in interrogative constructions. Stylistic inversion deals with the
rearrangement of the normative word order. Questions may also be rearranged: "Your mother is at home?" asks
one of the characters of J. Baldwin's novel. The inverted question presupposes the answer with more certainty
than the normative one. It is the assuredness of the speaker of the positive answer that constitutes additional
information which is brought into the question by the inverted word order. Interrogative constructions with the
direct word order may be viewed as cases of two-step (double) inversion: direct w/o grammatical inversion
direct w/o.
423.
24.
Semantic figures of co-occurrence figures of inequality: specifiers, climax, anti-climax.

425. Syntagmatic semasiology deals with stylistic functions of relationship of names in text. It studies types of
linear arrangement of meanings, singling out, classifying, and describing what is called figures of co-occurrence
(or figures of replacement). There are 3 types of semantic interrelations: figures of identity, figures of
inequality, figures of contrast.
426. Clarifying (specifying) synonyms (synonymous repetition used to characterize different aspects of the
same referent). E.g: You undercut sinful, insidious hog.
427. Climax (gradation of emphatic growing in strength, in Greek means ladder).- consists of arranging
words, clauses, or sentences in the order of increasing importance, weight or emphasis. E.g: What differences if
it rained, hailed blew, snowed, cycloned?
428. Anti-climax (back gradation instead of a few elements growing in intensity without relief there
unexpectedly appears a weak or contrastive element that makes the statement humorous or ridiculous). E.g.: the
woman who could face the very devil himself or a mouse goes all to pieces in front of a flash of lightning.
429.
430.
431.
432.
433.
434.
35.
Phonographical stylistic devices

436. SD based on the opposition of meanings of phonological and/or graphical elements of the language are
called phonetical and graphical stylistic devices.
437. Onomatopoeia - the use of words whose sounds imitate those of the signified object or action, such as
"hiss", "bowwow", "murmur", "bump", "grumble", "sizzle" and many more. Poetry abounds in some specific types
of sound-instrumenting, the leading role belonging to alliteration - the repetition of consonants, usually-in the
beginning of words, and assonance - the repetition of similar vowels, usually in stressed syllables. They both may
produce the effect of euphony (a sense of ease and comfort in pronouncing or hearing) or cacophony (a sense of
strain and discomfort in pronouncing or hearing). To create additional information in a prose discourse soundinstrumenting is seldom used. In contemporary advertising, mass media and, above all, imaginative prose sound
is fore grounded mainly through the change of its accepted graphical representation. This intentional violation of
the graphical shape of a word (or word combination) used to reflect its authentic pronunciation is called graphon.
: mispronunciations in the speech of uneducated people (peepul, jewinile), amalgamated forms
(gimme (give me), gonna (going to), mispronunciations which show the physical defects of the speakers:
stumbling, lisping; graphical changes used to convey the intensity of the stress, emphasizing and thus
foregrounding the stressed words, i.e. all changes of the type (italics, capitalization), spacing of the
graphemes (hyphenation, multiplication) and of lines (verse lines organized in steps). Rhyme is the
repetition of identical or similar sound combinations of words. Rhythm- the flow of speech presents an alternation
of stressed and unstressed elements; the pattern of interchange of strong and weak segments is called rhythm.
438.
39. Stylistic phraseology. Stylistic differentiation of phraseological units. Usual and occasional
phraseological units, their stylistic function
440. Phraseological unit is a system of words a meaning of which cant be guessed from the meaning of its
components (Koonin).
441. Each phr.unit is characterized by a certain degree of cohesion.
442. Phr.units are characterized by the following features: 1. Stability; 2. Semantic integraty; 3. Ready-made
structure which cant be changed or substituted.
443. Professor Screbnev differentiate
444. 1. Formal/bookish phr.units: Eg. The knight of the Quill = a writer; A heart of oak = brave, courageous;
Achilles hill
445. 2. Neutral phr.units are units which are devoid of any emotiveness: Eg. By hook or by crock
; For good and for all
446. 3. Familiar colloquial phr.units: Eg. Have bats in ones belfry ; A pretty kettle of
fish ; To rain cats and dogs ; To be ones cups ,
; Small fry
447. 4. Slangish phr.units: Eg. To drop off the hooks , ; To kick the bucket
; To hop the twig ,
448. Professor I.V. Arnold classifies phr.units into
449. 1. Usual p.units that are fixed in the dictionaries; 2. Occasional p.units that is creation of different
authors. They are contextual predetermined. They appeared as a result of some change in usual units. These
changes are the following: a. Prolongation. Eg. To be born with a silver spoon in ones mouth (usual p.unit)
: Little George was born with a silver spoon in a mouth which was curly and
large (prolongation). b. Substitution. Eg. All the world and his wife (usual p.unit) : all
the world and his mistress (substitution) were at the party. c. Insertion (). Eg. To turn ones nose at
sb. (usual p.unit) : She turned her well-shaped (insertion) nose at him.
450. Professor Koonin differentiate phr.units:
451. 1. Stylistically neutral are units which are devoid of any emotiveness: Eg. By hook or by crock
; For good and for all ; 2. Emotive phr.units contain some kind of
attitude towards this and that subject. Eg. As welcome as flower in may; 3. Expressive phr.units are
characterized by some degree of expressiveness. Eg. He is dead nuts on this girl = he is full of love; 4.
Stylistically marked phr.units are those which are referred either to the formal or non-literary informal styles
(jargon, slang, vulgarisms, etc.). Eg. The debt of nature = death; A Gordian knot = complicated problem; To go to
Canossar = , ; 5. Elevated phr.units: Eg. To breath ones last
; To fiddle while Rome burns . Within elevated phr.units he (Koonin) distinguishes: a)
Archaic (the iron in ones soul , to play upon advantage , ) and b)
Poetic phr.units (of high account , most and the least ); 6. Foreign
phr.units (barbarisms). Eg. A la carte , a la mode , beaumonde , ,
ad patress , ad verbum .
452. All sorts of proverbs and sayings may undergo some changes.
453. L.A. Barkova made a research in which she studied pragmatic effect of using phr.units in commercial
advertisements: eg. The other side of the medal (usual p.unit) the other side of the metal (ads.), so far so good
(usual p.unit) sofa so good (ads.).
454.
55.
Narratology as a branch of linguistics. Types of narration and main compositional forms

456. Naratology-special branch of linguistics, which deals with narrative of text. The roots of modern naratology
can be found in the narrative theory of Russian formalist such as M.Bachtin, Lotman, Tomashevskiy, Schlovskiy,
Propp the fathers of naratology. Naratology as a special science combines linguistics an literary. It was formed in
the last, but now its acknowledged and being developed in different countries. The term naratology was
proposed by Todorov by its etymology the word narrative stands back to the word (latin verb) narrare (to tell
to give an account of, which in its term goes back Indo-European gna (knowledge). Narrative-the recounting of
one or more real fiction events presented in the chronological order. Narrative is basically a story of happenings of
event either real or imaginary which the narrator consider interesting or important. Types of narration. The
authors narrative: unfolded plot, personages of given characteristic, the time and place of action. The authorial
narrative supplies the reader with direct information about author preferences and objections believes and
contradictions. A) entrusted narrative is used in an afford to make the text more plausible, to impress the reader
with the facts of authenticity of the described events. The write entrust some fictions character with the task of
dealing story. The writer himself that hides behind the figure of the narrator. Dialogue: personage express their
mind in the utter speech. In their exchange of remarks the participants of the dialogue, other people and their
action expose them self to. One of the significant forms of the personage self-characterization-dialogue, which
allows the author to show him in the process. Interior speech of personage- its allows the author and the
readers to peep into inner world of the character, to observe his idea and view: a) interior monologue- a rather
lengthy peace of text dealing with the main topic of the character thinking, offering past, future actions; b) short
in-sets- presents immediate mental and emotional reactions of the personage to the remark or event by
characters; c) stream of consciousness technic- specially popular with their representative of modernism in
contenting literature. The author tries to portray the purely associated character. Represented speech
(reported speech)-serves to show either the mental production of the character thinking: a) represented uttered
speech; b) represented inner speech. The main narrative compositional forms. If its semantic of the text that
its taken as foundation of classification 3 narrative forms traditionally analyzed in poetics and stylistics: narrative
proper (the unfolding of the plot is concentrating, dynamic form of the text), description (supplies the details of
appearance of people and things of the place and time of action - static), argumentation (offers causes and
effects of the personages behavior, his considerations about moral, ethical, ideological or other issues). Its rather
seldom that any of their compositional forms is used in a pure uninterrupted way.
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Types of Stylistics

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Types of Stylistics

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THE TYPES OF STYLISTIC STUDIES AND THE CHARACTERIZATION OF INDIVIDUAL

STYLE: AN OUTLINE OF PROBLEMS

Problems of stylistic research:

Arnolds system of styles: 1. Poetic; 2. Scientific; 3. Newspaper; 4. Colloquial.

Screbnevs system of styles: Number of styles is infinite.

6.Types of stylistic research (together with branches of Stylistics)

1. the literary language from the point of view of its variability;

2. the idiolect (individual speech) of writer;

3. poetic speech that has its own specific laws.

1. Functional styles (in their development and current state).

Literary stylistics is focused n:

1. The composition of work of art;

2. Various literary genres;

29. Types of stylistic research:

6.Interrelation of Stylistics with other linguistic branches

83. Stylistics of Language and stylistics of Speech

Speech external use of the language for communication, physical.

8.Connotative meaning types / components

1. emotive; 2. evaluative; 3. expressive; 4. stylistic.

Showing. In a showing mode of presentation, there is little or no narratorial mediation, overtness ()

Semantics, semasiology, onomasiology, their links to stylistics

Tropes (brief outline: definition, classification). Figures of quantity

Syntagmatic semasiology. Semantic figures of co-occurrence (general remarks on classification)

Semantic figures of co-occurrence figures of identity and contrast

Semantic figures of co-occurrence figures of inequality: pun, zeugma, tautology, pleonasm.

Functional Styles. Different approaches to functional styles classification

309. 1. Poetic; 2. Scientific; 3. Newspaper; 4. Colloquial.

The classification of syntactical stylistic devices by prof.Screbnev (the general survey)

369. (1): ellipsis, aposiopesis, one-member nominative sentences, redundancy: repetition of

Syntactical stylistic devices with missing elements

Syntactical stylistic devices with redundant elements

Syntactical stylistic devices: parallelism, chiasm; inversion and its types

Semantic figures of co-occurrence figures of inequality: specifiers, climax, anti-climax.

Phonographical stylistic devices

Narratology as a branch of linguistics. Types of narration and main compositional forms

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